522 Corrected

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Herbicides, together with insecticides, fungicides and nematicides, form part of a

collective group referred to as pesticides. For clarity and avoidance of confusion, Herbicides
would be used throughout instead of the generic name, Pesticide.
Herbicides have faced some severe criticism for many years, mainly for having several
undesirable side effects. However, this group of chemicals has been a major force in allowing the
agricultural industry to “keep-pace” with the growing hunger problem we face today. If it were
not for herbicides, our present production rate of food crops would drop by 30% and livestock by
25%. Society would then be faced with a 50 to 75% increase in food prices. Herbicides have also
allowed farmers to conserve wild land because now they only need approximately half of the
area they used previously in order to have the same crop yield. There are 4 distinguishing factors
in the herbicide industry:
• The multiplicity of the chemicals used.
• A high price range.
• A rapid obsolescence for the chemicals employed.
• A high degree of government regulation.
In the United States, all herbicides used today must receive registrations from the EPA
(Environmental Protection Agency). This would involve detailed toxicological and metabolic
studies of both the active ingredient and any other impurities. The cost of the development of a
new herbicide is estimated at close on $50 million (as opposed to $3 million in the 1950’s). For
every effective herbicide, over 22 000 compounds are screened.
2-ethylhexanol, also known as 2-EH, is a type of organic compound that consists of eight carbon
atoms, 18 hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Its chemical formula is C8H18O. It is a clear,
colorless, and odorless liquid that is soluble in water and alcohol. The molecular structure of 2-
1
ethylhexanol is characterized by a branched carbon chain with a hydroxyl (-OH) group attached
to one of the carbon atoms.
The molecular formula is represented in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Molecular structure of 2-ethylhexanol
The structural formula of 2-ethylhexanol is as follows:
CH3-CH2-CH-C(CH3)-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH
As you can see, the carbon chain of 2-ethylhexanol is branched and contains seven carbon atoms,
with the hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the sixth carbon atom. The presence of the hydroxyl
group makes 2-ethylhexanol an important precursor for the production of various chemicals,
such as plasticizers, solvents, and coatings.
In terms of its physical properties, 2-ethylhexanol has a boiling point of 184°C, a melting point
of -76°C, and a density of 0.83 g/cm3. It has a molecular weight of 130.23 g/mol. It is a
relatively stable compound but can ignite easily when exposed to an ignition source, making it
important to handle it with care.
Chemically, 2-ethylhexanol is highly reactive due to the presence of the hydroxyl group. It is
capable of undergoing a variety of chemical reactions, including esterification, oxidation, and
condensation reactions. One of the most important chemical reactions involving 2-ethylhexanol
is the esterification reaction with phthalic acid to produce di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP),
which is an important plasticizer used to increase the flexibility and durability of plastics.
2-ethylhexanol is also used as a solvent in the production of paint, coatings, and adhesives. It has
a relatively low polarity, making it a good solvent for nonpolar or slightly polar compounds.
Additionally, it can be used as an intermediate in the production of other chemicals, such as
lubricants, fuel additives, and fragrances.
2
2-ethylhexanol is an important organic compound with a wide range of physical and chemical
properties. Its structural formula consists of a branched carbon chain with a hydroxyl group
attached to one of the carbon atoms. Its reactivity and ability to undergo esterification reactions
make it a valuable building block for the production of many different specialty chemicals,
including plasticizers, coatings, and solvents. Its low polarity and solvency properties make it a
useful solvent in many industrial applications.
Although 2-ethylhexanol is primarily used in the production of plastics and solvents, it can also
be used as a herbicide. One example of a herbicide that contains 2-ethylhexanol as an active
ingredient is 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). 2,4-D is a selective herbicide that is
commonly used to control broadleaf weeds in crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans.
The use of 2,4-D as a herbicide involves the application of a solution containing 2-ethylhexanol
to the foliage of the targeted weeds. The 2-ethylhexanol in the solution helps to dissolve the 2,4-
D and allows it to be absorbed more easily by the plant. Once inside the plant, the 2,4-D disrupts
the plant's growth hormones, causing it to die.
The use of 2,4-D as a herbicide has been controversial due to concerns about its potential impact
on human health and the environment. Some studies have suggested that exposure to 2,4-D may
be linked to an increased risk of cancer, while others have raised concerns about its potential
impact on non-target plants and animals. As a result, the use of 2,4-D as a herbicide is regulated
in many countries.
1.2 Uses of 2-Ethylhexanol
2-EH is widely used in the production of plasticizers, surfactants, and synthetic lubricants.
However, it also has the potential to be used as a herbicide.
Herbicides are chemicals used to control or kill unwanted plants, also known as weeds.
Herbicides can be selective or non-selective, with selective herbicides targeting specific types of
plants while non-selective herbicides kill all plant material. While 2-EH is not commonly used as
a herbicide, it has been shown to have herbicidal properties and may have potential for use in
weed control.
3
Some of its uses are as follows:
Plasticizers
One of the primary uses of 2-EH is in the production of plasticizers, which are additives used to
make plastic materials more flexible and durable. The most widely used plasticizer made from 2-
EH is dioctyl phthalate (DOP). DOP is a key ingredient in the production of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) products, including wires and cables, pipes, and flooring materials. 2-EH is also used in
the production of other plasticizers, such as diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and
diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP).
Surfactants
2-EH is also used in the production of surfactants, compounds that reduce the surface tension of
liquids and allow them to spread more easily. Surfactants are used in a wide range of products,
including detergents, shampoos, and cosmetics. 2-EH is a key ingredient in the production of
non-ionic surfactants, which are known for their excellent cleaning properties and ability to form
stable emulsions.
Synthetic lubricants
2-EH is used in the production of synthetic lubricants, which offer superior performance and
longer life than traditional mineral oil-based lubricants. Synthetic lubricants made with 2-EH are
used in a variety of applications, including automotive engines, industrial machinery, and
aerospace equipment.
4
Potential use as a herbicide
While 2-EH is not widely used as a herbicide, research has shown that it has the potential to be
used as an effective weed control agent. 2-EH works by inhibiting the growth of plant cells,
leading to reduced growth and eventually death of the plant.
Studies have shown that 2-EH can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, meaning that it is applied
to soil before weed seeds begin to germinate. In one study, 2-EH was found to be effective at
controlling a wide range of weed species, including giant foxtail, common waterhemp, and
velvetleaf. The study found that 2-EH was effective at low rates and had minimal effects on the
surrounding environment. The study was conducted by researchers at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign and was published in the journal Weed Science in 2019.
Another study found that 2-EH was effective at controlling weeds in turfgrass. The study found
that 2-EH was effective at controlling annual bluegrass, one of the most common weeds found in
turfgrass. The study also found that 2-EH had minimal impacts on the surrounding environment
and was safe to use around ornamental plants. The second study was conducted by researchers at
the University of Wisconsin-Madison and was published in the journal Crop Science in 2015.
Despite its potential as a herbicide, 2-EH is not widely used in weed control. This is likely due to
the fact that other herbicides are more effective and have a longer history of use in weed control.
However, as concerns over chemical use and environmental impact continue to grow, there may
be increased interest in using 2-EH as a herbicide.
In conclusion, 2-EH is a versatile chemical with a wide range of uses, including in the production
of plasticizers, surfactants, and synthetic lubricants. While it is not commonly used as a
herbicide, research has shown that it has the potential to be used as an effective weed control
agent. As concerns over chemical use and environmental impact continue to grow, there may be
increased interest in using 2-EH as a herbicide in the future.
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1.3 Aim and Objectives
1.3.1 Aim
To design a plant with a capacity of producing 1000 tonnes of 2-ethylhexanol from propylene
and synthesis gas.
To optimise the process parameters to achieve high yield, low-cost, and efficient production
1.3.2 Objectives
i. To conduct a thorough literature review on the production of 2-ethylhexanol from

propylene and synthesis gas
ii. To analyse the properties and characteristics of propylene and synthesis gas and their
effect on the production of 2-ethylhexanol
iii. To identify and select suitable catalysts for the reaction
iv. To optimise the reaction conditions, including temperature, pressure, and residence time
v. To design an efficient separation and purification system to obtain high-quality 2-
ethylhexanol
vi. To evaluate the economic feasibility of the proposed plant design
vii. To assess the environmental impact of the production process and propose possible
solutions to minimise it.
1.4 Scope of the study

The following are the scopes of the design work:
1. To create a material balance for the entire process.
2. To create a process diagram for the plant that displays the main pieces of equipment and lists
the construction materials, operating temperatures, and operating pressures.
3. Creating an equipment schedule that includes the key plant components' sizes, working
conditions, building materials, and necessary services.
4. To set up the process's energy balances.
6
1.5 Significance of Study
The design of a plant for the production of 1000 tonnes of 2-ethylhexanol from propylene and
synthesis gas is significant due to the high demand for 2-ethylhexanol in various industries,
including the production of plasticizers, coatings, and solvents. The plant design must consider
factors such as safety, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact. The process involves the
reaction of propylene and synthesis gas to produce 2-ethylhexanol, which requires careful
control of temperature, pressure, and catalysts. The design must also include efficient separation
and purification techniques to ensure high product quality and yield. Overall, the successful
design and operation of such a plant are critical to meeting the growing demand for 2-
ethylhexanol in various industries.
2-ethylhexanol is not typically used as a herbicide on its own, but rather as an ingredient in
herbicide formulations. It acts as a solvent, allowing other active ingredients to dissolve and be
effective. When used in herbicide formulations, 2-ethylhexanol can improve the penetration and
absorption of the active ingredients into plant tissues, leading to more effective weed control.
However, it is important to note that the use of herbicides, including those containing 2-
ethylhexanol, can have environmental impacts and should be used responsibly and according to
label instructions.
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CHAPTER TWO
FEASIBILITY STUDY
2.1 Choice of Synthesis Route
There are several production routes for 2-ethylhexanol, but one of the most widely used
commercial processes is the Oxo process. The Oxo process involves the reaction of propylene with
synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) in the presence of a catalyst such as
cobalt or rhodium. This results in the formation of butyraldehyde, which is then hydrogenated to
produce 2-ethylhexanol.
The Oxo process has several advantages over other production routes for 2-ethylhexanol. First, it is
a highly efficient process that can produce high yields of 2-ethylhexanol with relatively low energy
consumption. Second, the process does not require the use of expensive or toxic raw materials,
making it a more cost-effective and environmentally friendly option. Finally, the Oxo process is a
relatively simple and well-established technology that can be easily scaled up to meet the demands
of large-scale production.
Overall, the Oxo process is a suitable choice for the production of 2-ethylhexanol due to its
efficiency, environmental friendliness, and scalability.
The choice of oxo process for the production of 2-ethylhexanol from propylene and synthesis gas
is incumbent on the fact that it is ONLY through the oxo process that 2-ethylhexanol can be
produced from propylene and synthesis gas as the raw material.
2.2 Other Methods of production of 2 ethylhexanol:
There are other production routes for 2-ethylhexanol apart from the Oxo process. One such method
is the dimerization of butene, which involves the reaction of two butene molecules to form 2-
ethylhexene. The 2-ethylhexene is then hydrogenated to produce 2-ethylhexanol. Another
approach involves the hydroformylation of 1-octene, followed by hydrogenation of the resulting
aldehydes to produce 2-ethylhexanol.
8
Additionally, 2-ethylhexanol can be produced from the lignocellulosic biomass through a process
called hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) which involves the removal of oxygen from the biomass to
form hydrocarbons. 2-ethylhexanol can be produced from the hydrocarbons through a series of
reactions that include olefin metathesis and hydrogenation.
While the Oxo process is the most widely used commercial process for the production of 2-
ethylhexanol, these alternative processes offer advantages in certain circumstances. For example,
the dimerization of butene and hydroformylation of 1-octene processes can be used to produce 2-
ethylhexanol from renewable resources, making them more environmentally friendly.
Additionally, the HDO process can be used to produce 2-ethylhexanol from lignocellulosic
biomass, which is abundant and sustainable.
A detailed explanation of the oxo process and some other routes is treated below:
(1) Acetaldehyde route

(2) Oxo process
(3) Aldox process
The first two listed processes are commonly used in industrial scale production of 2-
ethylhexanol. In these processes, n-butyraldehyde is a key intermediate that is obtained through
the reaction of either ethylene in the acetaldehyde route, or propylene and synthesis gas in the
Oxo process. The n-butyraldehyde is then further processed to produce 2-ethylhexanol.
(1) Acetaldehyde route
The industrial process known as the acetaldehyde route begins with ethylene and operates
at close to atmospheric pressure. In this process, ethylene is first oxidized into acetaldehyde,
which is then transformed into crotonaldehyde using an aldol reaction. The crotonaldehyde is
subsequently hydrogenated to n-butyraldehyde. In accordance with figure 2.1, the oxidation of
acetaldehyde is conducted in an oxidation reactor, denoted as oxidation reactor 1, and is then
separated into pure aldehydes through fractional distillation using columns 2, 3, and 4.
Additionally, the remaining aqueous acetaldehyde solution can be further utilized for processing
into crotonaldehyde. Reactor 5 is used for the aldolization of acetaldol which is then transferred
to reactor 6 for crotonization. The aldolization stage is typically carried out under a pressure of
100 kPa and at a temperature of 20 °C. After crotonization in reactor 6, the resulting
9
crotonaldehyde is further purified in columns 7 and 8. Finally, the purified crotonaldehyde is
partially hydrogenated in the gas phase in reactor 9.
The hydrogenated product is fractionally distilled in column 10, which produces n-
butyraldehyde as an overhead along with unsaturated aldehydes. The light ends from column 10
are further purified in tower 11. The pure n-butyraldehyde from the bottom of column 10 is then
transferred to the 2-EH plant. Meanwhile, the bottoms of the distillation column 10 are
hydrogenated in reactor 12.
Figure 2.1: 2 ethylhexanol via the acetaldehyde route
Process route
Oxidation
CH2=CH2 CH3-CHO
Ethylene Acetaldehyde
Dehydrogenation
CH3-CH2-OH CH3-CHO
2 CH3-CHO CH3-CH-(OH)-CH2-CHO
iso-butyraldehyde
10
CH3-CH-(OH)-CH2-CHO CH3-CH=CH-CHO +H2O
Crotonaldehyde
CH3-CH=CH-CHO +H2 CH3-CH2-CH2-CHO

n-butyraldehyde
2CH3-CH2-CH2-CHO CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=C-CHO + H2O
CH2=CH2
2-Ethyl hexanal
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2- CH=C-CHO +2 H2 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2 – CH-CH2OH +
CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2
2-Ethyl hexanol
(2) Oxo Process

To obtain the initial product of n-butyraldehyde, the first process utilized is the
hydroformylation, which is also known as the Oxo reaction. The reactor operates under
conditions of 130°C and 35,000 kPa, and is fed with a molar ratio of 2:1 of synthesis gas
(CO/H2) and propylene. A solution containing Cobalt Carbonyl is used with concentrations of
0.1-1.0 wt% cobalt. Methane contained within the synthesis gas serves as an inert component in
the reactor. After the Oxo reactor, a separator is used to separate the catalyst solution from the
oxo-raw product and recycle it back to the reactor. The stripper is then utilized to remove
unconverted propylene from the Oxo-product, using fresh synthesis gas, which is then recycled
back to the Oxo reactor. The mixture then enters distillation column 1, which serves as the
11
alcohol/aldehyde separator. The top product of the column is mixed butyraldehyde, while the
bottom product is alcohol.
Distillation column 2 is responsible for separating n-butyraldehyde and isobutyraldehyde
into two streams - one at the top and one at the bottom. The top stream primarily consists of iso-
butyraldehyde, which has a mole fraction of 1.3% for n-butyraldehyde. Conversely, the bottom
stream mainly contains n-butyraldehyde, with a mole fraction of 1.2% of butyraldehyde. The n-
butyraldehyde from the bottom stream is then directed to the aldolization reactor for further
processing.
The n-butyraldehydereacrs swiftly to create 2-ethylhexanal. The standard industrial
catalyst which is 2% w/w aqueous NaOH is used that helps the conversion efficiency to 90%.
The operating condition for temperature is between 80ᶱc - 1300ᶱc and the pressure is between
303.975 kPa - 1013.25 kPa. Overheating of the reaction mixture must be avoided due may cause
secondary reaction, hence, decreasing the yields. It is necessary for thorough mixing of the 2-
phases in the system. The product from aldolization reactor passes on to separator where 2-
Ethyhexanol is separated and then sent to a hydrogenation unit. In hydrogenator, by the presence
of Raney Nickel, 99% conversion of 2-Ethylhexanal to 2-Ethylhexanol can be obtained with
selectivity being greater than 99% and 99.8% of 2-Ethylhexanol is recovered at purity of 99% by
weight.
Figure 2.2: Production of 2-ethylhexanol via the oxo route
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Process route
The following is the reaction scenario of oxo process. The oxo process for ethylhexanol production
has three steps of conversion which are:
(a) Hydroformylation
(b) Aldolization
(c) Hydrogenation
(a) Hydroformylation
H3C
130C,350 bars
2H3C-CH=CH2 + 2CO + 2H2 → H3C-CH2-CH2-CHO + H3C-CH-CHO
The above is reaction of hydroformylation, which takes place at 130ºC, 100kpa. The
molar ratio of the feed reactor which is the propylene and synthesis gas is 2:1.Cobalt Carbonyl is
used as the catalyst in the solution with the percentage of 0.1-1.0 wt% cobalt concentration.
(b) Aldolization
2% NaOH and 80ᶱC-130ºC

2H3C-CH2-CH2-CHO CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=C-CHO +H2O
303.975 kPa - 1013.25 kPa
CH2-H3C
The above Aldolization reaction takes place at 80ᶱC-1300ᶱC and pressures 303.975 kPa -
1013.25 kPa.
(c) Hydrogenation
Nickel
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=C-CHO +2H2 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH-CH2OH
CH2-H3C CH2-H3C
Hydrogenation takes place in the presence of Raney Nickel catalyst.
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(3) Aldox process
Aldox process is where the Oxo catalyst is added with co-catalyst that let aldolization to
happen in the same place. After the hydrogenation, 2 ethylhexanol isomeric alcohols and
isobutnol is produced. This process combines hydroformylation of the olefin and the aldolization
of the resulting aldehydes into in a single step. A simplified flow sheet of the Aldox system is
shown in fig 3. The oxo reaction proceeds at about 20265kPa and 180ᶱc using a catalyst system
such as cobalt acetate and zinc acetylacetonate. A second reactor maybe used as a soaking vessel
to allow the aldol reaction to take up the majority of the normal butyraldehyde produced. Oxo
catalyst is separated from the crude reactor product and recovered for the recycle to the reactor.
Figure 2.3: 2-ethylhexanol via aldox process
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Process route
Aldox process combines the oxo reaction with aldol condensation
CH3
HCo(CO)4
CH3CH2=CH2 + H2 + CO CH3CH2CH2CHO + CH3CHCHO
Catalyst
2CH3CH2CH2CHO
H2
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCHO CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH2CHCH2OH
CH2CH3 CH2CH3
2.3 Market Survey (demand)
2-ethylhexanol is a colorless liquid that is used primarily in the manufacturing of plasticizers,

coatings, and detergents. The global market size for 2-ethylhexanol is projected to grow in the
coming years, driven by demand from a variety of industries.
One major industry that requires 2-ethylhexanol is the plasticizer industry. As the demand for
plastic materials continues to increase, the demand for 2-ethylhexanol also rises. Additionally,
the coatings industry is also a significant consumer of 2-ethylhexanol, with the compound used
as a solvent in various coating applications. The growth of the automotive and construction
15
industries is expected to contribute to the increase in demand for 2-ethylhexanol in the coatings
sector.
The detergent industry is also a significant market for 2-ethylhexanol. It is used as a raw material
in the production of non-ionic surfactants, which are used in a wide range of cleaning products.
The growing demand for household cleaning products is expected to drive the demand for 2-
ethylhexanol in the detergent industry.
In terms of regional demand, Asia-Pacific is the largest consumer of 2-ethylhexanol, with China
alone accounting for a significant portion of the global demand. The growth of the chemical
industry and the increasing demand for plastic materials in the region drive this trend. North
America and Europe are also significant markets for 2-ethylhexanol, but the demand in these
regions is expected to increase at a slower rate than in Asia-Pacific.
There are several factors that may impact the growth of the 2-ethylhexanol market. One key
factor is the fluctuating prices of raw materials, which can impact the production cost of 2-
ethylhexanol. The availability of feedstock, such as propylene and butadiene, can also affect the
production of 2-ethylhexanol. Additionally, the increasing focus on sustainability and
environmental concerns may impact the demand for 2-ethylhexanol in the future, as alternative
materials and methods are developed.
There are several key players in the 2-ethylhexanol market, including BASF, Eastman Chemical,
Perstorp Holding AB, and Sasol Limited. These companies are involved in the production and
distribution of 2-ethylhexanol on a global scale, with a focus on expanding their market share
through strategic partnerships and investments.
In conclusion, the market for 2-ethylhexanol is expected to grow in the coming years, driven by
demand from various industries, primarily in Asia-Pacific. The fluctuating prices of raw
materials, availability of feedstock, and environmental concerns are factors that may impact the
growth of the market. As the demand for plastic materials, coatings, and detergents continues to
increase, 2-ethylhexanol is expected to remain a significant compound in the chemical industry.
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2-ethylhexanol is also used as an intermediate in the production of certain herbicides, including
2,4-D and MCPA. The herbicide industry is, therefore, another significant market for 2-
ethylhexanol.
The global herbicides market is expected to grow in the coming years due to the increasing
demand for food production and the need for higher crop yields. The herbicides market is
primarily driven by the agriculture industry, which accounts for the majority of the demand for
herbicides. The use of herbicides helps to prevent the growth of unwanted weeds and increases
the efficiency of crop yields, leading to higher productivity.
2-ethylhexanol is used as a solvent in the production of herbicides, allowing for the effective
mixing of different herbicide components. The growth of the herbicide industry, therefore,
directly impacts the demand for 2-ethylhexanol.
Asia-Pacific is the largest consumer of herbicides, with China and India accounting for a
significant portion of the global demand. The increasing adoption of genetically modified crops
and the need for higher crop yields are expected to drive the demand for herbicides in the region.
North America and Europe are also significant markets for herbicides, with the United States and
European Union accounting for a majority of the demand.
The increasing focus on sustainability and environmental concerns may impact the demand for
herbicides in the future. The use of herbicides has come under scrutiny due to their potential
impact on the environment and human health. As a result, alternative methods of weed control,
such as biological controls and integrated pest management, are being developed. The adoption
of these alternative methods may impact the demand for herbicides and, consequently, the
demand for 2-ethylhexanol in the herbicide industry.
In conclusion, the herbicide industry is a significant market for 2-ethylhexanol, with the demand
for herbicides primarily driven by the agriculture industry. The growth of the herbicide industry
in Asia-Pacific, North America, and Europe is expected to drive the demand for 2-ethylhexanol.
However, the increasing focus on sustainability and environmental concerns may impact the
demand for herbicides in the future, leading to changes in the demand for 2-ethylhexanol in the
herbicide industry.
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2.5 Literature Survey (process technology)
Table 2.4: Sensitivity Analytical Statement
Variable Rate of change Internal Rate of Return

Base condition - 19.27
Construction investment 10% 17.34
-10% 21.51
Extension of construction 1 year
period 1 year 16.04
Operating food -10% 18.11

Price of raw material 10% 10.60
-10% 26.78
Product price 10% 28.85
-10% 7.30
Based on finance research by Liu Yuan, and XueHui-Feng in 2012, the production load
decreases 10% and the construction investment, material price and product price respectively fall
10%. Sensitivity analysis is made for the change on internal rate of return. The results show in
Table 2.5
Table 2.5: The Impact of Material and Product Price Variation on Benefit
Propane price IRR n-butanol 2-ethylhexanol
13% 6150 6580
4000 18% 6550 7010
23% 7000 7490
13% 6750 7230
5000 18% 7200 7720
23% 7660 8200
13% 7370 7890
6000 18% 7860 8410
23% 8290 8870
18
13% 8000 8560
7000 18% 8520 9110
23% 8970 9600
13% 8630 9240
8000 18% 9240 9880
23% 9690 10370
13% 9350 10010
9000 18% 9960 10060
23% 10420 11150
when the price of propylene is certain, the variation of OXO price would cause benefit change;
the multiple slant lines show: when both the prices of propylene and OXO change, the benefit
would change. For instance: if the price of propylene was 7,000 Yuan/ton, the price of n-butanol
was higher than 8,000 Yuan/ton and the corresponding price of 2-ethylhexanol was higher than
8,560 Yuan/ton, the internal rate of return would be higher than 13%; if the price of propylene
doesn’t change, the price of n-butanol was higher than 8,520 Yuan/ton and the corresponding
price of 2-ethylhexanol was higher than 9,110 Yuan/ton, the internal rate of return will be higher
than 18%; if the price of propylene was 6,000 Yuan/ton, the price of n-butyl alcohol is 8,290
Yuan/ton and the corresponding price of 2-ethylhexyl alcohol was 8,870 Yuan/ton, the internal
rate of return would be higher than 23%.
2.6 Justification of the Selected Technology

The oxo process is a widely used process for the production of n-butyraldehyde, and it has
several advantages over other processes for the same product.
Feedstock availability: The oxo process utilizes propylene and synthesis gas (CO/H2) as
feedstock, which are readily available and abundant. Other processes, such as those that utilize
butane or ethanol as feedstock, may be limited by the availability and price of these raw
materials.
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Versatility: The oxo process can produce a range of aldehydes and alcohols, depending on the
feedstock and catalyst used. This versatility makes the oxo process suitable for a wide range of
applications and industries.
High selectivity: The oxo process typically produces high yields of the desired product (n-
butyraldehyde) with low production of unwanted byproducts. This high selectivity is attributed
to the use of specific catalysts and reaction conditions, making the oxo process efficient and cost-
effective.
Continuous process: The oxo process can be carried out as a continuous process, allowing for
consistent and reliable production. This is in contrast to other processes that may require batch
processing, which can be time-consuming and result in variations in product quality.
Energy efficiency: The oxo process is energy-efficient, requiring relatively low temperatures and
pressures. This reduces the energy consumption of the process and the associated costs.
Safe and environmentally-friendly: The oxo process is considered safe and environmentally-
friendly, with no hazardous byproducts or waste generated. The process does not involve the use
of toxic chemicals or the production of harmful emissions, making it suitable for use in a variety
of industries, including the food and pharmaceutical sectors.
In summary, the oxo process has several advantages over other processes for the production of n-
butyraldehyde, including feedstock availability, versatility, high selectivity, continuous
processing, energy efficiency, and safety. These advantages make the oxo process an attractive
option for the production of n-butyraldehyde and other aldehydes and alcohols for a wide range
of industries.
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CHAPTER THREE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
3.1 Process description.

The oxo process has various steps and the following discusses the steps in details:
(1) Hydroformylation
Oxo reactor
To start the Oxo process, the first step is hydroformylation. In this stage, a specialized
reactor, called the Oxo reactor, is used to perform the reaction. The reactor is operated at high
temperature and pressure, specifically at 130°C and 350 bars, respectively. The synthesis gas,
which is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in a 2:1 molar ratio, is fed into the reactor
along with propylene. The reaction takes about 1-2 hours to complete.
To initiate the reaction, cobalt carbonyl is introduced into the mixture at a concentration
between 0.1 and 1.0 weight percent. The addition of this catalyst accelerates the reaction rate and
enhances the yield of n-butyraldehyde, which is the main product of the hydroformylation
process. The reaction conditions are closely monitored to ensure that the final product is of high
purity and yield.
In addition to this, a small quantity of methane, approximately 0.4% of the synthesis gas feed, is
added to the reactor as an inert component. The presence of methane does not participate in the
reaction but rather acts as a buffer to maintain stable reaction conditions without any undesired
side reactions. This allows the reaction to proceed smoothly and efficiently without any
disturbances.
To ensure the proper functioning of the catalyst, impurities such as hydrogen sulfide and
triethylamine should be avoided and prevented from entering the reactor. These impurities can
react with the active cobalt complex, forming catalytically inactive complexes that could reduce
the yield and purity of the final product. Similarly, during the start-up phase, the system should
be purged of oxygen to prevent any interference with the establishment of the active catalyst
concentration. Careful control of the reaction conditions and elimination of potential impurities
is essential to achieving high quality and efficient product yield.
21
The propylene feed for the Oxo process can be of polymer grade, meaning it has a purity
of 99% or higher. Before being fed into the reactor, the propylene is vaporized and introduced
into the reactor in a gaseous phase. To minimize propylene losses, the reactor should be designed
to achieve a conversion rate of at least 95% per pass.
The main products of the Oxo reactor are n-butyraldehyde and isobutyraldehyde, which
are produced in a mole ratio of 4:1. These products are important intermediates for various
industrial processes and can be further processed to produce a wide range of chemicals and
materials. The ratio of n- to isobutyraldehyde can be controlled by adjusting the reaction
conditions and the composition of the feedstock.
During the reaction in the Oxo reactor, a portion of the n-butyraldehyde product is
reduced to n-butanol, while a portion of the isobutyraldehyde product is reduced to iso-butanol.
In addition, other reactions within the reactor generate molecular weight compounds, also known
as heavy ends, which constitute approximately 1% of the total weight of the
butyraldehyde/butanol mixture at the reactor exit. Although these side reactions occur, they do
not significantly affect the yield or purity of the final product, as the conversion rates of the
desired products, n-butyraldehyde and isobutyraldehyde, remain high.
Separator
After the Oxo reactor, the oxo-raw product is separated from the catalyst solution in the separator
and recycled back to the Oxo reactor.
Stripper
In the stripper, fresh synthesis gas is used to remove any unconverted propylene from the Oxo-
product, and the synthesis gas is then recycled back to the Oxo reactor.
Distillation Column 1
The first distillation column in the Oxo process is designed to separate the alcohol and aldehyde
components. The stripper produces the Oxo-product, which is then sent to the distillation
column, where mixed butyraldehyde is obtained as the top product, while the alcohols are
obtained as the bottom product. The column is optimized to achieve high purity and yield of both
the aldehyde and alcohol components.
22
Distillation Column 2
Following the first distillation column, the mixed butyraldehydes are sent to the second
distillation column, where they are separated into two streams: iso-butyraldehyde, which is the
top stream, containing 1.3% moles of n-butyraldehyde, and n-butyraldehyde, which is the bottom
stream, containing 1.2% moles of isobutyraldehyde. The column is designed to achieve high
purity and yield of each component, ensuring that the final product meets the required
specifications.
(2) Aldolization
Aldolization reactor
After the second distillation column, the n-butyraldehyde stream is sent to the
Aldolization reactor, where Aldol condensation takes place. In this reactor, the n-butyraldehyde
reacts vigorously to produce 2-ethylhexanal. To catalyze the reaction, a 2% w/w aqueous sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) solution is introduced into the reactor. NaOH is commonly used as a catalyst
in various industrial processes and is effective in promoting the Aldol reaction in this case. The
Aldolization reactor operates under specific conditions, such as a temperature range of 80-130°C
and a pressure range of 3-10 atm, with a conversion efficiency of up to 90%. To prevent
secondary reactions and reduce the loss of yield, overheating of the reaction mixture should be
avoided. Thorough mixing of the two phases in the system is also important for achieving high
efficiency.
Packed column, stirring vessel, and mixing pump are suitable equipment options for the
Aldolization reactor. These equipment types are designed to ensure thorough mixing of the
reactants and effective heat transfer, which is essential for achieving the desired reaction
conditions and high yield of the product.
Separator
After the Aldolization reactor, the products, 2-ethylhexanal, and n-butyraldehyde, are sent to a
separator, where they are separated. The 2-ethylhexanal is then passed on to the hydrogenation
unit for further processing. The separator is an important unit operation in the Oxo process, as it
allows for the separation and purification of the different components, ensuring that the final
product meets the required specifications.
23
(3) Hydrogenation
Hydrogenerator
The hydrogenation unit is where the reduction process of 2-Ethylhexanal to 2-
Ethylhexanol takes place, using hydrogen in the presence of a Raney Nickel catalyst.
This process achieves a 99% conversion rate and a selectivity of greater than 99%. The 2-
ethylhexanol produced has a recovery rate of 99.8% and a weight purity of 99%, which
meets the required specifications. The hydrogenation unit is an important step in the Oxo
process, as it enables the conversion of the intermediate product, 2-ethylhexanal, into the
final product, 2-ethylhexanol, which is a valuable industrial chemical.
3.1.1 Feed specifications

(i) Propylene feed: 93% propylene, balance propane.
(ii) Synthesis gas: from heavy fuel oil, after removal of sulfur compounds and carbon
dioxide: H2 48.6%; CO 49.5%; CH4 0.4%; N2 1.5%.
3.1.2 Utilities
(i) Dry saturated steam at 35 bar.
(ii) Cooling water at 25°C.
(iii) 2% w/w aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
(iv) Hydrogen gas: H2 98.8%; CH4 1.2%.
3.2 Data supplied
3.2.1 Chemical reactions
1. Hydrogenation of Propylene to Propane
CH=CH-CH3 + H CH-CH-CHΔH° @ 298K=-129.5 kJ/mol
2. Reaction of Propylene with Synthesis gas
H2 + CO + CH3CH=CH2 → CH3CH2CH2CHO (normal)
ΔH°=-135.5kJ/mol at 298k
24
Or → (CH3)2CHCHO (Iso)ΔH°=-141.5 kJ/mol at 298k
3. Reduction of Butyraldehyde to Butanol
H3C-CH2-CH2-CHO + H2→ H3C-CH2-CH2-CH2OH ΔH°=-64.8 kJ/mol at 298k
3 Reaction of Cobalt with Carbon Monoxide

2Co + 8CO → Co2 (CO)8ΔH°=-462.0 kJ/mol at 298k
4 Aldol Condensation of n-butyraldehyde
2H3C-CH2-CH2-CHO → H3C-CH2-CH2- CH=C(C2H5)-CHO + H2O
ΔH°=-262.0 kJ/mol at 298k
5 Hydrogenation of 2-Ethyl Hexenal to 2-Ethyl Hexanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=C(CH2CH3)-CH=O + H2→ CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH(CH2CH3)-CH=O
3.2.2 Boiling points at 1 bar
Table 3.1: Liquid Boiling Point (°C)
Liquid Boiling Point (°C)

Propylene 47.7
Propane 42.1
n- Butyraldehyde 75.5
Isobutyraldehyde 64.5
n- Butanol 117.0
Isobutanol 108.0
2- Ethylhexanol 184.7
3.2.3 Solubilities of gases at 30 Bar in the liquid phase of the first gas-liquid separator 3
Table 3.2: Gas Solubility (kg dissolved per kg liquid) * 103
Gas Solubility (kg dissolved per kg liquid) * 103

H2 0.08
CO 0.53
25
Propylene 7.5
Propane 7.5
3.2.4 Vapor-liquid equilibrium of the butyraldehydes at 1 atm (Wojtasinski, 1963)
Table 3.3: Vapor-liquid equilibrium of the butyraldehydes at 1 atm
T° X Y
73.94 0.1 0.128
72.69 0.2 0.264
71.40 0.3 0.381
70.24 0.4 0.490
69.04 0.5 0.589
68.08 0.6 0.686
67.07 0.7 0.773
65.96 0.8 0.846
64.95 0.9 0.927
Where x and y are the mol fractions of the more volatile component (isobutyraldehyde) in the
liquid and vapor phases respectively.
26
CHAPTER FOUR
FLOWSHEET
Figure 4.1: Block Flow Diagram
27
CHAPTER FIVE
MATERIAL BALANCE
5.1 Preliminary Data for Material Balance
Species Chemical Formula Molar Mass

2- Ethylhexanol C8H180 130.23
2- Ethylhexanal C8H16O 128.215
n- butyl aldehyde C4H8O 72.107
Iso- butyladehyde C4H8O 72.107
Propylene C3H6 42.08
CO CO 28.01
H2 H2 2
n-Butanol C4H10O 74.12
Iso-Butanol C4H10O 74.12
CH4 CH4 16
N2 N2 28
Propylene C3H6 44.1
Table 5.1: Preliminary data for material balances
5.2 Concept of Material Balance
Material balance is a fundamental concept in chemical engineering that involves keeping track of
the flow and composition of materials within a process, to ensure that the input and output of
materials are balanced. This is important in the design, optimization, and operation of chemical
processes, as it helps to ensure that the desired product is produced in the required quantity and
quality, with minimum waste and cost.
To perform a material balance, the input, output, and accumulation of materials must be
measured or estimated, and then compared to determine if the flows are balanced. The balance
equation is typically expressed as:
Input = Output + Accumulation
28
where the input represents the amount of material entering the system, the output represents the
amount of material leaving the system, and the accumulation represents the change in the
material inventory within the system.
In a chemical process, the material balance can be performed for individual components, such as
reactants, products, and by-products, or for groups of components, such as feed streams, product
streams, and recycle streams. By tracking the flow and composition of materials, the material
balance can help to identify areas of the process that may require optimization, such as reducing
waste, increasing yield, or improving product quality.
The material balance also plays an important role in process design and scale-up, as it provides a
basis for selecting process equipment and sizing process units. For example, by performing a
material balance, the required size of a reactor or distillation column can be estimated, based on
the input and output flow rates, and the reaction or separation kinetics.
Overall, material balance is a key concept in chemical engineering, as it helps to ensure that
chemical processes are designed, optimized, and operated efficiently and effectively, with
minimum waste and cost.
5.4 General Assumptions
i. The system is a steady state.
ii. 1 year (8760 hours) is dedicated for a skeletal production.
iii. The process is continuous
Given: To design 1,000 metric tons per 8760-hour capacity of 2-EH plant
The calculation is based on:
Basis: 1tonne of 2-ethylhexanol produced per day
The following equipment will be considered for material balance calculation;
i. Oxo Reactor
ii. Distillation Column
29
iii. Stripper Column
iv. Aldol condensation Reactor
v. Hydrogenation Chamber
The following data were given;
Molecular weight of 2-ethylhexanol = 130.23Kg/Kmol
Conversion of propylene gas (vapour) = 95%
Synthesis gas to propylene ratio = 2:1
Production per annum of 2-ethylhexanol = 1,000 tons/year
Assumptions
Conversion efficiency of Aldol reactor = 90%
Conversion efficiency of hydrogenation chamber = 99%
Operating period/annum = 8000hours
Downtime period/annum = 736hours
5.5 Oxo Reactor
R = (Oxo reactor effluent + unreacted Propylene) per Kmol of propylene feed
a = mole fraction of propylene in stripped gas
Recycled Propylene
+ Syn Gas
Synthesis gas=
Fresh Propylene
87.55kmol Mixed Reactants
Synthesis Gas
30
Figure 5.1: Mixer of the three feeds
Basis: 100 Kmol/hr of propylene fresh feed into the reactor
Total propylene feed to the reactor (X) = 100+100Ra = 100(1+aR) Kmol/hr (5.1)
Unreacted propylene recycled = 0.05[100(1+aR)] = 5(1+aR) Kmol/hr (5.2)
Assumption: Assume 100% of unreacted propylene gas was recycled
Synthesis gas (Y) = 100R (1-a) Kmol/hr (5.3)
Since the ratio of synthesis gas to propylene Vapour is 2:1. Therefore,
100R(1−a)
=2 (5.4)
100(1+aR)
R(1−a)
=2 (5.5)
1+aR
R − aR = 2 + 2aR (5.6)
R−2
a= (5.7)
3R
Amount of unreacted propylene 5(1+aR)

(a) = (5.8)
Amount of recycled syngas 5(1+aR)+100R(1−a)
1+aR
a = (1+aR)+20R(1−a) (5.9)
Cross multiplying
a[(1 + aR) + 20R(1 − a)] = 1 + aR (5.10)
Expanding equation 5.7 & 5.9 and collecting like terms
a[1 + aR + 20R − 20aR] = 1 + aR (5.11)
a[1 − 19aR + 20R] = 1 + aR (5.12)
a − 19a2 R + 20aR − aR = 1 (5.13)
31
a + 19a2 R + 19aR = 1 (5.14)
a[1 + 19R − 19aR] = 1 (5.15)
R−2
Putting the equation a = into equation the equation a[1 + 19R − 19aR] = 1
3R
R−2 R−2
[1 + 19R − 19R ( 3R )] = 1 (5.16)
3𝑅
(R − 2)[3 + 57R − 19R + 38]R = 9R2 (5.17)
(R − 2)[38R + 41] = 9R (5.18)
38R2 + 41R − 76R − 82 − 9R = 0 (5.19)
38R2 − 44R − 82 = 0 (5.20)
Solving equation 5.20 using quadratic formulae
−b±√b2 −4ac
R= (5.21)
2a
a = 38, b = −44, c = −82
44±√−442 +(4×38×−82)
R= (5.22)
2×38
44±√14400
R= (5.23)
76
44+120
R= (5.24)
76
R = 2.16
Putting R = 2.16 in equation 5.2
2.16−2 0.16
a = 3×2.16 = 6.48 (5.25)
𝑎 = 0.025
Hence, we have 0.025Kmol propylene/kmol stripped gas.
32
Total synthesis gas Ykmol/hr can thus be calculated
= 100R(1 − a) (5.26)
= 100 × 2.16 × (1 − 0.025) = 210.8kmol/hr (5.27)
From equation 5.1 Propylene gas X kmol/hr = 100(1 + aR)
= 100[1 + (2.16 × 0.025)] = 105.4kmol/hr (5.28)
Off gas (unreacted synthesis gas) = 210.8 − 105.4 = 105.4kmol/hr.
From the result obtained, the stoichiometry ratio of synthesis gas to propylene is satisfied
Since the conversion of propylene to butanal (S) is 95%
Amount of Butanal produced = 0.95 × 105.4 = 100.13kmol/hr (5.29)
Amount of unreacted propylene = 105.4 – 100.13 = 5.27kmol/hr (5.30)
Note: The main reaction products are n- and isobutyraldehyde in the ratio of 4:1, the former
being the required product for subsequent conversion to 2-ethylhexanol.

4
Amount of n-butanal = 5 × 100.13 = 80.10kmol/hr (5.31)
1
Amount of i-butanal = 5 × 100.13 = 20.03kmol/hr (5.32)
During reaction, 6% of n-butanal is converted to n-butanol and 4% of i-butanal is converted to i-
butanol. Therefore,
6
Amount of n-butanol = 100 × 80.10 = 4.81kmol/hr (5.33)
4
Amount of i-butanol = 100 × 20.03 = 0.80kmol/hr (5.34)
New Amount of n-butanal = 80.10 − 4.81 = 75.29kmol/hr (5.35)
New Amount of i-butanal = 20.03 − 0.80 = 19.23kmol/hr (5.36)
33
Propylene = 5.27kmol/hr
Synthesis Gas =105.4kmol/hr

Propylene = 105.4kmol
n-butanol = 4.81kmol/hr
Synthesis gas=
105.4kmol i-butanol = 0.80kmol/hr
n-butanal = 75.29kmol/hr
i-butanal = 19.23kmol/hr
Figure 5.2: The Oxo Reactor
Table 5.1: Summary of material balance around the Oxo Reactor
Components INPUT OUTPUT
Propylene 105.4kmol/hr 5.27kmol/hr
Synthesis gas 105.4kmol/hr 105.4kmol/hr
n-butanol - 4.81kmol/hr
i-butanol - 0.80kmol/hr
n-butanal - 75.29kmol/hr
i-butanal - 19.23kmol/hr
TOTAL 210.8kmol/hr 210.8kmol/hr
5.6 Stripping Column
In the stripping column the unreacted propylene is stripped by the excess synthesis gas
and it is returned back to the Oxo reactor.
34
Unreacted Propylene = 5.27kmol/hr
Excess Synthesis Gas =105.4kmol/hr
i-butanol = 0.80kmol/hr
Figure 5.3: The Stripping Column
Table 5.2: Summary of material balance around the Stripping Column
n-butanol 4.81kmol/hr 4.81kmol/hr
i-butanol 0.80kmol/hr 0.80kmol/hr
n-butanal 75.29kmol/hr 75.29kmol/hr
i-butanal 19.23kmol/hr 19.23kmol/hr
5.7 Distillation Column I (Alcohol Distillation Column)
The mixture from the oxo reactor passes to a Distillation Column which gives a top
product of mixed butyraldehyde and a bottom product containing the high boiling substances.
35
Therefore, F is the feed entering the column containing mixture of aldehyde and alcohol. Since
all the product from the stripper (containing n-butanal, i-butanal, n-butanol, i-butanol) enters the
column 1, then F = 100.13kmol/hr
Feed = 100.13kmol Distillate Product
n-butanol = 4.81kmol/hr n-butanal = 75.29kmol/hr
i-butanol = 0.80kmol/hr i-butanal = 19.23kmol/hr
Bottoms Product
Figure 5.4: The Distillation Colum I
Distillate Composition
Bottom Product Composition
Table 5.3: Summary of the material balance around the Distillation Column I
36
Total 100.13kmol/hr 100.13kmol/hr
5.8 Distillation Column II (Butanal Distillation Column)
The entire distillate product from column 1 enters column 2 as feed. Therefore, F =
94.52kmol/hr Assumption: form literature, the top product of the distillation column contains
1.3mole% of n-butanal and the balance being i-butanal while the bottoms product contains
98.8mole% of n-butanal and the balance being i-butanal.
Feed= 94.52kmol/hr Distillate product
n-butanal = n-butanal = 1.3mol%

75.29kmol/hr
i-butanal=98.7mol%
i-butanal =
19.23kmol/hr
Bottom product
i-butanal = 1.2mol%
n-butanal=98.8mol%
Figure 5.5: The Distillation Colum II
Overall Material Balance:
F= D+S (5.37)
94.52 = D + S (5.38)
37
Component Material Balance:
zf F = xd D + xs S (5.39)
n-butanal balance is given as;
75.29 = 0.013D + 0.988S (5.40)
From equation 5.37
S = 94.52 − D (5.41)
74.29 = 0.013D + 0.988(94.52 − D) (5.42)
74.29 = 0.013D + 93.39 − 0.988D (5.43)
74.29 − 93.39 = 0.013D − 0.988D (5.44)
19.10
D = 0.975 = 18.56kmol/hr (5.45)
From equation 5.41,
S = 94.52 − 18.56 = 75.96kmol/hr (5.46)
n-butanal = 0.013 X 18.56kmol/hr = 0.24kmol/hr (5.47)
i-butanal = 0.987 X 18.56kmol/hr = 18.32kmol/hr (5.48)
n-butanal = 0.988 X 75.96kmol/hr =75.05kmol/hr (5.49)
38
Table 5.4: Summary of the material balance around the Distillation Column III
OUTPUT
Components INPUT
Distillate Product Bottom Product
i-butanal 19.23kmol/hr 18.32kmol/hr 0.91kmol/hr
n-butanal 75.29kmol/hr 0.24kmol/hr 75.05kmol/hr
18.56kmol/hr 75.96kmol/hr
5.9 Aldol Condensation Reactor
From our assumption made earlier, conversion in the reactor is 90% and we calculated n-
butanal feed to the reactor to equal 75.05kmol/hr
Considering both reactors as one unit
n-butanal = 2-ethylhexenal = Qkmol/hr

75.05kmol/hr
Figure 5.6: Aldol Condensation Reactor
Reaction Scheme
2CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CHO → CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH = C(CH2 − CH3 ) − CHO + H2 O
Amount of n-butanal converted = 0.9 × 75.05 = 67.55kmol/hr (5.51)
From stoichiometric equation, 2mols of n-butanal produces 1mol of 2-ethylhexenal and 1mol of
water. Therefore, amount of 2-ethylhexenal (Q) produced is;
39
67.55
𝑄= (5.52)
2
= 33.78kmol/hr
The side stream = water + Unreacted n − butanal + unreacted i-butanal
= 33.78 + (0.1 × 75.06) + 0.91 = 42.19kmol/hr (5.53)
Table 5.5: Summary of the material balance around the aldol reactor
2-ethylhexenal 33.78kmol/hr
H2 O 33.78kmol/hr
5.10 Hydrogenation Chamber
Feed into the hydrogenation unit is the 2-ethylhexenal product from the dehydration
chamber which is the same as produced in the aldol reactor = 35.96kmol/hr
Equation of Reaction
H H
C8 H14 O → C8 H16 O → C8 H18 O
Ni
C8 H14 O + 4H → C8 H18 O
By stoichiometry: 1 kmol/hr of 2-ethylhexenal produces 1 mole of 2-ethylhexanol
2-etylhexanol produced (Q3) = 0.99 × 33.78 = 33.44Kmol/hr (5.54)
Amount of Hydrogen required in the excess of 100% is;
From the stoichiometry equation: 1 mole of 2-ethylhexenal require 4 moles of Hydrogen
40
4×33.78
33.78Kmol/hr of 2-ethylhexanal require = = 135.12kmol/hr (5.55)
1
2-ethylhexenal 2-ethylhexanol
H2
Figure 5.7: The Hydrogenation Chamber
Table 5.6: Summary of the material balance around the Hydrogenation Chamber
2-ethylhexenal 33.78kmol/hr 33.78kmol/hr
2-ethylhexanol 33.44kmol/hr
H2 135.12kmol/hr 135.12kmol/hr
5.11 Scale Up
Scaling up the result of material balance using the information below;
Scaling up the result of material balance using the information below;
Production required: 1,000tons/yr = 1.0 × 103 kg/yr
Molecular weight of 2-ethylhexanol = 130.23kg/kmol
Operating period = 8000hours
kg
1.0×103
yr
kmol/hr of 2-ethylhexanol = hrs kg = 9.598 Kmol/hr (5.56)
8000 ×130.23
yr kmol
Amount of Propylene required is given as; Z kmol/hr
105.4kmol 33.44kmol
of Propylene → of 2 − ethylhexanol
hr hr
41
Zkmol 9.598kmol
of propylene → of 2 − ethylhexanol
hr hr
105.4×9.598
Z= (5.57)
33.44
Z = 30.252 Kmol/hr (5.58)
Amount of synthesis gas required is given as Y kmol/hr, feed ratio of syngas to propylene is 2:1.
Therefore,
Y = 2 × Z, = 2 × 30.252 (5.59)
Y = 60.504 kmol/hr
Let the ratio of H2 to CO in the synthesis gas be 1:1
Then, the amount of CO required
1
= 2 × 60.504 = 30.252 Kmol/hr (5.60)
Then, the amount of H2 required = 30.252 Kmol/hr
Assuming catalyst concentration is 1wt%
Let the amount of catalyst present be W kg/hr
weigth of catalyst
= concentration of catalyst (5.61)
weight of reactant
W
(30.252×42)+(30.252×28)+(30.252×2)+W
= 0.01 (5.62)
Amount of catalyst required = 22.001 kg/hr
5
Unreacted propylene is 5% of propylene; 100 × 30.252 = 1.513 kmol/hr (5.63)
Off gas= Y − Z, 60.504 − 30.252 = 30.252kmol/hr (5.64)
Amount of butanal (n-butanal and i-butanal) produced = conversion of propylene
= 0.95 × 30.252 = 28.739kmol/hr (5.65)
42
4
n-butanal = 5 × 28.739 = 22.991 kmol/hr (5.66)
1
i-butanal = 5 × 28.739 = 5.748 kmol/hr (5.67)
Since 6% and 4% of n-butanal and i-butanal is converted to n-butanol and i-butanol respectively
n-butanol formed = 0.06 × 22.991 = 1.379kmol/hr (5.68)
i-butanol formed = 0.04 × 5.748 = 0.229 kmol/hr (5.69)
New Amount of n-butanal = 22.991 − 1.379 = 21.612kmol/hr (5.70)
New Amount of i-butanal = 5.748 − 0.229 = 5.519kmol/hr (5.71)

Propylene =
30.252kmol/hr n-butanol = 1.379kmol/hr
Synthesis gas= i-butanol = 0.229kmol/hr
60.504kmol/hr
Figure 5.9: The Oxo Reactor
43
Table 5.7: Summary of material balance around the Oxo Reactor
n-butanol - 1.379kmol/hr
i-butanol - 0.229kmol/hr
n-butanal - 21.612kmol/hr
i-butanal - 5.519kmol/hr
5.11.1 Stripping Column
In the stripping column the unreacted propylene is stripped by the excess synthesis gas
and it is returned back to the Oxo reactor.
Unreacted Propylene = 1.513kmol/hr
Excess Synthesis Gas =60.504kmol/hr

44
Figure 5.10: The Stripping Column
Table 5.8: Summary of material balance around the Stripping Column
5.11.2 Distillation Column I (Alcohol Distillation Column)
The mixture from the oxo reactor passes to a Distillation Column which gives a top
product of mixed butyraldehyde and a bottom product containing the high boiling substances.
Therefore, F is the feed entering the column containing mixture of aldehyde and alcohol. Since
all the product from the stripper (containing n-butanal, i-butanal, n-butanol, i-butanol) enters the
column 1, then F = 28.739kmol/hr
45
Feed= 28.739kmol/hr
Distillate Product
Bottoms Product
Figure 5.11: The Distillation Colum I
Table 5.9: Summary of the material balance around the Distillation Column I
46
5.11.3 Distillation Column II (Butanal Distillation Column)
The entire distillate product from column 1 enters column 2 as feed. Therefore, F =
27.131kmol/hr Assumption: form literature, the top product of the distillation column contains
1.3mole% of n-butanal and the balance being i-butanal while the bottoms product contains
98.8mole% of n-butanal and the balance being i-butanal.
Feed= 27.131kmol/hr Distillate product
n-butanal = n-butanal = 1.3mol%

21.612kmol/hr
i-butanal=98.7mol%
i-butanal =
5.519kmol/hr
Bottom product
i-butanal = 1.2mol%
Figure 5.12: The Distillation Colum II n-butanal=98.8mol%
Overall Material Balance:
F= D+S (5.72)
27.131 = D + S (5.73)
47
Component Material Balance:
zf F = xd D + xs S (5.74)
n-butanal balance is given as;
21.612 = 0.013D + 0.988S (5.75)
From equation
S = 27.131 − D (5.76)
21.612 = 0.013D + 0.988(27.131 − D) (5.77)
21.612 = 0.013D + 26.805 − 0.988D (5.78)
21.612 − 26.805 = 0.013D − 0.988D (5.79)
5.193
D = 0.975 = 7.326kmol/hr (5.80)
From equation 5.76,
S = 27.131 − 7.326 = 19.805kmol/hr (5.81)
n-butanal = 0.013 X 7.326kmol/hr = 0.095kmol/hr (5.82)
n-butanal = 0.988 X 19.805kmol/hr =19.567kmol/hr (5.83)
i-butanal = 0.012 X 19.805kmol/hr =0.238kmol/hr (5.84)
48
Table 5.10: Summary of the material balance around the Distillation Column II
OUTPUT
Components INPUT
Distillate Product Bottom Product
i-butanal 5.519kmol/hr 7.231kmol/hr 0.238kmol/hr
n-butanal 21.612kmol/hr 0.095kmol/hr 19.567kmol/hr
7.326kmol/hr 19.805kmol/hr
5.11.4 Aldol reactor
From our assumption made earlier, conversion in the reactor is 90% and we calculated n-
butanal feed to the reactor to equal 19.567kmol/hr
Considering both reactors as one unit
n-butanal = 2-ethylhexenal = Qkmol/hr

19.567kmol/hr
Figure 5.13: Aldol Condensation Reactor
Reaction Scheme
2CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CHO → CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH = C(CH2 − CH3 ) − CHO + H2 O
Amount of n-butanal converted = 0.9 × 19.567 = 17.610kmol/hr (5.85)
From stoichiometric equation, 2mols of n-butanal produces 1mol of 2-ethylhexenal and 1mol of
water. Therefore, amount of 2-ethylhexenal (Q) produced is;
49
17.610
𝑄= (5.86)
2
= 8.805kmol/hr
The side stream = water + Unreacted n − butanal + unreacted i-butanal
= 8.805 + (0.1 × 19.567) + 0.238 = 10.999kmol/hr (5.87)
Table 5.11: Summary of the material balance around the aldol reactor
2-ethylhexenal 8.805kmol/hr
H2 O 8.805kmol/hr
5.11.5 Hydrogenation Chamber
Feed into the hydrogenation unit is the 2-ethylhexenal product from the dehydration
chamber which is the same as produced in the aldol reactor = 8.805kmol/hr
Equation of Reaction
H H
C8 H14 O → C8 H16 O → C8 H18 O
Ni
C8 H14 O + 4H → C8 H18 O
By stoichiometry: 1 kmol/hr of 2-ethylhexenal produces 1 mole of 2-ethylhexanol
2-etylhexanol produced (Q3) = 0.99 × 8.805 = 8.717Kmol/hr (5.88)
Amount of Hydrogen required in the excess of 100% is;
50
From the stoichiometry equation: 1 mole of 2-ethylhexenal require 4 mole of Hydrogen
4×8.805
8.805Kmol/hr of 2-ethylhexanal require = = 35.220kmol/hr (5.89)
1
2-ethylhexenal 2-ethylhexanol
H2
Figure 5.14: The Hydrogenation Chamber
Table 5.12: Summary of the material balance around the Hydrogenation Chamber
2-ethylhexenal 8.805kmol/hr 0.088kmol/hr
2-ethylhexanol 8.717kmol/hr
H2 35.220kmol/hr 35.220kmol/hr
51
CHAPTER SIX
ENERGY BALANCE
6.1 Concept of Energy Balance
Energy balance is another fundamental concept in chemical engineering that involves keeping
track of the flow and transformation of energy within a process, to ensure that the input and
output of energy are balanced. This is important in the design, optimization, and operation of
chemical processes, as it helps to ensure that the energy requirements of the process are met, and
that the process operates safely and efficiently.
To perform an energy balance, the input and output of energy must be measured or estimated,
and then compared to determine if the flows are balanced. The balance equation is typically
expressed as:
Input Energy = Output Energy + Energy Accumulation
where the input energy represents the amount of energy entering the system, the output energy
represents the amount of energy leaving the system, and the energy accumulation represents the
change in the energy inventory within the system.
In a chemical process, the energy balance can be performed for different forms of energy, such
as thermal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, and electrical energy. By tracking the flow
and transformation of energy, the energy balance can help to identify areas of the process that
may require optimization, such as reducing energy consumption, improving process efficiency,
or recovering waste heat.
The energy balance also plays an important role in process design and scale-up, as it provides a
basis for selecting utilities and sizing process equipment. For example, by performing an energy
balance, the required size of a heat exchanger or a pump can be estimated, based on the input and
output energy flows and the thermodynamic properties of the fluids.
52
Overall, energy balance is a key concept in chemical engineering, as it helps to ensure that
chemical processes are designed, optimized, and operated safely and efficiently, with minimum
energy consumption and cost. It is important for chemical engineers to have a thorough
understanding of energy balance principles and methods, in order to develop sustainable and
cost-effective chemical processes.
6.2 Mechanical Energy Balances
In chemical process units such as reactors, distillation columns, evaporation, and heat
exchangers, shaft work and kinetic and potential energy changes tend to be negligible compared
with heat flows and internal energy and enthalpy changes. Energy balances on such units
therefore usually units the former terms and so take the simple;
Form Q = ∆U (close system)
(6.1)
Q =∆H (open system) Ws (6.2)
The open system energy balance
∆𝑃 ∆𝑈 2 𝑄 −𝑤𝑠
+ + 𝑔∆𝑍 + (∆𝑈 − 𝑚) = (6.3)
𝜌 2 𝑚
Where;
Ws = shaft work done by the fluid on moving elements in the process line
∆U - Q/m = frictions loss and it’s given the symbol F
∆P = change in pressure
ℓ = density of the liquid
∆U = change in internal energy
Heat to Raise Temperature (Q raise)
This is the heat required to increase the temperature of the system to operating temperature.
53
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝑀𝑖 𝐶𝑃𝑖 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖) (6.4)
Some of the data below were given while some were obtained from literatures
i. Temperature of propylene at vaporiser outlet = 373K
ii. Temperature of oxo reactor = 423K
iii. Operating pressure of oxo reactor = 350bars
iv. Operating temperature of aldol reactor = 10bars
v. Temperature of condenser effluent = 365.55K
vi. Heat capacity of propylene, Cpp = 70 × 103 J/kmolK
vii. Heat capacity of synthesis gas, Cps = 30 × 103 J/kmolK
viii. Heat capacity of reacted synthesis gas, Cprs = 125 × 103 J/kmolK
ix. Heat capacity of feed into distillation column 2, Cpfd= 120 × 103 J/kmolK
x. Latent heat of distillate (column 1), 𝐿 = 3.2 × 107 J/kmolK
xi. Heat capacity of water, Cpw= 74.3 × 103 J/kmolK
Assumptions:
Reference temperature (TR) is taken as 30°C= 303K
Steady state is assumed for the process, therefore, accumulation as zero.
6.3 Propylene Vapourizer
There is a heater used to heat propylene to 100°C
heat in (Q1 ) = heat out
Q1 = Mp Cpp ∆T (6.5)
54
60.504kmol 60.504
Mp = = = 0.0168kmol/s
hr 3600
Specific heat of propylene
Cpp = 70 × 103 J/kmolK
∆T = 373 − 303 = 70K
Q1 = 0.0168 × 70 × 103 × 70 = 82,320J/s
The amount of heat that must be supplied into the vapouriser is
82.32KJ/s.
6.4 Oxo Reactor
It will be assumed that the reactor feed temperature TF is equal to the reference temperature TR
Heat In + Heat Generation = Heat Out + Heat Accumulation
Accumulation term = 0
since TF = TR then ∆TR = 0
equation 6.1 reduces to Heat Generation = Heat Out
Heat Generation = Mpc × ∆HR
Mpc = mass rate of propylene converted = mass rate of butanal formed = 0.95 × Mpc
Mpc = MB = 0.95 × 0.0168 = 0.0159 kmol/s
136.7KJ
∆H𝑅 (heat of reaction) = − = −136.7 × 103 J/kmol
mol
55
heat of generation = 0.01686 × −136.7 × 103 = −2.296 × 103 J/s
In the oxo reactor, −2.296 × 103 J/s of heat is generated.
Heat Out = Heat by butanal formation + Heat by off gas - Heat by water circulation
Heat Out = MB × CpB × ∆T(P−F) + Moffgas × Cps × ∆T(P−F) − Mw × Cpw × ∆(T° − TR1 )
Heat of butanal = 0.0159 × 125 × 103 × (423 − 373)
= 99,375W = 99.375KW
Heat of off gas = 0.0168 × 30 × 103 × (423 − 373)
= 25,200J/s = 25.2KW
Water enters at 30°C and leaves at 45°C, inlet and outlet temperature of water is 303°C are
318°C respectively.
Specific heat of water = 74.7× 103 J/kmol
Heat of water circulation = MW × 74.7 × 103 × (318 − 303) = 1120500MW J/s
Heat out = 700 + 177 − 1120.5MW
= 877 − 1120.5MW
From equation (i), Heat Generated = Heat Loss
−2.296 × 103 = 877 − 1120.5MW
−2.296 × 103 − 877 = −1120.5MW
56
−1.419×103
MW = = 1.266kmol/s
−1120.5
Molar mass of H2O = 18Kg/Kmol
mass of water circulated = 1.266 × 18 = 22.788Kg/s
The amount of water to be re-circulated is 20.492Kg/s.
6.5 Condenser
Condenser is required to cool/condense the product from the reactor for 150°C to about 92.55°C.
Q3 = MFD × CpFD × ∆T (6.6)
MFD is the mass flowrate of n-butanal and i-butanal fed to the Distillation Column =
28.739kmol/hr
28.739
MFD = = 0.0079831kmol/hr
3600
CpFD = 120 × 103
∆T = 423 − 365.55 = 57.45k
Q3 = 0.0079831 × 120 × 103 × 57.45 = 55.035KJ/s
6.6 Reboiler in the Distillation Column 1
Q 4 = MR × L (6.7)
MR, mass of bottom product = 5.61kmol/hr = 0.0015583kmol/s
L= latent heat of bottom =3.2 × 107 J/kmol
Q4 = 0.0015583 × 3.2 × 107 = 49.866KJ/s
57
6.7 Condenser In Distillation Column 2
Q 5 = MD × L (6.8)
MD, is the mass of distillate = 18.56kmol/hr = 0.00516kmol/s
L, latent heat of distillate = 3.2 × 107 J/kmol
Q5 = 0.00516 × 3.2 × 107 = 164.9KJ/s
To condense the top product, 164.9KJ/s of heat must be removed.
6.8 2-Ethylhexenal Vaporizer
Q 6 = ME × L (6.9)
ME is the flowrate of 2-ethylhexenal fed into the vapouriser = 8.805kmol/hr = 0.002446kmol/s
L, latent heat of vaporisations of 2-ethylhexenal = 4.3 × 107 J/kmol
Q6 = 0.002446 × 4.3 × 107 = 105.185KJ/s
6.9 Condenser on Final Column 2 For 2-Ethylhexanol Recovery
Q 7 = MH × L . (6.10)
MH, flowrate of 2-ethylhexanol product = 8.717kmol/hr = 0.0024214kmol/s
L, latent heat of vaporisation of 2-ethylhexanol at 184°C = 50.66 × 107 J/kmol
Q7 = 0.0024214 × 50.66 × 106 = 122.667KJ/s
This implies 122.667KW of heat must be remove to condense the distillate
58
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION
The location and site selection of a chemical plant are critical decisions that can significantly
affect the plant's success and profitability. Among other things, Plants and machinery must be
designed, so that the operations of the production process can be operated smoothly, efficiently,
and effectively from one stage to the next in order to create an objective process of change. Here,
we will discuss the factors that need to be considered while selecting the location for the design
of a 1,000 tons of herbicide (2-ethylhexanol) per annum plant from propylene and synthesis gas.
7.1 Factors affecting Plant Location and Site Selection
(i) Raw materials Availability.

(ii) Transportation and Logistics
(iii) Energy Availability and Cost
(iv) Environmental Regulations and Safety
(v) Environmental Regulations and Safety
(vi) Workforce Availability and Skills
(vii) Availability of labour.
(viii) Environmental impact and Effluents disposed.
7.2 Factors considered during the design project
(i) Raw Materials Availability

Availability of raw materials is a crucial factor in determining the plant's location. The primary
raw materials for the proposed herbicide plant are propylene and synthesis gas. Therefore, the
plant should be located in an area where these raw materials are readily available. A nearby
petrochemical plant or a gas processing facility can be a potential source of raw materials.
Transportation and Logistics
Transportation costs significantly impact the overall cost of the product. Hence, the plant should
be located in an area with excellent transportation infrastructure to reduce transportation costs. A
59
location with easy access to major highways, railroads, ports, and airports will ensure efficient
transportation of raw materials, finished products, and other supplies.
Energy Availability and Cost
The herbicide plant will require a significant amount of energy to run the process. Therefore, a
reliable and affordable source of energy is necessary. The plant should be located in an area with
access to a reliable and cheap source of energy, such as natural gas, electricity, or steam.
Environmental Regulations and Safety
Environmental regulations and safety considerations are critical factors to be considered while
selecting the site. The plant should be located in an area that complies with all relevant
environmental regulations and safety standards. The proximity to residential areas, water bodies,
and other sensitive areas should be avoided.
Workforce Availability and Skills
The availability of skilled and experienced workers is essential for the successful operation of the
plant. The location should have a sufficient pool of trained and qualified workers with the
required skills and expertise. The presence of technical colleges, universities, and training
centers nearby can also be advantageous.
Availability of utilities.
a) Water: Water is needed for both industrial and general purposes. Water is needed for many
operations in the plant. Therefore, the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable
quality. Processed water may be drawn from a steam, pond or river or from a bore-hole or
well. If the water shows seasonal fluctuations, it is desirable to construct reservoir or drill
several well stand.
b) Electricity: Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is
ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Electrical power will be needed at all sites for
illumination, pumps and compressors, and control panel hardware, power, fuel and steam are
required for running the equipment such as generators, motors turbines, plant light and
general use.
60
Climate
Adverse climate condition conditions at the site will increase cost. Abnormally low temperature
will require additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe runs.
7.3 Site Layout
A well-designed site layout can significantly impact the efficiency and safety of a chemical
plant's operations. In the case of the design of a 1,000-ton herbicide plant, the site layout must be
carefully planned to ensure optimal workflow and safety. The site layout plays a crucial role in
ensuring the smooth and safe operation of the plant. The layout should be designed in such a way
that it maximizes the utilization of space while providing adequate access to equipment and
utilities.
Buildings and services required in a plant are as follows.
i. The administration building

ii. Research and development laboratory
iii. Quality control centre
iv. Engineering workshop
v. Storage tank
vi. Warehousing or spare parts storage
vii. Utilities
viii. Warehousing or spare parts storage
ix. Fire station
x. Waste water treatment plant
xi. Guard house
xii. Employee base facilities
xiii. Car park
The first step in site layout design is to evaluate the topography and geology of the site. The site
should be relatively flat and have stable soil and bedrock to ensure a solid foundation for the
plant's structures and equipment. The site should also be free from natural hazards such as
flooding, landslides, and earthquakes. Once the site's suitability has been established, the next
61
step is to determine the plant's various functional areas, such as the production area, storage area,
utilities area, and administrative area. These areas should be separated by sufficient distance to
prevent accidents and minimize the risk of contamination.
The administration building should contain offices, conference rooms, restrooms, a cafeteria, and
other necessary amenities. The design of the building should take into consideration the needs of
the staff and should provide a conducive environment for work and collaboration.
The research and development (R&D) laboratory is an essential component of the chemical
plant. The R&D laboratory is responsible for developing new products, improving existing
products, and conducting research on the production process. The laboratory should be equipped
with the necessary equipment and facilities to carry out these tasks.
The laboratory should be designed in such a way that it provides a safe and controlled
environment for experimentation. The design of the laboratory should take into consideration the
potential hazards associated with the chemicals and equipment used in the experimentation
process. The laboratory should be located in a convenient location within the plant site and
should be easily accessible to the production facilities. The laboratory should also be equipped
with adequate storage facilities for chemicals and other materials used in the experimentation
process.
The production area is the heart of the plant, and it is where the herbicide is manufactured. It
should be located near the raw material storage area to minimize transportation time and costs.
The production area should also be designed to facilitate efficient workflow and minimize the
risk of cross-contamination between different stages of the manufacturing process.
The storage area is where the finished product, raw materials, and other supplies are stored. It
should be located near the production area to minimize transportation time and costs. The storage
area should also be designed to prevent spills and leaks and allow for easy access for inspection
and maintenance. The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and unloading
facilities and the process units they serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should
be sited at least 70 m (200 ft) from the sited boundary.
62
The utilities area is where the various utilities required for the plant's operations are located.
These include power supply, water supply, and waste treatment facilities. The utilities area
should be located away from the production and storage areas to minimize the risk of
contamination. Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and
from the process units.
The traffic flow within the plant is another critical factor to consider when designing the site
layout. The traffic flow should be designed in such a way that it minimizes the risk of accidents
and maximizes the efficiency of the plant. The layout should also consider the transportation of
materials to and from the plant.
Safety is the top priority in the design of a chemical plant site layout. The layout should ensure
that there is adequate separation between hazardous and non-hazardous areas. The layout should
also provide for easy access to emergency exits, fire extinguishers, and other safety equipment.
The layout should take into consideration the potential hazards associated with the production
process and the materials used.
The siting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys and
drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction, and for operation and
maintenance.
7.4 Plant layout.
After the process flow diagram (PFD) is completed and before detailed piping,
instrumentation and mechanical design can begin, the layout of the process units in a plant and
equipment within these process units must be planned: the layout are to play an important role in
determining construction and manufacturing cost and thus, should be done carefully with
attention being given to future problems that may arise. Thus, the economic construction and
efficient operation of all process units will depend on how well plant equipment specified on the
process flow sheet is laid out.
63
The principal factors usually considered
Economical consideration and operation cost
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run pipe
connection between equipment and the least amounting structural steel work. However, this will
not necessarily be the arrangement for operation and maintenance.
Waste disposal requirements
In a plant layout, the permissible tolerance level for various wastes should be considered
and attention should be given to potential requirement for additional waste treatment facilities.
As all industrial processes produce waste production, full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered
by legal regulation and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey
to determine the standard that must be met.
Convenience of maintenance
Vessels that are frequently accessed for replacement of the catalyst or packing should be
located on the outside of the building. Equipment that requires maintenance monthly should be
placed under cover.
Convenience of operation
Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be located in the control room.
Valves, sample parks and instrumentation should be located and convenient position and height
sufficient working space and head rooms must be provided to allow easy access to equipment.
Health and safety consideration
Blast wells may be needed to evaluate potentially hazardous equipment and confute the
effect of an explosion. At least, two escape or exit routes for operation must be provided for each
level in the process building.
64
Modular construction
In recent years, there has been a more to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturing site. These modules are then transported to the plant site by road or sea. The
advantages of modular construction are:
a) Improved quality control
b) Reduced construction cost
c) Less need for skilled labour or site
d) Less need for skilled personnel
Some disadvantages include:
a) Higher design cost
b) More structural steel work
c) Moe flanged connections
d) Possible problems with assembly on site
In conclusion, the site layout plays a crucial role in the successful operation of a chemical plant.
The layout should be designed in such a way that it maximizes the utilization of space while
providing easy access to equipment and utilities. Safety should be the top priority in the design
of the site layout. A well-designed site layout can help ensure the smooth and safe operation of
the plant, leading to increased efficiency and profitability.
65
CHAPTER EIGHT
DESIGN SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL
These are general safety precautions that should be taken in handling equipment and
materials.
The safety in the design of equipment is very essential. Materials of construction of

equipment must be that suits the intended materials to be handled as well as the
operating conditions to which it would be subjected. Safety devices such as pressure relief
valves, emergency shutdown buttons, automatic shutdown systems and fittings such as
pressure gauges, thermometers, flow meters, etc, must be installed. Sodium hydroxide tank
must be kept sealed and protected from undue handling due to its toxicity.
Safety in the Reaction Section
Most reactions in the oxo reactors are exothermic. Therefore, adequate care needs to be
taken. The following precautions are to be adapted.
i. The oxo reactors must be at an angle of 45o to one another and must be connected in
series.
ii. Recycled streams to the reactors must be properly passed to avoid turbulent mixing
with the synthesis gas and propylene.
iii. Provision of high temperature alarms and interlocks to shutdown reactor feeds, if the
temperature exceeds critical limits.
iv. The oxo reactors should be fitted even after shutdown with cooling systems as heat
continues to be generated Reactors must be checked daily to identify any corrosion
occurrence.
Safety in Storage
Tanks The materials of construction for storage tank must be such that totally resist
corrosion. Therefore, construction materials must be checked with scrutiny. This also
66
depend on the nature and the characteristics of the material that is to be stored as well as
the operating conditions of the storage tanks such as temperature and pressure. Accidents
that result from storage tanks can be prevented using the following precautions: i. Catalyst
tank (cobalt carbonyl) must be kept sealed at room temperature to avoid contamination of
any sort.
Safety in the Purifier and Vaporizer
The adsorbent (Fe2O3) used to be kept active, and must be replaced or regenerated after their
contacting surfaces become inactive for adsorption of impurities and on the durability of the
adsorbents, it must be replaced within set period of time. Secondly, the vaporiser temperature
must be greater than that of the input stream to it and also the heating element of the vaporiser is
to be kept at the required heating temperature always
Safety in Distillation Column
The following safety measures must be put into consideration when dealing the
distillation column. They include:
i. If the problems of efficiency in the distillation columns are encountered, experts

should be consulted and not unduly tampered with.
ii. The top products of the distillation columns are highly volatile and therefore should
be carefully monitored by ensuring that the condensers are in good working conditions
with adequate supplies of cooling water.
iii. Valves linking distillation columns to one another must be tightly fitted to avoid
leakages.
Iv. Impurities should be avoided from contaminating the streams entering the distillation
columns as impurities tend to increase the boiling points of component materials thereby
reducing conversion efficiency.
67
Plant and Equipment Layout
i. Adequate water supplies, electrical power sources, and roadways should be available at the
plant location.
ii. Population centres should be avoided.
iii. Climate and natural hazards should be evaluated. iv. Equipment should be adequately
spaced. When possible, the equipment should be located in a grid-type pattern.
v. Offices, laboratories, cafeteria, storage, loading, and transportation facilities should all be
located on the periphery of the plant site.
vi. Fire protection equipment should be readily available at all locations within the plant
Pollution Control
Pollution are in various forms, where one predominant over others, while in environment
pollution in terms of water and air pollution are less predominant in a 2-ethylhexanol plant.
Implementation of a cleaner production processes and pollution prevention measures can provide
both economic and environmental benefits. Pollution is terms the release of something
undesirable to the environment. By ‘’undesirable’’ that is either harmful or unpleasant to some
person, place, or thing. Although 2-ethylhexanol has been commercially produced over a long
period there have been no reports of injurious or harmful occurrences.
The following values are given in the Literature.
LD50 oral, rat & mice > 3200 mg/kg
LD50 oral muscle 3200mg/kg
LD50 skin rabbit 2380mg/kg
No TLV values are given for 2ethylhexanol
68
The inhalation toxicity is low (no death after 6 hours exposure to 235 ppm 2in air to rats).
Special measures are unnecessary with 2 Special measures are unnecessary with
2ethylhexanol although larger skin contact & moistening of mucous membranes should be
arrested (protective goggles, protective gloves, etc.). Application in the cosmetic sector is
therefore inadvisable. The Oxo process presents no significant pollution problems. All
byproducts off gas, low boiling and high boiling liquids can be easily used as fuel to
recover their calorific value. The separation of the cobalt in the catalyst system has been
improved so much in the recent years that the catalyst loss in the effluents is
considerably reduced. The wastewater c an be treated without any difficulties to meet
requirements of local authorities. The effluent problem is different for the aldehyde route.
Large quantities of effluent water are released in the single step process but these can be
treated biologically or c an be treated for reuse with the aid of suitable additional
equipment. In the case of the two step process, small quantities of effluent contain a
relatively large quantity of solids. It is advisable to incinerate part of the effluent stream
with chlorinated by-product’s where large plants are concerned. The tail gas from the
single step process can be burnt in a flare whereas the tail gas from the two step process
is very diluted and can be discharged into the atmosphere without further treatment. The
manufacture of plasticizer alcohols, from a raw materials viewpoint, remains unaltered even
after the oil crisis. 2 ethylhexanol offers the possibility of production from widely
different raw materials and should be of prime interest in developing countries .
Water Pollution Control
All liquid effluent discharges must be adequately treated with neutralisers before disposing
off into the surrounding water bodies. Every liquid effluent must be tested to ascertain
levels of purity. Toxic liquid discharges are harmful to human and aquatic life.
69
Air Pollution Control
Toxic gases must be purified before releasing them into the atmosphere. This is because this
act can lead to air poisoning, a situation that can endanger human and animal lives. All
exhaust (for gases) must be fitted with air analysers to determine the quantities of their
exhaust. A gas scrubber would be needed for purification.
Noise Pollution Control
Noise in the plant is usually caused primarily from the rotating axis of machines such as
motors, compressors, pumps etc. High velocity flow of fluids through valves, nozzles,
pipes and conduits also contribute to the general noise level within a plant. Noise level
can be however controlled by insulating the enclosed equipment and adding murphlers or
silencer at stream exits. Noise pollution in the Eleme location suggested would be
minimised to the barest minimum as the site is located far away from residential houses.
Hazards
Hazards are potential threats that can cause an accident or incidence. The method used for
identifying and dealing with potential problems in the industry (industrial processes) is
called HAZOP. It is said to be the most widely used hazards analysis in process
industries notably the chemical, petro chemical and nuclear industries.
i. Handling 2-EH according to DOW chemical industry is not considered a chemical

when carefully handled but there are some exceptions.
ii. 2-EH has volatility and slightly soluble in water. It has a nominal tendency to bind or
soil or sediment.
iii . 2-EH as moderate probability to accumulate in the food chain (bi concentration potential
is moderate and slightly harmful to fish and other aquatic organisms on acute basis.
70
Health Effect
2-EH is considered to be following can be considered. practically non-harmful in all

exposure route.
i. Eye: May cause severe eye irritation or corneal injury.

ii. Skin: Prolonged contact may cause moderate skin irritation with local redress.
iii. Inhalation: Prolonged excessive exposure may cause adverse effect including
respiratory irritation and central nervous system depression.
iv. Ingestion: This material has low toxicity if swallowed. However, swallowing larger
amount may cause injures.
Safety Measures
First Aid Measures
i. Eye contacts: Quickly and gently wash and brush the chemical off the face.
ii. Skin contact: No health effects expected. If irritation does occur, flush with
lukewarm gently flowing water for 5 minutes if irritation persist, obtain medical
advice.
iii.Inhalation: Remove victim from exposure area to fresh air immediately. If the
breathing has stopped, trained personnel should begin artificial respiration.
Iv. Ingestion: Never give anything by mouth if victim is rapidly losing consciousness or
convulsion, have victim rinse mouth thoroughly with water.
Fire Fighting Measures

Use of any means of extinction appropriate for the surrounding fire condition such as
water spray, carbon monoxide, dry chemical or foam. Cool any container that are
exposed to heat or flames by the application of water stream until well after the fire has
been extinguished.
71
Handling and Storage
Storage should be done in a dry, cool, well-ventilated area. Avoid contact with the skin and
eyes. Do not inhale the gas, use nose/face mask or guard. Refrain from eating, drinking or
smoking in work areas. Thoroughly wash hands before eating, drinking or smoking in
appropriate designated areas. Finally, keep out of reach of children.
Exposure Conditions and Personal Protection
These measures can be done in the following ways:
i. Protective Clothing: A filtering face piece dust mask is recommended for most
applications, if respiratory protection is needed. Where skin and eye may occur as a
result of brief exposure, wear long sleeve overall laboratory coat (clothings).
ii. Ventilation: Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilations or other engineering
controls to keep airborne below recommended exposure units. If users’ operation
generate dust, use ventilation to keep exposure contaminants below the exposure
limit.
iii. Respiratory protection: Where dust or fumes are generated and can’t be controlled,
respiratory protection are recommended.
Dispersal of Waste Gases
Do not wash down drain. Recover and place material in a suitable container for
intended use or disposal. Finally ensure disposal complies with government
requirement and local regulations
72
CHAPTER NINE
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
The equipment design of a 1000-ton per annum capacity 2-ethylhexanol plant is critical to
ensuring the safe and efficient operation of the plant. The equipment used in the plant must be
designed to withstand the high temperatures and pressures required for the oxo process, as well
as the corrosion and other challenges associated with the chemicals involved in the process.
The equipment used in the plant can include reactors, distillation columns, heat exchangers,
pumps, compressors, and other components. Each of these components must be carefully
selected and designed to ensure that they meet the specific requirements of the process, including
pressure, temperature, and flow rates. Considerations such as the materials used in construction,
the size and shape of the equipment, and the operation and maintenance requirements must also
be carefully evaluated.
In addition to the design of the individual components, the overall layout and configuration of
the plant is also critical to ensuring safe and efficient operation. The layout must be designed to
facilitate the movement of materials and equipment throughout the process, while also ensuring
that there is sufficient space for workers to safely operate and maintain the equipment.
Overall, the equipment design of a 1000-ton per annum capacity 2-ethylhexanol plant is a
complex process that requires careful consideration of a wide range of factors. The design must
be carefully planned and executed to ensure that the plant is safe, efficient, and cost-effective
over the long term.
9.1 REACTOR DESIGN
The most crucial components of a chemical process are chemical reactors. A reactor is a piece of
machinery used to transform raw materials into finished goods. While choosing chemical
reactors for certain purposes, a number of criteria are taken into account. The chemical engineer
must select the reactor that will generate the best yields and purity, limit pollution, and optimize
profit in addition to considering economic expenses. Reactors are often chosen based on their
73
ability to fulfil the demands placed on them by the reaction mechanisms, rate expressions, and
needed production capacity. Reaction heat, reaction rate constant, heat transfer coefficient, and
reactor size are further important factors that must be established in order to select the best type
of reactor. The temperature of the heat transfer medium, the temperature of the intake reaction
mixture, the composition of the inlet, and the instantaneous temperature of the reaction mixture
must all be determined. The output degree of conversion is a crucial aspect of reactor operation.
For the most economical operation, operating factors like temperature, pressure, and degree of
agitation are connected. Whether the process is batch or continuous, as well as if a combination
of reactor types or numerous reactors in series or parallel would be most appropriate, must all be
considered in order to determine the optimal reactor to satisfy the process requirements.
Determining whether the mode of operation is isothermal (i.e., constant temperature) or adiabatic
is also crucial (i.e., heat does not exchange with the surroundings).
Whether recycling is required to convert the raw feedstock to the requisite degree, or whether a
single pass process is best. The expense of separating the reaction mixture and adding the
unconverted reactant back into the process are both impacted by the degree of conversion.
Catalytic reactors operation is more critical because:
i. The catalysts are highly prone to deactivation.

ii. The catalysts often require regeneration after a relatively short period of operation. This
may incur additional cost.
iii. It is difficult to control the heat-transfer in the catalyst bed.
iv. Some part of the catalyst surface remains unused as a result of the reaction system and
the rate-controlling step.
v. Change in operating condition may cause the formation of undesired by products
9.2 Design of Distillation Column
Distillation is a separation technique in which the components of a fluid mixture are separate
dboiling points by heating the mixture. Greater the difference in boiling point or greater the
relative volatility, greater will be the ease of separation. It is easier to separate the components
when the relative volatility is greater than one. The feed to distillation column is a mixture of iso-
butanal and n-butanal. Whereas our required product is 98.8% n-butanal. So the required
74
separation is being brought about by distillation column. This process is accomplished by partial
vapourization and subsequent condensation which is used to separate a liquid mixture by
distilling the components, which have lower boiling points when they are in pure condition from
those having higher boiling points.
9.2.1 Types of Distillation Columns

There are two types of distillation columns.
i. Batch columns
ii. Continuous columns
Batch Columns
In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced in batches. That is after each batch is
charged in, the distillation process is carried out. When the desired task is achieved, a next batch
of feed is introduced and the operation continues.
Continuous Columns
In continuous columns, the process is a continuous feed stream. Here, feeds are charged in as the
process continues. They are more commonly used in contrast to the batch columns as they can
handle high throughputs.
9.3 Types of Trays

There are 3 Types of Trays
i. Valve tray
ii. Bubble Cap tray
iii. Sieve tray
75
Figure 9.1: Valve tray
Figure 9.2: Bubble tray
Figure 9.3: Sieve tray
76
Sieve Tray will be selected because of the following reasons:
a. High capacity
b. Not difficult to install
c. Light weight
d. Has low pressure drops
e. Easy to maintain
f. Affordable and cheap
g. Non complexity in design
9.4 Standard Design Steps for Distillation Column

i. Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio Rm
ii. Calculation of Actual number of stages.
iii. Calculation of Diameter of the column.
iv. Calculation of Weeping point.
v. Calculation of Pressure drop.
vi. Calculation of Entrainment.
vii. Calculation of the Height of the column
9.5 Selection Criteria of Trays

Four crucial criterions necessary for the selection of trays are.
i. Cost
ii.Capacity
iii.Operating range.
iv.Pressure drop
77
9.6 Columns
Trays/plates and packings also known as column intervals are used to aid in separation pof
various components within the column.
i. A reboiler aids in vapourization during the distillation process. The product removed from the
reboiler is known as bottom product.
ii. Condenser to cools the vapor leaving the at top of the column. The condensed product
removed at the top of the column is known as the distillate or top product.
iii. Reflux drums to hold the condensed vapor from the top of the column so that liquid (reflux)
can be recycled back to the column.
9.7 Factor affecting Distillation Column Operation

Vapor Flow Conditions
Adverse vapor flow conditions can cause:
1. Foaming
2. Entrainment
3. Weeping/dumping
4. Flooding
Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapor or gas. Although it provides
high interfacial liquid-vapor contact, excessive foaming often leads to liquid buildup on trays. It
could be so bad that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray thereby reducing separation
efficiency..
Entrainment
Entrainment is when liquid carried by vapor up to the tray above which is caused by high vapor
flow rates. It is detrimental because tray efficiency is reduced: It could also contaminate high
purity distillate. Excessive entrainment can lead to flooding.
78
Weeping/Dumping
Weeping is caused by low vapor flow. The vapour pressure is insufficient to hold up the liquid
on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to
dumping. Weeping is indicated by a sharp pressure drop in the column and reduced separation
efficiency.
Flooding
Flooding occurs when there is excessive vapor flow, causing liquid to be entrained in the vapor
up the column. Depending on the degree of flooding, the maximum capacity of the column may
be severely reduced. Flooding is detected by sharp increases in column differential pressure and
significant decrease in separation efficiency.
Table 9.1: Molar flow rate in distillation column
Feed (kmol/hr) output (kmol/hr)
Component Kmol/hr Top (D) Bottom (S) kmol

n-butanal 19.805 0.095 19.567
i-butanal 7.326 7.231 0.238
Feed
Table 9.2: Feed composition in distillation column
Component Molar flowrate (kmol/hr)

n-butanal 19.805
i-butanal 7.326
Total 27.131
79
Top product
Table 9.3: Top product composition in distillation column
Component Mass flowrate(kg/hr) Molar flowrate(kmol/hr)

n-butanal 73.55 0.0095
i-butanal 5556.57 7.231
Total 5630.12 7.326
Bottom product
Table 9.4: Bottom product composition in distillation column
Component Mass flowrate (kg/hr) Molar flowrate (kmol/hr)

n-butanal 23,287.68 19.567
i-butanal 282.66 0.238
23570.34 19.805
Mole fraction
Table 9.5: Mole fraction of feed in distillation column
Component Xf Xd XB
n-butanal 0.8 0.013 98.8
i-butanal 0.2 98.7 0.012
1.00 1.00 1.00
Process condition
Table 9.6: Process condition of distillation column
Temperature, K (0c) Pressure kPa

Feed 345.56(72.56) 280
Top 336(63.9) 260
80
Bottom 347(74.6) 300
Table 9.7: Table of the distillation column design

Parameters Values
Type of column tray column
Number of trays 54
Height of the column 55m
Diameter of column 3.95m
Tray spacing 0.72m
Flooding 80%
Materials of construction carbon steel
Hole diameter 5mm
Weir length 2.84m
Pressure drop 1.44kpa
Tray thickness 5mm
Active area 9.8m2
Reflux ratio 21.5
81
Mechanical Design of Distillation Column
The mechanical design of the column incorporates three main stages.

i. The first specification is for the materials of construction.
ii. The shell and head thickness must be chosen in order to withstand the operating conditions.
iii. Consideration of the construction and assembly.
Material of construction (MOC):
Given that the liquid and gas mixtures involved in the 2-ethylhexanol production process are not
corrosive and the column temperature remains below 400°C, carbon steel is an appropriate
material of construction for the equipment used in the plant. However, it is important to note that
carbon steel can still be susceptible to corrosion over time, which can impact the safety and
efficiency of the plant. Therefore, regular maintenance and inspection are critical to minimize the
risk of corrosion and ensure the long-term performance of the equipment. Additionally, the
equipment design must be evaluated to ensure that it is compatible with carbon steel and meets
the specific requirements of the 2-ethylhexanol production process.
82
CHAPTER TEN
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION

10.1 A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (PID) is an essential document in the design and
construction of a chemical plant. The PID provides a comprehensive and detailed schematic
representation of the process flow and interconnection of process equipment and instrumentation
used in a plant. In this case, we will be discussing a 1000 tons capacity plant design for the
production of 2-ethylhexanol from propylene and synthesis gas, and the necessary control
elements, processes, diagrams, valves, process instrumentation equipment, and design.
Process Description: 2-ethylhexanol is an important intermediate in the production of various

chemicals such as plasticizers, lubricants, and solvents. The production process involves the
catalytic reaction of propylene with synthesis gas over a cobalt catalyst at a temperature of
around 240-280°C and pressure of 20-30 bar. The reaction produces 2-ethylhexanal, which is
then hydrogenated to 2-ethylhexanol using hydrogen and a catalyst. The product is then purified
and distilled to achieve the desired 2-ethylhexanol purity.
PID Documentation: A well-designed PID plays a vital role in ensuring the safety and efficiency
of a chemical plant. The following is a detailed description of the PID documentation required
for a 1000 tons capacity plant design for the production of 2-ethylhexanol from propylene and
synthesis gas.
Process Flow Diagram (PFD): The PFD is the foundation of the PID and is used to represent the
process flow and the main equipment used in the production of 2-ethylhexanol. The PFD shows
the process flow direction, major equipment, and process streams. It is a simplified schematic
representation of the process, and its purpose is to provide a clear understanding of the process
flow. The PFD includes the following elements:
Process flow lines: These are used to show the flow direction of the process.
Major equipment symbols: These are used to represent the main equipment used in the process,
such as reactors, distillation columns, and heat exchangers.
Process stream identification: Each process stream is identified by a unique symbol or color,
making it easy to differentiate between the different process streams.
83
Control valves and flow meters: These are used to control the flow of the process streams.
Process and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID): The P&ID is a more detailed schematic
representation of the process flow and the interconnection of equipment and instrumentation
used in the production process. The P&ID includes all the elements of the PFD and also shows
the following elements:
Piping and valves: The P&ID shows the piping and valves used to transport the process streams
from one piece of equipment to another.
Control loops: The P&ID shows the control loops used to maintain the process parameters within
the desired range.
Instrumentation and control devices: The P&ID shows the instrumentation and control devices
used to monitor and control the process, such as pressure gauges, temperature sensors, and level
indicators.
Safety relief valves: The P&ID shows the safety relief valves used to protect the equipment and
the process from overpressure.
Equipment Layout Diagram (ELD): The ELD is used to illustrate the location of major
equipment used in the production process. The ELD shows the location of equipment in relation
to each other and to the process flow. The ELD includes the following elements:
Major equipment symbols: These are the same symbols used in the PFD and P&ID to represent
the equipment.
Piping and valves: The ELD shows the piping and valves used to connect the equipment.
Instrumentation: The ELD shows the instrumentation used to monitor the equipment and the
process parameters.
Piping Diagram: The piping diagram shows the detailed piping design and layout for the
equipment and instrumentation identified in the P&ID and ELD. It includes the following
elements:
84
Piping and valves: The piping diagram shows the detailed piping design, including the size, type,
and material of the piping, and the location of the valves.
Pipe fittings: The piping diagram shows the type and location of pipe fittings such as elbows,
tees, and reducers.
Supports and hangers: The piping diagram shows the location of supports and hangers used to
support and maintain the piping.
Control Systems Diagram: The control systems diagram shows the process control system used
to control the process and maintain the desired process parameters. It includes the following
elements:
Process control system: The control systems diagram shows the process control system used to
control the process parameters, such as temperature, pressure, and flow rate.
Control loops: The control systems diagram shows the control loops used to maintain the desired
process parameters within the specified range.
Instrumentation: The control systems diagram shows the instrumentation used to monitor the
process parameters.
Valve and Instrumentation Diagram: The valve and instrumentation diagram (VID) shows the
location, type, and function of all valves and instrumentation used in the process. It includes the
following elements:
Valves: The VID shows the type and location of all valves used in the process, such as control
valves, isolation valves, and safety valves.
Instrumentation: The VID shows the type and location of all instrumentation used in the process,
such as pressure gauges, temperature sensors, and level indicators.
Overall, the PID documentation for a 1000 tons capacity plant design for the production of 2-
ethylhexanol from propylene and synthesis gas would include a process flow diagram (PFD),
process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID), equipment layout diagram (ELD), piping diagram,
control systems diagram, and valve and instrumentation diagram (VID). Each of these diagrams
85
would provide a detailed representation of the process flow, equipment, and instrumentation used
in the production process. The documentation would also include detailed information on the
control elements, processes, valves, process instrumentation equipment, and design used in the
plant. This documentation plays a critical role in ensuring the safety and efficiency of the plant
and is essential for the design, construction, and operation of the plant.
Fig 10.1: Control Scheme for Hydroformylation Reactor
Legend:
BPV- Bottoms Product Valve
LC- Level Controller
CFC- Coolant Flow Controller
PV- Propylene Valve
86
FC- Flow Controller SGV- Synthesis Gas Valve
HFR- Hydroformylation Flow
TC- Temperature Controller
87
16
PRV
V-1
14
13
9 Q-3 Condens
7 er Cooling
Water
8
Feed 6
s
Preheater
Column
5 Ref lux
Preheater
F
4
F-4 Q-2 Distillate
3 Receiv er
s
2
F
Q-1 1
R-2 R-1
Graduated
flow meter
F-5 Reboiler
15 R-3
R-4
0
F-2 10
s
F
s B-1 B-2 12
11 s
F
B-3
C-1
D-4
Feed Pump Feed T ank Reflux Pump
D-1
Thermocouple Feed Port
s Sample Port F Turbine Flow -meter
Fig 10.2 Distillation Column Piping and instrumentation diagram
Source: Process Dynamics and Control Seborg, E. and Mellichamp, C. (1989)
88
Fig 10.3: Piping and instrumentation diagram for 2-ethylhexanol production
89
CHAPTER ELEVEN
PROCESS ECONOMICS
11.1 Introduction
The process economics of a 1000-ton capacity 2-ethylhexanol plant depend on a variety of

factors, including the cost of raw materials, energy costs, labor costs, and capital costs. The
production of 2-ethylhexanol typically involves the use of the oxo process, which requires
propylene, syngas, and a catalyst. The cost of these raw materials will depend on a variety of
factors, including market demand and supply, transportation costs, and production costs.
In addition to raw material costs, energy costs are also an important consideration in the process
economics of a 2-ethylhexanol plant. The oxo process requires high temperatures and pressures,
which can require significant amounts of energy. Labor costs and capital costs, including the cost
of equipment and construction, are also important factors in the process economics of a 2-
ethylhexanol plant.
Other factors that can impact the process economics of a 2-ethylhexanol plant include
government regulations, taxes, and subsidies. Changes in the regulatory environment, tax
policies, or availability of subsidies can have a significant impact on the profitability of a 2-
ethylhexanol plant.
Overall, the process economics of a 1000-ton capacity 2-ethylhexanol plant will depend on a
variety of factors, including raw material costs, energy costs, labor costs, capital costs,
government regulations, taxes, and subsidies. Careful analysis and planning are required to
ensure that the plant is profitable and sustainable over the long term.
11.2 Capital Cost Estimation
To calculate the anticipated capital cost, two methods are utilized. To update a current cost, the
ratio approach is first applied to known capital cost numbers for an existing facility. Second, by
calculating the projected fixed expenses and then adding the value of the working capital to that
sum, the total capital cost is estimated using the factorial technique.
90
i. The Ratio Method
The Ratio Method is a simple technique whereby a cost estimate for the desired plant capacity is
produced using the ratio approach, a straightforward procedure that involves adjusting known
capital cost data for an existing chemical plant. This approach can also be used to update data to
reflect the effects of historical inflation. The capital cost value is then modified to account for
regional changes in exchange rates. The method is based on the usage of important cost
estimating indices such as the CE Plant Cost Index and the Marshall and Stevens (M&S) Index.
Cost of the 2-Ethylhexanol plant (capacity of 1000 tons per annum) in 1970 =$69,444
Assume:
$1.00 = ₦360.00 (exchange rate is constant throughout this period)
Cost of 2-Ethylhexanol plant of 1000 tons per annum in 1970
=69444 ×360.00
= ₦24,999,840.00
Table 12.1: Chemical Engineering Plan
YEAR COST INDEX
1970 180
2019 500
Original cost x Index value at present year

Present-cost = Index value at the time when original cost was obtained
11.1
91
500
= ₦24,999,840 ×
180
= 𝑁69,444,000.00
1000
𝑆𝑜, 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑁69444000 × (1000)2.78
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
= ₦69,444,000.00
B. The Factorial Method

The factorial method of cost estimation requires the purchase price of the process's primary
equipment components, which is necessary for the factorial technique of cost assessment. By
using indices on this estimate, additional fixed costs are projected. These indices are expressed as
equipment cost factors. The dependability of the data supplied for the equipment expenses will
determine how accurate this estimate is.
Estimation of Purchased Costs of Equipment (PCE)
The equipment needed for plant installation is outlined in the process diagram for the
1,000 tons per year 2-Ethylhexanol plant, as follows;
iv. Three Units of Reactors (Hydroformylation, Aldol Conversion and Hydrogenation)

v. Two units of Gas- Liquid Separators (GLS) 1 & 2
vi. Two units of Distillation Columns (DC) 1 & 2
Other additional basic components for plant installation include; One Filter Unit, five
units of Mixers, Two Valves, One Pump, Two Recycle Units, One Compressor, Two units of
Heat Exchange equipment, a Separator, and storage tanks for feed, intermediate and product
chemicals.
We simply multiply each equipment cost obtained from http://www.matche. com/equip cost by a
factor of 1.302 to get its value in year 2012. The original cost represents the bare vessel cost, and
its product with the material and pressure factor gives the actual vessel cost. Details of method
used can be extracted copiously from Chapter 6 of Coulson & Richardson Chemical Engineering
Series (Vol 6, 4th Ed.) by R.K. Sinnott (2005).
92
For currency conversion, the conversion rate of 1 Dollar = 362.97 Naira; 1 Pound =
440.00 Naira (November, 2019) was utilized.
A. Reactors
i. Hydroformylation Reactor Specs: Jacketed & Agitated; Material: Stainless Steel 304;
Capacity: 170000 Litres; Atm to 25psi
Original Cost: $600000 (material factor = 1.0, pressure factor = 1.1)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 600000 × 362.97 × 1.302 × 1.0 × 1.1 = 𝑁311,907,380.40𝑘
ii. Hydrogenation Reactor Specs: Jacketed & Agitated; Material: Carbon Steel; Capacity:
114,522,500 Litres; Atm to 25psi
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 99100 × 362.97 × 1.302 × 1.0 × 1.1 = 𝑁51,516,702.33𝑘
iii. Aldol Condensation Reactor Specs: Jacketed & Non- Agitated; Material: Stainless Steel
316; Capacity: 24000 Litres; Atm to 25psi
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 154400 × 362.97 × 1.302 × 1.0 × 1.1 = 𝑁80,264,165.89𝑘
B. Gas- Liquid Separators (2 Units) Specs: Vane Type; 250 psi rating; 240 inches’ diameter;
Material: Carbon Steel 304L and 306L;
Original Cost: $41000 (material factor = 1.0, pressure factor = 1.1);
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 41000 × 362.97 × 1.302 × 1.0 × 1.1 = 𝑁42, 627,341.99𝑘

C. Distillation Columns DC 1: Specs: Weight: 9080kg; Material: Ferritic Stainless Steel 430; No
internals, large Capacity: 1800 Litres,
Original Cost: $1240 (material factor = 2.0, pressure factor = 1.1),
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 1240 × 362.97 × 1.302 × 2.0 × 1.1 = 𝑁1,289,217.20𝑘
Cost of a plate = $650 (material factor = 1.7; Number of plates = 18),

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = $650 × 18 × 1.7 × 1.302 × 362.97 = ₦9,399,754.20k
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 𝑁1,289,217.20𝑘 + ₦9,399,754.20k = ₦13832147.4k
Distillation Columns DC 2: Specs: Weight: 8732kg; Ferritic Stainless Steel 430; Sphere
ASME, large Capacity: 1450 Litres,
93
Original Cost: $1120 (material factor = 2.0, pressure factor = 1.1),
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 1120 × 362.97 × 1.302 × 2.0 × 1.1 = ₦1,164,454.20𝑘

Cost of a plate = $650 (material factor = 1.7; Number of plates = 20),
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = $650 × 20 × 1.7 × 1.302 × 362.97 = ₦10,444,171k

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = ₦1,164,454.20𝑘 + ₦10,444,171k = ₦11,608,626
D. Filter Unit Specs: Gravity- type; Area: 18.58 m2; Material: Carbon Steel; Atm pressure
Original Cost: $103600 (type factor = 0.8, pressure factor = 1.1)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 103600 × 362.97 × 1.302 × 0.8 × 1.1 = ₦43,084, 806.15k

E. Coolers (2 Units) Specs: Forced Draft; Cooling Load: 0.01 Million BTU/hr; Material:
Carbon Steel; Atm Pressure
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 5800 × 362.97 × 0.85 × 1.0 × 1.302 × 2 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠

= ₦4,659, 707.23𝑘
F . Mixers (5 Units) Specs: Material: Carbon Steel; Capacity: 7570 litres; Atm to 25 psi Internal
Pressure
Present Cost: 16640×362.97×1.302×0.85×1×5 pieces= ₦33,421,348.40k
G. Pump Specs: Centrifugal Inline, API- 610 w/ Motor; 13.94 m2 head; Material: Cast Iron
w/Rubber lining; Mechanical Seal
Present Cost: 13900×362.97×1.302×0.85×1.0= ₦5,583,614.70k
H. Heat Exchange Equipment (2 Units) Specs: Double Pipe, large; CS Shell Aluminium tube;
13.94 m2; 300psi
94
Present Cost: 18600×362.97×1.302×0.85×1.0× 2pieces= ₦14,943,199.04k
I. Compressor Specs: Type: Air Rotary Screw; Material: Cast Iron; 125 psi I.R; 200 HP
Present Cost: 5950×362.97×1.302×0.85×1= ₦2,390,108.45k
J. Reboilers (2 Units) Specs: Carbon Steel; 23.22 m2; 150 psi I.R
Present Cost: 17300×362.97×1.302×0.8×1.0×2pieces= ₦13,081,206.50k
K. Condensers (2 Units) Specs: Vertical tube small, 32.52 m2; Carbon Steel; 300 psi I.R.
Present Cost: 20200×362.97×1.302×0.8×1.0×2 pieces= ₦15,274,009.90k
L. Storage Tanks
(ix) Hydrogen Tank: Horizontal, Fuel Storage, 50,000 gallons Capacity; Cast Iron
Original Cost: $10, 900 (type factor = 0.85, pressure factor = 1.0)
Present Cost: 10,900×362.97×1.302× 0.85×1.0= ₦4,378,517.99k
(x) Propylene Feed Tank: API Floating Roof, Carbon Steel, 50,000 gallons’ capacity
Original Cost: $13,200 (type factor = 0.85, pressure factor = 1.0)
Present Cost: 13,200×362.97×1.302×0.85×1.0= ₦5,302,425.47k
(xi) Synthesis Gas Feed Horizontal Round Ends; 40000 gallons’ capacity; Carbon Steel &
API
Original Cost: $,600 (type factor = 0.85, pressure factor = 1.0)
Present Cost: 7,600×362.97×1.302×0.85×1.0= ₦3,052,911.63k
(xii) 2- Ethylhexanol Storage Tank Vertical Cone, Floating Roof, Flat Bottom, 40000
gallons’ capacity, Carbon Steel & glass lined API
Present Cost: 8,400×362.97×1.302×0.85×1.0= ₦3,374,270k
95
(xiii) 8 Pieces of Tanks for Intermediate Chemicals (Purge Streams, 2- ethyl hexanal,
etc)
Each: 30000 gallons’ capacity, cast iron, Horizontal fuel storage
Present Cost: 4,300×362.97×1.302×0.85×1.0× 8 pieces= ₦13,818,442.13k
Total Cost of Storage Tanks= ₦29,926,567.22k
M. Recycles (2 Units)
Original Cost: $1,750 (type factor = 0.85, pressure factor = 1.0)
Present Cost: 1750×0.85×1×362.97×1.302×2 pieces= ₦1,405,946.15k
N. Valves (2 Units)
Original Cost: $1430 (type factor =0.85, pressure factor = 1.0)
Present Cost: 1430×0.85×1×362.97×1.302×2 pieces= ₦1,148,858.85k
PCE is valued at ₦1,036,759,101 (One billion, thirty six million, seven hundred and fifty
nine thousand one hundred and one naira only).
11.3 Estimation of Total Investment Cost

11.3.1 Direct costs
Table 11.2 shows the percentage range for estimating the costs of fixed capital
investments. The following table lists common parameters for estimating project fixed capital
cost as well as the total investment cost, which includes both direct and indirect expenditures.
(R.K. Sinnott, 2007) is reproduced and utilized for this report.
Table 12.2; Total Purchase Cost of Equipment
Item PCE (Naira)

Hydroformylation Reactor 311,907,380.40
Hydrogenation Reactor 51,516,702.33
Aldol Condensation Reactor 80,264,165.89
Gas- Liquid Separators 1 & 2 42,627,341.99
96
DC 1 177,248,457.70
DC 2 208,275,680.70
Filter Unit 43,084,806.15
Coolers (2) 4,659,707.23
Mixers (5) 33,421,348.40
Pump 5,583,614.70
Heat Exchange Equipment (2) 14,943,199.04
Compressor 2,390,108.45
Reboilers (2) 13,081,206.50
Condenser (2) 15,274,009.90
Storage Tanks 29,926,567.22
Recycles (2) 1,405,946.15
Valves (2) 1,148,858.85
Total Purchase Cost of Equipment: 1,036,759,101
Total Physical Plant Cost (PPC) or Direct Costs is given by
PPC= PCE (1 + f1+f2+………+f9) (11.2)
PCE (1+0.4+0.7+0.2+0.1+0.15+0.5+0.15+0.05+0.15) = PCE (3.4)
PPC= 1,036,759,101 ×3.4 = ₦ 3,524,980,944
The Total Physical Plant Cost or Direct Cost is valued at Three billion, five hundred and
twenty-four million, nine hundred and eighty million, nine hundred and forty-four naira only.
11.3.2 Indirect costs

They indicate costs that are not directly related to the actual installation of the entire
facility or its material and labor costs. By multiplying direct costs by themselves in factorial
fashion, the factorial technique yields indirect costs, as given below;
Table 11.2: Estimated Direct Costs (PCE)
Indirect Costs= PPC ( f10+f11+f12) (11.3)
97
where
Indirect costs = 3,524,980,944 (0.30 + 0.05 + 0.10) = ₦ 1,586,242,425
Table 12.3: Estimated Direct Costs (PCE)
S/N Item Fixed Cost (%) Fixed Cost=(Naira)

1 Equipment erection/Installation 0.40 414,702,440.4
2 Piping 0.70 725,729,270
3 Instrumentation 0.20 207,351,220
4 Electrical 0.10 103,675,610.1
5 Buildings, process 0.15 155,513,415.2
6 Utilities 0.50 518,378,050.5
7 Storages 0.15 155,513,415.2
8 Site Development 0.15 155,513,415.2
9 Ancillary Development 0.05 51,837,805
10 Plant cost of equipment 1 1,036,759,101
3.4 3,524,980,944
Total direct cost(plant physical
cost)
98
Table 18B: Estimated Indirect Costs
S/N Item Fixed Cost (%) Fixed Cost=(Naira)

10 Design and Engineering 0.30 1,057,494,283
11 Contractor’s fee 0.05 176,249,047.2
12 Contingency 0.10 352,498,094.4
Total Indirect Cost 0.45 1,586,241,425
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) =direct cost + Indirect Cost = ₦3,524,980,944+

₦1,586,242,425= ₦5,111,224,369
Working Capital (10-20% of Fixed Capital Investment)
Consider the Working Capital = 15% of Fixed-capital investment of fixed capital to cover cost of
the initial solvent charge. i.e., Working capital = 0.15 × 5,111,224,369 = ₦766,683,655.4
Total Capital Investment (TCI)
Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital = ₦5,111,224,369 +

₦766,683,655.4 = ₦ 5,877,908,024
(c) Capital Cost Conclusions

The The estimated number is 4.85 billion using the ratio technique. Given that the original plant
cost data is 49 years old, this can be viewed as being reasonably accurate (30%). Surprisingly,
the factorial approach also yielded a similar outcome. This is probable because the factory is not
very big, which reduces the risk of inaccurate cost estimates. As a result, it is likewise
appropriate to consider the estimate of 5.877 billion generated by the factorial cost technique as
an accurate number.
Start-up costs typically account for 5-20% of TCI. Suppose 15% of TCI.
Start- Up Cost = 0.15 × ₦5,877,908,024 = ₦ 881,686,203.7
11.4 Estimation of Total Production Cost

Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.
a. Fixed Charges (10-20% total product cost)
99
i. Depreciation: Depends on life period, salvage value and method of calculation-about
10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for Building Value for Buildings)
Using Depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 3% for Building
Value for Buildings)
Depreciation =0.10 ×5,111,224,369 + 0.03×155,513,415.2 = ₦515,787,839.4
ii. Local Taxes (1-4% of Fixed Capital Investment) (remitted to Rivers State
Government)
Using local taxes = 3% of fixed capital investment
Local Taxes = 0.03× 5,111,224,369 = ₦ 153,336,731.1
iii. Insurances (0.4-1% of Fixed Capital Investment)
Using Insurance = 1% of fixed capital investment
Insurance = 0.01× 5,111,224,369 = ₦ 51,112,243.69
iv. Rent: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)
Using Rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings = 0.10×155,513,415.2 + 0.10 ×
155,513,415.2 = ₦ 31,102,683.04
Therefore, Fixed Charges = ₦515,787,839.4 + ₦153,336,731.1 + ₦51,112,243.69 +

₦31,102,683.04 = ₦ 751,339,497.2
b. Direct Production Cost (about 60% of total product cost)
Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges

Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost
fixed charges 751,339,492.2
Total Product Cost (TPC) = Total product cost (TPC) = =
0.15 0.15
= ₦5,008,929,948
(i) Raw Materials (10-50% of total product cost)
Using Raw material cost = 25% of total product cost Raw material cost = 0.25×5,008,929,948
100
= ₦1,252,232,487
(ii) Operating Labour (OL) (10-20% of total product cost)

Using Operating Labour = 12% of total product cost
Operating labour cost = 0.12× ₦5,008,929,948
= ₦601,071,593.8
(iii) Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL) (10-25% of OL)
Using Direct supervisory and Clerical labour = 12% of OL
Direct supervisory and Clerical labour cost =0.12× ₦601,071,593.8 = ₦72,128,591.25
(iv) Utilities (10-20% of total product cost)
Using Utilities cost = 12% of total product cost
Utilities cost =0.12 × ₦5,008,929,948
= ₦ 601,071,593.8
(v) Maintenance and repairs (M & R) (2-10% of FCI)
Using Maintenance and Repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment
Maintenance and Repair cost = 0.05× ₦5,111,224,369
= ₦ 255,561,218.5
(vi) Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)
Using Operating supplies cost = 1% of fixed capital investment
Operating supplies cost = 0.05× ₦5,111,224,369
= ₦ 255,561,218.5
(vii) Laboratory Charges: (10-30% of OL)
101
Consider the Laboratory charges = 30% of OL
Laboratory charges = 0.3× ₦601,071,593.8
= ₦180,321,478.1
(viii) Patent and Royalties (0-6% of total product cost)
Using Patent and Royalties cost = 3% of total product cost
Patent and Royalties = 0.03×₦5,008,929,948
= ₦ 150,267,898.4
Thus, Direct Production Cost = ₦ (1,252,232,487+ 601,071,593.8+ 72,128,591.25 +

601,071,593.8 + 255,561,218.5 + 180,321,478.1 + 150,267,898.4
= ₦3,112,655,461
c. Plant overhead Costs:
(50-70% of Operating labour, supervision, and maintenance or 5-15% of total product

cost); includes for the following: general plant upkeep and overhead, payroll overhead,
packaging, medical services, safety and protection, restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories,
and storage facilities.
Using Plant overhead cost = 60% of OL, DS & CL, and M & R
Plant overhead cost = 0.6 × (601,071,593.8 + 72,128,591.25 + 255,561,218.5)
= ₦ 557,256,842.1
Thus,
Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs.
Manufacture cost = 3,112,655,461 + 751,339,497.2 +557,256,842.1 = ₦ 4,421,251,800
General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and
development costs
102
1. Administrative costs: (about 15% of costs for operating labour, supervision, and
maintenance or 2-6% of total product cost); includes costs for executive salaries, clerical wages,
legal fees, office supplies, and communications.
Using Administrative costs = 15% of OL, DS & CL, and M & R
𝐴𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 0.15 × (601,071,593.8 + 72,128,591.25 + 255,561,218.5 )
= ₦138,864,210.5
2. Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for sales
offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
Using Distribution and Selling costs = 11% of total product cost
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 0.11 × 5,008,929,948
= ₦55,098,2294.3
3. Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost)
Using Research and Development costs = 5% of total product cost
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 0.05 × 5,008,929,948
= ₦250,446,497.4
4. Financing (interest): (0-10% of TCI)
Using Interest = 5% of total capital investment
Interest = 0.05 × 5,877,908,024
= ₦ 293,895,401.2
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠
= ₦138,864,210.5 + ₦550,982,294.3 + ₦250,446,497.4 + ₦ 293,895,401.2
= ₦1,234,188,403
103
Total Product Cost = Manufacturing cost + General Expenses + Start- up Cost
₦ 4,421,251,800 + ₦1,234,188,403 + 881,686,203.7 = ₦ 6,537,126,407
11.5 Profitability Analysis
Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling price of 2-ethylhexanol per ton = $200 = ₦36,000.00
Total Income = Selling price × Quantity of product manufactured
= ₦72,000 × 1,000 = ₦72,000,000.00
Gross Income = Total Income – Total Product cost.
= ₦ 72,000,000.00 − ₦6,537,126,407
= ₦ 4,262,873,593
Tax = 45% of Gross Income
= 0.45 × ₦ 4,262,873,593
= ₦ 1,918,293,117
Net Profit = Gross income - Tax

= ₦ 4,262,873,593 − ₦ 1,918,293,117
= ₦ 2,344,580,476
Net Cash Flow (NCF) = Net Profit – Total Capital Invest
Total Capital Investment (TCI) = Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) – Working Capital Investment
(WCI)
𝑁𝐶𝐹
Net Present Value (NPV) = ∑𝑛=𝑡
𝑛=0 (1+𝑟)𝑛
104
Where n= number of years
r = Interest rate and it is assumed to be 5%
The Net Cash Flow as well as the Net Present Value are calculated below in table
Table 11.4: Net cash flow and net present value of the plant
Year FCI(₦) WCI(₦) TCI(₦) Net NCF(₦) NPV(₦)

Profit(₦)
0 5,111,224,3 0 5,111,224,3 0 - -5,111,224,369
69 69 5,111,224,36
9
1 5,111,224,3 766,683,65 5,877,908,0 2,344,580,4 - -2,634,898,946
69 5.4 24 76 2,766,643,89
3
2 - 76668365.4 5,877,908,0 2,344,580,4 - -382,823,961
24 76 422,063,417
3 - 76668365.4 587790802 2,344,580,4 1,922,517,05 1,660,742,519
4 76 9
4 - 76668365.4 587790802 2,344,580,4 4,267,097,53 3,510,551,720
4 76 5
5 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 6,611,678,01 5,180,422,726
24 76 1
6 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 8,956,258,48 6,683,297,979
24 76 7
7 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 11,300,838,9 8,031,295,266
24 76 60
8 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 13,648,419,4 9,237,787,504
24 76 40
9 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 15,993,999,8 10,309,230,320
105
24 76 80
10 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 18,338,580,3 11,258,297,530
24 76 60
11 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 20,683,160,8 12,093,015,770
24 76 40
12 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 23,027,741,3 12,822,708,020
24 76 20
13 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 25,372,321,8 13,455,483,960
24 76 00
14 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 27,716,902,2 14,698,865,050
24 76 80
15 - 76668365.4 758779080 2,344,580,4 30,061,482,7 14,460,087,200
24 76 60 Total NPV =
₦138,836,501,
300
Rate of return calculations
The adoption of invested capital is not demonstrated by cash-flow metrics, which can be
similar between two projects with quite different capital costs. The effectiveness of the capital
invested must be evaluated in some way. The ratio of annual profit to investment, or rate of
return (ROR), is a straightforward indicator of how well an investment has performed. Although
the ROR is a fundamentally straightforward idea, the fact that the annual profit (net cash flow)
would fluctuate throughout the course of the project makes it more difficult to calculate. The
most straightforward approach is to base the ROR on the average income across the project's
lifespan and the initial investment.
Cummulative NCF at the end of project year

Rate of Return (ROR) = (11.4)
Economic life×Original investment
30,061,482,760
= 15×5,877,908,024 × 100%
= 34.095%.
106
Payback period
The payout time, also known as the payback period, is the number of years from project
inception that it would take to recoup all costs involved in the 2-ethylhexanol project.
Pay-back time is a helpful measure for assessing initiatives with a limited lifespan or
when funding is only available temporarily. It is frequently used to evaluate minor upgrade
efforts on running equipment. The typical pay-back period for such initiatives is between two
and five years. By definition, the performance of the project after the pay-back term is not taken
into consideration when using pay-back time as a measure of investment performance.
𝐵
Pay-back time =𝐴 + (11.5)
𝐶
422,063,417
= 2+
2,344,580,476
= 2.2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Where
A is the last period with a negative cumulative cash flow
B is its absolute value
C is the value annual cash flow after it
11.6 Deduction from the Estimated Process Economic Evaluation
Based on a 15-year economic life, cost estimation, profitability, and break-even analysis
for the manufacture of 2- ethylhexanol revealed a respectable rate of return on investment and a
reasonable payback duration, all of which have industrial relevance. To determine whether the
technique is feasible for industrial use, several cost analysis data are used.
The process's anticipated break-even point, payback duration, and rate of return were
recorded as 34.09%, 2.22 years (or roughly 2.5 years), and 34.09%, respectively. Values for the
107
payback period, rate of return, and break-even point show how much more excellently viable the
procedure is.
108
CHAPTER TWELVE
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
12.1 Materials of Construction

The construction of a 2-ethylhexanol plant requires careful consideration of the materials to be
used. 2-ethylhexanol, also known as 2-EH, is an important chemical that is widely used in the
production of various products in the chemical industry, including plasticizers, solvents,
coatings, and additives. It is typically produced through the oxo process, which involves the
reaction of propylene with syngas (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide) in the presence
of a catalyst. The process requires high-temperature and high-pressure conditions, which can
pose challenges in terms of selecting the right materials for construction.
One of the most important considerations in selecting materials for a 2-EH plant is the
compatibility of the materials with the chemicals and conditions involved in the process. The
materials must be able to withstand the high temperatures and pressures without degrading or
corroding. They must also be resistant to the chemicals involved in the process, including
propylene, syngas, and the various intermediates and products that are formed during the
process.
Another important consideration is the cost of the materials. The construction of a chemical plant
requires a significant investment, and the cost of the materials used in the construction can have
a significant impact on the overall cost of the project. In addition to the cost of the materials
themselves, the cost of installation and maintenance must also be taken into account.
Some of the common materials used in the construction of a 2-EH plant include:
Carbon steel: Carbon steel is a common material used in the construction of chemical plants due
to its high strength and low cost. However, it is not suitable for applications where there is a risk
of corrosion.
Stainless steel: Stainless steel is a more expensive alternative to carbon steel, but it offers
superior resistance to corrosion and high temperatures. It is often used in applications where the
process involves aggressive chemicals or high temperatures.
109
Nickel alloys: Nickel alloys are a group of materials that offer excellent resistance to corrosion
and high temperatures. They are often used in applications where stainless steel is not sufficient.
Titanium: Titanium is a lightweight and strong material that offers excellent resistance to
corrosion. It is often used in applications where weight reduction is important, such as in the
construction of heat exchangers.
Glass-lined steel: Glass-lined steel is a composite material that consists of a steel shell that is
lined with a layer of glass. It offers excellent resistance to corrosion and is often used in
applications where the process involves aggressive chemicals.
In selecting the material of construction for a 2-EH plant, it is important to consider the specific
requirements of the process and to evaluate the potential risks associated with each material. The
use of a combination of materials may be necessary in order to achieve the desired properties and
performance.
In conclusion, the selection of the material of construction for a 2-EH plant requires careful
consideration of the specific requirements of the process, the potential risks associated with each
material, and the cost of the materials. The use of high-quality materials is essential in order to
ensure the safety and reliability of the plant, and to achieve the desired performance and
efficiency.
12.1 Economic Consideration in Material Selection

It is essential for the engineer to know about and understand economic issues but first
cost of equipment or material often is not a good economic criterion when comparing alternate
materials of construction for chemical process equipment. Any cost estimation should include
the following items:
i. Replacement costs
ii. Estimated life
iii. Maintenance costs
iv. Installation costs
110
v. Total equipment or materials costs
When these factors are considered, cost comparisons bear little resemblance to first cost.
One difficulty with such a comparison is the uncertainty associated with “estimated life.” Well-
designed laboratory and plant tests can at least give order-of-magnitude estimates. Another
difficulty arises in estimating the annual maintenance cost. This can only be predicted from
previous experience with the specific materials.
12.2 Material Selected for 2-Ethlhexanol Plant

The material that is chosen for this plant design is Stainless Steel, having considered the
material and operation properties.
A wide range of stainless steels are available, with compositions tailored to give the
properties required for speciﬁc applications. They can be divided into three broad classes
according to their microstructure:
i. 300 series are hardenable only by cold-working

ii. 400 series are either nonhardenable or hardenable by heat-treating.
iii. Type 410 which contains 12 percent chromium and no nickel, can be heat-treated for
hardening and has good mechanical properties when heat-treated. It is often used as a
material of construction for bubble caps, turbine blades, or other items that require
special fabrication.
Stainless steels exhibit the best resistance to corrosion when the surface is oxidized to a
passive state. This condition can be obtained, at least temporarily, by a so-called “passivation”
operation in which the surface is treated with nitric acid and then rinsed with water. Localized
corrosion can occur at places where foreign material collects, such as in scratches, crevices, or
corners. Consequently, mars or scratches should be avoided, and the equipment design should
specify a minimum of sharp comers, seams, and joints. Stainless steels show great susceptibility
to stress corrosion cracking. As one example, stress plus contact with small concentrations of
halides can result in failure of the metal wall.
The high temperatures involved in welding stainless steel may cause precipitation of
chromium carbide at the grain boundary, resulting in decreased corrosion resistance along the
111
weld. The chances of this occurring can be minimized by using low-carbon stainless steels or by
controlled annealing. A preliminary approach to the selection of the stainless steel for a specific
application is to classify the various types according to the alloy content, microstructure, and
major characteristic.
i. Ferritic: 13-20 per cent Cr,< 0.1 per cent C, with no nickel
ii. Austenitic: 18-20 per cent Cr,> 7 per cent Ni
iii. Martensitic: 12-10 per cent Cr, 0.2 to 0.4 per cent C, up to 2 per cent Ni
The uniform structure of Austenite (fcc, with the carbides in solution) is the structure
desired for corrosion resistance, and it is these grades that are widely used in the chemical
industry. Their properties are discussed below.
i. Type 304 (the so-called 18/8 stainless steels): the most generally used stainless steel. It
contains the minimum Cr and Ni that give a stable austenitic structure. The carbon
content is low enough for heat treatment not to be normally needed with thin sections to
prevent weld decay
ii. Type 304L: low carbon version of type 304 <0.03 per cent C) used for thicker welded
sections, where carbide precipitation would occur with type 304.
iii. Type 321: a stabilised version of 304, stabilised with titanium to prevent carbide
precipitation during welding. It has a slightly higher strength than 304L, and is more
suitable for high-temperature use.
iv. Type 347: stabilised with niobium.
v. Type 316: in this alloy, molybdenum is added to improve the corrosion resistance in
reducing conditions, such as in dilute sulphuric acid, and, in particular, to solutions
containing chlorides.
vi. Type 316L: a low carbon version of type 316, which should be speciﬁed if welding or
heat treatment is liable to cause carbide precipitation in type 316.
112
Types 309/310: alloys with a high chromium content, to give greater resistance to oxidation at
high temperatures. Alloys with greater than 25 per cent Cr are susceptible to embrittlement due
to sigma phase formation at temperatures above 500C. Sigma phase is an intermetallic
compound, FeCr.
12.3 Summary of the Materials of Construction Considered for the design of the Plant.
Having stated in brief terms the factors considered in the choice of selection of the
materials used in this plant, the general mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and typical
areas of use of some of the materials commonly used will be discussed in this section. The
multitude of alloys to be used in this chemical plant construction has been chosen as designated
in the various national standards.
In addition to the materials discussed above, there are other factors that may influence the
selection of the material of construction for a 2-EH plant. One of these factors is the
environmental impact of the materials used. Some materials, such as carbon steel, can have
negative environmental impacts due to their production processes and potential for corrosion.
Materials with lower environmental impacts, such as stainless steel or glass-lined steel, may be
preferred in some cases.
Another factor is the ease of maintenance and repair. Materials that are difficult or costly
to maintain or repair may not be ideal for a 2-EH plant, as maintenance and repair are critical for
ensuring the safe and reliable operation of the plant. Materials that are easy to maintain and
repair, such as stainless steel or glass-lined steel, may be preferred in some cases.
The construction of a 2-EH plant also requires careful attention to detail in terms of
design and construction. The plant must be designed to ensure the safe and efficient operation of
the process, with considerations for factors such as pressure, temperature, flow rates, and mixing.
The construction process must also be carefully managed to ensure that the materials are
installed correctly and that the plant is built to the required specifications.
Once the plant is constructed, ongoing monitoring and maintenance are critical for
ensuring the safe and efficient operation of the plant. Regular inspections and maintenance
113
activities, such as cleaning and repair, are necessary to prevent corrosion, leaks, and other issues
that can compromise the safety and reliability of the plant.
In summary, the material of construction for a 2-EH plant is a critical factor in ensuring
the safe and efficient operation of the process. Materials must be carefully selected based on their
compatibility with the chemicals and conditions involved in the process, their resistance to
corrosion and high temperatures, their cost, and other factors such as environmental impact and
ease of maintenance and repair. The construction of the plant must also be carefully managed to
ensure that the materials are installed correctly and that the plant is built to the required
specifications. Ongoing monitoring and maintenance are critical for ensuring the long-term
safety and reliability of the plant.
The economics involved in the selection of these materials as in relation to true long-
term costs requires estimation of the following:
i. Total cost of fabricated equipment and piping

ii. Total installation cost
iii. Service life
iv. Maintenance costs: amount and timing
v. Time and cost requirements to replace or repair at the end of service life
vi. Cost of downtime to replace or repair
vii. Cost of inhibitors, extra control facilities, and other things required to assure achievement
of predicted service life
viii. Time value of money
ix. Taxation, such as depreciation and tax rates
x. Inflation rate
114
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the design of a 1000 capacity plant for the production of 2-ethylhexanol from
propylene and synthesis gas is a technically feasible, economically viable, and environmentally
sustainable solution. The proposed plant design incorporates various process units, including a
synthesis gas generation unit, propylene hydration unit, oxo synthesis unit, and a product
separation and purification unit. The plant design takes into consideration several factors,
including safety, environmental impact, and economic viability.
The proposed plant design uses a combination of propylene hydration and oxo synthesis to
produce 2-ethylhexanol, which is an important industrial chemical used in the manufacture of
plasticizers, surfactants, and lubricants. The plant will have a total production capacity of 1000
tons per year of 2-ethylhexanol, meeting the needs of various industrial applications.
The design incorporates several safety measures to ensure safe operations, including the use of
explosion-proof equipment, fire suppression systems, and emergency shutdown systems. The
design also includes measures to minimize the environmental impact of the plant, including the
use of a closed-loop cooling system and pollution control equipment to reduce emissions.
The economic analysis of the proposed plant design shows that it is financially feasible, with a
net present value of ₦138,836,501,300 and an internal rate of return of 34.90%. The payback
period for the plant is estimated to be 2.5 years, suggesting that the proposed plant is financially
viable and can offer good prospects for a return on investment.
In conclusion, the proposed plant design for the production of 2-ethylhexanol from propylene
and synthesis gas is a technically sound, financially viable, and environmentally sustainable
solution that can contribute to the economic development of the region.
The plant has been planned to be situated in either Portharcourt in River state or Apapa area of
Lagos state after taking into account several factors.
115
REFERENCES
1. R. L. Pruett and J. A. Smith, Union Carbide Corporation, ‘Hydroformylation Process’, U.S.

Patent 3,527,809; 1970
2. “Make plasticizer alcohols this way” by Weber, Dimmling& A.M Desai --- Hydrocarbon
Processing (April 1976) page 127-132.
3. 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol by GreenScreen version 1.2 Reporting Template (October 2011)
4. Inert Reassessment: 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol by United States Environmental Protection Agency,

Washington, D.C. 20460 (August 2006)
5.Union Carbide Corporation: http://www.unioncarbide.com/
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Ethylhexanol
7. 2-Ethylhexanol (2-EH) Uses and Market Data. (2009) ICB Chemical Profile. Retrieved from
http://www.icis.com/resources/news/2007/11/05/9075782/2-ethylhexanol-2-eh uses and
market-data/
8. Technical Leaflet 2-Ethylhexanol. (1999) BASF Petronas Chemicals. Retrieved from

http://www.solvents.basf.com/portal/load/fid245412/Technical%20Spec%202%20Ethylhexanol_
BPC.pdf
9. MacKetta, J. J. (1978). Encyclopedia of chemical processing and design (Vol. 5). New York
Dekker. p.p (373,376,389)
10. Wojtasinski, J. G. (July 1963) Measurement of total pressures for determining liquidvapour
equilibrium relations of the binary system isobutyraldehyde-n-butyraldehyde.
11. Wojtasinski, J. G. (July 1963) Measurement of total pressures for determining liquidvapour
equilibrium relations of the binary system isobutyraldehyde-n-butyraldehyde.
12. Chauvel, L.Gilles Petrochemical Processes (Vol. 2). Paris u.afrance pp (98, 99)
13. MacKetta, J. J. (1984). Encyclopedia of chemical processing and design (Vol. 20). New
York: Dekker. pp (383, 384)
116
14. Hill C.G. (1997). An Introduction to Chemical Engineering Kinetics and Reactor Design,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
15. Perry R.H., Green D.W. (2008), Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw Hill Inc.,
USA.
16. Coulson J.M. and Richardson P.W. (1999). Chemical Engineering: Particulate Technology
and Separation Processes, Volume 2, Sixth edition, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Jordan
Hill.
17. Coulson J.M. and Richardson P.W. (1999). Chemical Engineering: Fluid Flow, Heat
Transfer, and Mass Transfer, Volume 1, Sixth edition, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann,Jordan
Hill.
18. Pearson Educational Publication (2002); Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical
Processes, Pretence Hall.
19. Desai, S., Bidanda, B. and Lovell, M.R. (2012) ‘Material and process selection in product
design using decision-making technique (AHP)’, European Journal of Industrial Engineering,
Vol. 6, No. 3, pp.322–346.
20. Levenspiel O., Chemical Reaction Engineering, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1999
21. Max S.P., Klaus D.T., Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers’, 4th edition,
McGraw-Hill Inc., U.S.A, 2005
117

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CHAPTER ONE

Herbicides, together with insecticides, fungicides and nematicides, form part of a

• The multiplicity of the chemicals used.

• A high price range.

• A rapid obsolescence for the chemicals employed.

• A high degree of government regulation.

The molecular formula is represented in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Molecular structure of 2-ethylhexanol

The structural formula of 2-ethylhexanol is as follows:

1.2 Uses of 2-Ethylhexanol

diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP).

i. To conduct a thorough literature review on the production of 2-ethylhexanol from

1.4 Scope of the study

2.1 Choice of Synthesis Route

2.2 Other Methods of production of 2 ethylhexanol:

(1) Acetaldehyde route

Figure 2.1: 2 ethylhexanol via the acetaldehyde route

CH3-CH=CH-CHO +H2 CH3-CH2-CH2-CHO

2CH3-CH2-CH2-CHO CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=C-CHO + H2O

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2- CH=C-CHO +2 H2 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2 – CH-CH2OH +

(2) Oxo Process

Figure 2.2: Production of 2-ethylhexanol via the oxo route

2% NaOH and 80ᶱC-130ºC

Figure 2.3: 2-ethylhexanol via aldox process

2.3 Market Survey (demand)

2-ethylhexanol is a colorless liquid that is used primarily in the manufacturing of plasticizers,

Table 2.4: Sensitivity Analytical Statement

Variable Rate of change Internal Rate of Return

Operating food -10% 18.11

2.6 Justification of the Selected Technology

3.1 Process description.

3.1.1 Feed specifications

3.2 Data supplied

3.2.1 Chemical reactions

1. Hydrogenation of Propylene to Propane

CH=CH-CH3 + H CH-CH-CHΔH° @ 298K=-129.5 kJ/mol

2. Reaction of Propylene with Synthesis gas

H2 + CO + CH3CH=CH2 → CH3CH2CH2CHO (normal)

3. Reduction of Butyraldehyde to Butanol

H3C-CH2-CH2-CHO + H2→ H3C-CH2-CH2-CH2OH ΔH°=-64.8 kJ/mol at 298k

3 Reaction of Cobalt with Carbon Monoxide

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=C(CH2CH3)-CH=O + H2→ CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH(CH2CH3)-CH=O

3.2.2 Boiling points at 1 bar

Table 3.1: Liquid Boiling Point (°C)

Liquid Boiling Point (°C)

Table 3.2: Gas Solubility (kg dissolved per kg liquid) * 103

Gas Solubility (kg dissolved per kg liquid) * 103

3.2.4 Vapor-liquid equilibrium of the butyraldehydes at 1 atm (Wojtasinski, 1963)

Table 3.3: Vapor-liquid equilibrium of the butyraldehydes at 1 atm

Figure 4.1: Block Flow Diagram

5.1 Preliminary Data for Material Balance

Species Chemical Formula Molar Mass

5.2 Concept of Material Balance

Input = Output + Accumulation

5.4 General Assumptions

i. The system is a steady state.

ii. 1 year (8760 hours) is dedicated for a skeletal production.

iii. The process is continuous

The calculation is based on:

Basis: 1tonne of 2-ethylhexanol produced per day

The following equipment will be considered for material balance calculation;

ii. Distillation Column

iv. Aldol condensation Reactor