Lecture 02

Foundations of AI
Artificial Intelligence
COSC-3112

Ms. Madiha Rehman

Madiha.rehman@kfueit.edu.pk

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Today’s Agenda
• Classification of AI
• Turing Test
• Foundations of AI
• Areas of Study in AI

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A Rough Classification of AI
(from “Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach”)

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What is AI?
• Four schools of thoughts (Russel & Norvig)
Thinking humanly
“The exciting new effort to make
computers think... machines with
minds, in the full and literal sense.”
(Haugeland, 1985)
Acting humanly
“The study of how to make computers
do things which, at the moment,
people are better.” (Rich and Knight,
1991)
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Lecture 2 Foundations of AI in artifacts.” (Nilsson, 1998)
Thinking rationally
“The study of mental faculties through
the use of computational models.”
(Charniak and McDermott, 1985 )
“The study of Computations that make
it possible to perceive, reason and act.”
(Winston, 1992)
Acting rationally
“Computational Intelligence is the
study of the design of intelligent
agents.” (Poole et al., 1998)
“AI is concerned with intelligent
behaviour
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Thinking Humanly: The cognitive
modeling approach
- Program thinks like a human ..!
• We need to get inside the actual workings of
human minds.
• There are three ways:
• through introspection—trying to catch our own
thoughts as they go by;
• through psychological experiments—observing a person
in action; and
• through brain imaging—observing the brain in action.

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Thinking Humanly: The Cognitive Modeling
Approach
• GPS -``General Problem Solver''
• (GPS) A procedure and program developed by Allen Newell, J. C.
Shaw, and Herbert Simon.
• The “first AI program.”
• GPS attains an objective by using recursive search and by applying
rules to generate the alternatives at each branch in the recursive
expansion of possible sequences.
• GPS uses a procedure to measure the "distance" from the goal.

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Acting Humanly: The Turing Test
Approach
• Alan Turing (1912-1954)
• Turing Test
―“Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (1950)
― “The Imitation Game.”

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Acting Humanly: The Turing Test
Approach
―A method of inquiry in artificial intelligence (AI) for
determining whether or not a computer is capable of acting
like a human being

―Turing proposed that a computer can be said to possess

artificial intelligence if it can mimic human responses under
specific conditions.

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Turing Test Preliminaries
• The original Turing Test requires three terminals
physically separated from the other two.
• One terminal is operated by a computer
• while the other two are operated by humans.

• During the test, one of the humans functions as the

questioner, while the second human and the computer
functions as respondent.
• The questioner interrogates the respondents within a specific
subject area, using a specified format and context.
• After a preset length of time or number of questions, the
questioner is then asked to decide which respondent was
human and which was a computer.

• When to stop Turing test?

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Turing Test Results
When to stop Turing Test?
• The test is repeated many times.
• If the questioner makes the correct determination
in half of the test runs, the computer is considered
to have artificial intelligence
• the questioner regards it as "just as human" as the
human respondent.
• Since the formation of the test, many AI have been
able to pass;
• one of the first is a program created by Joseph
Weizenbaum called ELIZA.

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Requirements to Pass Turing Test
• We note that programming a computer to pass a
rigorously applied test provides plenty to work on.
• The computer would need to possess the following
capabilities:
• natural language processing to enable it to communicate
successfully in English;
• knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
• automated reasoning to use the stored information to
answer questions and to draw new conclusions;
• machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to
detect and extrapolate patterns;
• computer vision to perceive objects, and
• robotics to manipulate objects and move about.
• These six disciplines compose most of AI

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Thinking Rationality: The Logical approach

• Ensure that all actions performed by computer are

justifiable (“rational”)

Facts and Rules in

Theorem Prover
Formal Logic

• Rational = Conclusions are provable from inputs and prior

knowledge
• Problems:
• Representation of informal knowledge is difficulty
• Hard to define “provable” plausible reasoning
• Combinatorial explosion: Not enough time or space to prove
desired conclusions.

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Acting Rationally: The Rational Agent
Approach
• Rational behavior : doing the right thing ( that which is
expected to maximize goal achievement, given the available
information).

• Rational Agent is one that acts to achieve the best outcomes

or, when there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome.

Rational agents do the best they can

given their resources
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 Rational Agents
very few resources lots of resources

no thought limited,
Careful, deliberate
approximate
“reflexes” reasoning
reasoning

• Adjust amount of reasoning according to available

resources and importance of the result
• This is one thing that makes AI hard

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Foundations of AI

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Foundations of AI
• Philosophy (600 BC - Present)
―Logic, methods of reasoning.
―Mind as physical system that operates as a set of rules.
―Foundations of learning, language, rationality.
• Mathematics (600 BC - Present)
―Logic: Formal representation and proof.
―Computation, algorithms.
―Probability.
• Economics
―Formal theory of rational decisions.
―Combined decision theory and probability theory for decision
making under uncertainty.
• Game Theory.

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Foundation of AI
• Neuroscience
―Study of brain functioning.
―How brains and computers are (dis)similar.
• Psychology (1879-Present)
―How do we think and act?
―Cognitive psychology perceives the brain as an information
processing machine.
―Led to the development of the field cognitive science
• Computer engineering
―Cares about how to build powerful machines to make AI
possible.
□ E.g., Self-driving cars are possible today thanks to advances in
computer engineering.

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Foundations of AI

• Control theory and cybernetics

―Design simple optimal agents receiving feedback from
the environment.
―Modern control theory design systems that maximize an
objective function over time.
• Linguistics (1957-Present)
―How are language and thinking related.
―Modern linguistics + AI = Computational linguistics
(Natural language processing).

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Foundations of AI
• AI is brainchild of lots of fields

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An overview of AI
• Intelligent Agent
• Search
• Games, Strategies, Planning
• Machine Learning

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Intelligent agents
• An agent perceives the environment and act upon
that environment to achieve some task.
• An agent is function from percepts to actions.
• Rationality is relative to how to act to maximize a
performance measure.
• AI aims to design the best agents (programs) that
achieve the best performance given the
computational limitations.
Agent = Architecture + Program

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Search Agents
• Agents that work towards a goal.
• Agents that consider the impact of actions on future states.
• Search Agent’s job is to identify the action or series of
actions that lead to the goal.

• Paths come with different costs and depths.

Two kinds of search:
– Uninformed Search (use no domain knowledge): BFS, DFS, UCS, etc.
– Informed Search (use heuristic to reach the goal faster): Greedy
search, A*, etc.

• The 8-queen problem: on a chess board, place 8 queens

so that no queen is attacking any other horizontally,
vertically or diagonally

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Adversarial Search: games
• Adversarial search problems == game
• Adversarial == There is an opponent we can’t
control!
• Game vs. Search:
―optimal solution is not a sequence of actions but a
strategy (policy).
―If opponent does a, agent does b, else if opponent does
c, agent does d, etc.
• Tedious and fragile if hard-coded.
• Concepts/methods: Minimax algorithm, Negamax
algorithm, Stochastic games.

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Constraint Satisfaction
• A search problem too!
• We don’t care about the path but about the goal
itself.
• All paths are of same depth.
• Problem is formulated using variables, domains and
constraints.
• Solving the CSP: finding the assignment(s) that
satisfy all constraints.
• Concepts/methods: problem formalization,
backtracking search, arc consistency, etc.

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Machine learning
• “How do we create computer programs that
improve with experience?”
• Tom Mitchell
• Binary classification (categorization)
• Data segmentation or Clustering

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Applications of AI
• Speech recognition • Recommendation systems
• Autonomous planning and • Web search engines
• scheduling • Autonomous cars
• Financial forecasting • Energy optimization
• Game playing, video games
• Question answering systems
• Spam filtering
• Social network analysis
• Logistics planning
• Robotics (household, surgery, • Medical diagnosis, imaging
• navigation) • Route finding
• Machine translation • Protein design
• Information extraction • Document summarization
• VLSI layout • Transportation/scheduling
• Automatic assembly • Computer animation
• Sentiment analysis
• Fraud detection
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Areas of Study in AI
• Reasoning, optimization, resource allocation
• planning, scheduling, real-time problem solving,
intelligent assistants, internet agents
• Natural Language Processing
• information retrieval, summarization, understanding,
generation, translation
• Vision
• image analysis, recognition, scene understanding
• Robotics
• grasping/manipulation, locomotion, motion planning,
mapping

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Where are we now?

• SKICAT: a system for automatically classifying the terabytes

of data from space telescopes and identifying interesting
objects in the sky. 94% classification accuracy, exceeds
human abilities.
• Deep Blue: the first computer program to defeat champion
Garry Kasparov.
• Pegasus: a speech understanding program that is a travel
agent (1-877-LCS-TALK).
• Jupiter: a weather information system (1-888-573-TALK)
• HipNav: a robot hip-replacement surgeon.

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Where Are We Now?
• Navlab: a Ford escort that steered itself from Washington
DC to San Diego 98% of the way on its own!
• google news: autonomous AI system that assembles “live”
newspaper
• DS1: a NASA spacecraft that did an autonomous flyby an
asteroid.
• Credit card fraud detection and loan approval
• Search engines: www.citeseer.com, automatic classification
and indexing of research papers.
• Proverb: solves NYT puzzles as well as the best humans.

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Surprises in AI research

• Tasks difficult for humans have turned out to be

“easy”
• Chess
• Checkers, Othello, Backgammon
• Logistics planning
• Airline scheduling
• Fraud detection
• Sorting mail
• Proving theorems
• Crossword puzzles

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Surprises in AI research

• Tasks easy for humans have turned out to be hard.

• Speech recognition
• Face recognition
• Composing music/art
• Autonomous navigation
• Motor activities (walking)
• Language understanding
• Common sense reasoning (example: how many legs
does a fish have?)

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Suggested readings
• Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 3rd
Edition Russell & Norvig, Chapter 1.

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