ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY

Chapter 3
Static Electric Fields

Textbook : Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics,

David K. CHENG

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 Static Electric Field
 Electrostatics is the study of the effects of electric charges are at rest, and
electric fields do not change with time. Static electric fields are caused by
stationary electric charges.
 For the study of static electric fields in free space we define an electric field
intensity vector by specifying its divergence and its curl, which constitute
the fundamental postulates of electrostatics, and we derive Coulomb's law
and Gauss's law from these postulates.

 For electrostatics in free space, we consider the electric field intensity E and
the permittivity of free space 𝜖0 .
 Electric field intensity E is defined as the force per unit charge that a very
small stationary test charge experiences when it is placed in a region where
an electric field exists.
𝐅
𝐄 = lim (V/m)
𝑞→0 𝑞

 The force F on a stationary charge q in an electric field E:

𝐅 = 𝑞𝐄 (N)

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 Two Fundamental Postulates of Electrostatics in Free Space:
 The two fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space specify the
divergence and the curl of E.
1. Divergence of electrostatic E in free space:
𝜌𝑣
𝛁∙𝐄= (in free space)
𝜖0
2. Curl of electrostatic E :
𝛁 × 𝐄 = 0 (Curl of electrostatic E vanishes)
 𝜌𝑣 : volume charge density of free charges (C/m3)
 𝜖0 : the permittivity of free space
𝟏
𝝐𝟎 ≅ × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 ≅ 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 (F/m)
𝟑𝟔𝝅
 Eq.1 states that a static electric field is not solenoidal unless 𝜌𝑣 = 0. Eq. 2
asserts that static electric fields are irrotational.
 These two equations are point relations, that is, they hold at every point in
space. They are differential form of the postulates of electrostatics, since
divergence and curl operations involve spatial derivatives.
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Integral Form:
1. Taking the volume integral of both sides of the divergence equation over an
arbitrary volume,
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න 𝛻. 𝐄 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝜖0 𝑉
𝑉
 Considering the divergence theorem, above equation becomes

𝑄
‫𝜖 = 𝐬𝑑 ∙ 𝐄 𝑆ׯ‬ (A form of Gauss’s law)
0

 Q is the total charge contained in volume V bounded by surface S.

2. Similarly, integrating 𝛻 × 𝐄 over an open surface and applying Stoke’s Theorem,

we obtain

‫𝐄 𝐶ׯ‬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0 (in free space)

 This equation asserts that the scalar line integral of the static electric field intensity
around any closed path vanishes. The scalar product E·dl integrated over any path is
the voltage along that path. Thus this equation is an expression of Kirchhoff's
voltage law in circuit theory that the algebraic sum of voltage drops around any
closed circuit is zero.
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 The two fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space are listed in
the table below.

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 Coulomb’s Law
 Consider a single point charge, q, at rest in a boundless free space. To find the
electric field intensity due to q, we draw a spherical surface of an arbitrary
radius R centered at q- a hypothetical enclosed surface (a Gaussian surface)
around the source. Gauss' law is applied to determine the field:

 or

 Then, electric field due to a point charge at the origin is :

𝑞
𝐄 = 𝐚𝑅 𝐸𝑅 = 𝐚𝑅 (V/m).
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 2
 This equation states that the electric field intensity of a positive point charge is
in the outward radial direction and has a magnitude proportional to the charge
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the charge.

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 If the charge q is not located at the origin

 𝐚𝑞𝑃 is the unit vector drawn from 𝑞 to 𝑃:

 Then,

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 Example : Determine the electric field intensity at P(-0.2, 0, -2.3) due to a point charge
of +5 (nC) at Q(0.2, 0.1, -2.5) in air. All dimensions are in meters.
 Soln: The position vector for the field point P
𝐑 = 𝑂𝑃 = −𝐚x0.2 − 𝐚z2.3.
 The position vector for the point charge Q is

 Then

Note: The quantity in paranthesis is the unit vector aQP = (R - R')/|R - R'|, and EP has a
magnitude of 214.5 (V/m).
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 Coulomb's Law
 When a point charge 𝑞2 is located in the field of another point charge 𝑞1 , a force F12
is experienced by q2 due to the electric field intensity E12 of q1 at q2. Then we have

(N).

 This equation is known as Coulomb's law.

 Electric Field Due to a System of Discrete Charges :

 The electric field at position vector R due to charges q1 , q2 ,…, qn located at

points with position vectors 𝐑′1 , 𝐑′2 ,…, 𝐑′𝑛 is given by

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Electric Field Due to a Continuous Distribution of Charge
 The electric field due to a volume charge distribution :

 Then we have

 or, since aR=R/R,

Electric field due to a continuous
charge distribution.

 If the charge is distributed on a surface with a surface charge density s (C/m2):

 For a line charge

l (C/m) : the line charge density. 10

 Example : Determine the electric field intensity of an infinitely long, straight, line
charge of a uniform density l (C/m) in air.
 The problem has a cylindrical symmetry (the electric field is independent of the
azimuth angle ).

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 For every ldz' at + z' there is a charge element ldz' at –z'.
 Hence the az components cancel in the integration. Then

 This equation represents the approximate E field of a long straight line charge at a
point close to the line charge.

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 Gauss's Law

 Gauss's law :

 The total outward flux of the E-field over any closed surface in free space is
equal to the total charge enclosed in the surface divided by 𝝐𝟎 .
 It is useful for determining the E-field of charge distributions with some symmetry
conditions such that the normal component of the electric field intensity is constant
over an enclosed surface.

 How to apply Gauss's law:

 Recognize symmetry conditions
 Choose a surface over which the normal component of E for a given charge
distribution is a constant.
❖ This surface is referred to as a Gaussian surface.

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Example : Use Gauss's law to determine the electric field intensity of an infinitely long,
straight, line charge of a uniform density 𝜌𝑙 in air.
 The line of charge is infinitely long and is along the z- axis. Then E must be radial r-
direction and and perpendicular to the line charge. It does not have a component along
the line (z-direction). Then
𝐄 = 𝐚𝑟 𝐸𝑟

 Cylindrical symmetry

 Construct cylindrical Gaussian surface

 Radius: r, Length: L
 Line charge

 On this surface,
 𝐸𝑟 : constant, 𝑑𝐬 = 𝐚𝒓 𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧

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 On the top face,
 𝑑𝐬 = 𝐚𝒛 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 and E has no z-component. Then, 𝐄. 𝑑𝐬 = 0.

 On the bottom face,

 𝑑𝐬 = −𝐚𝒛 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 and 𝐄. 𝑑𝐬 = 0

 Then, there is no contribution from the top and bottom face.

 The total charge enclosed in the cylinder is 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑙 𝐿.

 Then, from Gauss’s law,

 and

 It is the same as the result found in the previous example.

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 Example : Determine the electric field intensity of an infinite planar charge with a
uniform surface charge density 𝜌𝑠 .
 E is normal to the sheet.
 The Gaussian surface : A rectangular box.
 The sides of the box are perpendicular to the charged sheet.
 On the top face:

 On the bottom face:

 There is no contribution from the side faces.

 (Why?)

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 Then

 Total charge enclosed in the box : Q = 𝜌𝑠 A. From Gauss’s Law,

 and

 Note that E always points away from the sheet if 𝜌𝑠 is positive.

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 Example : Construct a spherical surface with centre at q and radius R.
Electric field is the same everywhere on the surface. Applying integral form
of Gauss’s law gives

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 Example : Determine E caused by a spherical cloud of electrons with a volume
charge density 𝜌𝑣 = −𝜌0 for 0  R  b (𝜌0 and b are positive) and 𝜌𝑣 = 0 for R > b.
 Spherical symmetry.
 Gaussian surfaces must be concentric spherical surfaces.
 We must find E in two regions : a) 0  R  b , b) R  b.

 Figure: Electric field intensity of a spherical electron cloud.

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 a) 0  R  b
Spherical Gaussian surface Si with R < b in the electron cloud:

The total outward E flux :

The total charge within the Gaussian surface :

Substitute into Gauss’s Law:

 (E is directed toward the center.)

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 b) R  b
Spherical Gaussian surface S0 with R > b outside the electron cloud.
The total charge within the Gaussian surface is

 Then,

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 Electric Potential

 According to null identity II, a curl-free vector field could always be expressed as
the gradient of a scalar field.
 Then, for any scalar V :

 Then,we can define a scalar electric potential V such that

 Because it is easier to deal with scalars than vectors.

 If we can determine V more easily, then E can be found by a gradient operation.

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 Electric Potential
 Electric potential is related to the work done in carrying a charge from one point to
another.
 The voltage V between two points represents the amount of work, or potential
energy, required to move a unit charge between these points.
 When a unit charge is moved from point P1 to point P2 in an electric field, work
must be done against the field :

Two paths from P1 to P2 in an electric

field.

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 This equation represents the difference in electric potential energy of a unit charge
between point P2 and point P1.

 where

*potential difference
 Then, we have (electrostatic voltage)
between points P2 and P1


Potential difference between P2 and P1 is the

same. It does not depend on the path used for
calculating the line integral of the electric
field between them.

Figure. Three paths leading from P1

to P2 in an electric field.
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1. The negative sign means that the electric potential V increases in going against the
E field.
- When a dc battery with voltage V0 is connected between two parallel
conducting plates, positive and negative charges accumulate as shown in
figure below. E is directed from positive to negative charges, while the
potential increases in the opposite direction.
2. The direction of V is normal to the surfaces of constant V. Therefore, directed
field lines (the direction of E) are everywhere perpendicular to equipotential lines
and equipotential surfaces.

Figure: Relative directions of E and increasing V.

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 Electric Potential due to a Charge Distribution
 The electric potential of a point at a distance R from a point charge q referred to that
at infinity is

 which yields

 The potential difference between any two points P2 and P1 at distances R2 and R1
respectively, from q is

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 Electric potential at R due to a system of n discrete point charges q1, q2, ..., qn
located at 𝐑′1 , 𝐑′2 , ..., 𝐑′𝑛 :

 For a volume charge distribution

 For surface charge distribution

 For a line charge

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 Example : Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges + q and - q with a small
separation d. Determine the potential V and the electric intensity E at an arbitrary
point P at a distance R >> d from the dipole.

 The distances from the charges + q and - q to the field point P are R+ and R-
 The potential at P is

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 If d « R, we have

𝑑 𝑑
𝑅+ ≅ 𝑅 − cos 𝜃 and 𝑅− ≅ 𝑅 + cos 𝜃
2 2

 Then

𝑞 1 1 𝑞 𝑑 cos 𝜃 𝑞𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝑉= − = ≅
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 − 𝑑 cos 𝜃 𝑅 + 𝑑 cos 𝜃 4𝜋𝜖0 2 𝑑2 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅2
2 2 𝑅 − cos 𝜃
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 and

 p = qd is the electric dipole moment. (SI unit: C.m).

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 Example 3.7. Obtain a formula for the electric field intensity on the axis of a
circular disk of radius b that carries a uniform surface charge density s.

Figure. A uniformly charged disk

 Note: Gauss's law is not useful here. (The disk has circular symmetry but we cannot
choose a surface around the disc over which the normal component of E has a
constant magnitude).

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 From the figure, we have

𝑑𝑠 ′ = 𝑟 ′ 𝑑𝑟 ′ 𝑑𝜙 ′ and 𝑅 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑟 ′2
 The electric potential at the point P(0, 0, z) referring to the point at infinity

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