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Introduction
Received: March 2008
Revised: June 2008 A tourist destination is an amalgam of tourist products, services and public goods
Accepted: August 2008 consumed under the same brand name, thus offering the consumer an integrated
This research was sponsored experience (Buhalis, 2000; Leiper, 1995). Rather than describing it in terms of a well-defined
by the Slovenian Research geographical area such as a country, island or town (Davison and Maitland, 1997; Hall,
Agency and the Ministry of the
Economy, Republic of Slovenia, 2000), contemporary definitions view a destination as a blend of consumers’ space and
Grant No. V5-0206ARRS-RI- tourism products providing a holistic experience which is subjectively interpreted according
CRP-VP-2007-II. The research
group included researchers to the consumer’s travel itinerary, cultural background, purpose of visit, past experience, etc.
from the Faculty of Economics (Fuchs and Weiermair, 2003).
at the University of Ljubljana
and from the Faculty of
Economics and Business at the
A tourist destination is perceived by tourists as a single entity, but in fact it comprises several
University of Maribor. stakeholder groups:
PAGE 116 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j VOL. 3 NO. 2 2009, pp. 116-126, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506180910962122
B tourists;
B business entities operating in the tourism sector;
B the public sector;
B the host population; and
B representatives of non-governmental organizations (Buhalis, 2000).
The interests and priorities of the various stakeholders do not always coincide and, even
worse, they inherently generate inter-group conflicts (Sheehan et al., 2007); therefore,
destinations are considered some of the most difficult entities to manage and market
(Sautter and Leisen, 1999). The task of destination marketing and management is often
entrusted to a central tourism organization, a so-called destination management
organization (DMO), which acts on behalf of stakeholder groups (Goeldner and Ritchie,
2003) by pursuing a range of strategic objectives such as maximizing customer satisfaction
and the profitability of local enterprises, assuring the long-term prosperity of the local
population, and optimizing available resources through the destination’s sustainable
development (Buhalis, 2000).
One of the crucial elements of successful destination marketing is tourist satisfaction, which
influences the choice of destination and the decision to return (Yoon and Uysal, 2005).
Therefore, enhancing customer satisfaction should be one of a DMO’s primary functions
(Morgan and Pritchard, 1998; Pearce, 1997; Seaton, 1997) and a prerequisite for the
development of a strategy leading to a destination’s enhanced attractiveness and its
competitive positioning. However, achieving tourist satisfaction hinges on the collaboration
and integration of marketing efforts by multiple suppliers. While steering different
supply-side stakeholders towards the common goal of maximizing customer satisfaction
may sound very logical at the theoretical level, it is very difficult to achieve in practice. Fuchs
and Weiermair (2003) note that understanding the nature and the antecedents of satisfaction
is paramount, but so is deciphering the determinants of satisfaction in tourism, which is ‘‘the
amalgam of service industries’’ (p. 7), as it is a difficult theoretical and empirical task. Several
destination competitiveness models include elements which are the building blocks of
tourist satisfaction – for example, awareness, perception, preferences, etc. – but fail to
incorporate them in a coherent and unified manner in a model that can be used as a general
instrument and a tool for benchmarking (Gomezelj and Mihalič, 2008).
The objective of this article is to present a conceptual framework for measuring tourist
satisfaction and hence to provide DMOs with a comprehensive tool for understanding the
key factors of destination competitiveness and quality improvement. More specifically, we
aim to develop a standard model of the antecedents and consequences of customer
satisfaction and thereby provide a conceptual basis for the development of a universal,
parsimonious, short and easily applicable measurement instrument which could be used by
destination managers.
The next section provides a short review of the existing models for measuring customer
satisfaction in tourism. Then the scope of inquiry is widened by reviewing customer
satisfaction measurement in the marketing literature and discussing the merits of aggregate
satisfaction indices. The main contribution of this article lies in developing a conceptual
model of tourist satisfaction and formulating research propositions which are presented
next. The final section offers some implications of employing the model at the tourist
destination level.
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VOL. 3 NO. 2 2009 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 117
measuring tourist satisfaction is to provide managerial guidance. Fuchs and Weiermair
(2003) show that those models where destination attributes are regressed or correlated to a
variable measuring total satisfaction with the destination produce more valid managerial
implications than models that only employ individual destination attributes.
Assessing satisfaction through the characteristics of a tourism offer involves several
problems. First, consumers (tourists) are unable to assess objectively the characteristics of
product offerings and they often add their own interpretations (Johnston and Heineke, 1998).
Second, consumers normally do not simply sum up their evaluations of each characteristic
and do not give an equal weight to each characteristic, as assumed by a summated scale
that is often used in such an approach (Oliver, 1997). Third, when the measurement of
customer satisfaction is based on a destination’s attributes, the calculated score depends
on the particular choice of attributes included in the measurement instrument. Changing the
selection of the offer’s characteristics necessarily affects the satisfaction score, even though
the actual satisfaction of the respondent has not been altered. In addition, as the offer’s
characteristics are not separated from the measurement of satisfaction researchers are
unable to analyze the impact of each specific antecedent (set of characteristics) on
customer satisfaction.
Satisfaction should therefore be measured separately from the elements of tourism offers.
Unfortunately, tourism researchers have largely neglected this principle. Only recently have
researchers started to design and evaluate models where these elements are distinct (e.g.
Hui et al., 2007; Yoon and Uysal, 2005). To address this problem, this article introduces a
comprehensive conceptual model in which customer satisfaction is a distinct construct, and
hence its relations with conceptual antecedents and consequences can be empirically
assessed.
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satisfaction as a central construct, three antecedents (customer expectations, perceived
quality and perceived value), and two outcomes (complaint behavior and customer loyalty).
Surveys have used 15 indicator variables rated on a ten-point satisfaction scale to
operationalize the latent constructs (Fornell et al., 1996).
In their evaluation of the ACSI model’s weaknesses and strengths, Johnson et al. (2001)
suggest eliminating expectations from the model since, in the case of a cumulative
experience, customer expectations concerning the service provider become more rational,
leading to their confirmation rather than disconfirmation. In addition, expectations seem to
be strongly linked to quality since quality appears to completely mediate the impact of
expectations on satisfaction. The same authors proposed a few other modifications to the
ACSI model:
B to replace perceived value with perceived price in order to remove the overlap between
value and quality;
B to replace complaint behavior with complaint handling; and
B to define corporate image as a consequence and not an antecedent of satisfaction.
After modifying the expected linkages among the constructs they built the new Norwegian
Customer Satisfaction Barometer (NCSB). The model was empirically validated and
explained more variance in customer loyalty than other national index models (Johnson et al.,
2001).
In the past two decades there have been several attempts to use the concepts and
measurement instruments developed in the marketing literature to study tourist satisfaction
(for some more recent studies, see, for example, Briggs et al., 2007; Fuchs and Weiermair,
2003; Kozak, 2001; Truong and Foster, 2006). Most are based on the disconfirmation
paradigm which, has received substantial criticism not only in the marketing literature (e.g.
Deng, 2007), but also in tourist satisfaction research (Fuchs and Weiermair, 2003; Kozak,
2001). As noted above, several existing studies do not distinguish between measuring
tourist satisfaction and its antecedent elements and/or constructs. It is therefore important to
avoid these pitfalls when designing a model which could serve as a standard assessment
tool at the destination level. The next section presents the conceptualization of a
comprehensive input-output model of tourist satisfaction.
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VOL. 3 NO. 2 2009 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 119
Figure 1 The conceptual model
The conceptualization of perceived value is perhaps the most controversial of all evaluative
constructs which form an integral part of customer satisfaction models. Rust and Oliver
(1994) adopt a microeconomic view that value is some combination of what is received
(utility derived from quality) and what is sacrificed (price and other costs). Today it seems
that researchers replace the traditional conception of value as a trade-off between received
utility and given sacrifices with the ‘‘utility only’’ view. Holbrook (1999) posits that the concept
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of value is constituted from qualitatively different types of value like playfulness, aesthetics,
status, etc. Therefore, researchers argue that value can also be defined as a bundle of
various benefits that facilitate the achievement of customers’ personal goals (Woodruff,
1997). This suggests that it is not limited to the monetary meaning of utility only, and that
equating value with price as suggested by Johnson et al. (2001) is probably too narrow.
The constituent components of perceived value are also open to discussion, as some of its
basic components (i.e. costs, risks, sacrifices) may also be regarded as separate
constructs, especially in service settings (Cronin et al., 2000). We adopt a conceptualization
where affective and calculative benefits are the key components of perceived value (Bolton
and Drew, 1991), while costs and risks (causing disutility) represent an independent
construct in the model (Pisnik Korda and Snoj, 2007). Costs and risks (sacrifices) are
negatively related to perceived value and adversely affect customer satisfaction. The
sacrifice construct includes the element of price (Monroe, 1990; Zeithaml, 1988), non-price
components (e.g. the time and effort invested in pre-purchase activities, the actual purchase
process, etc.) as well as the risks associated with the purchase (social desirability, security,
etc.). We propose:
P4. Costs and risks construct is a direct antecedent of perceived value.
Another important antecedent to tourist satisfaction at the destination level is its image. In
some studies it acts as an antecedent of satisfaction (Ball et al., 2004), and in others as a
consequence (Johnson et al., 2001). Tasci and Gartner (2007) construct a conceptual model
predicting a bi-directional relationship between destination image and consumer behavior
on the basis of an extensive theoretical and empirical literature review. The reversed
causality implies that not only destination image affects behavior, but also that past
experiences, such as number of previous visits and length of stay, may affect image
formation. Gallarza et al. (2002) note a gap in the literature regarding the conceptualization
of destination image and design a comprehensive framework which identifies and describes
four features of the image construct showing that destination image is ‘‘simultaneously a
variable of analysis, action, strategy and tactics’’ (p. 73). Tasci et al. (2007) review a large
number of studies and come to a similar conclusion, i.e. that even though image is believed
to have a strong effect on behavior, ‘‘a systematized structure has not been achieved in
either conceptualizing or operationalizing the destination image construct’’ (p. 217).
Bigne et al.’s (2005) study of residents’ tourist behavior confirms the importance of
destination image in a quality-satisfaction-loyalty framework. Their results show that image is
a direct antecedent of the evaluation of the stay and future behavior, where perceived quality
acts as a mediator between destination image and satisfaction. Chen and Tsai (2007) report
a positive relationship between destination image and trip quality; furthermore, quality
mediates the relationship between image and perceived value. Lee et al. (2005) arrive at a
similar result by confirming a triangle of relationships among destination image quality, and
value (operationalized as affective evaluation). We posit:
P5a. Destination image influences quality perceptions at the tourist destination.
P5b. Destination image influences perceived value received at the tourist destination.
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VOL. 3 NO. 2 2009 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 121
Uysal, 2005). Although researchers conceived loyalty initially in behavioral terms (as
repeated purchases), they identified various components and even types; behavioral and
attitudinal (i.e. commitment) components are the most widely acknowledged (Oliver, 1997).
The commitment component seems especially relevant as tourist attitudes strongly influence
positive or negative ‘‘word of mouth’’, which is highly relevant for a destination’s reputation.
Research shows that satisfaction leads to intention to return, to willingness to pay more, and
to willingness to recommend the destination to others (Baker and Crompton, 2000; Bigné
et al., 2005; Murray and Howat, 2002; Yoon and Uysal, 2005).
Tourist dissatisfaction may, on the other hand, lead to negative behavior, such as customer
complaining behavior which (ultimately) affects retention rates (Bolton and Drew, 1994). In
such instances, customer recovery and complaint management become paramount
(Anderson and Fornell, 1994). Understanding complaint behavior is important for improving
efficiency in customer recovery (e.g. the retention of dissatisfied customers and churn
management) and for a better allocation of marketing resources. Well-handled complaints
may have positive effects on loyalty by creating secondary satisfaction (Maxham and
Netemeyer, 2002), while those handled poorly might accentuate dissatisfaction and avert
tourists from returning to the destination. Excellent service recoveries can even lead to levels
of cumulative satisfaction that are higher than those existing prior to service failure (Ennew
and Schoefer, 2004). Therefore we posit that customer satisfaction affects customer loyalty
directly and indirectly through complaint behavior and its handling:
P6. Tourist satisfaction has a direct and positive effect on loyalty.
P7. Tourist satisfaction is inversely related to complaint behavior.
P8. Handling of complaint behavior affects loyalty.
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positive sign of interest and care for customers. Myers (1999) finds that satisfaction
measurement is aimed at several goals, all of which are relevant to the DMO, for example:
B the interest and involvement of managers in ‘‘customer’’ issues;
B a comparison with competitive destinations;
B defining and monitoring critical issues and areas;
B allocating resources;
B internal ownership (of the responsibility for customers’ satisfaction); and
B defining the DMO’s mission.
Tourist satisfaction monitoring should be performed on a continuous basis. Its results may
serve as inputs for a trend analysis on the one hand and strategic discussions on the other.
The ultimate goals of the latter should be:
B to identify strategic objectives at the destination level;
B to prepare tactical and operational plans (carefully balancing risk/cost and quality
elements); and
B ultimately to increase the competitiveness of a given destination.
Further research should concentrate on the measurement issues and take a step towards
operationalization of the model. A questionnaire developed on this basis should be
designed and implemented in such a way that allows different modes of data collection,
including face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, web surveys, as well as
self-administered surveys. The quest for a parsimonious and easily applicable
measurement instrument imposes some limitations with respect to the number of
constructs and measured variables. While acknowledging that ‘‘no universal and optimal
competitiveness model exists for every destination’’ (Gomezelj and Mihalič, 2008, p. 302),
we have attempted to include in the framework the most widely applicable constructs. The
inclusion of additional constructs/variables would provide improved insights into customer
satisfaction and better grounds for strategic decision-making but at the same time reduce
the transparency and universality of the model.
The proposed model could be modified to allow standardized measurement of tourist
satisfaction at the level of individual suppliers (e.g. hotels, restaurants and other service
providers). This would enable a direct comparison of results across different types of
supply-side stakeholders, as well as the benchmarking of suppliers’ individual results
against the overall level of tourist satisfaction achieved at the destination level. A common
methodological basis for measuring tourist satisfaction at different interaction points
across a single destination would thus help in identifying the weakest elements in a
destination’s integrated offer and provide a valuable input for managerial decision-making
processes.
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Corresponding author
Tanja Dmitrović is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
tanja.dmitrovic@ef.uni-lj.si
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