3 TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY:

1. GENETIC BIODIVERSITY
• variation of genes within the species that gives distinction of one population from
another even of the same species
2. SPECIES DIVERSITY
• variety of species within a particular region
• Similar species are grouped together in families, families in orders up to
kingdoms
3. ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
• the number of species in a community of organisms
• variations of climatic and altitudinal conditions and ecological habitats
Biodiversity and the Society
• Society benefits a lot from the richness of biodiversity
• Goods and services from the natural systems
• foods, energy, timber and pharmaceutical products
• regulation of climate, water storage, flood control, buffering against
extreme weather events, treatment of water and air, regeneration of soil
fertility, decomposition of wastes
HEALTH AND MEDICINE
• Over 700 plant-based drugs ranging from gargles, pills, infusions, to ointments were
used by Egyptians
• Chinese in 1100 B.C. up to 659 A. D. utilized from 365 up to as high as drugs 850 drugs
from natural products
• In 100 A. D., Greeks recorded the collection, storage and the uses of medicinal herbs up
to 300 B.C.
• During the Dark and Middle Ages the monasteries in England, Ireland, France and
Germany preserved this Western knowledge on treating illnesses.
• Arabs preserved the Greco-Roman practice and expanded the uses of their own
resources, and mixed with Chinese and Indian herbs
Salvia - plant genus Salvia used by Indian tribes of southern California as an aid in childbirth
and it gives high immune from all respiratory ailments

Alhagi maurorum Medik
(Camels thorn)
 • secretes “manna” during hot days
• contains melezitose, sucrose and invert sugar
• treat anorexia, constipation, dermatosis, epistaxis, fever, leprosy, and obesity
FOOD
Varieties of fruits
• hunting and foraging what’s available in their habitat, fishing
• cultivation started 12,000 years ago
• domestication of animals a thousand years after
• agriculture and cultivation of animal food
• cultivate desired species of crops and animals suitable for consumption
• prevention of diseases that could affect food supply
• invention of different ways to cook and prepare meals
• more hunting, fishing and even more lands to be used in agriculture.
• healthy ecosystems to provide foods daily for our consumption
• Biodiversity is necessary for most of our important crops, though most of them are wind-
pollinated, about 39 of the leading 57 global crops need birds and insects as pollinators.
Agrobiodiversity

 is the biodiversity resulted from planned agricultural crops or livestock

• i.e. genetic biodiversity of varieties of organisms
• farmers planning result to resistance to disease, tolerance to extreme climate
conditions
• important for food security in the event of flood, drought or infestation of pests
ENERGY
• Heat energy from fire for survival against cold harsh environment and for cooking and
for communication in the form of smoke in 770000 BC.
• In 1000 BC, coal: northeastern China for heating and cooking purposes
• Romans and Northern Native Americans
• In 347 AD, China: oil wells using extensive bamboo pipelines with depths 800 feet for
lighting and heating
• In 1000: Persian: first windmills to pump water and grind grain. By 1300, windmills
began to form the modern pinwheel shape in Western Europe
 • 1590s, the Dutch: most efficient version of the windmill for navigation through bodies of
water Ancient Chinese for water pumps Middle Eastern civilizations for grinding crops
• In 1600s, coal and the British discovered that cooking coal transforms it into hot-burning
coke
• In 1700s, coal began to replace other energy sources became the primary source of
energy around the world.
• In 1820s, natural gas was used as a source of light
• In 1830s, the electric generator, motor and relay were developed based off of Michael
Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetism
• In 1850s, commercial oil was drilled and led to distillation of kerosene from petroleum
• In 1860s, Augustine Mouchot developed the first solar powered system for industrial
machinery
• In 1892, the first utilization of geothermal heat to power was done.
• In 1942, the first nuclear fission reactor was designed and built.
• In the 19th century and 20th century, the utilization of coal energy
• led to shaping up the industrial era of developing countries
• No direct effect on biodiversity yet
• As early as 1973, the effects on the environment and the risk of potential
accidents alarmed many environmental organizations
• In 1979, a nuclear reactor accident at Three Mile Island near Middletown,
Pennsylvania. 
• At the end of 1980, the Exxon Valdez disaster in Alaska became the biggest oil
spill in U.S. waters
• A study conducted by Nathan Jones (2012) shows that biodiversity has been affected by
the usage of different forms of energy, primarily the fossil fuels.
• The effects include:
1. Wildlife Mortality
2. Habitat Loss
3. Fragmentation/Edge Effect Noise and Light Pollution
4. Invasive Species Carbon Storage and Sequestration,
5. Water Resources

WATER STORAGE AND FOOD CONTROL

 • Earliest recorded civilization was situated near bodies of rivers or lakes, which marks as
the earliest record of water consumption.
• With increasing demand for potable and drinkable water, wells began to be used 7000
years ago in Middle East (Israel) from discovery of groundwater dug from sands or rocks
as well collection of rainwater.
• Rivers and lakes are also used as source of irrigation of crops
• Flood ways are utilized to prevent flooding of nearby communities and damage of crops
• Aqueducts were invented and built by later civilization such as Roman and Greece to
deliver reliable water supply  
• Mixed forest and biodiversity play an unquestionably crucial role in water resources.
• Forests provide natural filtration and storage systems to provide freshwater.
• Roots and leaves of trees create conditions that promote the infiltration of rainwater into
the soil to fill up the aquifer systems with groundwater while percolation occurs running
surface water into rivers and lakes.
• Forests play major role in hydrological cycle by affecting rates of transpiration and
evaporation and water storage in watersheds.
• Flooding provides critical habitat for fish, waterfowl, and wildlife, and helps maintain high
levels of plant and animal diversity.
• Floodwaters also replenish agricultural soils with nutrients and transport sediment that is
necessary to maintain downstream delta and coastal areas.
• production of new plant and animal tissue
• plants colonize new areas or take advantage of the increased light that becomes
available when old vegetation is cleared away
• animals such as invertebrates and fish often find new food sources
• Major floods in coastal plain areas in southeastern US in 1994 and in the
forested mountains in Pacific Northwest in 1996
• create a much more complex variety of habitats and biological diversity
• Need for flood management that works with the forces of nature
AIR AND WATER TREATMENT
• Some of the gases considered as criteria pollutants like NOx and O3, at moderate
amount can bring a healthy ecosystem and can balance biodiversity.
• However, the capacity of the environment to clean itself and to be resilient lessen.
• Decreasing nitrogen deposition enhances plant species diversity and relative species
richness in grasslands.
• Excessive nitrogen stimulates presence of nitrogen-loving plant species but reduces the
occurrence of plant species adapted to low nitrogen availability.
• Nitrogen decreases the resilience of forests to other environmental stresses such as
drought, high wind, frost, pests and diseases.
• Concentration limit of nitrate in drinking water is too high to protect natural ecosystems
particularly the plant species.
• Widespread exceedance of nitrogen critical concentrations will adversely affect the
structure and function of the ecosystems.
• weakens the resilience of soil and the plants
• Negative impacts on vegetation reduces the sink capacity for carbon dioxide and ozone,
enhancing their atmospheric concentrations and affecting the global water cycle.
• Indirect global warming effect ozone might be of similar magnitude as the direct effect.
• Soils store air pollutants temporarily and thus affects water purification.
• Stored pollutants will adversely affect soil functioning (e.g. microbes and invertebrates)
• Nitrogen leaches from forest soil at a C:N ratio below 23 in the organic layer causing
algal bloom and eventually eutrophication
• From 1990 to 2006, there was also an extensive vegetation damage due to ozone.
• When ozone is high, it can promote early flowering, affecting the synchronization of
pollinators and flowers.
• Ozone also damages the leaves of salad crops reducing their market value.
• In 2000, ozone pollution reduced wheat yield by 14% and the tomato yield by 9%.
• implementation of regulations and the worldwide protocols such as Montreal Protocol
and Kyoto Protocol
• Cartagena Protocol has ten Pacific parties, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue,
Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, and Tonga
• to ensure the safe transport, handling and use of living modified organisms
(LMO) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on
biodiversity
• adopted in January 29, 2000 and was enforced in September 11, 2003
• linked to the Convention on Biological Diversity, which helps to protect Pacific
communities and biodiversity from the consequences of living modified
organisms
• requires having environments in place through proper legislative frameworks,
laboratory facilities, technology and technical capabilities
 • Locally, there should be a tight implementation of environmental laws being practiced by
industries and communities alike to prevent further damage of biodiversity from air
pollution and water pollution. We also have to ensure that whatever treatment we
employ, we do not promote just the mass pollution transfer from one matrix of the
environment to another.
• Tight implementation of environmental laws being practiced by industries and
communities to prevent damage of biodiversity from air pollution and water pollution
We also have to ensure that whatever treatment we employ, we do not promote just the mass
pollution transfer from one matrix of the environment to another

GLOBAL WARMING
is the increase of the Earth’s average surface temperature due to a build-up of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
CLIMATE CHANGE
is a broader term that refers to long-term changes in climate, including average temperature
and precipitation.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

 Rising Sea Level

 Increased Temperature
 Habitat Damage and Species Affected
 Changes in Water Suppply
THE CLIMATE IS CHANGING
• Temperatures are rising
• Sea levels are rising
• The ocean is acidifying
• Climate change is reflected in water cycle changes and in extreme weather
• Temperature rise, indicated by color (red=higher rate of increase). Earth’s surface
temperature has risen ~1.3˚ C since 1850.
Why is global warming happening?

 Pollution from coal, natural gas, and oil

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Ecological Impacts
Living things are intimately connected to their physical surroundings.
Ecosystems are affected by changes in:
• temperature
• rainfall/moisture
• pH
As a result of climate change, species and ecosystems are experiencing changes in:
• ranges
• timing of biological activity
• growth rates
• relative abundance of species
TIMING OF BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
Some seasonal biological activities are happening 15-20 days earlier than several decades ago:
• Trees blooming earlier
• Migrating birds arriving earlier
• Butterflies emerging earlier
Changes in timing differ from species to species, so ecological interactions are disrupted.
GLOBAL CHANGES, LOCAL IMPACTS
Although climate change is global, the ecological impacts are often local.
IMPACTS IN THE PACIFIC COASTLINE
Shifting Ranges of Checkerspot Butterflies
• Edith’s checkerspot: range has shifted northward and to higher elevations over 40+
years
• Quino checkerspot: first endangered species for which climate change is officially listed
as a threat and as a factor in the plan for its recovery
California Wine Industry: Unwelcome Changes?
• Climate change affects managed ecosystems like vineyards and farms just as it affects
natural ecosystems
• Future warming unlikely to help wine growers in California’s premium wine regions:
some areas projected to become “marginal” by 2100
IMPACTS IN ALASKA AND ARCTIC
Effects on Ice-Dependent Animals
• Year-round sea ice shrinking: walruses and other animals challenged to find platforms
for nursing and resting
• Polar bears facing difficult hunting conditions: seals now surfacing in open ocean instead
of holes in ice
Changing Food Chains
• Increased shrub growth presenting a threat to caribou (wild reindeer)
• Shrubs crowding out lichens (a key winter food for caribou)
• Shrubs collect snow, causing deep snowdrifts: deep snow makes it hard for
caribou to reach lichens hidden beneath
Feedback Loops: Arctic Warming Faster
• The Arctic is warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet
• As sea ice and seasonal snow cover melts, previously reflective white surfaces
converted to darker surfaces (to ocean water or vegetation)
• Thawing permafrost releases carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere,
increasing greenhouse gases
IMPACTS IN WESTERN MOUNTAINS
Wildfire, Drought, and Insects: Complex Interactions
Climate change increases the risk of fire in areas where decades of total fire suppression have
resulted in buildup of dead fuels.
Wildfire increasing in frequency, size, season length:
• Longer, more intense summer droughts stressing trees
• Stressed trees are more susceptible to attacking beetles, which leave standing
dead fuels in their wake
Effects on The American Pika
• Climbing to higher elevations in response to warming
• Many populations now isolated on “mountaintop islands”
IMPACTS IN SOUTHWESTERN DESERTS
Wildfire and Invasive Species
• Nonnative grasses becoming established in deserts:
• Red brome (in the Mojave)
 • Buffelgrass (in the Sonoran)
• Grasses transform desert into flammable grassland: fire-adapted grasses re-establish
quickly, pushing out native species like Saguaro cactus
• Spread of grasses not directly a result of climate change, but warming may allow them to
further spread in the desert and extend to higher elevations.
The Piñon Pine: Past a Tipping Point
• Drought in 2000-2003 stressed a large swath of piñons, leaving them susceptible to
infestation by pine bark beetles
• This example shows how a stressful event can trigger dramatic ecological change when
an ecosystem is subject to many interacting stresses
IMPACTS IN THE SOUTHEAST
Sea-level Rise
• Fragments barrier islands, reconfigures shorelines
• May leave certain ecosystems struggling to adapt—in particular those adapted to the
conditions between land and sea
• Landward movement of mangroves and marshes may be inhibited by human
development
Coral Reefs: Multiple Changes
• Climate change is compounding other factors affecting reefs (coastal development,
pollution, overfishing)
• Heat stress causes coral bleaching: corals expel symbiotic algae, leaving white “bones”
behind (deadly to coral if long-lasting)
• Ocean acidification affects marine organisms’ ability to build shells and skeletons: likely
to slow or stop the growth of coral by 2100
Northward Movement of Tropical Species
• Bird and butterfly watchers across the Southeast looking out for new species; some
former seasonal migrants now staying year-round
Fisheries
• Cod: affected by water temperature
• Habitat may become restricted to cooler pockets (<54˚F for adults, <46˚F for
young)
• Lobsters: affected by oxygen levels
• Warmer water holds less oxygen: oxygen becomes insufficient for lobsters >79˚F
• In north, warming may improve lobster habitat
 • Oysters: Deadly parasite Perkinsus marinus moving northward
Climate change undermines the environmental determinants of health
Without effective responses, climate change will compromise:
• Water quality and quantity: Contributing to a doubling of people living in water-
stressed basins by 2050.
• Food security: In some African countries, yields from rain-fed agriculture may halve by
2020.
• Control of infectious disease: Increasing population at risk of malaria in Africa by 170
million by 2030, and at risk of dengue by 2 billion by 2080s.
• Protection from disasters: Increasing exposure to coastal flooding by a factor of 10,
and land area in extreme drought by a factor of 10-30.
CLIMATE CHANGE CONNECTS TO MANY HEALTH OUTCOMES
Some expected impacts will be beneficial but most will be adverse. Expectations are mainly for
changes in frequency or severity of familiar health risks
Health effects
• Temperature-related illness and death
• Extreme weather- related health effects
• Air pollution-related health effects
• Water and food-borne diseases
• Vector-borne and rodent- borne diseases
• Effects of food and water shortages
• Effects of population displacement

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT IN THE PHILIPPINES

• Vulnerability, Risks and Threats
• Climate Variability
> precipitation, temperature, and sea level changes
• Sector Impacts
 > agriculture, forestry and lands
> coastal areas, fisheries and marine resources
> water resources
> health
• High vulnerability to natural disasters
• Expect: more frequent occurrence of El Niño and La Niña events
• The poor at risk: high poverty incidence; most poor in natural hazard prone areas or
dependent of natural resources at risk
IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND LAND
• Land degradation reduces productivity, and changes in land-use in turn increase
emissions
• 1990-2000: 3.3% rice production lost as a consequence of typhoons, floods,
drought.
• El Nino (97-98) resulted in ↓6.6% GDP in agriculture production
• Land degradation reduces productivity, and changes in land-use in turn increase
emissions
• Degraded land causes migration to less productive land
• Loss of subsistence-based livelihoods: 35% of labor force depends on sector
• 55.9% of CO2 emissions from land use & forestry (2000)
• Loss of biodiversity due to habitat destruction
IMPACT ON COASTAL AREAS, FISHERIES AND MARINE RESOURCES
Sea level rise puts at risk coastal activities (e.g., aquaculture) & infrastructure
• 60% of the population depends on marine resources
• Coral reefs contribute about $1.4 billion per year and accounted for 10 to 15
percent of total annual fish yield
• Only 5-10% of mangroves and coral reefs in excellent condition
• Sea level rise puts at risk coastal activities (e.g., aquaculture) & infrastructure
• Decrease of up to 46% in live coral cover after the 1997-98 bleaching event;
highly bleached areas coincided with areas of poverty and dense populations
• Loss of biodiversity due to habitat destruction thus affecting fisheries
IMPACT ON WATER RESOURCES
• SLR increases salinity/undrinkability of water (evident in nearly 28 percent of coastal
municipalities in Luzon, 20 percent in the Visayas, and almost 29 percent in Mindanao)
• Lead to ↑ 17% in wet season streamflow & ↓ 35% in dry season streamflow in
Pantabangan-Carranglan watershed (Lasco et al 2006).
RESPONSE: POLICY AND LEGAL
CLIMATE CHOICES
• Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development (1991)
• Rio Earth Summit and Philippine Agenda 21 (1992)
• UNFCCC ratification (1994)
• First National Communication on Climate Change (2000)
• Kyoto Protocol ratification (2003)
• Bio-Fuel Act (2006)