University of Zawia

Faculty of Engineering - Zawia

Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering

Self-Propelled Robotic Arm for Cargo Transportation

A proposal submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of Bachelor Science
Degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Submitted By

Mohammed Rajab Almesai

Supervisor

D.ABDAL WAHAB ALHAME

 Acknowledgement

First and foremost, we would like to dedicate our thanks to Allah the merciful and great for giving us the
wisdom that helped us doing this project, our thanks extend to our families for supporting us throughout our
university time, last and most important we thank Dr. Abdul Wahab Ibrahim Alhami for his guidance and
help throw-out the project process. We also would like to express our greatest gratitude to the academic
committee of electrical engineering department.

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 ABSTRACT

Today, technology is developing in the same direction in line with rapidly increasing of human

needs. The work done to meet these needs makes life easier every day, and these studies are

concentrated in robotics studies. Actually in recent year’s scientists use the word "Robot" to mean

any man-made machine that can perform work or other action normally performed by humans,

either automatically or by remote control because of this robot pervasive machine because of it is

accuracy of work and doing thing that people can’t do in addition robot can work in dangerous

regions that human can’t work in it because of all these reason robot became one of the most popular

thing that scientists still persevere to make it better by finding new controllers and designs that make

robot more efficient and more reliable and in our project we have built a robot arm with 5 DOF

(degree of freedom). In fact there are several methods were implemented to make a 5-DOF

manipulator capable of performing pick-and-place operations. but the problem is that all the

controller is relentless that mean if we need to change the program of the arm we have to reboot and

write or designs another one and upload it to arm robot this way apparently is not efficient, on

balance we choose a different and unconventional method to control the robot arm by using image

processor device that called (Kinect).

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 ‫الملخص‬
‫تمحورت الدراسة الحالية حول تصميم و برمجة الذراع األلية و التصميم الذراع يضمن حركة الذراع بكل حرية في محاور الستة‬
‫لكي يعمل بسالسة و تنفذ العمليات و المهام البسيطة بشكل دقيق ‪ .‬يعمل علي ذلك بفضل المحركات السيرفو التي تقوم بعملية‬
‫ربط األذرع لتأدية العمل بشكل ممتاز و يكون المتحكم هو الذي يقوم بتحريك المحركات السيرفو لكي يعمل علي عدة وضعيات‬
‫مختلفة‬

‫ضا للكشف‬
‫تتم عملية برمجة الذراع بواسطة متحكم ‪ ATMEGA-328P‬باستخدام برمجة ‪ .Arduino‬تُستخدم مقاييس الجهد أي ً‬
‫عن زاوية الدوران واإلشارات المرسلة إلى وحدة التحكم‪ .‬يمكن التحكم في الذراع اآللية بواسطة أزرار تسجل وتخزن كل حركة‬
‫تقوم بها الذراع‪ .‬في عالم اليوم تم العثور على هذه الذراع تعود بالنفع العام‪ .‬هذه األنواع من األسلحة ممتازة في تنوع تطبيقاتها‬
‫المتاحة في عدة مجاالت أخرى‪.‬‬

‫‪TABLE OF CONTENTS‬‬
‫‪ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS‬‬ ‫‪i‬‬
‫‪ii‬‬
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...........................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1.........................................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction to Robotic Control Systems.....................................................................................................2
1.2 Definitions......................................................................................................................................................2
1.4 Objectives of the Research........................................................................................................................4
1.6 Expected results..............................................................................................................................................5
1.7 Project requirements.......................................................................................................................................5
1.8 Organization in this project............................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2: Robotic Arms......................................................................................................................................5
Chapter 3: Modern Control Systems....................................................................................................................5
Chapter 4: Project assembly.................................................................................................................................6
Chapter 5: Results, Conclusion and Future work.................................................................................................6
References............................................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2.........................................................................................................................................................7
Robotic Arms........................................................................................................................................................7
2.1 Background.....................................................................................................................................................8
2.2 State of Art.....................................................................................................................................................9
2.2.1 The growth and evolution of the robotic arm............................................................................................11
2.2.2 from automata to the Industrial Revolution...............................................................................................15
2.1.4 Robots of the World’s Fair........................................................................................................................17
2.2 Early modern robots and robotic arms.........................................................................................................18
2.1.4.2 Speed Governor......................................................................................................................................18
2.3 The robotic arm and work principle.............................................................................................................20
2.3.1 Shoulder joint............................................................................................................................................20
2.3.2 Elbow joint................................................................................................................................................21
2.3.3 Wrist joint..................................................................................................................................................21
2.3.4 Hand..........................................................................................................................................................21
2.4 Process of study............................................................................................................................................22
2.5 Process Methodology...................................................................................................................................22
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2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of robotic arm............................................................................................23
Chapter 3 Software Hardware............................................................................................................................24
3.1 Design of Robotic Arm................................................................................................................................25
3.2 Servo Motor..................................................................................................................................................26
3.2.1 Theory of DC Servo Motor.......................................................................................................................28
3.2.2 DC Servo Motor Theory............................................................................................................................29
3.2.3 Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory.........................................................................................31
3.2.4 Permanent Magnet DC Servo Motor.........................................................................................................32
3.3 Deriving State Equations for a DC Servo Motor..........................................................................................32
3.3.1System Model 32
3.3.2 Developing the State Equations 33
3.4 Potentiometer................................................................................................................................................34
3.5 Five degrees of freedom...............................................................................................................................40
3.6 MINI-360 Step down converter....................................................................................................................41
3.6.1 Features 41
3.6.2 Additional information 41
3.7 DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION...................................................................................................................45

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..1 prototype of the old robotic arm............11
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..2 de Vaucanson’s flute player, details of the
finger mechanism are included............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..3 Jaquet-Droz’s 1774 lady musician,
reproduced with permission................................................................................................................................................................. 16

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Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..4 von Kempelen’s Turk, chess player with
illustrated left arm mechanisms............................................................................................................................................................ 17
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..5 Nicola Tesla’s 1898 remote controlled
robotic vessel....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..6 Early modern robotic arms: left, the
Pollard painting arm; right, Unimate....................................................................................................................................................19
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..7 From left to right, Rancho Arm, 1963;
Minsky’s Tentacle Arm, 1968; the Stanford Arm, 1969; Silver Arm, 1974.........................................................................................20
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..8 Degrees-of-freedom in the robotic arm
and the musculoskeletal system of the human equivalent.....................................................................................................................20
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..9 process block of SCARA arm robot.......22
Figure 10 process methodology........................................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 11 shows the image of a servo motor........................................................................................................................................26
Figure 12 DC servo motor.................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 13 Big Servo Motor.................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 14 G9 Servo Motor.................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 15 Block diagram of a Servo motor..........................................................................................................................................28
Figure 16 Separately Excited DC Servo Motor....................................................................................................................................29
Figure 17 Field controlled DC servo motor.........................................................................................................................................30
Figure 18 knee point of magnetizing saturation curve.........................................................................................................................30
Figure 19 knee point of magnetizing saturation..................................................................................................................................32
Figure 20 The terms Ra and La are the resistance................................................................................................................................33
Figure 21 Simulation Diagram for The DC Servo Motor.....................................................................................................................34
Figure 13 Potentiometer description.....................................................................................................................................................35
Figure 14 Potentiometer Circuit Diagram...........................................................................................................................................35
Figure 15 Arduino UNO...................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 16 Arduino Uno microcontroller board (back view).................................................................................................................37
Figure 17 Arduino Power Supply......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 18 ATmega328P – Memory......................................................................................................................................................38
Figure 19 Interface Arduino Uno Program...........................................................................................................................................39
Figure 16 Five degrees of freedom....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 17 Robot Arm........................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 31 step-down converter............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 32 step down converter circuit diagram....................................................................................................................................42
Figure 33 efficency vs current.............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 34 voltage vs current................................................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 35 Efficency vs current............................................................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 36 Voltage Vs current............................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 37 Circuit Description............................................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 38 Robotic Arm Design........................................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 39 shoulder............................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 40 Elbow................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 41 Wrist.................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 42 claw..................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 43 Potentiometer Controller...................................................................................................................................................... 48

v
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS
CPU Central processing unit
SM Signal modules
CP Communication processor
NO Normally open
NC Normally close
HMI Human machine interface
RTUs Remote terminal units
MPI z Multi point interface
I In put
Q Out put
PB Push Button
AC Alternating current
DC Direct Current
PC personal computer
AI Analog Input
AO Analog output
DI Digital Input
DO Digital output
I/O Input/output
PS Power Supply

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Introduction to Robotic Control Systems

Robotics is an interdisciplinary field of study between engineering and computer science.

A key research in robotics is the creation of computer-programmable machines that can
compete with greater speed and precision in Figure 1. The current demand for robotics is
limitless, such as transporting heavy objects (logistics management), automated
manufacturing, self-driving cars and drones, to name a few. Every beginner must
understand the concept of control systems to start robotics. The control system helps to
control the movement and function of the robot. To understand control systems, we must
first understand some terms used in robotics.

Fig. 1 Feedback Control System

1.2 Definitions

 The state:

Outputs produced by a robotic system are called states. Usually it is denoted by x, and the
state depends on its previous state, the stimulus (signal) applied to the actuator, and the
physical properties of the environment. A state can be any pose, velocity, velocity,
angular velocity, force, etc.

 Estimate

Robots cannot determine the exact x-state, but they can estimate it using sensors
attached to them. These estimates are denoted by y. It is the responsibility of the robotics
engineer to choose sensors that are good enough or calibrate them well so that they can
produce y~x.

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 Reference
The target state we want to reach, denoted by r.

 Error
The difference between the baseline and the estimate is called error.

 Control Signal
The stimulus produced/output by the controller is called the control signal, denoted by
u. Dynamic - It is also known as the factory/system model of the system and it dictates
how the system behaves under non-static conditions.

 Dynamics
Are affected by the environment, which may change or not always be linear.For
example, floor type (concrete/wood), air resistance, slope, etc. It is always the main
responsibility of the engineer to build a controller that reacts and outputs a control
signal u such as e~0 & x~r

1.3 The benefits of using Robotic Control Systems

The main importation benefits can summarized as:
 Lower operating costs
 Improved worker safety
 Reduced factory lead times
 Faster ROI
 Ability to be more competitive
 Increased production output
 Consistent and improved part production and quality
 Smaller environmental footprint
 Better planning
 Reduce need for outsourcing
 Optimal utilization of floor space
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  Easy integration
 Maximize labor
 Increase productivity and efficiency
 Increase system versatility

1.4 Objectives of the Research

This research aim to implement the movement of objects based on their location which
has been collected in following objectives:
1. Attempting to localize modern robotics technology in many life applications in
Libya.

2. Design a robotic automatic intelligent approach SCARA arm with recorded options
system,

3. Design a manual controlled SCARA arm without recorded options.

1.5 Importance of Research

Nowadays, robotic arms are being used in several applications to minimize human errors
and increase the efficiency, productivity, precision of operations. In addition, A robotic
arm is a machine similar to a human hand; it consists of links attached in series or
parallel. It can be controlled by programming it to perform a specific task.

One of the most important advantages of introducing a robotic arm in many uses is that it
can work in crucial conditions like high temperatures, pressures where it’s risky for
humans to work. Since a manipulator comes under Flexible Automation, it can be
updated and modified easily. There are several types of robotic arms

 Cartesian – pick and place work, assembly operations, handling machine

tools, arc welding.

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  Cylindrical – assembly operations, handling machine tools, spot welding,
and die-casting.

 Polar – handling machine tools, spot welding, die-casting, fettling machines,

gas welding, arc welding.

 SCARA – (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm or Selective

Compliance Articulated) pick and place work, assembly operations,
handling machine tools.

 Articulated – assembly operations, die-casting, fettling machines, gas

welding, arc welding, spray painting

1.6 Expected results

Design and implementation of a low-cost system with the simplest concepts to implement
sorting effectively, saving time and labor.

1.7 Project requirements

1- Arduino microcontroller
2- Robot arm with servo motors
3- 10 kohm pot
4- push button

1.8 Organization in this project

It consists of seven chapters. First is the introduction of the project work. The other 4
chapters are:

Chapter 2: Robotic Arms

Background and history on Robotic Arms

Chapter 3: Modern Control Systems

In this chapter, Modern Control Systems is defined. The chapter also defines Arduino and
its family

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Chapter 4: Project assembly
To Construct the Structure of the arm the researcher going to connect many complex
electronic devices. In this implementation, Such as variable resistances, servomotor,
Arduino UNO, Power Supply, Push Buttons, led lamps.

In addition, we are going to discuss all of these electronic components and their behavior
in this chapter.

Chapter 5: Results, Conclusion and Future work

References

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 CHAPTER 2

Robotic Arms

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2.1 Background
An automated arm is a sort of mechanical arm, typically programmable, with
comparative capabilities to a human arm; the arm might be the entirety of the component
or might be important for a more intricate robot. The connections of such a controller are
associated by joints permitting either rotational movement (like in an enunciated robot) or
translational (straight) displacement the connections of the controller can be considered
to shape a kinematic chain. The end of the kinematic chain of the controller is known as
the end effectors and it is similar to the human hand. Be that as it may, the expression
"mechanical hand" as an equivalent word of the automated arm is frequently prohibited.

The controller of an automated arm can be described as a kinematic chain. This is

because it is made up of links connected together by joints that allow either rotational
movement (like in an articulated robot) or translational displacement (straight). The end
effectors are often a tool that can be associated with the controller.

A robot controller is the component of a robot that is responsible for the control and
manipulation of the robot's end effectors. A robot controller can be used with either a
mechanical or an electrical end effectors. Mechanical end effectors include grippers,
force sensors and motors.

There are numerous applications for a mechanical hand, including surgery,

manufacturing and research. It is also used in prosthetic limbs to give people with
disabilities the ability to complete everyday tasks.

The end effectors of an automated arm can be anything from a simple gripper to a
complex robotic hand that allows the controller to perform fine motor skills. The type of
end effectors used will depend on the task being performed by the robot and what
materials are being manipulated.

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 Fig. 2.1 Robotic arm

2.2 State of Art

Wen-Chana Chen and all [2018], presents development of forward/inverse kinematic IP
(intellectual property) based of FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) technology is
proposed which expect to complete the overall computation of the forward/inverse
kinematics within few microseconds.

However FPGA is a suitable solution in this issue because it has the ability of the
synchronous parallel processing and the high-speed operation. Firstly, the
forward/inverse kinematics for SCARA robot is derived in this paper.[1]

Zhihao Feng and all [2019].SCARA robot has the advantage of high flexibility, high

Horizontal surface flexibility and good rigidity of lead Hammer. It is very suitable for
sorting, packaging and so on.

So it is widely used in food and pharmaceutical industries [2]

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thanh-trung nguyen and all [2020] in this research, the differntial evolution (de)and
particle swarm optimization (PSO) Algorithms as well as the proposed DE and PSO (pro
de and pro pso) Algorithms with searching space improvements were applied to solve the
inverse kinematic (ik) problem of 5 degree of freedoms (DOF) SCARA robot [3]

Mohammed Almesai [2022], today, technology is moving in the same direction based on
the rapid growth of human needs. The work done to meet these needs to make everyday
life easier has focused on research in robotics. In fact, in recent years, scientists have
been using the word "robot" to refer to any man-made machine that can automatically or
remotely perform jobs or other actions that humans normally perform, because robots are
ubiquitous machines because of their work. Precision and doing things humans can't,
robots can work in dangerous areas where humans can't, and for these reasons, and robots
have become one of the favorite things for scientists. Persistently improving it by finding
new controllers and designs to make the robot more efficient and reliable, in our project
we built a robotic arm with 5 DOF (Degrees of Freedom)

In the nearly 100 years since Czech playwright Karel Čapek borrowed the phrase “robot”
from his brother Josef and introduced it to the lexicon, the relationship between man and
machine has become endlessly complex and world-defining. And robotic limbs in are a
particularly great example of this. Most of our modern innovations have been shaped by
the fact that, nearly 60 years ago, someone figured out a way to program a machine to
function like an arm—redefining the role of industry in the process. With tonight’s
Tedium, we’re going to go out on a limb here and tell you all about this fundamental
device. We’re getting bendy up in this joint.

“So far, our application of universal transfer devices has been rather smooth. It does
present a training requirement, the need for new skills because there will be a great force
of technical specialists to operate and maintain the machines. We’ve moved slowly in this
area.”

Paul F. Guy, Ford Motor Company’s director of manufacturing, engineering, and

systems, discussing the application of robotics into its business. Not that you’d know it
from this 1980 quote in an interview with United Press International. See, Ford had the
idea in the late 1970s and early 1980s to play down the fears of robotics entering the

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workforce by avoiding the phrase entirely, using instead the double-speakian term
“universal transfer devices.” By the time Guy was using the term, the world had
coalesced around calling automations industrial machines “robots.” But while cryptic,
variations of the phrase could be found in the original patent for the robotic arm.

Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear
here..1 prototype of the old robotic arm
A Unimate device, used the Automated Manufacturing Research Facility at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology.

2.2.1 The growth and evolution of the robotic arm

The foundation of surgical robotics is in the development of the robotic arm. This is a
thorough review of the literature on the nature and development of this device with
emphasis on surgical applications. We have reviewed the published literature and
classified robotic arms by their application: show, industrial application, medical
application, etc. There is a definite trend in the manufacture of robotic arms toward more
dextrous devices, more degrees-of-freedom, and capabilities beyond the human arm. da
Vinci designed the first sophisticated robotic arm in 1495 with four degrees-of-freedom
and an analog on-board controller supplying power and programmability. von Kemplen’s
chess-playing automaton left arm was quite sophisticated. Unimate introduced the first
industrial robotic arm in 1961, it has subsequently evolved into the PUMA arm. In 1963
the Rancho arm was designed; Minsky’s Tentacle arm appeared in 1968, Scheinman’s
Stanford arm in 1969, and MIT’s Silver arm in 1974. Aird became the first cyborg human
with a robotic arm in 1993. In 2000 Miguel Nicolalis redefined possible man–machine
capacity in his work on cerebral implantation in owl-monkeys directly interfacing with

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robotic arms both locally and at a distance. The robotic arm is the end-effector of robotic
systems and currently is the hallmark feature of the da Vinci Surgical System making its
entrance into surgical application. But, despite the potential advantages of this computer-
controlled master–slave system, robotic arms have definite limitations. Ongoing work in
robotics has many potential solutions to the drawbacks of current robotic surgical
systems.

Like the growth of Apple two decades later, the birth of the industrial robotics needed
two men to succeed. And both were, at first, hesitant to call the thing a robot. George
Devol was the man who invented the robotic arm and whose name is on the patent that
was filed for in 1954 and granted in 1961. But it was Joseph Engelberger, the man who
cofounded the company Unimation, who sold that invention, the Unimate, to the
industrial world.

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Although surgical robotics is in its infancy, the rapid proliferation of surgical systems
attests to the fact that this technology is here to stay and that we urologists should brace
ourselves for the next wave of technology that will yet again change the way we work
[2]. Many in practice are rather startled by the rapid insurgence of this sophisticated
technology into the armamentarium of clinical practice. Many are overawed by the
sophistication of the equipment that underlies the computer-enhanced technology that
lurks “under the hood” of the da Vinci Surgical System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale,
CA, USA). Yet one finds such suppositions are unfounded if one simply looks back on
the steady progress leading to our current situation.

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This is a historical overview of the history of the prime robotic surgical end-effector, the
robotic arm. It is hoped that such an overview will better prepare the urologist to
appreciate the pedigree of the sophisticated apparatus we are currently using and,
potentially, anticipate the modifications and evolution this technology has for every
aspect of urologic surgical practice. History is fascinating in that insights and trends can
be used to emphasize ongoing basic research efforts and develop an enlightened opinion
of the overall meaning of this technology to us as urologists.

The approach in this historical review will be a bit different from that in other published
accounts of robotic technology that is increasingly proliferating [3]. The robotic arm will
be the sole topic of this investigation and will be dissected rather like the human arm.
Some context will be added for literary interest but the focus will be on a sequential
timeline of development and how we arrived at a piano-wire based, seven degrees-of-
freedom surgical system for urology that is now sweeping across the United States. The
attempt is to thoroughly paint a scenario of human aspiration to achieve an augmented,
human-like effector that would provide all of the advantages of mechanization and
eliminate all of the potential disadvantages of the human actuator. Historical attempts
before modern electrical systems will be investigated first. The joints of mechanical
systems anthropomorphically reflect the human arm. The shoulder joint of modern
mechanical arms will be addressed next. The elbow joint followed by the wrist will then
be evaluated. Finally, the hand will be explored in all of the iterations to the present,
which in some ways is the bridge from the past to present day surgical systems.

Where will all of this technology end you might ask? This technology, although in its
infancy, has a historical legacy that is almost as intriguing as the software and hardware
that now underlies these technological wonders. At the conclusion of this article, “cutting
edge” basic research that is merging digital technology and robotics with neuroscience
and cognitive research in what is often referred to as brain–machine interface systems
will be presented. These fusion areas were the ultimate goals of those who began, so long
ago, to dream of mechanical systems that would aid and relieve the ardors of labor and
augment human performance. Nowhere in medicine is this more necessary than in

14
surgery, where a deftly executed, minimally invasive procedure can alleviate so much
pain and suffering [4]. When all is said and done, a well crafted tale can infuse a better
understanding of the potential of these enabling technologies than a scientific review of
the same. As the saying goes, “Chronology is the last refuge of the feeble minded and the
only resort for historians.”

2.2.2 from automata to the Industrial Revolution

It has been suggested that the son of a glove-maker might well have been the spark that
ignited the Industrial Revolution [9]. Jacques de Vaucanson was a gifted mechanical
designer and builder of some of the most complex, clockwork automata throughout the
eighteenth century. He was born in Grenoble in 1709 the youngest of ten children and
began to show signs of his mechanical genius at a young age. Vaucanson too showed
marked interest in the functioning of the human body, and is known to have attended
classes in anatomy and medicine at the Jardin du Roi; he probably came into contact with
Claude-Nicolas Le Cat (famed lithotomist). By 1738, the young entrepreneur had
designed and built an automaton flute player, which was called an “androide”. By 1739
he had added two other automata to his exhibition, a pipe-and-drum player and a
mechanical duck. The most popular and famous, by far, of all of his mechanical
contrivances, was the duck [10]. Our interests here are mechanical arms, so attention to
the duck and drummer will fade and we shall remain focused upon the flutist (Fig. 2).
The price for admission to Vaucanson’s rented hall was significant, approximately three
livres (one week’s salary in those days). The Abbe Desfontaines, who was agape about
the human-like characteristics of the flutist describes the insides as containing an “infinity
of wires and steel chains...form the movement of the fingers, in the same way as in living
man, by the dilation and contraction of muscles.” Vaucanson gave a detail account of his
android to the Academy of Sciences and, in fact, published and illustrated account

15
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..2 de Vaucanson’s flute player,
details of the finger mechanism are included

Others followed in Vaucanson’s wake. Most significant were the Swiss clock-making
family named Jaquet-Droz. In 1774, the father, Pierre, with his son Henri-Louis, began to
execute three life-sized automata with particular emphasis on their human-like
capabilities. It is likely that the village surgeon helped with the development of the arms
and hands of these androids. These craftsmen made every attempt to simulate a real
human’s anatomy. They created an artist, a writer, and a musician. The musician played a
clavichord by applying pressure to the keys with her fingertips (Fig. 3).

Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..3 Jaquet-Droz’s 1774 lady
musician, reproduced with permission

The final automaton of interest in this series is Wolfgang von Kempelen’s chess player,
often called the Turk [13]. It was constructed in 1769 for the Empress Maria Therese.
The Turk was an elaborate hoax with a human operator concealed inside the complex
cabinetry underneath the chessboard. The automaton though, had an ingenious system of
mechanisms that automated the chess player’s left arm and hand. The chess player was a
carved-wood figure that sat behind a wooden chest dressed in Turkish garb. The head

16
moved on his neck, the eyes moved in their sockets, but the left arm and hand were
magnificently orchestrated. The Turk engendered a wide variety of writings about the
possibility of animating human reason and human activities. The mechanics of the arm
were controlled by the “director”, the name given by those who knew that the games
were human-controlled. Kempelen had designed a pantograph, a device that enabled the
director to steer the automaton’s left arm from inside of the chest (Fig. 4). The limb
would first be raised, then the hand would center over the desired chess piece to be
moved. The arm would lower towards the piece and a collar would be turned to allow the
end of a lever in his hand make the Turk’s fingers grasp the chess piece. The automaton’s
fingers were wooden and during a match, the hand was placed inside a glove so it could
grasp the chess pieces with more agility. Each finger had its own series of cables
connected to the director’s pantograph.

Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..4 von Kempelen’s Turk, chess
player with illustrated left arm mechanisms

2.1.4 Robots of the World’s Fair

It is possible that in the recent history of the world only wars have had a more dramatic
impact upon our society than expositions. The first industrial exposition occurred in Paris
in 1798 and enabled the public to witness progress and technology that could change the
lives of everyone. This process continued into the nineteenth century when the
extraordinary potential of remote-controlled robotic devices was clearly demonstrated to
an unsuspecting public at the 1898 Electrical Exhibition in Madison Square Garden, New
York City. Nicola Tesla was at the height of his inventive prowess when he brought upon
the unprepared world, a fully automated, remote-controlled robotic submersible boat
(Fig. 5). “Teleautomata will ultimately be produced, capable of acting as if possessed of
their own intelligence, and their advent will create a revolution.” (Tesla, 1898 [14]).

17
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..5 Nicola Tesla’s 1898 remote
controlled robotic vessel

2.2 Early modern robots and robotic arms

Now, with the advent of electronics and the incorporation of solid-state transistors instead
of vacuum tubes, the evolution of the microcircuit and more rapid computer systems, the
stage was set for early modern robotic arm evolution. The first “position controlling
apparatus” was patented in 1938 by Willard Pollard (Fig. 8). This was a spray finishing
robotic arm that had five degrees-of-freedom and an electrical control system. Although
Pollard [17] never built his arm, his design and interest in an industrial application for
automated robotic arms would spur on the ingenuity of others. Harold A. Roselund [18],
working for De Vilbiss, developed another sprayer that was indeed manufactured. Both
arms were very sophisticated for their time, and each solved movement at the respective
joints in unique ways; the electronic controller systems lacked the fidelity required to
make them broadly utilizable, however. The modern era of robotics was launched by the
intrepid use of these two, little known arms developed in the late 1930s.

2.1.4.2 Speed Governor

In order to control the speed of the elevator, there has to be a separate speed-regulator
machine, which is called the Speed Governor. It is a very complicated flywheel supported
with massive mechanical arms.

The speed governor has the full control over the elevator’s speed. So if there is a problem
with the elevator that makes it move too fast, the first mechanism inside the speed
governor trips one or more of the braking system.

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Moreover, it can cut off the power from the lift motor. If this fails in making the elevators
slow down, the other mechanism will allow the arms inside the governor to fly up even
further to stop the elevator from moving [9].

Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..6 Early modern robotic arms:
left, the Pollard painting arm; right, Unimate

Unimate introduced its first robotic arm in 1962 (Fig. 8) [19]. The arm was invented by
George Devol and marketed by Joseph Engelberger. The first industrial arm was installed
at the General Motors plant in Ternstedt, New Jersey, for automated diecasting.
Ultimately, approximately 8,500 units were sold. Industrial robots graduated from the
laboratory to the factory [20]. It is interesting that in this process the robotic arm’s
movements and the degrees-of-freedom incorporated nautical terms for robotics—pitch,
yaw, and roll.

Engelberger developed the first robotics company, called Unimation (from Devol’s
Universal Automation robot), to sell their two-ton robotic arm, the Unimate. Unimation
eventually sold 8,500 Unimates. Kawasaki bought the license to manufacture industrial
robot arms from Unimation in 1966. Competition came quickly, the Cincinnati-based
Milacron appeared, and by 1963 AMF Hermatool brought out their commercially
available Versatran industrial robot which Japan imported in 1967. A whole host of
academic centers became interested in the applications of microelectronics and the
potential for these robotic arms (Fig. 9). A Stanford Research Institute investigator,
Victor Scheinman, began working on electrically powered articulated arms that could
move through six axes, which he called the Stanford arm. More complex tasks could now
be given to the robotic arms. Marvin Minsky, then from MIT, built a robotic arm for the
office of Naval Research, for possible underwater exploration. Twelve single-degree-of-
freedom joints were used to actuate this electro-hydraulic high-dexterity arm. Scheinman
continued his work on robotic arms and, with backing from General Motors, Unimation
developed Scheinman’s technology into a Programmable Universal Machine for
Assembly (PUMA).

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Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..7 From left to right, Rancho Arm,
1963; Minsky’s Tentacle Arm, 1968; the Stanford Arm, 1969; Silver Arm, 1974

2.3 The robotic arm and work principle

So we come to the robotic arm itself and applications to the medical field in particular.
The most obvious method in this evolution was adaptation along the lines of human
anatomy and kinesiology (Fig. 10).

Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..8 Degrees-of-freedom in the
robotic arm and the musculoskeletal system of the human equivalent

2.3.1 Shoulder joint

The shoulder joint is the highest load-bearing joint in the arm. The three degrees-of-
freedom at the shoulder are pitch, yaw, and roll. The shoulder has the widest range of
motion of any joint in the human body and is the foundation for most modern robotic
arms. The horizontal flexion and extension (yaw) of the human shoulder is 160°. The
forward flexion and hyperextension of the shoulder (pitch) is 240°. Finally, the medial
and lateral rotation (roll) is 160°. In the normal human, the pitch and yaw are
perpendicular to the arm, whereas the roll is in-line with the arm.

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2.3.2 Elbow joint
The elbow joint provides extension, retraction, reach-around, and angular reorientation of
the wrist and hand. Classically, the elbow provides 150° of pitch. Many types of
mechanical elbow joint have been used in robotic arm manufacture. These include
telescoping, revolute (subdivided by drive-train), intermediate, remote, and direct. Of
these mechanical types, the revolute is most similar to the human arm. The telescoping
was an early type of robotic arm joint, it deviates much from the human anatomic concept
and applications have been limited.

2.3.3 Wrist joint

The wrist mechanisms developed for robotic arms were crucial in even the earliest
prototypes (Fig. 9). The wrist is the end-effector terminus of the robotic arm and it allows
the arm to be manipulated in three-dimensional space. Without a wrist, the mechanical
arm would function more like Leonardo’s robot or some most modern crane arms. This
joint is becoming increasingly complex in modern robots and is one of the fundamental
features on the da Vinci Operating System. The robotic wrist is the sine qua non for high-
performance robotic arms. If the human wrist moves 45° off center, ability to roll
degenerates, resulting in gimbal locking. The earliest robotic applications of wrists were
in the very first painting and welding robotic arms. Much more sophisticated wrists
enable more dexterous teleported systems, but singularity problems are still a problem,
and almost everyone who has used the da Vinci Surgical System has probably
experienced gimbal locking of the wrist.

2.3.4 Hand
The hand is a "separated" end-effector of the mechanical arm that characterizes the
reason and the limit of the arm. The hand is a performing multiple tasks instrument fit for
different capabilities, for instance getting a handle on, controlling, and pushing. A
mechanical hand has numerous control issues, both engine and tactile discernment.
Numerous colleges are at present examining this point, more so than in industry.

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2.4 Process of study

Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..9 process block of SCARA arm
robot

2.5 Process Methodology

Figure 10 process methodology

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2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of robotic arm
 Advantages
1. Increase productivity
2. Use equipment effectively
3. Reduce working costs
4. Flexibility at work
5. Get the job done in the shortest time
6. Provide good returns on investment
7. Better accuracy in performance
8. Ability to work in risky ways and make it more safe
 Disadvantages
1. Cause unemployment for manual workers
2. High initial cost
3. designed Arm to perform specific tasks and not comparable to the human
hand
4. Difficulty programmed to perform Accurate tasks
5. Needed a large number of sensors and high accuracy to perform the
Complex tasks
6. And other technical problems, "especially in the fields of artificial
intelligence and Machine vision" .
7. When the Robotic arm break down the production line will go off in the
factories.

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Chapter 3 Software Hardware

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3.1 Design of Robotic Arm
The Robotic Arm is built using a Microcontroller, specifically an ATMEGA328p
Microcontroller programmed with Arduino. This method is based on the interfacing of
servos and potentiometers. The Arduino board is used to do this assignment.

Potentiometers are very significant. Potentiometers are built into the remote, and servos
are coupled to the body of the robotic arm. The potentiometer is responsible for
converting mechanical motion into electrical motion. As a result, when the remote is
moved, the potentiometers generate electrical pulses that are sent to the Arduino board.

After that, the board analyses the potentiometer signals and eventually encodes them into
the necessary digital pulses, which are subsequently transmitted to the servomotors This
servo will react in response to the pulses that result in the arm's moment.

A servo motor is seen in Figure 3.1. It comprises of a motor attached to a sensor for
position feedback through a reduction gearbox. It also comes with a rather complex
controller, which is often a separate module created exclusively for use with servo
motors.

In brief, the microcontroller connects all of the components listed below. A partial list of
components is as follows:

1. Servo motors
2. Potentiometers
3. Atmega 328p.
4. Arduino Deumilanove "IDE"
5. Push buttons
6. Step down converter
7. LED
8. Power supply

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 Figure 11 shows the image of a servo motor

3.2 Servo Motor

A servo motor is an electrical tool that can push or twist an item with
amazing accuracy. If you wish to rotate an item at a given angle or distance, you
can use Servo motors should obviously be used. It is simply composed of a simple
motor that operates using a servo mechanism. If the motor is DC powered, it is
referred to as a DC servo motor; if it is AC powered, it is referred to as an AC
servo motor. We can obtain a high torque servo motor in a tiny and light weight
package. Because of these characteristics, they are used in a variety of
applications like as toy cars, RC helicopters and aircraft, Robotics, Machines, and
so on.
During the project's production stage, one of the servomotors was used is shown
in Fig. 3.2.

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 Figure 12 DC servo motor

Servo engines are measured in kilograms per centimeter (kg/cm); most typical servo
engines are measured at 3 kg/cm, 6 kg/cm, or 12 kg/cm. This kg/cm value tells you how
much weight your servo engine can raise at a certain spacing. For example, a 6 kg/cm
Servo engine should be able to hoist 6 kilograms if the heap is hanging 1cm away from
the engine shaft; the greater the spacing, the lower the weight conveyance limit. A servo
engine's position is determined by its electrical pulse, and its hardware is installed
adjacent to the engine.
A servo is an error sensing feedback control that is used to improve a system's
performance. Servo or RC Servo Motors are DC motors that have a servo mechanism for
accurate angular position control.
RC servo motors typically have a rotational limit of 90° to 180°. However, servos do not
rotate indefinitely. Their rotation is limited to the set angles.
Servos are precision positioning devices. They are utilized in robotic arms and legs,
sensor scanners, and remote control toys such as RC helicopters, aircraft, and vehicles.
The following are the specs for the large Servomotor that was used:
 Weight- 55g
 Dimension- 40.7*19.7*42.9mm
 Stall torque- 10kg/cm
 Operating speed-0.20sec/60degree(4.8v)
 Operating voltage 4.8-7.2V.
 Temperature range 0-55 degrees.

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 Figure 13 Big Servo Motor

The specifications for small Servomotor G9 used are as follows:

 Weight: 9 g
 Dimension: 22.2 x 11.8 x 31 mm approx.
 Stall torque: 1.8 kgf·cm
 Operating speed: 0.1 s/60 degree
 Operating voltage: 4.8 V (~5V)
 Dead band width: 10 µs
 Temperature range: 0 ºC – 55 ºC

Figure 14 G9 Servo Motor

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 Figure 15 Block diagram of a Servo motor

3.2.1 Theory of DC Servo Motor

As we all know, any electrical motor that is controlled by a servomechanism can
be used as a servo motor. Similarly, if we control a DC motor with
servomechanism, we call it a DC servo motor. Shunt wound DC motors, series
DC motors, separately excited DC motors, permanent magnet DC motors,
brushless DC motors, and more types of DC motors are available. As servos,
mostly individually stimulated DC motors, permanent magnet DC motors, and
brush less DC motors are employed.

4.3 Separately Excited DC Servo Motor

Figure (4.4) shows the block diagram of the separately excited Dc servo motor

Figure 16 Separately Excited DC Servo Motor

3.2.2 DC Servo Motor Theory

Motors used as DC servo motors often have separate DC sources for field winding and
armature winding. Control can be archived by manipulating either the field current or the
armature current. Field control has some distinct benefits over armature control, while
armature control has some distinct advantages over field control. The sort of control that
should be given to the DC 16 servo motor is determined by its unique uses. Let's go
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through the operating principles of DC servo motors for field control and armature
control one by one.
Field Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory
The schematic diagram for a field controlled DC servo motor is shown in the figure
below. The field of the DC motor is activated by the amplified error signal in this
configuration, and the armature winding is powered by a constant current source.

Figure 17 Field controlled DC servo motor

The field is regulated below the knee point of the magnetizing saturation curve. The
MMF changes linearly with excitation current at that point on the curve. That is, the
torque created in the DC motor is exactly proportional to the field current below the knee
point of the magnetizing saturation curve.

30
 Figure 18 knee point of magnetizing saturation curve

From general torque equation of DC motor it is found that, torque T ∝ φIa. Where, φ is
field flux and Ia is armature current. But in field controlled DC servo motor, the armature
is excited by constant current source , hence Ia is constant here. Hence, T ∝ φ
Because the field of this DC servo motor is stimulated by an amplified error signal, the
torque, or rotation of the motor, may also be regulated by an amplified error signal. If the
constant armature current is big enough, each little variation in field current results in a
proportional change in torque on the motor shaft.
The rotational direction may be adjusted by altering the polarity of the field.
The rotational direction can also be changed by employing a split field DC motor.

The field winding is separated into two halves, with one half wound clockwise.

The opposite half is coiled in an anticlockwise fashion. The incorrect signal is magnified.

feed to the point where these two portions of the field meet, as indicated below The
magnetic field Both halves of the field winding opposite each other in the field.

The magnetic field intensity of one side of the motor dominates the other during
operation, depending on the value of the amplified error signal passed between these
halves. As a result, the DC servo motor rotates in a certain direction based on the
amplified error signal voltage.

The fundamental drawback of field control DC servo motors is that the dynamic reaction
to error is slower due to the inductive field circuit's larger time constant.

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Because the field is an electromagnet, it is essentially a highly inductive circuit; thus, if
the error signal voltage suddenly changes, the current through the field will return to its
steady state value within a given length of time, depending on the time constant of the
field circuit. As a result, field control DC servo motor arrangements are most commonly
employed in tiny servo motor applications.

The primary benefit of employing a field control technique is that the motor is controlled
by a field. The required regulating power is substantially lower than the rated power of
the motor.

3.2.3 Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The schematic diagram for an armature controlled DC servo motor is shown in Figure
(4.5). The armature is powered by an amplified error signal, and the field is stimulated by
a constant current source in this case.
The field is operated considerably beyond the knee point of the magnetizing saturation
curve. In this section of the curve, a large change in magnetizing current results in a very
little change in mmf in the motor field. As a result, the servo motor is less sensitive to
changes in field current. Actually, we do not want that for an armature-controlled DC
servo motor; the motor should respond to any change in field current.

Figure 19 knee point of magnetizing saturation

Again, the field flux is greatest at saturation. As previously stated, the typical torque
equation of a DC motor is torque T ∝ φIa. Now if φ is large enough, Every small change
in armature current Ia will result in a significant change in motor torque. As a result, the
servo motor becomes extremely sensitive to armature current.

32
The time constant of armature winding is minimal enough because the armature of a DC
motor is less inductive and more resistive. Because of the abrupt shift in armature
voltage, this creates a rapid change in armature current.
As a result, the dynamic reaction of an armature controlled DC servo motor is
substantially faster than the dynamic response of a field controlled DC servo motor.
The motor's rotational direction may be simply adjusted by reversing the polarity of the
error signal.

3.2.4 Permanent Magnet DC Servo Motor

Because the field is a permanent magnet, field control is not feasible in the case of a
permanent magnet DC motor. In that situation, the operating principle of a DC servo
motor is identical to that of an armature controlled motor.

3.3 Deriving State Equations for a DC Servo Motor

3.3.1System Model
A useful component in many real control systems is a permanent magnet
DC servo motor. The input signal to the motor is the armature voltage Va(t), and the
output signal is the angular position θ(t). A schematic diagram for the motor is shown in
Figure. (3.10). the terms Ra and La are the resistance and inductance of the armature
winding in the motor, respectively. The voltage Vb is the back EMF generated internally
in the motor by the angular rotation. J is the inertia of the motor and load (assumed
lumped together), and B is the damping in the motor and load relative to the fixed
chassis.

Figure 20 The terms Ra and La are the resistance

The equations for the electrical side of the system are

Va(t )=Raia(t )+ La dia (t)/dt+Vb(t )with Vb(t)= Kbdθ (t)/dt (1)

33
 Va(t )=Raia(t )+ La dia (t) /dt+ Kb dθ(t )/dt(2)
Where Kb is the motor’s back EMF constant. The equations for the mechanical side of
the system are
J d 2θ( t)/dt 2+ B dθ(t )/dt =Tapp(t ) withTapp (t)=KT ia(t)(3)
J d 2θ( t)/dt 2+ B dθ(t )/dt =KT ia(t )(4)
Where Tapp is the applied torque, and KT is the torque constant that relates the torque to
the armature current.

3.3.2 Developing the State Equations

In the system model for the DC servo motor, there are three derivative terms: the first
derivative of ia(t) in Eqn. (2) and the first and second derivatives of (t) in Eqn (4).
As a result, the state space model has three state variables. Although the first derivative
of (t) appears in both equations, it is the same variable and so does not introduce a new
state variable. By solving Eqns. (2) and (4) for the largest derivative term in each, a
simulation diagram for this system may be created. This results in (5) and (6) expressions
(6). Figure 2 depicts the simulation diagram. The state variables will be specified as the
integrator outputs, with x1 representing ia, x2 representing, and x3 representing dθ/dt.

dia (t)/dt=−(Ra/ La)ia(t) – (Kb /La)dθ(t )/dt+(1/ La)Va(t)(5)

d 2 θ (t)/dt 2=−(B / J )dθ(t )/dt +( KT / J )ia(t) ¿)

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 Figure 21 Simulation Diagram for The DC Servo Motor

Example With these definitions for the state variables, and defining
u(t) = Va(t) and y(t) = θ(t), the state and output equations are:
x 1(t)=−( Ra/La) x 1(t) – (Kb/ La) x 3( t)+(1/ La)u (t)(7)
x 2(t)=x 3(t)(8)
x 3 (t)=−( B/J ) x 3 (t)+(KT /J ) x 1(t )( 9)
y ( t ) =x 2 ( t ) (10)

In short hand notation, the state and output equations are :

x ( t )= Ax ( t ) +Bu ( t ) , y ( t ) =Cx ( t ) ¿)

3.4 Potentiometer
A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is a three-terminal variable
resistor in which the blockage is physically altered to regulate the advancement of
electric flow. Potentiometers can be used to split voltage. To utilize the
potentiometer as a voltage divider, connect all three pins. One of the outer pins is
GND, the other is Vcc, and the central pin is the voltage output. The pins are
described in Fig. 3.3.

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 Figure 22 Potentiometer description

When employed as a voltage divider, the location of the wiper affects the output
voltage. Figure 3.4 depicts the circuit diagram.

Figure 23 Potentiometer Circuit Diagram

The output voltage can be calculated using the Eq (1) obtained from Ohm’s Law.
R2
V out =V cc × (3.1)
R 1 + R2

potentiometer is a manually adjustable electrical resistor that uses three terminals. In

many electrical devices, potentiometers are establishes the levels of output. For example,
in case of a loudspeaker, a potentiometer is used to adjust the volume or taken the case of
a television set, computer monitor or light dimmer; it can be used to control the
brightness of the screen or light bulb.
 Arduino Uno
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board that is powered by the ATmega328.
It features 14 computerized input/yield controls. pins (six of which may be used
as PWM outputs), six simple sources of information, a 16 MHz precious stone
oscillator, and a USB connectivity, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset
button catch. It includes anything that is anticipated to assist the microcontroller
To begin, just connect it to a PC through a USB connection or power it using an

36
air conditioner to DC connector or battery. The Uno differs from all previous
boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-sequential driver chip. Rather, it
incorporates an ATmega8U2 that has been customized to function as a USB-to-
sequential converter. "Uno" means "one" in Italian and was chosen to
commemorate the upcoming release of Arduino 1.0. The Arduino Uno and
rendition 1.0 will be the reference forms moving forward. Figure 4 depicts the
look of the Arduino Uno board.

Figure 24 Arduino UNO

37
 Figure 25 Arduino Uno microcontroller board (back view)

The Uno is the most recent in a series of USB Arduino sheets, and the reference
model for the Arduino stage; for a look at previous forms, check the Arduino
sheets file. The Arduino Uno specifications are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Arduino Specification

 Programming

The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the (Arduino Software (IDE)).The
ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preprogrammed with a bootloader that allows
you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It
communicates using the original STK500 protocol.
 Power

The Arduino Uno board can be powered via the USB connection or with an external
power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power

38
can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wallwart) or battery. The adapter can be
connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack.
Leads from a battery can be inserted in the GND and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector.

Figure 26 Arduino Power Supply

 Memory

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB occupied by the bootloader). It also has
2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM

Figure 27 ATmega328P – Memory

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 Arduino development "IDE"
The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform
application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for the Processing
programming language and the Wiring projects. It is designed to introduce
programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with software
development. It includes a code editor with features such as syntax highlighting,
brace matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable of compiling and
uploading programs to the board with a single click. There is typically no need to
edit make files or run programs on a command-line interface

Figure 28 Interface Arduino Uno Program

Developer(s) Arduino Software

Stable release 1.0.3 / December 10, 2012; 3months ago
Written in Java, C and C++
Operating system Cross-platform
Type Integrated development environment
Website arduino.cc

40
Arduino programs are written in C or C++ The Arduino IDE comes with a software
library called "Wiring" from the original Wiring project, which makes many common
input/output. Operations much easier. Users only need define two functions. To make a
runnable cyclic executive program:
 Setup (): a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize settings.
 Loop (): a function called repeatedly until the board powers off.

3.5 Five degrees of freedom

In general, serial and parallel manipulator systems are designed to place an endeffector
with five degrees of freedom, three in translation and two in orientation. This establishes
a direct link between actuator locations and manipulator setup.

Figure 29 Five degrees of freedom

The degrees of freedom of robot arms are used to describe them. This number usually
relates to the number of single-axis rotating joints in the arm, with a higher number
indicating greater flexibility in tool placement. In contrast to the abstract concept of
degrees of freedom, which gauges a system's aggregate positioning capabilities, this is a
practical statistic.

41
 Figure 30 Robot Arm

3.6 MINI-360 Step down converter

Super compact and capable, this DC-DC buck converter can knock down a voltage from
23V to as low as 1V with up to 95% efficiency.

3.6.1 Features

• Input voltage: 4.75-23V

• Output voltage: 1-17V, adjustable

• Size: 17mm x 11mm x 4mm

• Max. output current: 1.8A

3.6.2 Additional information

Starts working at about 5 V input
• 4-15mA idle current
• Adjusting the voltage is very fiddly
• The output voltage needs to be at least 2V below the input voltage
• MP2307DN buck converter chip
• No thermal vias under the switching the IC

42
 Figure 31 step-down converter

Figure 32 step down converter circuit diagram

In 3.3v

43
Figure 33 efficency vs current

Figure 34 voltage vs current

44
In 5v

Figure 35 Efficency vs current

Figure 36 Voltage Vs current

45
3.7 DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION
A. Circuit Design Description

To design the circuit, we use VBB application to make the circuit of the
robotic arm as seen in Fig.

Figure 37 Circuit Description

B. Body Design
There are 5 parts of the body robotic arm. There are shoulder, elbow, wrist,
claw, and potentiometer controller. The configuration of these five parts is
shown in Fig.

Figure 38 Robotic Arm Design

46
1. Shoulder
We use this part to rotate from left to right, so if the potentiometer rotates
to the left, we get 0 for the potentiometer and 0 for the servo. For the inverse
It would offer the greatest value of each in that direction.then it would turn to
the right. Figure 7 shows The robotic arm's shoulder

Figure 39 shoulder

2. Elbow
This section is used to control up and down rotating the potentiometer to
the right causes the elbow to rotate downward. If it is in the other way, the
elbow will rotate up. Figure 8 shows the robotic arm's elbow.

Figure 40 Elbow

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3. Wrist
This portion controls the claw's direction, whether it's far or close. If we
spin the servo to the right, it will move down, which indicates far. Figure 9
illustrates this.

Figure 41 Wrist

4. Claw
The target will be grabbed by the last servo motor. When the
‘potentiometer is rotated to the right, the claw becomes tighter.
However, if we rotate to the left, it will be released. Figure illustrates the
claw portion of the robotic arm.

Figure 42 claw

5. Control Design
Each servo joint is controlled by a potentiometer.
These potentiometers operate independently of one another. Figure depicts
the controller's construction.

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Figure 43 Potentiometer Controller

49