AC Technical
Reference
Content Page
Introduction ...................................... ACR 2
The AC motor ................................... ACR 3
Synchronous motors .............................. ACR 4
Induction (Asynchronous) motors ............ ACR 5
Stator ....................................................... ACR 5
Magnetic field ........................................ ACR 6
Rotor ........................................................ ACR 7
Torque, slip and speed ........................... ACR 7
Losses and efficiency ............................. ACR 9
Improper magnetization ......................... ACR 9
Equivalent diagram ............................... ACR 10
AFD Speed change ............................... ACR 11
Motor data ............................................. ACR 13
Types of load ........................................ ACR 15
The AFD .......................................... ACR 17
The rectifier ........................................... ACR 18
Uncontrolled rectifier ............................ ACR 19
Full-wave controlled rectifier ............... ACR 19
The intermediate circuit ....................... ACR 20
The inverter ........................................... ACR 21
Transistors ............................................ ACR 23
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) ..... ACR 24
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) ........... ACR 25
Danfoss VVC control principle ............. ACR 27
Harmonics and the rotating field ............ ACR 28
The control circuit ................................. ACR 30
The computer in general ...................... ACR 30
The computer of the AFD ..................... ACR 31
Inputs and outputs of the control card ACR 31
Serial communication ........................... ACR 31
Operational conditions of the motor ... ACR 34
Compensations ..................................... ACR 34
Motor torque characteristics ............... ACR 35
Choice of AFD size ............................... ACR 35
Load characteristics ............................. ACR 35
Power factor of the motor .................... ACR 37
Normal operational conditions ............. ACR 37
Operation ............................................... ACR 37
Motor speed control ............................. ACR 38
Acceleration and deceleration ............. ACR 38
Braking .................................................. ACR 38
Reversing .............................................. ACR 39
Ramps ................................................... ACR 39
Process monitoring .............................. ACR 40
Motor load and heating ........................ ACR 40
Efficiencies ............................................ ACR 41
Long motor cables ................................ ACR 42
Intermittent operation ........................... ACR 42
Parallel connection of motors .............. ACR 43
Hazardous locations ............................. ACR 43
Transformers and AFDs ....................... ACR 43
Protection under extreme
working conditions ......................... ACR 43
Electrical noise ...................................... ACR 44
Ways of emission .................................. ACR 44
AC line interference .............................. ACR 45
Transients/Overvoltages ...................... ACR 46
Radio frequency interference .............. ACR 46
Shielded cables .................................... ACR 47
Operational reliability ............................ ACR 47
Simple trouble shooting ....................... ACR 47
Fault indication ..................................... ACR 47
Fuses ..................................................... ACR 47
Short-circuits and ground faults .......... ACR 48
Influence of the supply mains .............. ACR 48
Considerations before buying .............. ACR 49
Appendix I: General
Mechanical theory .......................... ACR 50
Appendix II: General AC theory ........... ACR 52
Appendix III: Conversion table SI US .... ACR 55
Subject index ............................................. ACR56
ACR 1
 AC Technical Reference

Introduction
A static Adjustable Frequency Drive The induction motor is an important Advantages of variable
(AFD) is an electronic unit for speed element of production. That is why it speed control
control of AC motors. is so important to find the optimum The AFD controlled AC motor is used
The AFD controls the motor speed by method of motor speed control. in all kinds of automated plants. Apart
converting the frequency and voltage The AFD can be designed based on from optimizing the features of the AC
of the mains supply from fixed to various control principles. The motor, the variable speed control of
variable values. greatest development has been seen AC motors gives the following
Industry today increasingly demands within AFDs utilizing fixed DC voltage advantages:
automated plants and higher intermediate circuits, as shown in
Figure 1. This technical reference Energy saving
production speeds. Great efforts are
section deals primarily with this type Energy is saved as the motor speed
made to improve production
of AFD. is continuously matched to the
methods.
momentary demand. A good example
of this can be seen in pump and
ventilation equipment where the
Change of A.C.
motor speed power consumption is reduced by the
cube of the speed.
Process improvement
AFD without AFD with Speed control according to the
intermediate intermediate
circuit circuit production process offers several
advantages:
Production can be increased,
DC current DC voltage consumption of materials and the
intermediate intermediate
circuit circuit rejection rate can be reduced.
Improved quality
The number of starts/stops is
Cascade Pulse Pulse reduced. Unnecessarily harsh
couplings inverter inverter
operation of the machinery can
therefore be avoided.
Figure 1. Less maintenance
The AFD demands no maintenance.
Open or closed loop? With closed loop speed control a
feedback signal is returned from the Improved working environment
With open loop speed control a signal
which is expected to produce the process, as shown in Figure 2. If the The speed of conveyor belts can be
required speed is sent to the motor. speed does not correspond to the adapted to the working speed. In
requirements, the signal to the motor bottling plants the bottle noise is
is adjusted automatically until the reduced by adjusting the speed to
motor speed is as it should be. suit the production rate. In ventilation
applications the fan speed can be
matched to suit the demand so that
Control noise and drafts are avoided.

Regulation Controller

Feedback
Figure 2.

ACR 2
The AC Motor
Background
The first electric motor built in
1833 was a DC motor. It was
simple to control speed and to
meet the demands of various
applications.
In 1899, the first AC motor was
designed, The AC motor was
more simple and robust than
the DC motor. However, the
fixed speed and torque
characteristics of the first AC
motors have not been suitable
for all applications.
In the motor, the magnetic field
AC motors is placed in the stationary part
(stator). The conductors
influenced by the electro-
magnetic forces are located in
the rotating part (rotor).
Synchronous Induction AC motors can be divided up
into two types: induction and
synchronous motors. In
principle the stator works in the
Rotor with Slip ring rotor same way in both motor types.
salient poles
Squirrel cage They only distinguish
Full pole rotor
themselves in the way the rotors
are built up and are moving
according to the magnetic field.

AC motors convert electric
energy into mechanical energy by
means of electromagnetic induction.
The principle of electromagnetic
induction is: If a conductor is moving
across a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced. If the conductor is part of a
closed circuit , there will be a current
induced.
In motors, the induction principle is
utilized in “reverse order”: a live
conductor is placed in a magnetic
field. The conductor is influenced by a
force, which tries to move it through
the magnetic field., Figure 3.
AC Technical Reference
With synchronous motors the rotor
and the magnetic field are running at
the same speed; with induction
motors the rotor and the magnetic
field are running at different speeds.

N N
I
F
F

S S
I

F I I F
Generator principle Motor principle

Figure 3. Generator and motor principle.

ACR 3
 AC Technical Reference
Synchronous motors
The rotor of the synchronous motor
can be built up in different ways.
The rotor with salient poles consists
of magnets (Figure 4). The magnets
can either be permanent magnets (for
small motors) or electromagnets. The
rotor has two or more pairs of poles,
therefore it can also be used for low
speed motors. This type of
synchronous motor cannot start by
itself. This is due to the inertia of the
rotor and the high speed of the
Figure 4. Rotor with salient poles and its torque characteristic
Figure 5. Full pole rotor with stamped-out poles and its torque characteristic
ACR 4
rotating field. The rotor must be
accelerated up to the same speed as
the rotating magnetic field. This can
be done with a start motor or an AFD.
The full pole rotor has stamped out
slots on 2/3 of the rotor surface
(Figure 5). Together these stamped
out slots make up one pair of poles.
This motor type is often called a
reluctance motor. A reluctance motor
can be used for high speeds as well
as low speeds, and it can be self-
starting.
Torque
TK
0 n o Speed
Torque
TK
Tn
0 no Speed
The speed of the synchronous motor
is constant and independent of load.
The load on the synchronous motor
must be within the electromagnetic
force generated between the rotor
and the magnetic field. Higher loads
will break the synchronism and the
motor will stall.
For example, synchronous motors are
used for parallel synchronous
operation of several mechanically
independent machines.
Induction motors
The induction motor is the most
commonly used motor. It requires 5 4 3 2 10 9 2 1
practically no maintenance. A
standard design ensures that a
suitable supplier can always be found.
There are several types of induction
motors, but they all work according to
the same basic principle.

Stator
The stator and the rotor are the two
main parts of an induction motor.
The stator is the fixed part of the
motor. Mechanically it consists of: the

AC Technical Reference
-16.53

stator housing (1), ball bearings (2)

carrying the rotor (Figure 6), bearing
housing (3) closing the stator housing,
fan (4) cooling the motor and the fan
cover (5) protecting against the 29.17
6 7 3
rotating fan. Finally there is a housing
for the electrical connection (6).
In the stator housing is an iron core
(7) consisting of thin iron sheets
coated with a thin insulation. The Figure 6. The physical buildup of the asynchronous motor
three phase windings (8) are placed in
the grooves of the iron core. determines the speed of the rotating 360° 360°
= = 180°
The phase windings and the stator magnetic field (Table 1). When a number of poles 2
core must produce the magnetic field motor is operated at rated frequency, The interval between the starting
in a number of pole pairs. It is the the speed of the magnetic field is points of the coils is
number of pole pairs, which called the synchronous speed of the
motor No. 360° 360°
= = 120°
no. of phase windings 3
The phase windings consist of several
coils. The number is dependent on In four-pole motors the figures
10 9 1 7 8 360° 360°
the required pairs of poles. In two- are = 90° and = 60°
4 3×2
4 pole motors one coil covers

Number of Poles 2 4 6 8 12
10
No (RPM) 3,600 1,800 1,200 800 600

Table 1. The pole numbers of the motor vs. synchronous speed

Figure 7. The physical buildup of the
asynchronous motor

ACR 5
 AC Technical Reference

Magnetic field L1
The magnetic field rotates in the air L1
gap between the stator and the rotor. I1
A magnetic field is induced when one I1
of the phase windings is connected to
one of the phases of the supply voltage
(Figure 8). L3
I3
L1

I1 I2
I2

L2
L2

I I

I3
I1 I1 I2
I2

wt wt

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

0 120 180 300 360
I N S S N N
N N S S S N N

I1 1 Figure 9. Two phases give an Figure 10. One phase gives an

0 180 360
wt
N S N
Figure 8. One phase gives an
alternating field.
The magnetic field has a fixed
location in the stator core, but its
direction is varying. The rotational
speed of the magnetic field is
determined by the frequency of the
AC line. When the frequency is 60 Hz
the field changes direction 60 times
per second.
Two magnetic fields are produced in
the stator core when two phase
windings are connected to two
phases of the supply voltage at the
same time (Figure 9). In a two-pole
there is a 120° displacement
between the two fields. There is also
a time interval between the maximum
values of the two fields. That is how a
magnetic field is created which
rotates in the stator.
alternating field.
asymmetrical rotational field.
When the third phase has been the speed
connected there are three magnetic f x 120
fields in the stator core (Figure 10). n 0=
p
There is a 120° displacement
The speed is dependent on the
between the three phases.
number of poles of the motor (p=pole
The stator has now been connected pair) and the frequency of the supply
to the three-phase supply voltage. voltage. The figure below shows the
The magnetic fields of the individual size of the magnetic fields at three
phase windings make up a different time periods.
symmetrically rotating magnetic field.
When the magnetic field vector
This magnetic field is called the
rotates one revolution and is back to
rotating field of the motor.
its starting point, the vector tip will
The amplitude of the rotating field is have traced a complete circle. When
constant and equal to 1.5 x the we draw this field as a function of
maximum value of the individual time for any single location in the
alternating fields (Figure 11). It rotates at stator, we will see a sine curve for
any single location in the stator.
=3/2
max
= 3/2
=1/2 = 3 max
t max t 2 max =1/2
s max
t
=
max
=3/2
max
= = 3 =1/2
r max
r max r 2 max
s
=1/2
max

The field is asymmetrical until the

third phase is connected. Figure 11: The size of the magnetic field is constant.
ACR 6
Rotor
The rotor is mounted on the motor
shaft. The rotor, just like the stator, is
made of thin iron sheets with slots in
them. The rotor may be a slip ring
rotor or a squirrel cage rotor. These
rotors differ from each other, because
they have different “windings” in the
slots.
The slip ring rotor, like the stator,
consists of wound coils, which are
placed in the slots. There are coils for
each individual phase, and they are
connected to slip rings. If the slip
rings are short-circuited the rotor
works like a squirrel cage rotor.
The squirrel cage rotor has aluminium
rods cast into the slots. At each end
of the rotor the rods are short-
circuited with an aluminium ring.
The squirrel cage rotor is the most
common type. In principle the rotors
work in the same way. In the following
we will therefore deal with the squirrel
cage rotor only.
A rotor rod placed in the rotating field
is passed by magnetic poles
(Figure 12). The magnetic field of
each pole induces a current in the
rotor rod. The rod is thus influenced
N S
F F
S N
Figure 13. Induction in the rotor rods.
Figure 12. Operational field and rotor
by force, (F). The next pole passing
the rotor rod is of opposite polarity. It
induces a current in the opposite
direction of the first one. However, as
the direction of the magnetic field has
changed the force is still affecting the
rod in the same direction. If the whole
rotor is place in the rotating field all
the rotor rods are thus influenced by
forces making the rotor rotate. The
rotor speed (2) will not reach the
speed of the rotational field (1), as no
currents are induced in the rotor rods
where the speeds are the same
(Figure 13).
N T = k 1 × Φ × I = k11 × I (for s/s0 << 1)
1
2
S V = k 2 × (n0 - nn ) = k21 × s
Torque, slip and speed
Normally, the rotor speed nn is a little
lower than the speed of the rotational
field no.
f × 60
n n= × (1 - s)
p
s, which is the difference between the
speed of the rotating field and the
rotor is call the slip: s = no - nn.
The slip is often indicated in
percentage of the synchronous
speed:
s =
n 0- n n
× 100 [%]
n0
AC Technical Reference
Normally it is between 3 and 8
percent.
The force acting upon a conductor is
proportional with the magnetic field,
(Φ) and the current, (I) in the
conductor. In the rotor rods, voltage
is induced by the magnetic field.
Because of this voltage, a current, (I)
can flow in the short-circuited rotor
rods.
The various forces of the rotor rods
make up torque, (T) on the motor
shaft.
As the magnetic field can be
considered to be constant, the torque
is directly proportional with the
current in the rotor:
The voltage induced in the rotor can
be found in the following way:
In the rotor the current,
I = V = k 21 × s = k 22 × s
R R
arises, where R is the resistance in
the rotor.
ACR 7
 AC Technical Reference

There is direct proportionality between The torque can then be rewritten to: T
the torque output and the slip of the n max ,Tmax
T = F × r = HP × r = P × t × r
motor (for s/so << 1): T = k11 × I = k 3 × s d nx2xπxr

From the above, it can be seen that T = P × 5.25 n N ,TN

n
the motor torque is very much (for t = 60 seconds)
n 0, 0
0, T S
dependent on the resistance in the The formula shows the relation n
n0
0 1
rotor. The higher the resistance, the between the speed [RPM], the torque S 1 0
lower the torque. [lb.ft] and the motor output [HP].
S0

The current heat loss (-) in the rotor The formula gives a quick survey
increases with the square of the slip. when we compare n, T and P to the
I
2 values in a fixed working point.
(-) = V × I = R × I = k × s2 8 x IN
= R × k 22 × s × k 22 × s The working point is normally the
n N, I N
= k 4 × s2 rated operating point of the motor, 0, I S
the formula can thus be rewritten to:
A curve shows the relationship
between the motor torque and the Tr = Pr , and to Pr = Tr × nr , where
nr
speed (Figure 14). However, the 0 1 n0 , I0

characteristic is to some extent Tr = T , Pr = P , and n r = n S 1 0 n

Tn Pn nn S0 n0
dependent on how the rotor slots are
made. The constant 5.75 disappears in the
I = Current s = slip
formula. T = Torque n = speed
The motor torque expresses the force
or the “twist” arising on the motor Example: Load = 15% of rated value,
shaft. rotational speed = 50% of rated Figure 15. The current and torque
value. characteristic of the motor.
As an example, the force (F) applied to
a flywheel at the radius (r) yields a The output is 7.5% of rated output. n
In the range <0 the braking is
torque of T = F × r. The work W done Pr = 0.15 × 0.50 = 0.075. n0
by the motor can be calculated as Apart from the normal operational called plugging.
follows: W = F × d, where d is the range, the motor has two braking If two phases to a motor are suddenly
distance moved by force, (F). ranges. swapped over, the rotating field
d is the distance moved for a given changes direction of rotation.
n
load and n the number of revolutions: In the range n0
>1 the motor is Immediately after the rotational speed
d=n×2×π×r pulled over synchronous speed by the n
slip ratio, n0 will be equal to 1.
The work can also be expressed as load.
the power times the period where the Here the motor acts as a generator. The motor which was loaded with the
power is active: W = P × t. In this range the motor yields a torque TM will now brake with a
counter torque and power is braking torque. If the motor is not
transferred back to the AC line. disconnected when n = 0 it will
accelerate in the new rotational
direction of the magnetic field.
Torque
S = slip
n = speed n
In the range 0< <1 the motor will
n0

be operating in its normal working

range.
The operational range can be split up
into two ranges: the acceleration
range
F n n
r 0< < max
n0 n0
0 1 n n
0 and the operational range
s s 1 0
0
n max n
< <1
n0 n0
Figure 14. The motor torque is equal to “force × radius”
ACR 8
The important points of the working
range are: Ms is the starting torque of
the motor. It is the torque which the
motor produces, when it is connected
to rated voltage and rated frequency
at standstill.
Tmax is called the breakdown torque or
the maximum torque of the motor.
This is the highest torque which the
motor can yield, when it is connected
to nominal voltage and nominal
frequency. TN is the nominal torque of
the motor. The nominal values of the
motor are the mechanical and
electrical values for which the motor
has been designed according to
NEMA standards. These values are
stated on the name plate of the
motor, therefore they are also called
the rated values or rated data. The
rated motor values indicate where the
designed operational point of the
motor is, when it is connected direct
to the AC line.
Losses and efficiency
The motor draws electrical power
from the AC line, and at constant
load, this power is higher than the
mechanical motor output to the shaft
due to various losses in the motor.
The ratio of the shaft output power to
electrical power is called the efficiency
of the motor η=
P out
(Figure 16).
P in
The value is dependent on the motor
size and is typically between 0.7
and 0.9.
P in
Copper loss
Iron loss
Ventilation loss
Friction loss
Figure 16. Losses in the motor
The motor losses consist of:
The copper loss, which is the result
of the ohmic resistance in the stator
and rotor.
The iron loss, which consists of
hysteresis loss and eddy-current
loss. The hysteresis losses occur
when the iron is magnetized by an
alternating current.
The iron is magnetized and
demagnetized repeatedly, i.e. 120
times per second at a supply voltage
of 60 Hz. The magnetization and the
demagnetization requires energy.
These losses increase with the
frequency. Eddy-current losses occur
because the magnetic fields induce
electrical current in the iron core
(Figure 17). These currents generate
heat in the core. The currents flow in
circuits at right angles to the
magnetic field. The eddy-current
losses can be reduced substantially
by dividing the iron core up into thin
insulated sheets. This division
reduces the cross-sectional area
where the eddy-currents flow,
reducing eddy-current losses.
Figure 17. The eddy currents are
reduced by laminating the motor iron.
P out
Shaft
output
The ventilation loss occurs due to the
air resistance of the motor fan.
The friction losses result from losses
in the ball bearings holding the rotor.
In practice the motor efficiency is
determined by deducting the losses in
the motor from the electrical input
power. The electrical input power can
be measured and the losses can be
calculated or determined through
experiments.
Improper motor magnetization
A typical motor has been designed for
operation on the fixed voltage and
AC Technical Reference
frequency of the AC line. The motor
magnetization is determined by the
voltage/frequency ratio. If the voltage/
frequency ratio increases the motor
is over-magnetized. If the ratio
decreases the motor is under-
magnetized. Undermagnetization
weakens the magnetic field of the
motor. Therefore, the motor cannot
yield as much torque. As a result
the motor may not start or it stalls.
The starting time of the motor may
be extended to the point that it
is overheated.
An overmagnetized motor is
overloaded during operation and the
power consumed for the extra
magnetization is dissipated as heat in
the motor. Under worst conditions
this can result in insulation damage.
Alternating current motors and
especially induction motors are very
robust so it is not often that load
damages occur because of wrong
magnetization. The motor operation
will show if the magnetization is poor
(falling speed at varying load, unstable
or jerky motor operation etc.).
ACR 9
 AC Technical Reference

Equivalent diagram
In principle the induction motor L G G
L2 I1 I1 I’2
consists of six coils. Three coils in the LI X’ 2 LI
stator as well as the short-circuit L1
R1 R’ 1
rotor, which is magnetically acting as
X1 X’ 1
if it consisted of three coils (Figure
18). It is possible to make an
equivalent diagram using one set of L3
these coils. The diagram makes it
easier to understand how the motor
operates, for example, during times I1 R1 X1 X’ 2 R’2/s I’1
when the frequency of the supply L1
voltage is changed.
The current in the stator coil is not R Fe Xh
limited by the ohmic resistance of the
coil alone. In every coil connected to
AC voltage there is also some AC Figure 18. The equivalent diagram of the motor is for one phase
resistance.
This resistance is called the reactance In the equivalent diagram (Figure 20) when the motor is loaded. At no-load
XL = 2 × π × f × L, and it is measured the effect can be described through operation the slip s is small.
in ohm [Ω]. an increase of the rotor resistance R2’
1-s
f is the frequency, and 2 × π × f That means that R2’ × is high.
1 R 2’ s
therefore shows the current variation by the factor s s can be
per unit of time: ω [s-1]. L is the Therefore no current can flow in the
1-s rotor. That means that the resistor
inductance of the coil and it is rewritten to R 2’+ R2’ × where
s
measured in Henry [H]. The reactance representing the mechanical load
1-s could be removed from the equivalent
does not cause any energy losses. R2’ × shows the mechanical
s
But as it is dependent on the diagram under ideal conditions.
motor load. R2’ and X2’ represent the
frequency it will limit the active rotor only. When the motor is loaded the slip
current. 1-s
R2’ included in the load represents increases and R2’ × decreases.
s
The coils are loading each other with the heat loss arising in the rotor rods
magnetic induction G. The rotor coil The current I2’ in the rotor increases
induces some additional current in the with the load.
stator coil and so does the stator coil
in the rotor coil. Because of this
interaction the two electrical circuits R1 X1 X’ 2 R’2
I1 I’2
can be connected with a common Terminal
voltage
link. The common link consists of Rfe,
the transverse resistance, and Xh, the Induction R 2 1-s
s
R Fe X h voltage
transverse reactance. The current
necessary to magnetize the stator
and the rotor is flowing through these.
The voltage drop over the “transverse Figure 19. Equivalent diagram for a loaded motor.
link” is called the induction voltage.
Motor loading has not yet been taken R1 X1 X’ 2 R’2 R1 X1 X’ 2 R’2
I1 I1 I’2
into account (Figure 19).
When the motor is working in its
normal operational range the rotor R Fe Xh R Fe Xh
frequency is less than the frequency
of the rotational field. The rotor 1-s 1-s
S 0 : R2 s 00 S 1 : R2 s 0
inductance X2' is therefore reduced by
the factor s (slip).
Figure 20. Equivalent circuit at no-load operation and blocked rotor.

ACR 10
The equivalent circuit matches motor
conditions seen in practice. In most
cases it will therefore be possible to
describe the operation of an induction
motor on the basis of this diagram.
Sometimes the induction voltage is
mistaken for the terminal voltage of
the motor. The reason is that the
equivalent diagram is often simplified
to give a better assessment of the
motor conditions. It is only at no-load
operation that the induction voltage
corresponds to the terminal voltage.
The no-load current is much lower
than the load current. At no-load
operation, the voltage drop over R1
and X1 is therefore negligible.
When the load increases, the voltage
drop must be taken into account, as
I2 and I1, will be increasing with the
load. This is especially important
when the motor is controlled by an
AFD.
AFD speed change
The motor speed (Figure 21), n is
dependent on the rotational speed of
the magnetic field no, therefore, n can
be expressed as follows:
f × 60
n = n0 - ns = - ns
p
It is possible to change the motor
speed in three ways:
• changing the number of pole pairs p
• changing the slip ns
• changing the frequency f of the
supply mains
n=
Pole number
Rotor
Resistor Cascade coupling
Figure 21. Different ways of changing the motor speed
Pole number control
The rotational speed of the magnetic
field is determined by the number of
pole pairs of the stator (Figure 22). If
the motor is a two-pole motor, the
rotational speed of the magnetic field
is 3600 RPM, when the supply
frequency is 60 Hz. The speed of a
four-pole motor is 1800 RPM.
Torque
n2 n1
Speed
Figure 22. Torque characteristic when
changing the pole number
Motors can be designed for two
different numbers of pole pairs. The
difference is the way the stator
windings are put into the slots. This
can either be done as a Dahlander
winding or as two separate windings.
If a motor with three or four different
numbers of pole pairs is needed these
winding types are combined.
f x 60
p
- n8
Slip Frequency
Stator Voltage
AC Technical Reference
The speed change is done by
switching between the stator
windings so that the number of pole
pairs in the stator is changed.
The switching from the small number
of poles (high speed) to the large
number of poles (low speed) must be
conditioned with the actual motor
speed. If the change takes place too
early the motor torque runs through
the regenerative area, which can lead
to damages of both motor and
machine.
Slip control
Motor speed control by slip variation
can be accomplished in two ways.
Either by changing the supply voltage
of the stator or by making
modifications in the rotor.
Change of the stator voltage
It is possible to control the speed of
an induction motor by changing the
supply voltage without changing the
frequency. This is due to the fact that
the motor torque falls with the square
of the voltage.
ACR 11
 AC Technical Reference
Torque
Speed
Torque
Expanded
View
n4 n 3 n2 n N
Speed
Figure 23. Torque characteristic when
the stator voltage and the slip are
changed
Based on the torque characteristics
shown in Fig. 26 it is normally only
possible to obtain stable working
points in the working range (nmax < n <
no). When this method is used with a
slip ring motor it is also possible to
obtain stable working points in the
acceleration range (0 < n < nmax). This
is done by inserting resistors in the
rotor windings.
Rotor control
Changes in the rotor can be made in
two ways. One possibility is to insert
resistors in the rotor circuits. Another
possibility is to connect the rotor
circuits in cascade couplings with
other electrical machines or rectifier
circuits.
Change of rotor resistors
This version of motor speed control is
achieved by connecting the rotor slip
rings to resistors. The motor speed is
changed by increasing the power
losses in the rotor. Higher power
losses in the rotor increases the slip
and reduces the motor speed. The
motor torque characteristics change
when resistors are inserted in the
rotor circuit.
ACR 12
Torque
Speed
Figure 24. The torque characteristic
when the rotor resistors and the slip
are changed
From Figure 24, it can be seen that
maximum torque will remain the
same. The curve shows the speed
with different rotor resistor sizes
where the load is the same in all
settings. A set speed is very
dependent of the load. When the
load is removed from the motor the
speed always increases up to
synchronous speed. The resistors are
normally variable and it is very
important that the size is correct for
the operational conditions.
Cascade couplings
Here the rotor circuits (Figure 25) are
connected via slip rings to DC
machines or controlled rectifier
circuits instead of resistors.
The DC machine supplies the rotor
circuit of the motor with additional
variable voltage. In that way it is
possible to change the rotor speed
and the magnetization.
If controlled rectifier circuits are
connected instead of the resistors,
energy can be recovered.
M
3~
Figure 25. Typical cascade coupling
Frequency regulation
With a variable frequency supply it is
possible to control the motor speed
without any additional losses. The
rotational speed of the magnetic field
changes with the frequency
(Figure 26). The motor speed
changes proportionally with the
rotational speed of the magnetic field.
To maintain the motor torque the
motor voltage must change with the
frequency.
With a given load the following will
η × √3 × V × I × cos ϕ × 9.55
T = P × 9.55 = =k×V
n f
f × 60 (1 - s)
p
As V = k1 × f × Φ, the motor
magnetization Φ must be constant.
If the ratio between the voltage supply
and frequency is held constant, the
magnetization is also constant in the
whole operational range of the motor.
Torque
Speed
Figure 26. Motor characteristic at
voltage-frequency regulation
However, when starting and at the
very low frequencies, the magneti-
zation will not be optimum. Here extra
terminal voltage is required because
of the resistance of the stator. In
appli-cations with varying load it must
be possible to adjust the
magnetization according to the load.
Vs
R1 X1 X’ 2 R’2
I0
I1 I Fe I2
I
V1 1-s
R’ 2 s
Xh Vq R Fe
Figure 27. Equivalent diagram of the
motor
Extra start voltage Motor data 3-4. The stator windings can be
It is interesting to compare the voltage The motor has a nameplate on it connected in series or in parallel
drop Vs with the voltage drop Vq. (Figure 28). This plate contains (Figure 29).
Terminal voltage: V1 = Vs + Vq = VR1 + important information about the If the supply voltage is 460 V the
VX1 + Vq windings are connected in series.
In that case the motor current will
Stator reactance: X1 = 2 × π × L × f
3
be 29 A per phase.
The motor has been designed for its Frame Type Design Identification No.
1
2 326T P B
If the supply voltage is 230 V the
rated values. The magnetizing voltage HP 20
RPM 1770
Volts 230/460
Amps 50/29
Hz 60
S.F. 1.15
Phase 3
Code F
5
6
Amb.40°C Duty Cont. Encl. TEFC Ins.Class F windings are connected in
Vq can for example be 440 V for a 7 Low Volts High Volts
T4 T5 T6 T4 T5 T6 parallel. In that case the motor
motor, where V1 is 460V, and f = 60 T7 T8 T9 T7 T8 T9
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
current will be 50 A per phase.
Hz. Here the motor has its optimum NEMA Nom. Eff. 90.2 L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

magnetization. 4 When starting, the AC line could

be overloaded, because here the
The voltage-frequency ratio is
starting current is 5 to 8 times

AC Technical Reference
460
therefore 60
= 7.6 higher than the rated current.
If the frequency is reduced to 2.5 Hz
the voltage falls to 19 V. The low
frequency makes the stator reactance T T = Torque
Tn
X1 small (Figure 27). The reduced I
In
n = Speed
terminal voltage does not affect the Figure 28. The motor plate gives 3 T
total voltage drop in the stator. The much information I
voltage drop is now determined by R1
2
alone. It is approximately the same as motor.
with the rated values, about 25 V, as The nameplate of a 20 hp 4-pole
Ty
the motor current is determined by motor can for example contain the 1 Iy

the load. following information:

The terminal voltage corresponds to 1. It is a three-phase motor for an
the voltage drop over the stator AC line at 60 Hz. 0, 5 n
nN
resistor. There is no voltage to
2. The nominal motor output is 20 u u
magnetize the motor, therefore it
hp. This means that the motor I
cannot yield expected torque at the
can at least yield a shaft output I
low frequencies, if the voltage- I U
of 20 hp when connected to the 3
u
frequency ratio is held constant in the 3 3
AC line as shown.
whole range.
The rated outputs of induction Series Parallel
It is therefore necessary to
motors are put into standard
compensate for the voltage drop
ratings. This means that the user Figure 29. Motor torque and current,
during start and at low frequencies.
can choose between different star and delta connection
Load dependent voltage boost motor makes for a specific
When the motor is magnetized application.
properly, under the starting conditions Watts is also a unit for the output
it will be overmagnetized at lighter power of a motor. 1 hp =
loads. In that case the stator current I 746 watts.
and the induction voltage Vq are
falling. The motor will draw too much HP 1 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 75 100
blind current and overheat. To achieve
kW 0.75 1.5 2.2 4.0 5.5 7.5 11 15 22 30 37 45 55 75
optimum magnetization, automatic
voltage compensation to the motor Table 2. The motor power rating
load is required during both start and
as the load varies.
V M = V 1 + V s = V 1 + I 1 × R 1 + I1 × X 1 .

ACR 13
 AC Technical Reference
5. The motor enclosure indicates
the degree of protection against
penetration of liquids and
extraneous matter (Figure 30).
6. The full load current IRES drawn by
the motor can be divided into
two currents: an active current
IACT and a reactive current IREA.
Power factor is the ratio
expressing how much of the
current is active. The active
current is the one giving the shaft
output and the reactive current is
the one providing the necessary
output to build up the magnetic
field of the motor.
The total current IRES (Figure 31)
the motor draws from the AC line
is called the resulting current. It
cannot be calculated just by
adding the active and the
reactive currents. This is due to
the fact that there is a time
interval or phase angle between
the two currents. It is necessary
to use vector addition. Since the
phase angle between IREA and IACT
is 90, the following formula may
be used:
I RES = √ I ACT 2 + I REA 2
The currents can be regarded as
the sides in a right-angled
triangle, where the long side of
the triangle is equal to the square
root of the sum of the squares of
the short sides.
ϕ is the angle between the
resulting current and the active
current, and power factor is the
ratio between the values of the
two currents: power factor =
IACT/IRES. Power factor can also be
expressed as the ratio between
the active power P and the
apparent power S power factor.
(The term “apparent power”
means that only a portion of the
resulting current (IACT) generates
the power to be used) .
7. The nominal motor speed is the
motor speed at rated voltage,
rated frequency and rated load.
ACR 14
NEMA
Code Intended Use and Description
1 Indoor use, primarily to provide protection against contact with
the enclosed equipment and against a limited mount of falling dirt.
2 Indoor use to provide a degree of protection against limited
amounts of falling water and dirt.
3 Outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against wind-
blown dust and wind-blown rain; undamaged by the formation of
ice on the enclosure.
3R Outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against falling rain;
undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
3S Outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against wind-
blown dust, wind-blown rain, and sleet; external mechanisms
remain operable while ice laden.
4 Either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection
against falling rain, splashing water, and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
4X Either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection
against falling rain, splashing water, and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure; resists
corrosion.
6 Indoor or outdoor use to provide against the entry of water during
temporary, limited submersion; undamaged by the formation of
ice on the enclosure.
6P Indoor and outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against
the entry of water during prolonged submersion at limited depths.
11 Indoor use to provide by oil immersion, a degree of protection of
the enclosed equipment against the corrosion effects of corrosive
liquids and gases.
12, 12K Indoor use to provide a degree of protection against dust, dirt,
fiber flyings, dripping water, and external condensation of
noncorrosive liquids.
13 Indoor use to provide a degree of protection against lint, dust
seepage, external condensation, and spraying of water, oil, and
noncorrosive liquids.
Figure 30.
On the basis of the nameplate of the
motor it is also possible to calculate
other important motor data.
I RES
The rated motor torque can be found
I REA
with the formula
T×n
P=
9.55
I ACT P × 9.55 15000 × 9.55
T= = = 49 Nm
n 2910
Figure 31. Connection between the
The motor efficiency can be found as
resulting, the blind, and the active
the ratio between the nominal active
currents
power and the added electric power
and
 PE 15000 In general the slip is indicated in %,
η= = = 0.87
√3 × V × I × cos ϕ √3 × 380 × 29 × 0.9 therefore
The motor slip can be calculated, as ns 75
s= = = 0.03 = 3%
the motor nameplate contains ns 1,800
information about the nominal speed
A motor catalogue contains some of
along with the frequency. A 4-pole
the data stated on the motor
motor has a synchronous speed of
nameplate, but it is also possible to
1800 RPM. The slip is therefore
find other important data:
1800 - 1725 = 75 RPM.

At rated operation
Type Power Speed Effi- cos Current I st M M st M max Moment Weight
output ciency at I M M of
380 V inertia
kW r/min % A Nm kgm 2 kg

AC Technical Reference
160 MA 11 2900 86 0.87 25 6.2 36 2.3 2.6 0.055 76

160 M 15 2910 88 0.90 29 6.2 49 1.8 2.0 0.055 85

160 L 18.5 2930 88 0.90 33 6.2 60 2.8 3.0 0.056 96

Figure 32. Example from a motor catalogue

1
Types of load Torque Power

When the motor torque output is

v
equal to the load torque we have a
stable load. In such cases the torque T(n)~n -4
r
and the speed are constant.
Typical load types (Figure 33) are Speed Speed
characterized by the following speed
torque curves: 2
n Torque Power
1. Machines for winding material at r
constant material tension. This T(n)=k
group also includes veneer
m2 v
cutting machines and machine
m1
tools.
2. Conveyor belts, different kinds of Speed Speed

cranes and positive displacement

3
pumps etc. Torque Power
n
3. Smoothing machines, calendar T(n)~n
rollers and other machines for
v
material processing.
n
4. Machines working with
centrifugal forces, e.g. centrifugal Speed Speed

pumps and fans.

4
The stable load occurs when the Torque Power

motor torque is equal to the torque of

the working machine. This is n T(n)~n 2
indicated at point B.

Speed Speed
Figure 33. Typical load characteristics

ACR 15
 AC Technical Reference
When choosing a motor for a specific
machine the intersection point must
be as close as possible to the motors
full load torque to obtain optimum
motor utilization.
In the range from standstill to the
intersection point there must be a
surplus torque. If not, the operation
will be unstable and the stationary
load may stop low speed because
the surplus torque is used for
acceleration (Figure 34).
Torque
Speed
Figure 34. The motor must have a
surplus torque to accelerate
ACR 16
For applications as those found in
groups 1 and 2, it is necessary to pay
attention to the start situation. These
load types may require a high break-
away torque which could be equal to
the starting torque of the motor
(Figure 35).
If the break-away torque of the load
exceeds the starting torque of the
motor, the motor will not be able to
start.
Torque
Speed
Figure 35. Especially high torques
may be required when starting
The Adjustable
Frequency Drive
The AFD has developed
tremendously since the first unit was
launched at the end of the ’60s.
Today's advanced micro-processors
and semi-conductors have improved
the frequency converter substantially.
The frequency converter can be
divided up into four main components
(Figure 36):
1. The rectifier converts the three-
phase AC voltage from the
supply mains to a pulsating DC
voltage. There are two basic
types of rectifiers: the controlled
other type stabilizes the pulsating
DC voltage and sends this on to
the inverter. The third type of
intermediate circuit converts a
constant DC voltage from the
rectifier into a variable value.
3. The inverter controls the
frequency of the motor voltage.
One type of inverter also
converts the constant DC
voltage into a variable AC
voltage.
4. The electronics of the control
circuit can transmit signals to
The common characteristic of AFD
control circuits is that they transmit a
signal to the semiconductors of the
inverter to switch on or off. This
switching pattern is determined by
the design principle (Figure 37). AFDs
can be grouped according to the
switching pattern controlling the
motor power.

AC Technical Reference
and the uncontrolled rectifiers. both the rectifier, the
2. The intermediate circuit. There intermediate circuit and the
are three different types. One inverter. The parts to be
type converts the voltage of the controlled are dependent on the
rectifier into a DC current. The design of the AFD.

1. 2. 3.
Inter-
Rectifier mediate Inverter M
circuit

4. Control and regulation circuit

Figure 36. Simplified diagram of a frequency converter

ACR 17
 AC Technical Reference

The rectifier
The supply voltage is a three-phase
AC voltage with a fixed frequency
(e.g., 3 × 460 V, 60 Hz). Figure 38
shows some characteristic values.
It should be noted there is a time
delay between the three phases. The
1 2
phase current changes direction all
Rectifier the time based on the input
frequency. A frequency of 60 Hz
means that there are 60 periods (60 ×
3 4 5 t) per second. That means that one
Intermediate period is 16.66 msec.
Circuit
The rectifier of the AFD is either
constructed of diodes, thyristors or a
6 7 combination of these semi-
Inverter
conductors. A rectifier containing
diodes only is called an uncontrolled
Current Source Inverters CSI rectifier. If the rectifier consists
(1 + 3 + 6) exclusively of thyristors it is called a
full-wave controlled rectifier. A rectifier
Pulse-amplitude-modulated converters PAM
containing both diodes and thyristors
(1 + 4 + 7) (2 + 5 + 7)
is called a half-wave controlled
Pulse-width-modulated converters PWM/VVC rectifier. The half-wave controlled
(2 + 4 + 7) rectifier is not used very often in
AFDs.
Figure 37. Different control principles

V V

wt wt

a b a b= 1 T
3

Figure 38. Single- and three-phase AC voltage

ACR 18
Uncontrolled rectifier
The uncontrolled rectifier consists of
six diodes.
A diode permits current to flow in one
direction only: from anode to
cathode. If any attempt is made to
send current in the opposite direction,
a diode blocks current flow
(Figure 39).
With a diode it is not possible to
control the amount of current flow as
it is with other semi-conductors.
When an AC voltage is supplied to a
diode circuit, it becomes a pulsating
DC voltage. When a three-phase AC
voltage is connected to an
uncontrolled three-phase rectifier, the
DC voltage will still be pulsating.
Figure 40 shows that the uncontrolled
three-phase rectifier consists of two
groups of diodes. One group contains
diodes D1, D3 and D5; the other,
diodes D2, D4 and D6 . Each diode is
conducting 1/3 T (120°). The two
groups of diodes are conducting in
turns. The time interval between the
two groups is 1/6 T (60°).
In the groups of diode D1, D3 and D5
will be conducting the most positive
voltage. If the voltage in L1 is most
positive, then terminal A will have the
same value as L1. Above the two
other diodes there are reverse
voltages of the size VL1-2 and VL1-3.
The groups of diodes D2, D4 and D6
terminal B will have the most negative
voltage of the phases. Where phase
L3 has the most negative voltage then
diode 3 will be conductive. Above the
two other diodes there are reverse
voltages of the sizes VL3-1 and VL3-2.
The output voltage of the uncontrolled
rectifier is the difference between the
voltages of the two diode groups
(Figure 41). The average value of the
pulsating DC voltage is 1.35 × AC line
voltage.
V V
A C
wt wt
I
Figure 39. Mode of operation of the diode
V V
(A)
D1 D3 D5
L1
L2
AC Technical Reference
wt L3 wt
D2 D4 D6
(B)
Figure 40. The uncontrolled three-phase rectifier
Full-wave controlled rectifier
V
UA The full-wave controlled rectifier has
thyristors instead of diodes.
Just like the diode, the thyristor
wt permits the current to flow in one
direction only, from anode to cathode
UB (Figure 42). There is a difference,
however; a thyristor will only conduct
VA-B
current when the third terminal called
the “gate” receives an electric signal.
The thyristor will then conduct until
the current becomes zero.
A signal on the gate cannot stop the
wt current.
Thyristors are used in both rectifiers
Figure 41. The output voltage of the and inverters.
uncontrolled three-phase rectifier The signal on the gate is the control
signal of the thyristor and it is
designated α. α is a time delay stated
in degrees. The degree value
indicates the time delay from zero
crossing up to the point where the
thyristor must start conducting.
ACR 19
 AC Technical Reference

When it is between 0° and 90° the

V V
thyristor coupling is used as rectifier.
When it is between 90° and 300° the G
coupling is used as inverter. A C
- +
wt wt
The full-wave controlled three-phase
can be divided up into two groups of I
thyristors containing T1, T3 and T5 and
Figure 42. The mode of operation of the thyristor
thyristors T2, T4 and T6 respectively.
α is determined from the point where V V
the corresponding diode of an (A)
T1 T3 T5
uncontrolled rectifier starts
L1
conducting. This point is 30° after the
L2
zero crossing of the voltage. Other wt wt
L3
than this, the description follows that
T2 T4 T6
of the uncontrolled rectifier. (B)

V Figure 43. The full-wave controlled rectifier

VA

The intermediate circuit (Bus) The intermediate circuit shown

The intermediate circuit can be
wt regarded as the source, from where
the motor, through the inverter,
VB receives its energy. The intermediate
VA-B circuit can be built up according to
three different principles. The
intermediate circuit type used
depends on the type of rectifier and
inverter concerned.
(Figure 45) consists of a large coil.
This is used with a controlled rectifier
style design only. The coil converts
the variable voltage from the rectifier
into a variable DC current. The load
determines the level of the motor
voltage.
This type of intermediate circuit has
the advantage that braking energy is

wt

Figure 44. The output voltage of the V I

full-wave controlled three-phase
rectifier
The rectified voltage can be varied by
changing α (Figure 44). The full-wave
controlled rectifier supplies a DC t t
voltage of the following average value:
1.35 × AC line voltage × cos α.
Compared to the uncontrolled
Figure 45. Variable AC intermediate circuit
rectifier, the controlled rectifier
produces large disturbances and
V V
losses in the AC line. This is due to
the fact that the rectifier draws
current in short intervals. Thyristors
are typically applied only in the
inverter section of the AFD. The
advantage of the controlled rectifier is V t V t
that braking energy fed into the
intermediate circuit can be transferred
back to the AC line.
t t

Figure 46. Constant or variable voltage intermediate circuit

ACR 20
fed back to the AC line without the
use of extra components. V V
The intermediate circuit can also
consist of a filter containing one
capacitor and one coil (Figure 46).
This intermediate circuit can be t t
combined with both rectifier types.
The filter smooths the pulsating DC
voltage coming from the rectifier. If
the rectifier is controlled, the voltage Figure 47. Variable voltage intermediate circuit
is held constant at a given frequency.
The voltage led on to the inverter is V V
thus a smoothed DC voltage of a
variable amplitude.

If the rectifier is uncontrolled the
voltage on the input of the inverter
becomes a DC voltage with a
constant amplitude. With this type of
intermediate circuit bus the load
determines the size of motor current
drawn.
Finally, it is possible to insert a
chopper in front of a filter, as shown
in Figure 47. The chopper has a
transistor that alternately switches the
rectified DC voltage on and off. The
control circuit measures the variable
voltage behind the filter and
compares it with the input signal. If
there is a difference, the ratio
between ton (conducting) and toff
(blocking) is regulated. The DC
voltage becomes variable and the
size Vv depends on how long the
transistor is on:
ton
Vv = V ×
ton - toff
When the chopper transistor turns off,
the current the filter coil will create a
high voltage across the transistor. To
avoid this the chopper is protected by
a free-wheeling diode.
When the transistor turns on and off
as shown in Figure 48, the average
voltage will be highest in situation 2.
The filter of the intermediate circuit
bus smooths the square wave voltage
of the chopper. The capacitor and the
coil of the filter hold the voltage
constant at a given duty cycle.
t t
t off t off
t on
Situation 1
Figure 48. The chopper transistors vary the intermediate circuit voltage
The inverter
The inverter is the last module in the
AFD before the motor. Here the final
adaption of the output voltage takes
place. If the motor is connected direct
to the AC line the ideal working
conditions will be in the nominal
working point. The AFD provides
excellent operational conditions in the
whole control range, since the output
voltage is matched to the load
conditions. It is therefore possible to
hold a constant motor magnetization.
From the intermediate circuit the
inverter either receives
• a variable DC current
• a variable DC voltage
• a constant DC voltage
The inverter must convert the DC
intermediate circuits supply into an
AC supply for the motor. The inverter
can have additional functions: When
the inverter receives a variable current
or voltage the inverter must contribute
the frequency only. However, when
the voltage is constant the inverter
must control both the frequency and
the amplitude of the voltage.
AC Technical Reference
t on t on
t off
Situation 2
The design of inverters differs, but in
principle they are constructed in the
same way. The main components are
controlled semi-conductors placed in
three branches.
Today most inverter thyristors have
been replaced by transistors. The
advantage of transistors is that they
can change from conductive to non-
conductive condition at any time,
whereas thyristors do not change
condition until next time the current
through them goes through zero.
The switching frequency range of the
transistorized inverter can therefore
be extended significantly from 300 Hz
to 15 kHz.
The semiconductors of the inverter
turn on and off on the basis of signals
from the control circuit. The signals
can be controlled according to
different principles.
Generally inverters based upon
current control require more
components than inverters regulating
voltage.

ACR 21
 AC Technical Reference

This current sourced inverter consists

of six diodes, six thyristors and six
capacitors (Figure 49).
The capacitors must include the I I
necessary energy to turn off the
thyristors. The size of the capacitors
and thyristors must be in accordance
with the motor size. The capacitors t t
permit the thyristors to switch so that
the DC current flow 120° displaced in
the phase windings. When the motor
terminals periodically are supplied
with the current in turns U-V, V-W, W-
Figure 49. Inverter for variable intermediate circuit current
U, U-V...., an intermittent rotational
field with the required frequency is
I
produced. The motor currents are
square-waved, but the motor voltage
will be sinusoidal. However, there will
be voltage peaks each time the
t
current is switched in or out.
The diodes isolate the capacitors V
I
from the motor load current.
The inverter (Figure 50) consists of six
V t
thyristors or transistors. In principle
the function is the same regardless of t
the type of semi-conductor you see.
t I
The control circuit turns the semi-
conductors on and off according to
different principles and they are thus
varying the output frequency.
t
The intervals of conduction of the
inverters semi-conductors form a
pattern, which is repeated Figure 50. Inverter for variable or constant intermediate circuit voltage
continuously.
The switching pattern of the semi-
conductors is controlled by the size of (Figure 51). Traditionally the control
V V
the variable voltage. The most circuit establishes the turn-on and
common ones are produced by a turn-off times of the semi-conductors
switching pattern of either 6 or 18 as the intersection points between a
pulses. A voltage controlled oscillator PAM t PWM t triangular voltage and a sine-shaped
will always make the frequency follow reference voltage (sine controlled
the amplitude of the voltage. This Figure 51. Modulation of pulse PWM).
principle of inverter control is called amplitude or width There are other ways of establishing
Pulse Amplitude Modulation the turn-on and turn-off times of the
(Figure 51). intermediate circuit voltage for shorter semi-conductors. In the Danfoss
or longer periods. The frequency is Voltage Vector Controlled AFD the
Another principle applies a fixed
controlled by applying positive pulses optimum switching times for the
intermediate circuit voltage. The
in one half-period and negative pulses semi-conductors of the inverters are
motor voltage is made variable as the
in the next half-period. This principle calculated by means of built-in micro
motor windings are applied with the
also varies the width of the voltage processors.
pulses, called Pulse Width Modulation

ACR 22
Transistors
Transistors can be made for high
voltages and high switching
frequencies. They can replace the
thyristors previously used in the
inverter of the AFD. Contrary to both
the thyristor and the diode the
transistor is independent of the zero-
crossing of the current. The transistor
can be changed from conducting to
non-conducting condition at any time.
The upper limit of the switching
frequency is now several hundred
The high frequency transistors can be input and the bipolar transistors' best
grouped as follows: features on the output.
• bipolar, including Darlington Figures 53 and 54 show the most
transistors important differences.
• MOS-FET The IGBT transistors are well suited
• IGBT for AFDs. The primary benefits are
The IGBT transistor is a combination the power range, the good
of the bipolar transistor and the MOS- conductive features, the high
FET transistors. It has the MOS-FET switching frequency and the simple
transistors' desired features on the control.
Semi-conductor
MOS-FET IGBT Bi-Polar
Feature

kilohertz. The acoustic noise

AC Technical Reference
produced because of the “pulse”
Symbol
magnetization of the motor can be
avoided.
High switching frequency also has the
E G E S G S B E
advantage that the modulation of the
output voltage of the frequency N+ N+ N+ N+ N+ N+
inverter is very flexible. A near perfect Configuration P P P
motor current waveform is obtained N- N- N-
through a special switching pattern P+ N+ P+

for the inverter transistors (Figure 52).

The switching frequency of the Conductivity
inverter is a compromise between the Current conductance Low High High
Losses High Small Small
losses in the motor due to motor
current distortion and the losses in Blocking voltage
the inverter. When the switching Upper limit Low High Medium
frequency increases the losses in the
inverter will increase by the number of Switching conditions
semiconductor switchings. Turn-on time Short Medium Medium
Turn-off time Short Medium Short
Losses Small Medium Large

Control conditions
In
Power Low Low High
Method Voltage Voltage Current

f p =1,5 kHz
0 Figure 53. Comparison between different power transistors
KVA

f p =3 kHz Bi-Polar
0
IGBT

f p =12 kHz
0

MOS-FET

t
kHz
Figure 52. How the switching
frequency affects the motor current Figure 54. Power and frequency range of power transistors

ACR 23
 AC Technical Reference

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

(PAM) P1 P1 P2

The amplitude of the output voltage is T1

P2 P4 P5 P6
either varied by the intermediate P3
T2
circuit chopper or by the input P3 P7 P8

rectifier, and the frequency is varied T3

P4 P10 P11 P9
by the inverter. T4
P5
A normal output signal is made up of P13 P14 P15 P12
T5
6 or 18 pulses per period. P6 P16 P17 P18
T6
A 6-pulse switching pattern means
that each of the six semiconductors
of the inverter is controlled with one
pulse per period. With an 18-pulse UT
1
UT
1
switching pattern each UT UT
2 2
semiconductor is controlled with
three pulses per period. UT UT
3 3

The voltages between the output UT

4
UT
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
terminals U, V and W of the AFD
depend on the pattern controlling the VU-V VU-V
semiconductors of the inverter.
In the following diagram (Figure 55)
we look at two inverter branches to
t t
find the voltage between the terminals
U and V. The voltages between V and
W as well as between W and U can t1 t2 18 t 1 t2 t1
be found in the same way. It is the t1 t1
semiconductors T1, T2, T3 and T4 that t2
result in the voltage between t2 t1 t1 t2

terminals U and V. The

semiconductors work like contacts 6-pulse modulation 18-pulse modulation

cutting the intermediate circuit voltage

Figure 55.
Um on and off.
In the example shown (Figure 56), T2 open and there is a voltage across • The voltage between U and V is U -
and T3 are conductive. That means them. V = - V = Um
that the semiconductors are turned • The voltage between U and “–” is When we look at the 6-pulse and the
on with a control signal and that the zero 18-pulse patterns this way the output
voltage across them is zero. T1 and T4 voltages of terminals U - V will be as
• The voltage between V and “–” is
are turned off. They do not receive shown on Fig. 62.
equal to - Um
any control signal. The contacts are It can be seen that the output
voltages are pulses of the amplitude
U-
Vm. The duration of the pulses is
characterized by two time intervals t1
and t2, where t2 = 2 × t1.
+ t
The actual value of the output voltage
V-
T4 T3
can be calculated as the square root
of the ratio between the area covered
t
Um U V by the pulses and the area of the
whole period.
U-V
T2 V V T4

-
t

Figure 56. The semi-conductors of the inverter work like switches

ACR 24
For the 6-pulse pattern Vact can be
calculated as:

VACT = √ Vm 2 × 2 × t 1 = Vm × 0.816
3 × t1

For the 18-pulse pattern:

VACT = √ Vm 2 × 24 × t 1 = Vm × 0.816
36 × t 1
18-pulse modulation 6-pulse modulation
For both pulse patterns the active
value of the output voltage is 86.6% of
Figure 57. The motor current is more sine-shaped with an 18-pulse signal
the intermediate circuit voltage. This
means that the intermediate circuit Pulse-Width-
voltage must be higher than the active Modulation (PWM) Vs
Vs Vs Vs
value of the supply mains.
The inverter varies both the

AC Technical Reference
The non-sinusoidal output voltages amplitude and the
have some side effect on the motor frequency of the output wt
operation: voltage. The control
• Cogging torques principle is working with a
V1
• Increased heat losses sine-shaped reference
voltage for each AFD
Both side effects are due to the fact
output. The three reference
that the motor is supplied with pulse wt
voltages Vs1, Vs2 and Vs3 V2
voltages instead of sinusoidal voltages.
are supplied with a
Every periodic voltage can be split up triangular voltage. The
into a number of sine voltages with semiconductors turn on or wt
different amplitudes and frequencies off, where the triangular
(harmonic voltages). voltage and the sine
The total torque is only slightly reference intersect each
disturbed by the harmonic frequencies other (Figure 58). V 1 -V 2

because the motor cannot effectively The electronics of the

convert the high frequency voltages to
torques. This can be observed on the
motor current, it is more sine-shaped
than the motor voltage.
Because of the increased heat loss the
motor windings are loaded more than
they should. The total heat loss must
not exceed what the motor is able to
withstand. Therefore the motor must
not be loaded 100% all the time.
Should an application require 100%
continuously, a larger motor must be
installed.
The difference between a 6- and 18-
pulse pattern is that the 18-pulse
pattern substantially reduces the side-
effects from harmonic voltages and
currents. This is clearly seen when
comparing the motor currents
(Figure 57). The more sine-shaped the
motor current the less the harmonic
currents affect the motor operation.
control card compares the
intersection points. The
output pulse is negative
where the triangular
voltage is higher than the
sine-shaped voltage and Figure 58. The principle of the sine-controlled PWM
positive where it is lower.
The maximum output
voltage of the AFD is thus determined
by the intermediate circuit bus
voltage. The output voltage
(Figure 59) is controlled by applying
the intermediate circuit bus voltage to
the motor for shorter or longer
periods.
The output frequency is controlled by
applying positive pulses in one half-
period and negative pulses in the next
half-period. The amplitude of the
negative and positive voltage pulses
from line to neutral positions within
the motor will be equal to half of the
intermediate circuit voltage.
wt
The switching frequency affects the
audible motor noise. Semiconductors,
and their high frequency switching
rates, have allowed the audible noise
to be reduced substantially. Using
these advanced semiconductors it is
possible to achieve almost sinusoidal
output current.
A PWM AFD using an entirely
sinusoidal reference modulation can
only yield up to 86.6% of rated
voltage.
The intermediate circuit voltage Vm is
equal to √2 times the supply voltage.
The line to neutral voltage seen by the
motor is equal to half of the
ACR 25
 AC Technical Reference

intermediate circuit voltage divided by

Motor voltage / Mains voltage √2. It is thus equal to half of the AC
1,00 line voltage. The line to line voltage of
0,50 the output terminals is equal to √3
U-V V-W W-U times the line neutral voltage, that is
0.866 times the AC line.
0,50
It is possible to increase the output
voltage of the AFD to a higher value
than that obtainable with the pure
0,00 sine modulation.
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
The traditional way of obtaining the
additional voltage is to reduce the
number of pulses, when the
-0,50
frequency exceeds about 40 Hz. This
method has the disadvantage that
there is a step voltage change. That
causes an unstable motor current.
-1,00 Switching pattern for phase U
When the number of pulses is
Phase voltage (0-point=half intermediate circuit voltage) reduced, the content of harmonics on
Phase-phase voltage to the motor the AFD output increases and so do
the motor losses.
Figure 59. The output voltage at PWM Another method is to use other
Vs
reference voltages instead of the
three sine references Vs1-3. These
1 could for example be trapezoid
voltages, step-shaped voltages or
voltages with some other waveform.
It is relatively easy to produce a
0 wt
reference voltage which utilizes the
third harmonic of the sine reference
(Figure 60). By adding some third
harmonic voltage the voltage to the
Vs
motor can be increased up to 15.5%.

1
0.866

0.166
0 wt

Vs

1.155
1

0 wt

Figure 60. The output voltage can be increased by utilizing the third harmonic
ACR 26
The Danfoss VVC
Motor voltage / AC line voltage
control principle
1,00
The Danfoss AFD VVC inverter controls
both the amplitude and the frequency U-V V-W W-U

of the output voltage (Figure 61).

The control circuit uses a mathematical 0,50
model which calculates two different
factors:
• The optimum switching times for the
0,00
semiconductors of the inverter 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
• The optimum motor magnetization at
varying load (see “compensation
possibilities”). -0,50
The principle for the switching times

AC Technical Reference
works as follows:
• the numerically largest phase is for a
-1,00
1/6 sine period held fixed on the Switching pattern for phase U
positive or negative potential.
Phase voltage (0-point=half intermediate circuit voltage)
• the two other phases are varied so
Phase-phase voltage to the motor
that the resulting output voltage is
entirely sinusoidal and of the correct
amplitude. Figure 61. The full output voltage can be obtained with Danfoss VVC
control principle
Full rated motor voltage is ensured. It is
not necessary to overmodulate to
utilize the third harmonic. The motor The optimum motor magnetization is
current is entirely sinusoidal and the achieved, because the AFD models
motor performance is the same as AC the motor constants R1 and X1 and
line operation. adapts them to the different motor
sizes. The AFD calculates the
Address optimum output voltage on the basis
Registers calculator Multiplicator
of these data. As the AFD measures
Data the load current continuously, it can
bus
change the output voltage according
Timer to the load.
The motor magnetization is matched
to the motor and it compensates the
Sequence
control load changes.
T1 Unlike the sine controlled PWM
T2 principle the VVC control principle is
T3
based on digital production of the
T4
T5
desired output voltage.
T6 The VVC principle is integrated in an
Application Specific Integrated Circuit
(ASIC) circuit of the VLT's AFD.
Semi-conductor 0-60 60-120 120-180 180-240 240-300 300-360
T1 t1 T t2 T-t 1 0 T-t 2
The VVC design
T3 0 T-t 2 t1 T t2 T-t 1
The VVC design includes a number of
T5 t2 T-t 1 0
different functions:
T-t 2 0 T
T2 T-t 1 0 T-t 2 t1 T t2 Registers including the data, which
T4 T t2 T-t 1 0 T-t 2 t1 the micro processor of the computer
T6 T-t 2 t1 T t2 T-t 1 0
transmits to the circuit over the
data bus.
Figure 62. The buildup of the VVC design
ACR 27
 AC Technical Reference
Address calculator, calculating
the address for a cosine table,
which is placed in a ROM
memory.
Multiplicator, which calculates
the product of the amplitude
and the value requested from
the cosine table. For each
calculation interval the
multiplicator calculates two
values t1 and t2 being cut-in
times for the inverter
semiconductors.
Timer converting t1 and t2 to
control signals.
Sequence controller distributing
the control signals on the
outputs of the circuit 1-6
according to the chart in
Figure 62.
From the chart it can be seen
that semiconductor T4 is held
fixed on the negative potential
while semiconductors T1 and T5
are modulating the sine shape.
In the next interval T1 is held
fixed on the positive potential
while semiconductors T4 and T6
are modulating the sine shape.
t1 is the period, where
semiconductor T1 is activated
and is switching to +.
t2 is the corresponding period
for semiconductor T5.
An addition of the phase
voltages will show that the
voltage between the output
terminals of the AFD reaches
its rated value and that it is
entirely sine-shaped. It is not
necessary to over-modulate
and to use the third harmonic
(Figure 63).
-1.0
Figure 63. VVC control gives full output voltage
ACR 28
Harmonics and the
T1 t1 rotational field
AC motors have been
wt designed for sine-shaped AC
T2 T-t1
voltages and currents. That
wt
the motor can still be driven
by square pulse voltages due
T3 0
to the fact that all periodic
voltages can be split up into
wt
T4 T several sine voltages. These
wt sine voltages have different
frequencies and amplitudes.
T5 t2 The motor will be driven by
the dominant sine-voltage
wt (Figure 64.
T6 T-t 2
If the output voltage of the
wt
AFD is not sinusoidal the
motor will receive
overharmonic voltages in
addition to the voltage of the
required frequency
U-O V-O W-U
(fundamental frequency or
0.5
the 1st harmonic).
The harmonic frequencies
are 5, 7, 11 and 13 times
wt higher than the fundamental
frequency and their
amplitudes are decreasing
with increasing frequency
(Figure 65).
The harmonic frequencies
cause torque pulsations
cogging, vibration, increased
U+V V-W W+U
1.0
audible noise, reduced motor
efficiency and increased heat
losses in the motor.
These disadvantages are
especially significant at low
speeds. Around the rated
motor speed the harmonic
frequencies do not have
much influence and none at
0 wt
all when the speed is
increased to 1.5 times the
rated value. This is due to the
fact that the harmonic
frequencies are so high here,
that they are reduced by the
reactances of the motor
windings.
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
 V
The ratio between the different
harmonics can be shown in a system
V1
of co-ordinates. The X-axis shows the
V frequency of the harmonic and the Y-
axis shows the amplitude of the
harmonic in relation to the amplitude
1/5 V1 V5 V7
of the first harmonic A1.
The harmonics affect the rotational
wt
field of the motor. It is possible to
measure the quality of the different
switching patterns. A vector analyzer
generates a picture of the operational
field on the basis of the stator current
and stator voltage. This picture can
be displayed on an oscilloscope.
Figure 68 shows the rotational fields
for a motor connected to a 6-pulse
PAM-AFD, an 18-pulse PAM-AFD, a
PWM-AFD and a VVC-AFD,
respectively.

AC Technical Reference
Figure 64. The harmonic number
indicates how many times its
frequency is higher than the basic
frequency

With the sine-controlled PWM it is

especially important to take into
account that the amount of harmonic 6-puls PAM 18-puls PAM
frequencies depends on the ratio
between the frequency of the
triangular voltage and the frequency
of the sine voltage. If the ratio
between the two frequencies is 6
then the fifth and the seventh
harmonic will have a high amplitude. If
the ratio is 15, then the thirteenth and
the seventeenth harmonic will be
high. The ratio between the
frequencies should therefore be high
and divisible by three. All harmonics
with a frequency divisible by three are
eliminated in a three-phase system. PWM VVC
Figure 66. The rotational field of the motor can be displayed on an oscilloscope

An An
The diameter of the circle indicates
A1 A1 the strength of the magnetic field.
The uniformity of the circle indicates
1,0 1,0
how well the AFD controls the
Ratio of fundamental harmonic amps

Ratio of fundamental harmonic amps

magnetization. The edges on the

picture displayed indicates how will
AFD does not manage the deviates
0,5 0,5
from a circle. The motor operation will
be unstable and cogging torques will
increase.

0,1 0,1

1 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 29 31 35 37 1 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 29 31 35 37
n n
Harmonic number Harmonic number

Figure 65. The harmonic amplitudes at 6-pulse and 18-pulse signals

ACR 29
 AC Technical Reference
The control circuit
The control circuit is the fourth main
block of the AFD. The control circuit
is handling two things: It controls the
semiconductors of the AFD and it
receives signals from surrounding
equipment to the AFD and transmits
signals from the AFD to other
equipment (Figure 67). Such signals
may be from an operator at a control
panel or from a PLC control.
For many years the control of the AFD
was based on the analog technique.
However, today the AFD uses micro
electronics incorporating digital data
processing.
Today's advanced technique has
reduced the calculating functions of
the control circuit substantially. It is
now possible to store the pulse
patterns for the semiconductors of
the inverter in a data memory.
The microprocessor built into the AFD
calculates the optimum pulse pattern
for the motor used. The figure shows
a PAM controlled AFD with an
intermediate circuit chopper. The
control circuit controls the chopper
and the inverter. This is done on the
basis of the instantaneous value of
the intermediate circuit voltage.
Control circuit for
chopper frequency
PI voltage
regulator
Figure 67. Control circuit principle for a chopper-controlled intermediate circuit
ACR 30
The intermediate circuit voltage
controls the address counter for the
data memory. This memory contains
the pulse pattern output sequence for
the semiconductors of the inverter.
The address counting speed follows
the intermediate circuit voltage. With
increasing intermediate circuit voltage
the sequence is run through faster
and the output frequency of the AFD
increases.
For the chopper control the
intermediate circuit voltage is first
compared with the set reference
signal. The reference signal is a
voltage signal, which is expected to
give the correct output voltage and
frequency. Any difference between
the reference and intermediate circuit
signals will cause a PI controller to
change the chopper frequency. The
intermediate circuit voltage is
constantly matched to the reference
signal.
The computer in general
The microprocessor consists of three
basic units, each with individual
functions (Figure 68).
Sequence
generator
V transfers data between the units. The
f
Data bus
Microprocessor
Address bus
Ram Rom I/O
Control bus
Figure 68. The principle build up of
the computer
The microprocessor is the heart of the
computer. If the processor is supplied
with the right sequence of instructions
(program), it can execute a number of
functions on data stored in the
computer memory. The
microprocessor interacts with units
according to the program entered.
The memory must store both the
program and the various data.
The program can be stored in circuits
of an EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory).
An EPROM does not lose its contents
in case of voltage loss. The
information in an EPROM can only be
erased by exposure to ultra-violet
light. The microprocessor may only
read information, not programmed
information in the EPROM. Random
Access Memory (RAM) will not retain
data after a voltage loss.
RAM is where the microprocessor
temporarily stores data during
operation.
The third section is the I/O which
contains the Inputs and Outputs the
computer needs to communicate
with. Peripheral equipment I/Os
provide connections to control
panels, printers or other electronic
equipment in the system.
A bus is a number of parallel
conductors linking the units together
as a working computer. The data bus
address bus signals from where the
data must be taken and to where they
must be delivered. The control bus
insures that the data is transferred in
the right order.
The AFD’s computer
In addition to the three units
mentioned previously the computer of
the AFD (Figure 69) also comprises a
memory which makes it possible for
the user to program. This memory is
an EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory). It
can be programmed and
reprogrammed electrically. When the
AFD must be programmed for a
specific function an EEPROM is used
so the information is not lost.
The computer of the AFD also
Inputs and outputs of the
control card
The number of inputs and outputs is
dependent on the application type.
AFD in automated applications must
for example be able to receive analog
and digital control signals (Figure 70).
• Analog signals can have any value
within a specific range
• Digital signals can have two values
only (ON and OFF)
There are no set standards for control
signals; however, some signals are so
widely used that they can be
Serial communication
In a working process the AFD is an
active part of the equipment. It is
either installed in a system without
feedback (control) or in a system with
feedback (regulation) from the
process.
A system without feedback can be
built up with one single
potentiometer. A system with
feedback is more demanding and
often includes a programmable logic
controller (PLC).
The PLC may deliver control (speed)

AC Technical Reference
includes an ASIC (Application Specific regarded as such. An example of and command signals (start, stop,

Integrated Circuit). The ASIC is an
integrated circuit where its functions
are specified by the AFD's designer.
An example of such a design would
be the Danfoss VVC control principle.
Data bus
Microprocessor
these “standard” analog signals
would be 0–10 V or 4–20 mA.
The digital outputs of a PLC must
electrically match the digital inputs of
the AFD. Typically these digital signals
are a nominal 24 VDC.
RDS 20 DC Controls
and reversing).
The output signals of the AFD, e.g.
motor current or motor frequency, are
often used in conjunction with panel
meter, read out display, etc.
A PLC system (Figure 71) consists of
three basic components:
• central unit
• input and output modules

Address bus
• programming unit
Menu +

Data –
RAM EPROM EEPROM VVC Alarm On
Operation
Jog Fwd.
Rev.
indication
Stop
Start
Reset

Control bus Central

Digital I/O In Out
unit
Power
section

Analog I/O

Figure 69. The computer of the AFD

Figure 71. The principle build up of

the PLC
V V
A control program is entered into the
central unit by means of the
programming unit. The central unit
“sorts” the input signals and activates
the output signals according to the
program. The central unit can only
process digital signals internally
t t (Figure 72). That means signals
changing between two values, e.g. 24
Figure 70. Analog signal and digital signal V and 0 V. The high voltage can either
be stated as “1” or “ON” and the low
voltage as “0” or “OFF”.

ACR 31
 AC Technical Reference

V both transmit and receive data. To ensure that units of different makes
Another principle makes it possible can “pick up” the serial signal all the
for several units to communicate over units must have a common signal level.
1
two wires only. Here it is possible to There are various standards des-
connect several receivers but only cribing the common signal levels.
0 one sender. A third principle makes it These standards only comply to inter-
t possible for all the connected units connections, the information sent
both to send and to receive data over over these connections is determined
Figure 72. The digital signal can be
two wires. The communication link by the software. Both the
“ON” or “OFF” for short or long
between them is called a bus. interconnection and the software
intervals of time

Basically an AFD and a PLC can be

linked together in two ways: Stan- Number Max.
Principle dard of units di- Number Signal
One method is to connect the inputs (appli- per set stance of wires lever
cation) of wire ft.
and outputs of the PLC using
separate wires to the inputs and Duplex:
RS 232 1 trans- min. 3
outputs of the AFD. The inputs and (point mitter 49.5
+ various ±5 V min.
outputs of the PLC thus replace the to 1 moni- ±15 V max.
point) receiver toring
separate components such as signals
potentiometers, control contacts and Duplex:
displays. The other method RS 423 1 trans- min. 3
(Figure 73) is to transfer several (point mitter 3960 + various ±3,6 V min.
to 10 moni- ±6 V max.
signals at different times over one pair point) receivers toring
signals
of conductors. Information A is
transferred during time interval t1 to t2
RS 422 1 trans-
and information B is transferred from (point mitter 3960 Duplex: ±2 V min.
t2 to t3 etc. This form of signal to 10 4
point) receivers
transmission is called serial
communication.
32 trans-
The principle to be chosen for serial RS 485 mitters Semi
3960 duplex: ±1,5 V min.
communication depends on the kind (Bus) 32
2
receivers
of communication required and the
number of units connected
: transmitter
(Figure 74). One principle demands : receiver Figure 74. Standards for serial connections
many conductors, if each unit must

must be compatible for successful

A A B C D operation.
To date, RS 232 has been the most
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 common hardware standard. The
use of it, however, is limited because
S of the short transmission distance
S S and low transmission speed. RS 232
is mainly used where signals must be
DID

DID
DIA

AID

PLC transmitted periodically, for example

with terminals and printers.
A A A D
S S S RS 422 and 423 are suited for long
transmission distances and higher
transmission speeds. They are suited
PLC for process automation, where the
S
signal transmission is more
continuous.
Figure 73. Serial communication ensures faster signal transmission, simplified
installation
ACR 32
RS 485 is the only standard where it
is possible to link multiple units
together for operation over a common
pair of wires. The units transmit data
in turns over the common wire
connection (the bus).
In the communication between PLC
and AFD there are three types of
signals (Figure 75):
Control
Status
PLC
Alarm
Figure 75. Three signal types
between PLC and AFD
Figure 76. The bus provides many new possibilities for application design.
• control signals (speed change,
start/stop, reversing)
• status signals (motor current, motor
frequency, frequency reached)
• alarm signals (motor stopped, over
temperature)
The AFD controls the motor
according to the signals received
from the PLC. The AFD transmits
information to the PLC about how the
control signals affect the motor/
process (status signals). If the AFDs
stops because of abnormal
operational conditions it transmits an
AC Technical Reference
alarm signal to the PLC.
RDS 20 DC Controls
RS 485 makes it possible to design
process systems in different ways.
For example, the PLC can be placed
in a panel and control many AFDs in a
remote panel (Figure 76).
PLC
RS 485
ACR 33
 AC Technical Reference

AFD and motor

Operational conditions of the
motor
Compensations
Prior to the VLT series it was difficult
to adapt the AFD to the motor.
It is easier today however because
the VLT AFD is able to set start
voltage, start compensation and slip
compensation automatically based
upon the motor ratings.
With most AFDs it is also possible to
change these compensation settings
manually.
Start compensation and start
voltage
The purpose of these two
compensations is to ensure optimum
magnetization and maximum torque
at start and low speeds. This is done
by adding extra output voltage. In this
way the ohmic resistance in the motor
windings at the low frequencies, is
compensated for.
Start compensation is a load
dependent voltage, whereas the start
voltage is independent of the load.
If the motor is much smaller than the
recommended motor size it may need
additional starting voltage, this is set
manually.
When motors are to operate in
parallel the start compensation should
normally not be used.
Slip compensation
The slip of an AC motor is dependent
of the load and it is approximately 3-
4% of the rated speed. With a four-
pole motor the slip will be about 75
RPM.
When an AFD is operating a motor at
180 RPM (10% of rated speed), the
slip makes up 50% of the desired
speed.
When the AFD is to operate the motor
at 4% of its rated frequency the motor
will stall when it is loaded. With
efficient current measuring in the
output phases of the AFD it is
possible to compensate for all the
slip. The AFD compensates for the
slip by increasing the frequency
proportionally according to the active
current. This form of compensation is
called active slip compensation.
Load dependent output voltage
The start voltage optimizes the AFD
for low performance motors. After
starting, the load will normally be
varying and the motor may be
overmagnetized, when the load
decreases. The motor will then take
up too much blind current and it will
be overheated.
The Danfoss VVC control principle
matches the voltage to the present
load. The motor constants R1 and X1
are modeled by the AFD and they
can be modified to different motor
types. On the basis of R1, X1 and
accurate measurement of the actual
motor current the AFD continuously
calculate the optimum output voltage.
Vk1 = V1 + I1 × R1 + I1 × X1
Load dependent control of the output
voltage is called flux control and
improves dynamic performance of
the motor.

ACR 34
Motor torque characteristics Choosing the AFD size
Torque (%) To choose the correct AFD size for a
If the AFD could supply a current
which is several times higher than the 160 given load it is necessary to know the
full-load current, the motor torque load characteristic. Then one must
characteristics would be like that 100

shown in Figure 77. High currents V [v]

may damage both the motor and the P

460
u =6.3
f
AFD. They are not needed for normal
motor operation. The AFD limits the 50 100 150 200 Speed f [Hz]
(%) 60 72
maximum motor current. 100

The current limit is variable and

Figure 78. The torque and over-torque
makes sure that the motor current is
of the motor
not sustained higher than the desired
30 72 120 f [Hz]
value. The AFD is able to hold the The motor speed can be stated in 50 120 200 n/n [%]
0
900 2160 3600
different ways: revolutions per minute

AC Technical Reference
motor speed independent of the load. n[rpm]

RDS 20 DC Controls
The motor torque characteristics [RPM], Hertz [Hz] or in percent of the
would now appear as rectangular synchronous motor speed [%]. The Figure 81. How the speed can be
within the rated working range of the basis is always the synchronous indicated (this curve shows the speed
motor, as shown in Figure 77. speed of the motor at rated of a four-pole motor)
frequency.
Torque (%) find the AFD which can yield the right
power output. The necessary power
P output can be calculated in four ways.
T = 160% The method to be applied will depend
on the amount of motor data
100
75 T = 100% available.
50
T = Torque Load characteristics
25 50 75 100 Speed
(%) We distinguish between two load
characteristics:
Figure 77. The torque characteristic 100 200 Speed
(%)
of an AFD-controlled motor is Torque
rectangular
Figure 79. The motor power
It is preferred that the AFD can yield
an overtorque of up to 160% of rated A change of the voltage-frequency
torque momentarily. Most frequency ratio will affect the torque
controlled motors can also operate in characteristic. If it is reduced to 6.3
the oversynchronous range up to [V/Hz] the sequence will be as
200% of synchronous speed. follows: Speed
The AFD cannot supply a voltage that Constant (CT)
is higher than the voltage from the AC V [v]
Torque
line. P u =7.6
460
f
Therefore, the voltage-frequency
ratio is reduced when the speed f [Hz]
exceeds the rated value. The mag- 100
60

netic field is weakened and the torque

yielded by the motor is reduced by
Speed
1
n . Square (VT)
30 60 120 f [Hz]
50 100 200 n/n [%]
During oversynchronous operation 900 1800 3600 0
n[rpm]
the AFD maintains maximum output Figure 82. Constant and square
current. The power output will be load torque
Figure 80. The motor power
constant up to 2 × nN.

ACR 35
 AC Technical Reference

We distinguish between two load

Torque (%) Torque (%)
characteristics for the following
reasons: 160

• When the pump or fan speed Tacc

100 100
increases the power needed
Tacc
increases by the cube of the speed 50
50
(P = n3). The speed of pumps and
fans should not exceed
synchronous speed. 100 Speed 100 Speed
• The normal working range of pumps (%) (%)

and fans is within 30-80% of

maximum load.
These two conditions can be drawn
for the speed/torque characteristics
for an AFD controlled motor.
Figures 80 and 81 show torque
characteristics for two different AFD
power sizes. Figure 81 is one power
size smaller than that in Figure 80.
The load characteristic for the same
pump is represented on both torque
characteristics. In Figure 81 the
operating range of the pump (0-
100%) is within the rated motor
values. Since the normal operating
range of the pump is 30-80% it is
possible to use an AFD with a lower
power output.
Torque (%)
160
100
80
30
100 Speed
(%)
Figure 83. Larger frequency converter
Torque (%)
160
Figure 85. The overtorque can be used for acceleration
If the load's torque is constant the
motor's torque capabilities must be
greater to allow for acceleration.
If the AFD allows a temporary
overtorque of 60% this would be
sufficient for acceleration and the
required starting torque ensures that
the application can withstand load
fluctuations.
If the AFD does not allow any
overtorque, it must be sized so that
the acceleration torque Tacc is within
rated torque (See Figure 85).
When the load characteristic has
been determined the correct power
size of the AFD can be found on the
basis of other motor data.
1. The fastest and most precise
way of finding the right AFD is to
measure the current IM drawn by
the motor under full load. If the
motor is not fully loaded the
current might be determined on
the basis of measurements on
similar applications which are in
operation.
I VLT IM
2. The AFD can be chosen on the
basis of the power SM required
by the motor and the power
output SVLT of the AFD.
S VLT SM
Figure 87.
Example: [10 HP] 3 × 460 V
motor takes up 15.5 A
√3
SM = V × I × = 460 ×15.5 × √3 = 10.2 kVA
1,000 1,000
Based on the data given on AFD
with a maximum continuous
output SVLT rating of 10.2 kVA or
higher at constant or square load
is chosen.
3. The AFD can also be chosen on
the basis of the power output of
the motor PM. However, due to
the power factor of the motor
and the motor efficiency η
changing with the load, this
method is less precise than those
previously mentioned.

100
80
Figure 86.
Based on this technical data an
S VLT PM
30 AFD is selected with a maximum
100 Speed continuous output current IVLT
(%)
higher, or equal to 15.5 A at
constant or square torque.
Figure84. Smaller frequency converter Figure 88.
ACR 36
 Example: A [5 hp] motor with an
efficiency η and power factor of I ACT I RES
0.80 and 0.81 produces power I REA
as:
M
SM = P = 3.0 = 4.6 kVA
η × cos ϕ 0.80 x 0.81 3
Based on the technical data an
AFD whose maximum continuous
output SVLT is higher or equal to I RES
4.6 kVA at constant or square I ACT
I REA I RES =
cos
load torque is required.
4. For practical reasons the power I ACT
sizes of typical AFDs usually
follow the ratings of AC motors. Figure 90. Currents in the AFD

AC Technical Reference
AFDs are often chosen on the

basis of these values but this
may result in inaccurate sizing
especially when the motor is not
fully loaded.
PM
Figure 89.
When selecting an AFD on the basis
RDS 20 DC Controls
Normally, the motor manufacturer A menu indicates parameters such as
states the power factor of the motor current limit, minimum speed, ramp
at full-load current. If the power factor
is low the maximum motor torque
output must be reduced. This
problem is avoided by sizing
according to the current drawn by
the motor and the maximum output Menu +
current of the AFD (method 1).
If there is a capacitor across the Data –
motor terminals the effect will be like
Alarm On
a short-circuit making the motor
current increase dramatically. This Jog Fwd.
Rev.
condition is caused by the high
Stop
switching frequency of the AFD. Reset
Start

of the power output (method 2-4) Normal operational conditions

make sure the calculations are based
on the same voltages as those stated
in the technical data.
When choosing an AFD on the basis
of current the voltage level is of no
importance, as it is the output current
of the AFD, which is determining the
other values.
Power factor of the motor
The current which magnetizes the
motor comes from the capacitor in
the intermediate circuit of the AFD
(Figure 90). The magnetizing current
is a blind current flowing from the
capacitor to the motor and back
again.
Operation
Some AFDs must be set and
adjusted by means of switches and
potentiometers built into the unit. It is
usually necessary to open the
enclosure to gain access for these
items which is not desirable in the
industrial environment.
Undesirable elements such as dust
and static electricity may damage the
electronics. Therefore, it is very
important that the AFD is opened as
little as possible. For this reason
many AFDs can be operated and set
remotely by the use of a panel
providing various data and allowing
the user to alter some settings
(Figure 91).
Many of those AFDs are digital units
and are set by menus and software.
Figure 91. The operation can be
based on menus
up, etc., and the number of menus
may vary between unit types.
The number of menus do not indicate
the operational complexity, as it is
only necessary to use some of the
menus, since many are often preset
from the factory.
The convenience of an AFD can be
considered on the basis of the
following:
• How easy is the display to read and
understand?
• Can the panel be operated without
the use of tools?
• Are the menus well arranged?
• What information does the display
indication give during operation?

ACR 37
 AC Technical Reference
• Can the menu indications replace
all measuring instruments during
initial set-up?
• Minimum amount of programming
to start AFD?
• Are the values indicated in the
appropriate units, current in Amp.,
voltage in Volt etc?
Motor speed control
The output frequency of the AFD and
the motor speed can be controlled
with a signal called speed reference.
Typically as the speed reference
increases, the motor speed
increases.
If the loads torque is less than that
obtainable by the motor within the
current limit setting (point A Figure
93) the speed will be the desired
value.
If the torque curve intersects the
current limit setting (point B) the
speed will not continuously be able to
exceed the corresponding value.
It is possible to set the AFD not to trip
when exceeding the current limit
(point C) for a predetermined period
of time.
I n, VLT
I (%)
C
160
B1
I LIM
B2
A the motor.
Speed
Figure 93. The motor current can
exceed the current limit
Acceleration and deceleration
Acceleration indicates at what rate
the speed increases in time to the
desired speed. The value is called the
acceleration time tacc.
Deceleration expresses at what rate
the speed is falling. The time until the
speed is down to the new desired
speed is called the deceleration time
tdec.
ACR 38
V Torque
t Speed
Figure 92. Relationship between the reference signal and the motor torque
characteristic
Speed
n2
n1
t acc
t t
Figure 94. Acceleration and deceleration times
Since the motor always follows the
output frequency of the inverter, it is
possible to switch directly from
deceleration to acceleration.
The acceleration and deceleration
times can be calculated if the
moment of inertia on the motor shaft
is known:
t acc = J ×
n2 - n1
Tacc + Tfric × 9.55
n2 - n1
t dec = J ×
Tdec + Tfric × 9.55
J is the moment of inertia of the load
as applied to the motor shaft.
Tfric is the friction torque of the load.
Tacc is the starting torque used for
acceleration.
Tdec is the braking torque occurring
when decreasing the speed
reference.
If the AFD cannot produce an
overtorque for a limited period of
time, the acceleration and the
deceleration torque can be put equal
to the rated motor torque TN. In
practice the acceleration time will
therefore be equal to the deceleration
time.
Speed
n1
n2
t dec
Example: J = 0.997 lb ft2, n1 = 500
RPM, n2 = 1000 RPM,
Tfric = 0.05 × TN, TN = 19.9 ft lbs
If the AFD cannot produce any
overtorque, it is necessary to know
more about Tacc and Tdec.
Braking
When the speed reference decreases,
the motor acts as a generator and
brakes the degree of braking is
determined by the output power of
A motor connected directly to the AC
line can generate braking power back
to the line. With an AFD this is not the
case because the intermediate circuit
absorbs the braking power.
When the braking power is higher
than the power loss of the AFD the
intermediate circuit voltage can rise.
The intermediate circuit voltage can
rise until the AFD trips out for reasons
of inverter protection. It may be
necessary to load the intermediate
circuit with an external resistor in
which the braking power can be
dissipated as heat. By using a
dynamic brake resistor, heavy loads
can be slowed down very rapidly
(Figure 95).
If the AFD is rectifier controlled, the
braking power can be sent back to
the AC line. This is done through an
inverter connected in antiparallel with
the rectifier (Figure 96).
U V W U V W
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
Figure 97. The motor speed direction
changes when the phase sequence is
changed
Figure 95 Brake resistor
Reversing
The shafts operating direction of AC
motors is determined by the phase
sequence of the supply voltage. The
direction is changed by inverting two
phases, causing the motor to reverse.
In most motors the shaft is turning
clockwise, when the connection is as
shown on the Figure 97. The phase
sequence of the output terminals of
most AFDs follows the same principle.
Figure 96 Inverter connected in
antiparallel
Torque
An AC motor can also be braked by
applying a DC voltage between two
motor phases. This produces a
stationary magnetic field in the stator.
The braking power stays in the motor n T
which could cause overheating. That
is why DC braking is primarily n T
intended for frequencies below 2 Hz.
Figure 98. The braking torque of the AFD during reversing
Speed
t t
Figure 99. Variable ramping times
The AFD can change the motor
speed direction by changing the
phase sequence electronically.
Reversing is initiated by a negative
speed reference or through a digital
input signal. If the motor must have a
particular speed direction on start up
check the factory setting of the AFD.
Since the AFD limits the motor
current to a specific set value, the
AFD controlled motor can be
reversed more frequently than motors
connected directly to the AC line
(Figure 98).
AC Technical Reference
Ramps
RDS 20 DC Controls
To ensure smooth motor operation
most AFDs are supplied with ramp
functions. These ramps are
adjustable and they ensure that the
speed reference can only increase or
decrease by the set value.
If the set ramp times are too short,
the motor current can increase until
the current limit is reached.
If the ramp down time is too short the
voltage in the intermediate circuit may
increase so much that the protective
electronics trip the AFD.
n = speed
T = torque
n T
Speed
n T
Speed
ACR 39
 AC Technical Reference
n account which ensures that the motor
nN
n ref
t down
Figure 100. Setting of ramp times
The optimum ramp times (Figure 100)
can be calculated by means of the
formulas below:
n • The amount of cooling air is reduced
t up = J ×
(Tn - Tfric ) × 9.55 [s]
n • The motor generates additional heat
t down = J ×
(Tn + Tfric ) × 9.55 [s]
Normally the ramp times are
determined on the basis of the motors
rated speed.
Process monitoring
The AFD monitors the application's
process and takes action in case of
operational disturbances.
There are three types of monitoring:
Application monitoring. The AFD
monitors the application on the basis
of the output frequency, current and
motor torque. On the basis of these
values it is possible to set a number of
limit values for the control, such as
minimum allowable speed or
maximum allowable motor current.
The AFD can be programmed to
execute special functions when these
limits are exceeded. For example, it
can be programmed to provide an
alarm signal to increase motor speed
or to brake the motor as quickly as
possible.
Motor monitoring. The AFD monitors
the motor based on a calculation of
the thermal conditions. Similar to a
thermal overload relay the AFD helps
prevent motor overloading. The AFD
also takes the output frequency into
ACR 40
A motor that is to run constantly at a
is not overloaded at low speeds speed being less than half of its rated
where the self ventilation of the motor nameplate speed requires extra
is reduced. cooling (grey area of Figure 101).
Unit monitoring. The AFD may be set The problem can be solved by
to trip in case of overcurrent. Some selecting from the following:
AFDs can yield a momentary • an inverter rated motor
overcurrent.
• motor with high service factor
The fast microprocessors used in the • energy efficient motor, or
AFD can monitor the motor current • larger motor
and time, which ensures optimum
The motor receives harmonic
utilization without overloading the
t currents if the applied current is not
AFD.
sinusoidal. The harmonic currents
Motor loading and heating dissipate additional heat in the motor,
Motors that are connected to AFDs which is dependent on the size of the
should be adequately cooled. harmonic currents (Figure 102). If the
There are two factors to take into motor current is not sinusoidal the
consideration: motor must not continuously be
loaded 100%.
with lower motor speed.
if the applied current is not entirely
sinusoidal.
At low speeds the motor fan cannot
supply sufficient amounts of cooling
air. This problem arises when the load
torque is constant in the overall
operational range. The reduced
ventilation determines the maximum
acceptable torque under constant Torque (%)
load.
100
Torque (%) 50
100
100 200
Speed (%)
100 Speed (%)
Rated motor
Torque (%)
Torque (%)
100
100
50
100 Speed (%)
100 200
Speed (%)
Oversize motor
Figure 101. Need for additional Figure 102. Extra heat is dissipated in
ventilation when using a rated motor the motor if the current is not entirely
size and an oversize motor sinusoidal
Efficiencies PT
The efficiency of a unit (Figure 103) is
defined as the ratio between the power
P1 P2 P3
output P2 and the power consumption
P1: P1 P2 M

η = P1
P2

The difference between P1 and P2 is Figure 103. Outputs and efficiencies

called the power loss PT, which is
%
dissipated in the unit as heat.
100
A
The efficiency can be calculated for the
AFD alone, the motor alone, or for the B
80
AFD and the motor (system efficiency).

AC Technical Reference
The efficiency of the AFD is calculated
60

RDS 20 DC Controls
P2
as P1
40
The motor efficiency is calculated as
P3
P2 20 Figure 104a. Efficiency for
VLT-type 3016 at 100%
The system efficiency is calculated as
0 rpm (A) and 25% (B) load
P3
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
P1

From the curves it can be seen that the %

motor efficiency has significant 100

influence on the system efficiency. The

B
efficiency of the VLT AFD is high in the 80
entire control range and during high
and low load.
60
The curves also show that the A
B
efficiency is lowest at low speeds. That
40
does not mean that the absolute Figure 104b. Efficiency for
power loss is highest at low speeds. a typical motor at 100%
Example from Figure 104c: 20 (A) and 25% (B) load
when fed from a
1. n = 800 RPM, P3 = 9628 W, η = 77% frequency converter
0 rpm
P 0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
P1 = η3 = 12504 W, PT = P1 - P3 = 2876 W

2. n = 500 RPM, P3 = 1500 W, η = 77% %

100
P1 = P3
η = 2143 W, PT = P1 - P3 = 643 W

The high efficiency of the VLT AFD has 80

B
several advantages:
1
• The higher the efficiency, the less the 60
heat loss to be removed from the 2

installation. This is highly advanta- 40

A

geous for panel mounted AFDs.

Figure 104c. Efficiency for
• The less heat loss that is dissipated
20 a frequency converter
in the semiconductors and coils of
and motor at 100% (A)
the AFD, the longer their expected
rpm and 25% (B) load
lifetime. 0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000

ACR 41
 AC Technical Reference

Long motor cables The typical mode of operation for the Example 1 (see Figure 107):
AFDs are designed for motor cables AFD causes short voltage rise times in IH = 160% (corresponds to a 60%
of a certain maximum length and of a the motor cable. This may damage overtorque).
certain wire gauge. These cable the insulation of the motor windings.
The problem intensifies as the At IL = 100% tL may last 600 sec. and
values vary greatly between AFD
switching frequency of the inverter tH 30 sec.
types. Other specifications of the AFD
will be affected if the maximum cable increases. When IL is changed to 80%, tL can be
lengths are exceeded. The problems of dv/dt and the reduced to 100 sec, or tH be
capacity of the motor cable can be increased to 108 sec.
Motor cable length required for the
appropriate placing the AFD and the solved by installing a motor filter in the Example 2 (see Figure 107):
motor must be considered in each output of the AFD. Always check if the IL = 100%
case. AFD incorporates an effective motor
filter, or if such a filter is available as If IH is reduced to 140%, tL can be
The longer the motor cable is, the reduced from 600 sec. to 300 sec., or
an option.
more heat will be generated in the tH can be increased from 30 to 50 sec.
AFD. Always check what cable Intermittent operation
lengths and wire gauge the AFD will To describe this kind of operation we
allow, as this is of great importance to apply the current consumed by the † H [s]
its thermal conditions. AFD. 6
IL =0%
4
If the length or the gauge of the motor IH is the current it consumes during 3
50
80
cables exceeds the maximum values high torque situations and IL is the 2
90
the maximum allowable continuous current at low torque situations. 100

output decreases. When both currents are lower or

6 100
4
The longer the cable length or the equal to the rated input current of the 3
2
larger the gauge, the lower the AFD no problems will occur. When IH
capacitive reactance. High capacitive exceeds the rated input current the 10
6
reactance will increase the losses in time intervals tH and tL, the duty cycle
4
the cable. The resulting output between IH and IL must be taken into 3
5 10 2 3 4 100 2 3 4 1000 2 3 4
current must be reduced by about account. The temperature in the AFD † L [s]
5% for each step the wire gauge increases in the period tH and falls in
I H = 160%
increases (Figure 105). The current is the period tL.
† H [s]
reduced linearly, when the cable 1000
length exceeds the maximum for 6
IL =0%
50
I N, VLT
which the AFD has been designed. 4
80
3
2
90

IH 100 100
max. output current A 6
B 4
3
2
IL
nominal cable 10
cross section 7
t 5
tH tL 5 10 2 3 4 100 2 3 4 1000 2 3 4
† L [s]
increased cable
cross section
Figure 106. Intermittent operation I H = 140%

nominal
length
Figure 105. The maximum output
current of the AFD depends on the
length and gauge of the motor cable
Referring to Figure 106, area A can Figure 107. Load degrees influence
be increased when area B is the intermittent operation
cable length increased. When B is reduced it may
be necessary to reduce A.
A more precise correlation between
the values of IH, IL, tH and tL will
appear from the specifications on the
individual AFD.

ACR 42
Parallel connection of motors
An AFD can control several parallel-
connected motors. If the motor
speeds must be different, motors of
different rated speeds must be
applied. The motor speeds can be
changed simultaneously and the ratio
between the motors is maintained in
the entire control range.
The total current consumed by all of
the motors may not exceed the
maximum output current of the AFD.
The individual motors can be switched
and reversed an unlimited amount on
the output of the VLT AFD.
If the total starting current of the
motors is higher than the maximum
output current of the AFD, the output
frequency falls. The output current of
the AFD can exceed the rated current
of the individual motor, making it
necessary to protect each motor as if
it were connected to the AC line.
If the motor sizes deviate very much,
problems may arise during starting
and low speed operation. This is due
to the fact that small motors have a
relatively large ohmic resistor in the
stator, therefore they demand more
compensation voltage during starting
and low speeds.
Often it will be possible to increase the
start voltage and find an acceptable
start condition for all the motors. If this
is not possible it may be necessary to
replace the small motor with a larger
one. This does not necessarily
demand a bigger AFD, as the
mechanical power output of the motor
is unchanged.
Explosion hazardous areas
AC motors are available in versions
designed specially for use in explosion
hazardous areas, i.e. areas where
there are inflammable gasses, steams
or dust.
AFDs are not intended to be placed
directly in the hazardous area. They
are only typically available in
enclosures up to NEMA 12.
Explosion-proof motors have been
subjected to several tests by
authorized organizations according to
specific standards. When the motor
has been approved it can then be
marked according to the standard in
question.
A motor's certification and approval is
typically based on measurements
made on the fixed voltage and
frequency of the AC line.
If such a motor is to be controlled by
an AFD they will test and measure the
heat generation in the whole range
during operation.
Explosion-proof motors rated for use
with AFDs are available from several
motor manufacturers.
Transformers and AFDs
A transformer can be placed ahead of
the AFD or between the AFD and
motor.
Isolating transformers or auto
transformers designed for rectifier
operation can be used ahead of the
AFD. An isolating transformer can be
used under any circumstances. An
auto transformer can only be used
when the transformer is star-
connected and the star point
grounded. The AFD loads the
transformer like an ordinary three-
phase rectifier and the transformer
can be selected on the basis of the
voltage of the supply mains and the
rated voltage of the AFD, maximum
input current, cos ϕ and power factor.
A transformer between AFD and
motor is used to adjust the output
voltage, to 48 V motors for example,
that have been chosen to protect
personnel or give galvanic isolation.
Transformers are usually intended for
a specific frequency. There will be a
voltage drop as a consequence of the
ohmic resistance in the transformer
windings. This has the same influence
as the corresponding voltage drop in
the motor windings. When the AFD
must compensate for the ohmic
voltage drop in both transformer and
motor the transformer will receive a
too high voltage-frequency ratio at
start and at low speed.
Overmagnetization will result and the
motor will be unable to start.
At high loads the start problem can be
solved by using a transformer
specially designed for a high voltage/
frequency ratio. Another possibility is
to replace the motor.
Protection under extreme
working conditions
Extreme working conditions include all
kinds of abnormal disturbances on the
input and output sides of the AFD.
On the input side such disturbance
might be overvoltages and transients
and on the output side overcurrents
from short-circuits, ground faults,
AC Technical Reference
switching motor cables and
RDS 20 DC Controls
regenerative operation.
The AFD protects its electronics by
“predicting” the extreme conditions.
This is possible when the AFD is
designed with the appropriate logic
such as preprogrammed ASIC.
ASICs can allow a fast and precise
current measuring. It is possible for
the AFD to take action against an
extreme situation before the
electronics are damaged.
Safety
Often it is necessary to place an
emergency stop near the motor. It is
important that it is possible to place a
switch in the motor cable and that the
AFD is not damaged no matter how
often the switch is activated.
The control inputs of the AFD must be
isolated from the power section and
the AC line. If not, the control leads
will have the same voltage in relation
to ground as the AC line. In that case
it would be highly dangerous to touch
the control leads and other equipment
may be damaged.
To take precaution against fire it is
important that the AFD has a built-in
thermal relay cutting out its operation
when the cooling is inadequate.
Sometimes an AFD controlled motor
may start without warning after cutout
for thermal overload or if the motor is
not switched off while operational
parameters are altered. All local
Health and Safety precautions must
be complied with to prevent danger to
personnel.
ACR 43
 AC Technical Reference
Grounding
Through a protection wire the ground
terminal of the AFD is connected to
an earth electrode. This form of
protection demands that the
impedance of the earth electrode is
sufficiently low.
Electrical noise
Electrical noise is electric disturbance
that affects a unit or that is emitted
from a unit.
The electrical noise can be split up
into three main groups (Figure 108).
One group is the thermal interference
voltage coming from all components.
The limit for a unit's sensitivity is
determined by physical laws.
The second group is atmospheric
noise, for example, voltage peaks on
the supply voltage during lightning
storms. The atmospheric noise
cannot be damped and its
disturbance of electric installations
can only be limited by taking different
measures.
The third group is the noise coming
from switches, radio transmitters and
other electric devices. This man-
made noise can be controlled.
EMC is a term that is often used in
connection with electrical noise. EMC
Electrical noise
Thermal noise Atmospheric noise
Figure 108. Different kinds of electrical noise
is an abbreviation of Electro Magnetic
Compatibility, i.e. a unit's ability to
resist electrical noise and not to emit
electrical noise to other surrounding
equipment.
Emission is the electro-magnetic
energy emitted from a unit.
Immunity is the unit's ability to resist
electro-magnetic disturbances. In
regards to AFDs, electrical noise like
ACR 44
AC line interference and radio
frequency interference (RFI).
Emission types
The electrical noise can be spread
over the AC line (conducted) and by
the air (coupled/radiated noise).
Coupling
The coupling is dependent on how
the electric circuits have been
designed. The coupling can be
galvanic, capacitive or inductive.
Z L1
Z0
Z The noise current may flow as shown
Figure 109. Galvanic coupling
Human-made noise
Figure 110. Capacitive coupling
The galvanic coupling may occur
when two electric circuits have a
common impedance.
In Figure 108, line impedance and the
ground impedance are common for
the AFD and another electric device.
Dependent on the impedance
conditions a noise voltage can be
transferred to the unit over the two
common impedances ZL1 and Zground.
The capacitive coupling can happen,
when two electric circuits have a
common ground. A typical example
is, where the motor cables are placed
too close to other cables connected
to sensitive devices.
The capacitive noise current depends
on the switching frequency of the
inverter and how far the motor cable
is from other cables. The high
frequency of the output voltage gives
a low capacitive resistance in the
motor cable and results in a
capacitive noise current.
in Figure 110.
Inductive coupling may occur when
the magnetic field around a live wire
affects another wire or another unit
(Figure 110). The strength of the
magnetic field depends on the
current, the wiring and the distance to
the live wire. AC voltages may
especially induce noise into another
wire loop. The size of the induced
voltage depends on the frequency an
amperage of the induced voltage
(Figure 108).
M

IM
Figure 111. Inductive coupling
Figure 112. Ways of emission of electrical noise
Transmission
Electrical noise can also be spread via
the wires of the AC line. This takes
place when the sine-shape of the
supply voltage is deformed or when
the line is disturbed by high frequency
noise.
AC line interference
AC line interference is a distortion of
the sinusoidal curve shape of the
supply signal. The distortion goes
from the AFD and back through the
AC line. A humming sound can often
be heard from other units connected
to the same AC line.
A n [%] = 100 × 1I × √(R + n × X
2 2 2
n is the ordinal of the harmonic
I is the size of the load current
R is the ohmic part of the line
impedance
M
X is the reactive part of the line
impedance
V is the nominal voltage
The formula applies to units where
the zero conductor is not connected.
Line interference can be reduced by
limiting the amplitudes of the pulse
AC Technical Reference
currents. In practice, this is done by
RDS 20 DC Controls
inserting coils in the intermediate
circuit of the AFD.
If the AFD does not include these
Conducted coils as standard, they must be
noise
purchased and mounted separately.
M Over-coupled
noise
Unit
The rectifier of the AFD sends a
pulsating DC voltage to the
intermediate circuit. Its capacitor is
charged at each voltage peak. During
these chargings AFD draws up
currents of relatively large
amplitudes. The AFD can become a
pulsating load, distorting the sine-
shape of the supply voltage. The
degree of distortion depends on the
impedance of the AC line and the
size of the loads current.
The AC line interference consists of
harmonics of the basic frequency of
the supply voltage, and for each
individual harmonic, it is possible to
calculate the amplitude of the noise
voltage (An) in percentage of the
nominal voltage.
ACR 45
 AC Technical Reference

Transients/Overvoltage dB V dB V

Most industrial AC lines are disturbed 100 100

by line transients which can be short

overvoltages of up to 1000 V. 80 80

They arise when high loads are cut in

and out elsewhere on the AC line. A 60
60
lightning strike directly to the supply
wire causes a transient wave of high
voltage. The transient may damage 40 40

installations in a distance of up to 4
miles from where the lightning strikes. 20 20
Short-circuits in the supply lines can
also cause transients. High currents
MHz 0 MHz
due to short-circuits can result in very 0
0.1 0.2 1 2 5 10 30 0.1 0.2 1 2 5 10 30

high voltage in the surrounding cables

because of inductive coupling.
Radio frequency interference
Any current or voltage deviating from
the sine curve will contain components
of higher frequencies.
The frequencies will depend on how
steep the sequence is.
When a switch is activated the current
increases very quickly from zero to
rated current. In that case the
sequence is very steep. In a radio you
will hear a crackling.
One single noise pulse will not do any
harm, but as the semiconductors of the
AFD are acting as switches they emit
noise disturbing the surrounding
electronic equipment.
Radio frequency interference
✈RFI) is defined as electric oscillations of
frequencies between 150 kHz and 30
MHz.
The RFI degree depends on different
conditions:
• the impedance conditions of the AC
line
• the switching frequency of the inverter
Figure 113. Limits for emission of
radio frequency interference
according to VDE 0875
standards (Figure 113). VDE 0875
gives the level for the acceptable RFI
emission over the AC line. VDE 0875,
curve ✈G) is the acceptable limit for
industrial equipment. Curve N gives the
limit for ordinary household equipment.
The EEC directive EEF 82/499
✈European Standard) gives like, VDE
0875, the levels for how much radio
noise a unit is allowed to emit over
the AC line. From this directive it can
also be seen how much radio noise a
unit is allowed to emit on the output
side. In regards to AFDs the output
side is the motor cable. As of 1992
EEC 82/499 will be standard for all
European countries (Figure 114).
Curve N Curve G
RFI filter RFI filter
(extra) (integrated)
Figure 114. EEC’s limits for emission
of radio frequency interference
Effective suppression of the radio
frequency interference can only be
obtained by means of a filter. This
filter is called an RFI filter and it
consists of coils and capacitors.
Some suppliers of AFDs offer
integrated RFI filters as standard, if
not, this filter must be purchased and
mounted separately (Figure 115).
In the motor cable the radio noise can
be suppressed by means of an RFI
filter or by using a shielded cable. The
high frequencies means:
• that the capacitors of the filter draw
high currents that may make the
AFD cut out.
• that the filter coils must be very big
✈higher expenses and increased
acoustic noise).
du
Mains supply Current
interference Transients dt measuring

• the frequency of the output voltage

• the mechanical buildup of the AFD
• the power level of the AFD
Radio frequency interference can be
conducted and coupled noise.
There are different standards for the
maximum allowable radio noise from a
unit. An example is the German VDE

Figure 115. How the frequency converter is damping electrical noise

ACR 46
Shielded cables
For a shielded cable a switching
impedance is stated. It is the
impedance of the shield in the
longitudinal direction. To be sure that
the noise current returns to the shield
the value of the switching impedance
must be as low as possible.
To provide effective suppression
against emission of high frequency
radio noise both ends of the shield
must generally be connected to
ground. It is important that the
contact between the shield and the
Operational reliability
Simple trouble shooting
Supply voltage
If a functional fault is observed, check
the following:
Has the AC line been connected
correctly?
Has a prefuse blown?
Is the AC line within the permissible
variation?
Motor
Has the motor been connected
Fault indication
Some AFDs also provide fault
indication; this is of great help for the
more advanced trouble shooting
(Figure 117).
Here any faults arising because of
motor overload, over- or undervoltage
in the AC line, short-circuits or ground
leakages etc. are either indicated on a
display or by means of LEDs.

AC Technical Reference
ground/chassis terminal is good. A correctly?

bad connection will increase the
impedance of the shield and reduce
the suppression of radio noise
(Figure 116).
Control cables should not be
connected to ground on both ends
but only to the ground terminal of the
AFD. This is partially due to the fact
that any noise current in the cabinet
of the control case could act as a
current loop that will have a
disturbing effect on the control.
Before you buy an AFD you should
examine how the electrical noise can
be limited.
Figure 116. The cable shield must be connected properly
RDS 20 DC Controls
+
Has the emergency switch been Menu
activated?
Data –
Control signals
Alarm On
Is the AFD receiving the control
signals? Jog Fwd.
Rev.
Are the signals of the proper type and
values?
Stop
Reset
Start
Menu settings
Figure 117. The AFD can be of great
Are all settings correct? help for trouble shooting
Fuses
The AFD may not be supplied with
built-in fuses, as the fast current
measuring and electronics provide
effective protection for the unit.
However, the whole installation must
be protected by means of branch
protection ahead of the AFD.
The fuses must be dimensioned to
carry the maximum intermittent input
current of the AFD and to protect
cables and contractors. The fuses
must not be dimensioned according
to the normal starting current of the
motor, since with an AFD starting
and reversing produce no inrush
current on the AC line.

ACR 47
 AC Technical Reference

Short-circuits and ground faults
Short-circuits and ground faults may
occur
• on the supply side
• on the motor side
• in control leads
M • ambient temperature
Figure 118. Where there is risk of
short circuits
Any short-circuits or ground faults on
the supply side will cause the
prefuses in the installation to blow.
The AFD itself will seldom cause
short-circuits and it will not be
damaged because of faults on the
supply side.
As a rule motor faults arise because of
missing insulation that causes short-
circuits between two phases or
between phase and ground. A short-
circuit will act as an overload on the
AFD which may then trip out.
Grounding can also cause the AFD to
trip out. A short-circuit of the control
leads of the AFD may overload the
internal voltage supply. The internal
voltage supply is therefore protected
by a fuse.
Grounding of a control lead will not
damage AFDs with input isolation.
Insulation measurement
High voltage tests on an AFD
installation may damage the
electronics; therefore, the input and
output terminals must be short-
circuited. If the AFD is supplied with
an RFI-filter the filter capacitors must
be disconnected.
L1
L2
L3
Figure 119. Short circuits and
switching off before high voltage test
in the installation
The influence of the AC line
Normally the AFD specifications are
maintained by a supply voltage that
varies +10% from the rated value.
Generally, the impedance of the AC
line is so low that it does not affect
the function of the AFD.
A I VLT
VA
The maximum voltage drop allowed
from the transformer of the AC line to
the AFD voltage varies from country to
country. It is therefore necessary to
follow the local regulations
(Figure 120)
The acceptable voltage drop will
typically be 4% and when
dimensioning the cable the following
must be taken into account:
U
• set-up
V
• cable impedance
W
• load degree
Finally the wire cross section of the
cable must be dimensioned according
to the current consumed by the AFD.
There will be no current inrush on the
AC supply during motor start and
reversing; however, if the motor
produces intermittent overtorque the
AFD will draw an intermittent
overcurrent. The duration of this
current may have influence on how
small the wire cross section may be.
Z B
VB

V B = V A - (I VLT Z )

VA - VB
100 4%
VA

Figure 120. The demand for the impedance of the AC supply must be in
accordance with the local regulations

ACR 48
Considerations to be made
before buying
To find the right AFD for your
application the following points must
be considered:
• Does the AFD automatically match
the output voltage to the actual
load ✈dynamic flux control)?
• Does the AFD automatically
compensate for the load
dependency of the slip ✈dynamic
slip compensation)?
• Does the AFD allow intermittent
overtorque?
• How great a part of operation and
setting is done inside the AFD?
• Is the AFD easy to operate?
• Can the AFD control the braking of
large moments of inertia?
• How extensive are the monitoring
functions of the AFD?
• Does the motor generate extra heat
because of the wave shape of the
motor current?
• How high is the efficiency of the
AFD ✈in the whole control range)?
• Is the specified length and cross
section of the motor cable
sufficient?
• Is it possible to mount emergency
stop or switches in the motor
cable? How often can they be
activated?
• Is the AFD fitted with built-in motor
filter or is it available as option?
• In what enclosures can you get the
AFD?
• Does the AFD suit the AC line?
• Is the isolation of the control leads
effective? What standard has been
followed?
• Is the AFD protected against
thermal overload?
• What precautions have been made
against electrical disturbance?
Does the AFD meet any recognized
standards ✈UL, CSA, etc.)
• Is the AFD protected against
overheating?
• Is the AFD protected against short-
circuits and grounding? How does
AC Technical Reference
the AFD react?
RDS 20 DC Controls
• Has the AFD fault indication? How
advanced is it?
ACR 49
 AC Technical Reference

Appendix 1
General mechanical theory
Rectilinear movement
In a rectilinear movement, a body will
lie still or maintain its rectilinear
movement until it is actuated by a
force.
The force “F” can be expressed as
the product of the mass of the body
and the change per time unit of the
velocity of the body. The velocity
change per time unit is the same as
acceleration “a”.
F= m a
Mass: “m” unit of measurement: [kg]
m
Acceleration: “a” unit of measurement: [ 2 ]
s
Force: “F” unit of measurement: [N]
To maintain constant movement a
T=F r F
body must be actuated all the time.
This is necessary because of forces
of friction and gravity attracting the
body in the opposite direction.
Rotary motion
In rotary motion a body can be forced r
to rotate or to alter its rotary velocity,
if it is influenced by a torque around
its mass center.
Like the force the torque can be
expressed through its effect: Figure 122.
The product of the moment of inertia
of the body J and the change of the
velocity of the body per time unit, the T=J
angular acceleration α.
Angular velocity:
(1) unit of measurement [ radians
s ]
Figure 121. Calculation of different r ]
(1) 2 n ; n measures in [ min.
moments of inertia 60

Angular acceleration:
Solid cylinder α = dω ; unit of measurement [ radians ]
dt s
d
Moment of inertia: J; unit of measurement [kg m2 ]

Figure 123.

The moment of inertia has, like the

mass, a damping effect on the
2
J= m r acceleration. The moment of inertia
2
2 2
depends on the mass and form of the
J= m r + m l body according to the axis of rotation.
4 12 d
When the torque and acceleration
conditions of a plant are to be
calculated it is advantageous to relate
all masses and inertias to a total
moment of inertia on the motor shaft
r

ω 2 ω 2
J = J 1 + J 1 ( ω2 ) + J 3 ( ω3) +...
Hollow cylinder d
1 1

J; Moment of inertia of the motor

J= m (r 1 2 + r2 2) r1
J2 , J3 etc: Individual moments of inertia
2 of the system
ω1: Angular velocity of the motor
r2
ω2, ω3 etc. Angular velocity of the various
rotating bodies

Solid ball
Figure 125.

2
J= 2 m r 2r
5

Figure 124.

ACR 50
Work and power
The work “W” performed by the
motor in rectilinear motion can be
calculated as the product of the force
in the direction of motion “F” and the
length of the movement “s”.
In rotary motions the output is
calculated as the product of the
torque “T” and the angular motion ϕ.
One revolution = 2 × π [rad].
W=T ϕ
Length of motion: s Unit of measurement: [m]
Output: W Unit of measurement: [W × s]
Figure 126.
W=F s
Angular motion: ϕ Unit of measurement: radians
One resolution = 2 × π [rad]
Figure 127.
The output of a conveyor system is
increasing with the time. It has no
maximum value and therefore it
cannot be applied for sizing
calculations.
The power “P” express the work per
time unit and therefore it has no
maximum value.
In a rectilinear motion the power is
calculated as the product of the
motion in the direction of motion and
the length of motion per time unit, the
velocity “V”.
In rotary motions the power is
calculated as the product of the
torque and the length of motion per
time unit, angular velocity.
P = T ω Unit of measurement: [W] P = F V
Figure 128.
AC Technical Reference
RDS 20 DC Controls
ACR 51
 AC Technical Reference

Appendix II
General alternating current Current one way
theory
AC voltage ✈alternating current) is 1 period
symbolized with ~. It changes
amplitude and direction.
The number of periods per second is time
called frequency, which is indicated in
Hertz. 1 Hz = one period per second.
The duration of one period is the
1 rotation
period time and it is found as T = 1/f. (of four-pole rotor)

At a frequency of 50 Hz the period

time is 0,02 s (Figure 129).
Current the
Contrary to DC voltage and current, other way
AC voltage and current can have
different values. Figure 129. Different values at AC voltage

Current/voltage

90

medium

active

max.
peak to peak
180 0/360
45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

medium

active

max.
Figure 131. The direction of the
vector is anti-clockwise 270

In general, it is the actual value that is

applied and an alternating current
value of 1 A generates the same heat Figure 130. AC voltage
in a given resistor as a direct current
of 1 A. When the load consists of coils with displacement between current and
Vectors are most useful in connection iron cores like motors the load will voltage (Figure 130).
with alternating currents and voltages. primarily be inductive. Here the The displacement between voltage
They clearly show the connection current will be delayed in time and current is called the phase
between current, voltage and time. compared to the voltage. displacement angle and it is
A vector is characterized by its length The load can be capacitive and the designated with the Greek letter ϕ.
and its direction of rotation. It is current will be time-wise in advance By multiplying the associated values
rotating anti-clockwise (Figure 131). of the voltage. The load can be of current and voltage the power
When the magnetic field vector entirely ohmic and there will be no curve for the three loading forms can
rotates one revolution and is back to be drawn.
its starting point, the vector tip will
have traced a complete circle, i.e.
360°.
The time of one revolution is equal to
the period time of the sine curve. The
vector velocity per second is called
the angular velocity and is indicated
by the Greek letter ω. ω = 2 × π × f.
There are three forms of AC loads.

ACR 52
 λ= P
Ohmic load Inductive load Capacitive load I×V

where P is the active power and I and

R L C V actual values.
ϕ designates the phase difference
V max V max
V max between current and voltage. With an
U
I max U
U entirely sinusoidal current and voltage
I
I max I Cos ϕ corresponds to the ratio
270 360 270 360 I 270 360
between the active power and the
0 90 t 0 90 I max 0 90
apparent power.

AC Technical Reference
V
P

RDS 20 DC Controls
V
I
I I P
270 360

0 90
P=O P=O

Figure 132. Current, voltage and power at entirely ohmic load

The loading forms are only theoretical

Formula In general Unit
quantities when there is a matter of sign
AC circuits. A load will either be
Power
ohmic-inductive, or ohmic-capacitive P = V x I x cos = S cos W or kW
(Figure 132).
Power factor VAr or kVAr
Q = V x I x sin = S sin (Sin or ks)
The power factor is defined as the
ratio between the active power and
the apparent power. S = V x I = cosP = sinQ VA or kVA
It is often called cos. ϕ; but cos ϕ is Voltage
only defined for sinusoidal currents P Q S
V = I x cos = I x sin = V
I
and voltages.
With nonlinear loads such as AFDs Current P Q S
I RES = V x cos = V x sin = A
the load current is not sinusoidal. We V

must therefore distinguish between

P S x cos
cos ϕ and the power factor λ. I ACT = V
=
V A

Q S x sin
I REA = = A
I I

Phase P P abstract
displacement cos = = number
VxI S

Q
=
Q abstract
sin VxI S number

Figure 133.

ACR 53
 AC Technical Reference

Three-phase alternating current The voltage between a phase wire

In a three-phase voltage system and
voltages are displaced 120°
according to each other. The three
phases are usually shown in the same
system of co-ordinates (Figure 134).
and neutral wire is called the phase
voltage Vph and the voltage between
two phase wires is called the mains
voltage VN.
The ratio between VN and Vph is √3

In In
V1 U U
L1 L1
I2
UN UN I2
180 360 U ph
U ph U ph
90 V
L2 L2 U ph
270 I1 U ph

UN UN UN UN
U ph I3 I3
V2
L3 L3
W W
120

Figure 135. Mains and phase values in a star and delta connection

Star or delta connection

V3
When the three-phase supply mains
120 is loaded with a motor the motor
windings are star or delta connected.
In a star connection one phase is
connected to one of the ends of the
motor windings whereas the other
V
ends are short-circuited ✈star point).
V1 V2 V3

180 360
The voltages above the various
90 windings are:
270
Vph= V N
√3

For the currents the following applies:

-V
Figure 134. A three-phase AC voltage
consists of three individual time-
displaced AC voltages
I1 = I2 = I3 = IN
In a delta connection the three motor
windings are connected in series and
each link is connected to a phase.
The voltage above the various
windings are: Vph = VN
For the currents the following applies
I1 = I 2 = I 3 = I N
√3

ACR 54
SI Prefixes SI Derived Units
symbol prefix value symbol name quantity dimensions
a atto 1018 C coulomb charge A.s
f femto 1015 F farad capacitance A2s4/kg . m2 ✈same as C/V)
p pico 1012 H henry inductance kg . m2/A2.s2 ✈same as Wb/A)
n nano 10_9 Hz hertz frequency l/s
µ micro 10_6 J joule energy kg.m2/82 ✈same as N.m)
m milli 10_3 N newton force kg.m/82
c centi 10_2 Pa pascal pressure kg/m.s2 ✈same as N/m2)
d deci 10_1 Ω ohm resistance kg.m2/A2.s3 ✈same as V/A)
d deca 10 S siemens conductance A2.s3/kg.m2 ✈same as A/V)
h hecto 102 T tesla flux density kg/A.s2 ✈same as Wb/
k kilo 103 m2 )

AC Technical Reference
M mega 106 V volt potential kg.m2/A.s3 ✈same as W/A)

RDS 20 DC Controls
G giga 109 W watt power kg.m2/s3 ✈same as J/s)
T tera 1012 Wb weber magnetic flux kg.m2/A.s2 ✈same as V.s)
P peta 1015
E exa 1018
Conversion factors
multiply by to obtain multiply by to obtain
acre 43,560 ft2 J 0.73756 ft-lbf
angstrom 1x10_10 m kg 2.20462 lbm
atm 1.01325 bar kg 0.06852 slug
atm 29.92 in Hg kip 1000 lbf
atm 14.696 lbf/in2 kJ 0.9478 BTU
bar 1x105 Pa kJ 737.56 ft-lbf
BTU 778.17 ft-lbf kJ/kg 0.42992 BTU/lbm
BTU 1.055 kJ kJ/kg.K 0.23885 BTU/lbm-°R
BTU/h 0.293 W km 3280.8 ft
BTU/lbm 2.326 kJ/kg km/h 0.62137 mi/hr
BTU/lbm-°R 4.1868 kJ/kg.K kPa 0.14504 lbf/in2
cm 0.3937 in kW 737.6 ft-lbf/sec
cm3 0.061024 in3 kW 1.341 hp
eV 1.602x10_19 J l 0.03531 ft3
ft 0.3048 m l 0.001 m3
ft3 7.481 gal lbf 4.4482 N
ft3 0.028317 m3 lbf/ft2 144 lbf/in2
ft-lbf 1.35582 J lbf/in2 6894.8 Pa
gal 0.13368 ft3 lbm 0.4536 kg
gal 3.7854 x 103 m3 lbm/ft3 0.016018 g/cm3
gal/min 0.002228 ft3/sec lbm/ft3 16.018 kg/m3
g/cm3 1000 kg/m3 m 3.28083 ft
g/cm3 62.428 lbm/ft3 m3 35.3147 ft3
hp 2545 BTU/hr mi/h 1.6093 km/h
hp 33,000 ft-lbf/min micron 1.10_6 m
hp 550 ft-lbf/sec N 0.22481 lbf
hp 0.7457 kW Pa 1.4604x10_4 lbf/in2
in 2.54 cm slug 32.174 lbm
in3 16.387 cm3 torr 133.32 Pa
J 6.2415x1018 eV W 3.413 BTU/hr
ACR 55
 AC Technical Reference

Subject Index
A G Registers 27
Acceleration 36,38 Galvanic isolation 43 Reluctance motor 4
Acceleration range 8 Gate 19 Remote ventilation 40
Active current 14 Generator 8 Reversing 39
Address bus 31 Generator principle 3 Ripple 45
Address calculator 28 H Rotor 4, 7
Alarm signals 33 Harmonics 25, 27-29 Rotor control 12
Alternating field 6 Hazardous location 43 Rotor resistors 12
Analog control signals 31 Heat loss 10, 29 RS 232/422/423/485 32, 33
ASIC 31 Horse power 13 S
Asynchronous motor 5 Hysteresis loss 9 Screens 47
B I Sequence controller 28
Basic circuit of the AFD 17 IGBT transistor 23 Serial communication 31
Blind current 19,35 Inputs and outputs 31 Short-circuit 48
Braking 38 Inductive over-coupling 45 Short-circuit rotor 7
Braking ranges 8 Intermediate circuit 17, 20 Simple trouble shooting 47
Break-away torque 16 Intermittent operation 42 Sine-controlled Pulse Width Modulation
Bus 32 Insulation measurement 48 (PWM) 22, 25-26, 29
C Inverter 17, 19, 21-25, 39 Sine reference 25
Capacitive over-coupling 44 Iron loss 9 Size of AFD 35
Cascade coupling 12 L Slip 7, 10, 15, 34
Chopper 21, 24, 30 Load dependent magnetization 13 Slip compensation 34
Cogging torque 25, 28, 29 Load dependent output voltage 34 Slip control 11
Computer 30 Load torque 35, 38 Slip ring motor 11
Conducted noise 44, 45 Load types 15 Slip ring rotor 7
Constant current inverter (CSI) 18 Losses 9, 23, 26 Slots 5, 7
Constant voltage intermediate circuit 20, M Speed 7
22 Magnetic field 3, 4-7 Speed change 11
Control bus 31 Magnetization 12, 27 Speed reference 38
Control circuit 17, 30 Mechanical load 10 Star connection 13
Control signals 33 Menus 37 Start compensation 34
Cooling forms 14 Microprocessor 30 Start current 13, 15
Cooling 40 Moment of inertia 15, 38 Start magnetization 12
Copper loss 9 Motor cables 42 Start torque 8, 15
Cos ϕ 14, 37 Motor catalogue 15 Static electricity 37
Current heat loss 8 Motor data 13, 35 Stator voltage change of 11
Current limit 35, 38, 40 Motor filter 42 Status signals 31
D Motor heating 40 Supply interference 45
Danfoss VVC control principle 18, 22, 23, Motor principle 3 Supply mains 48
29, 31, 34 N Switching frequency 23
Data bus 30 Name plate 13 Switching pattern 6- and 18-pulse signal
DC braking 38 O 22-25, 29
DC motor 3 Operation 47 Synchronous motor 4
Deceleration 38 Operational field 7-8, 29-30 Synchronous speed 5
Digital control signals 31 Operational range 8-9 T
Diode 19 Output voltage 26, 27, 29 Time delay (α) 19
E Over-coupled noise 44 Timer 28
Earthing 44 Overmagnetization 9, 13, 43 Torque 7, 8, 11, 35
Earth leakage 48 Overtorque 35, 36, 38 Transformer 43
Eddy current loss 9 P Transients/overvoltage 46
EEPROM 31 Parallel connection of motors 34, 43 Transistors 21, 23
Efficiency 9, 15, 29, 41 Phase sequence 39 Trip-out torque 9, 12
Electrical noise 44 PLC 30-33 Thyristor 19, 21
EMC 44 Pole pairs 5, 6 U
Emission ways of 44 Pole number control 11 Undermagnetization 9
Enclosure 14 Power 8 Uncontrolled rectifier 19
EPROM 31 Power rating 13 V
Equivalent diagram 10-11 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) 18, 22, Variable direct current intermediate circuit
Extra protection 43 24, 25, 30 20, 21
F Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 18, 22, 25, Variable voltage intermediate circuit 20, 39
Fault indication 47 26, 27 VDE 0875 46
Flux control 34 R Ventilation loss 9
Frequency control 12 RAM 30 Voltage-frequency ratio 12, 13, 35, 36
Friction loss 9 Radio frequency interference RFI 44, 46, Voltage rise times du/dt 42
Full-wave controlled rectifier 19 48 VVC control principle 18, 23, 27-29, 31, 35
Fuses 47 Ramps 39 W
Rated torque 9 Wire cross section 48
Rectifier 17-20 Work 8

ACR 56