Lecture Twelve

Key words and phrases

- History can be distorted for ideological purposes, figures from the past can have their
perspective revoked to transplant modern ideas over the past; or slated to fit current
social, cultural, beliefs (for example: the Viking contribution to the formation of Kievan
Rus)
Leopold von Ranke – 19th century history who advocated for teaching history wie es eigentlich
gewesen waren (“as it really was”)
- Nevertheless, decisions are made on what is emphasized and studied in history
- Things in the past happened, but history is made
- Much is known about the Vikings, but over the centuries they have been reconstructed
with misinformation, misallocation and fantasy, sometime they have been constructed for
societal purposes
- Concerning Translation: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis – one can only think of concepts
which are expressed in their language; meaning that one cannot totally understand or
translate another language, and the thought of those who spoke a lost language can never
be fully recovered
Adam of Bremen – earliest historian of the Vikings, German monk, born in the 1040s, died on
October 12 of an unknown year
Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesia Pontificum – a Latin history of the Archbishop of Hamburg
by Bremen, written from 788 to 1072
- Adam also wrote of northern missions to Scandinavia, provided much sociology and
close descriptions of Nordic people; had access to archbishop’s archive and official
documents of popes and kings, also personally collected eyewitness accounts
- Befriended King Svend Estridsson of Norway, an expert on the history and geography
of Scandinavia (according to Adam, “he remembered all the deeds of the barbarians as if
they had been written down”); came from strong oral culture of storytellers who
memorized the thousands of lines of poetry and stories
- First chronicle detailing Norse religion and customs, first mention of Temple of Uppsala
in Sweden (though Adam never visited)
- First mention of Vinland, and the wars between the Danes and Germans
- However, he had distaste for Viking, portraying them as barbarians, perhaps was source
of furore Normannorum (“fear of the fury of the North”), portrayed Christians as the
opposing heroes
- His German origin put him at odds due to wars with the Scandinavians; as a Christian he
supported the conversion of northern pagans, and had reason to exaggerate the depravity
of heathens
Saxo Grammaticus – author of Gesta Danorum, a Latin history of Denmark from mythical
times to 1187 in 9 books; born c. 1150, probably served as secretary to Bishop Absalon
- Opposite bias to Adam: greatly favored the Norse, especially the Danish, though he was a
priest he appreciated pagan tales of war and heroes of old (lived in age of two Valdemars)
- Gives tale of Prince Amleth (basis for Shakespeare’s Hamlet)
Russian Primary Chronicle – traditionally attributed to Nestor, an Orthodox monk, an Old
Church Slavonic history of Kievan Rus from 852 to 1110, probably complied around 1113
- Provides story of Rurik and his three brothers and founding of Kiev, earliest historical
work about East Slavic people (wouldn’t develop written language until they adopted one
from the Byzantines)
- Doesn’t portray the Vikings as barbaric raiders, but as force of stability and governance
for the local people

- These three sources are first semi-reliable histories of Vikings, limited in scope and
before modern historical methodology
- Later Norse Sagas and Icelandic Sagas would capture the cultural mystique of the
Norse, written in their native languages and not from the perspective of outsiders
- Though their stories are unreliable, but portray the culture and atmosphere of their times;
and are still read for entertainment, unlike the above histories
Snorri Sturluson – lived from 1179 to 1241, collected oral stories: legendary history of
Norwegian kings called Heimskringla, and the Prose Edda and Poetic Edda, sources for Norse
mythology; probably wrote tale about heroes called Egil’s Saga
- Though not accurate in spirit, accurate in fact
- Snorri was a Christian, and likely skewed some aspects of pagan religion; he was
involved in politics with a Norwegian king who had aspirations for Iceland; Snorri was
cornered in his cellar by assassins and killed
Saga of the Greenlanders
Vinland Saga
Rediscovery 18th/19th Centuries – after being almost completely forgotten; during beginning of
anthropology, first stirrings of nationalism, and Romanticism movement
- Finding of ships, weapons, jewelry and coins; ignited interest in Vikings
Rationalization of history – work of Leopold von Ranke, Edward Gibbons, and Thomas
Carlyle; examining all available sources and attempted objectivity; historians started to apply
these skills to the Vikings
- Rediscovery aided by nationalism: Scandinavia began investigating their national
backgrounds, seeking to show worth of their culture (Kensington Stone in Minnesota
serves as extreme example)
Romanticism – political, economic, artistic and literary movement; reaction to Enlightenment-
era industrialized, regimented, objective, rational society; decline of religious “irrationality” for
more historical-critical approaches, transformation of states into more organized, bureaucratic,
and oppressive forms
Idolizing wild and untamed nature—and human nature – not just the peaceful and serene
- Thought that people were loosing touch with themselves, becoming soft and weak
- Vikings fit their ideal: Idolized Germanic world of northern forests, brave warriors,
unfettered (last of the Germanic people to be Christianized)
- Constructed new type of Vikings, invented the horn-helmets, idealized as primitive, but
natural
Richard Wagner – composer of cycle of four operas, Ring of the Nibelungs, based on Old
Norse and Germanic legends
Social Darwinism – extension of Charles Darwin’s idea of “survival of the fittest” to society;
claiming that races and ethnic groups competed, justified European imperialization
 - Development of racial science: that Northern Europeans were physically and mentally
superior to anyone else (tested through the comparison of skulls in portion with bodies;
through absentmindedly pressing down on collected brains, they incorrectly discovered
that Northern European brains were largest)
- Vikings were idealized, particularly as amoral and violent raiders, considered the most
“fit” and to exemplify European racial superiority
- Applied to Friedrich Nietzsche’s concept of the superman, and the eugenics movement
- 19th century racial science was opposed by Franz Boas, developed doctrine of cultural
relativism in early 1920s
- Racial science entered public policy through use by Nazi Germany in 1930s
Nazi obsession with Vikings – Nazis idealized Vikings as last non-Christian Germanic people,
imagined them as perfect Aryans (blonde hair/blue eyes, large, strong, ruthless)
- Some Nazis engaged in Norse religious mysticism, claimed worship of Thor and Odin;
runes were used for Nazi symbols (e.g. rune of Tyr)
SS Viking Division – fifth SS Panzer Grenadier division, for international Nazi sympathizers
wishing to fight for Germany, recruited mainly from Norway, Denmark, Sweden, as well as from
Belgium, Netherlands, Estonia, Finland; fought against Russians on the eastern front,
surrendered on May 5th, 1945
- Some members prosecuted after the war for war crimes (murder of civilians, genocide of
Jews)

- Today Vikings appear in comic books, movies, as football teams (Minnesota Vikings,
North Catholic Vikings [ironic]), documentaries, miniseries, comic strips (Hagar the
Horrible), video games (Assassin’s Creed Valhalla), romance novels (The Viking’s
Surrender, the Norseman’s Revenge, The Viking’s Desire, Truly Madly Viking, Viking
Unchained, My Fair Viking, The Very Virile Viking, Enslaved by the Viking, Taken by the
Viking)
- Modern writers have used constructed ideas of Vikings and reality of Norse culture for
their original works, including Lord of the Rings

- Vikings were human, experienced same emotions and altruism as we do; Christopher
Browning’s Ordinary Men revealed chillingly that all functionaries of the concentration
camps were “ordinary men”, yet committed unimaginable horrors
- At the door of my soul she is sanding, so sweet and the gleam of her garments. Her
footfalls awakens a fury, a fierceness of love I knew not, the feet of a wench in a wimple
(love poem by Kormákr Ögmundarson)
- She loved me, no lord of whom better. I have lost her, for me she was weeping. The dear
dainty darling that kissed me, for day upon day of delight
- Illustrates relative egalitarianism in Norse society, men and women had right of choice
for partners
- Rhythmic poetry, Vikings sometimes used rhymes, but mostly favored alliterative forms
(day upon day of delight)
- Poetry seen as gift form Odin, giving skill legitimacy, professional skálds would have
patronage from king; during feasts poets like Gunnlaug Snake-Tongue or Hallfreðr the
Troublesome Poet could cause listeners to roar at descriptions of battles or weep at sad
poems or love poems
- Skalds poetry also communicated values of Norse society for maturing children, and kept
oral record of mythology and history
- Skalds were often warriors, poetry was esteemed to the degree that it was considered part
of a warrior’s identity, a good leader had to be a good poet, warriors gathered in king’s
hall during winter, feasting on hog or beef, drinking mead, and would hold a competition
to compose a poet on the spot, the best poet achieving acclaim and a reputation, gain trust
as a future leader of expedition (competition demonstrated intelligence, ability to think on
one’s feet)
- Kennings: stock of standard metaphors and images that could be remixed for poem
- Most long Viking poems not recorded, their speakers were illiterate, and outsiders were
unconcerned with translating their poems
- Short poems, from 1 to 4 lines, sometimes copied in runestones, could be longer if on
gravestone of kings or nobility
- Later Greenlandic and Icelandic sagas contain few records on long poems

There are literally thousands of people today writing poetry in the Viking style, or
thinking they are, or on Viking themes. I regret to say this, but most of it ranges from
uninspired to godawful. Many of the people writing it give themselves full Viking names
like Orath Wintersoul, or whatever it might be. They publish and trade poems online. I
think of them, whether fairly or not, as antiquarians and buffs, like people who go to
Renaissance fairs or Civil War reenactors; and I’m not criticizing those things—they’re
perfectly respectable and may well be fun. But just for the heck of it, let me read at least
one Viking poem—Contemporary Viking poem. I’m not going to tell you who wrote it:

Vikings
We’re crossing the moat
We’re climbing the walls
It’s 2:22 PM
We’ll see them fall
Our enemies yield
Dropping swords and shields
We’ve murdered their archers and knights in the field

There’s a technical term for that kind of poetry … that technical term is “garbage”. It’s
really not a good poem. But there are more who are—there might be some that are, but
most of the ones I’ve read are really pretty bad. But if people have a good time writing
them, fine, good for them. So there are people writing what they think of as Viking poetry
today, quite a lot, literally thousands.

- There are also serious historical novels: The Longships by France Benson (favorite of Dr.
Hagerty); time-travel and cross-dimensional adventures (The Incomplete Enchanter by L.
Sprague de Camp—an insecure psychologist from Ohio is transported to the Eve of
Ragnarök, accurate portrayals of Odin and Norse from Norse mythological), genre of
Viking novels set in Ireland (based on mystical aura of Norse and Irish lands), paronomal
Viking novels (Viking vampires and werewolves, or Vikings fighting vampire and
werewolves, even Vikings fighting aliens), fantasy novels set in world of Scandinavian
 mythology, thriller novels which include Viking elements (John Ringo [whom Dr.
Hagerty doesn’t like particularly much] series where the Varangian guard still exists in a
secret fortress somewhere in the Caucasus mountains), subset of military novels featuring
violent Viking attacks against enemies (targeted to male audience, equivalent of romance
novels), softcore romance novels (targeted to a straight female audience, “beauty and the
beast” dichotomy: woman protagonist captured and enslaved by Viking chieftain, only to
capture and enslave his heart through her beautiful charms)

- The Lord of the Rings: arguably the greatest novel of the 20th century, influenced by J. R.
R. Tolkien’s experiences in WWI, Old English folklore and language, Catholicism and
Norse World (source of dramatic tension in both Middle-Earth and our history)
- Tolkien was a philologist, specialized in Old English, Germanic and Norse languages,
well acquainted with Viking history and mythology; was also a pious Anglican Catholic
- Lived in time of intensive technological change: airplanes, radio, moving pictures,
television, the atomic bomb; fought in trenches in WWI, went over the top in Battle of
the Somme, lost many friends in battle; witnessed Great Depression, rise of Adolf Hitler,
WWII (his son served as fighter pilot), decolonization; naturally brought these influences
into his work
- Wrote The Hobbit as serial tale which he sent chapter-by-chapter to his son in the air
force
- WWI influence on The Lord of the Rings results in overarching sadness, cognizance that
tragedy can spread and strike anyone, yearning for simple life of the rustic hobbits
- Elements of Catholicism, in Tolkien’s words, initially entered unconsciously, but
consciously during the revision: dualistic good vs evil, utopia of Hobbiton, evil’s inability
to surpass good—at best producing only a perversion of it (orc as distortions of elves,
troll as distortions of Ents), necessity of suffering for good to triumph
- Viking influences on Tolkien’s work: Middle-Earth borrowed from Norse mythology
(Midgard, one of 9 realms), inhabited by Norse mythological characters of dwarves and
elves
- Gandalf’s name means “Magic Elf” and is modeled on Odin (old wandering man seeking
knowledge)
- Names or close approximations of the names of the dwarves can be found in the Prose
Edda, trolls are a Norse creation (even their name has Norse origin)
- The Rohirrim are Viking parallels (burial customs, strictly oral history, warrior mentality,
long flowing hair, ancestors of the Northmen of Rhovanion)
- The Variags fight with battle-axes, their name comes from the word “Varangian”
- Aragorn’s sword anduril, Gandalf’s sword glamdring, Viking smithing and naming of
swords
- Tolkien envisioned his literary world would experience a final battle like Ragnarök where
good and evil destroyed each other and something better rose from the ashes
- Poetry reminiscent of Norse phrasing, the spontaneous composition of poetry by
characters reminiscent of Viking competitions
- Norse influence of Tolkien’s work can be overemphasized; greater Old English influence
(particularly Beowulf) than Norse
- The influence of Tolkien’s work means that much of modern fantasy is a repetition of
reinvented Norse legends and themes (R. A. Salvatore, Elizabeth Boyer, Terry Brooks,
Robert Jordan, George R. R. Martin)

- How did Scandinavia transition from Viking raiding to becoming the peaceful region it is
today?
- c. 1400 Scandinavia remained warlike, briefly united under a single king in Union of
Kalmar, before revolting against one another
- Sweden became superpower in Europe during 1600s; King Gustavus Adolphus was
greatest combatant during 30 Year War (1618-1648), after death was succeeded by
Charles XII, a 15 year old ruler
- Countries which Sweden had dominated took advantage of young ruler to invade, at age
of 18 Charles XII (“Madman of the North”) defeated the attacking Poles, Saxons,
Hanoverians, Russians; attempted conquest of Russia (under Tsar Peter the Great), but
was defeated in January 1709 at Poltava; Sweden receded as a power
- In 1800s Denmark considered joining Napoleon Bonaparte in coalition against Britain, in
1807 Britain attempted to dissuade them by sailing to Copenhagen unannounced and
sinking the Danish fleet; stirred interest in military involvement throughout Scandinavia
- In 1864 Prussia demanded Denmark had over province of Schleswig-Holstein (ethnically
German population) and threatened war, Denmark refused, Austria-Hungary allied with
Prussia to return Schleswig-Holstein; Denmark went to war with both, suffered crushing
defeat and thenceforth avoided conflict, not even in the World Wars
- Neither Denmark, Norway, Sweden entered WWII; Denmark surrendered to Germany
upon invasion, Norway defended itself upon invasion and lost, Sweden wasn’t invaded;
forced to kowtow and sell their iron ore to the Germans for the entire war
- Denmark and Norway did develop resistance movements which spied, sabotaged, and
eventually even fought openly against the Nazis
- International cooperation: In 1900s Scandinavia alleviated poverty from poor quality of
their farmland through exporting jobless young people to American Midwest
- Scandinavian farmers began utilizing cooperative associations (co-op), hiring people and
ships to transport crops for an international reach unheard of for independent farmers
- Scandinavia began drawing on shared cultural connection from past for new corporations,
especially that of Lutheranism (converted in 1500s)

- Scandinavia overcame their Viking nature was through hard lessons, heavy losses,
learned they could no act like Vikings, moved on