UNIT 1

METALS & ALLOYS: METALLIC MATERIALS

Metallic materials are inorganic substances, usually

combinations of metallic elements, such as iron,
titanium, aluminum, and gold, which may also contain
small amounts of non-metallic elements, such as
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen I T A G- C N O
SUPER ALLOYS
” Superalloys are high-strength, often complex alloys that are
resistant to high temperatures and severe mechanical stress and that
exhibit high surface stability. They are commonly classified into three
major categories: nickel-based, cobalt-based, and iron-based. Nickel-
based superalloys predominate in the turbine section of jet engines.
Although…

HIGH STRENGTH, RESIST (HIGH TEMP, MECHANICAL STRESS)

EXHIBITS HIGH SURFACE STABILITY- NI, CO, IRON BASED.

use

 In molybdenum processing: Superalloys

Nonferrous alloys categorized under the name superalloys or nimonics account for about 3 percent
of the total demand for molybdenum. They are used in jet engines, nuclear plants, gas turbines,
space exploration, and general aviation.
 

1. ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Aluminium Alloys
High purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately
10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. Aluminium of commercial
purity (99-99.6%) becomes harder and stronger due to the presence of impurities,
especially Si and Fe. But when alloyed, aluminium alloys are heat treatable, which
significantly changes their mechanical properties.

Aluminium alloys are based on

aluminium, in which the main alloying elements are Cu, Mn, Si, Mg, Mg+Si, and Zn.
Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association. The
aluminium alloys are divided into 9 families (Al1xxx to Al9xxx). The different families
of alloys and the major alloying elements are:

 1xxx: no alloying elements

 2xxx: Copper
 3xxx: Manganese
 4xxx: Silicon
 5xxx: Magnesium
 6xxx: Magnesium and silicon
 7xxx: Zinc, magnesium, and copper
 8xxx: other elements which are not covered by other series

Physical/Chemical Advantages of Aluminium
Aluminium is the engineering material of choice for many applications.
Properties that make aluminium popular and/or suitable include:

 Light
 Strong
 High strength-to-weight ratio
 Resilient
 Ductile at low temperatures
 Corrosion resistant
 Non-toxic
 Heat conducting
 Reflective
 Electrically conducting
 Non-magnetic
 Non-sparking
 Non-combustible

Product Advantages of Aluminium

Aluminium offers advantages over other engineering materials including:

 Attractive appearance
 Wide range of finishes
 Virtually seamless
 Easy to fabricate
 Joinable by various methods
 Complex, integral shapes
 Easy assembly designs
 Precise, close tolerances
 Uniform quality
 Recyclable
 Cost effective
 Freedom of design

Physical/Chemical Advantages over other

Metals and Alloys
Aluminium is approximately 1/3 the weight of iron, steel, copper or brass. This
is an advantage in some products and crucial in others.

Reduction in shipping and handling costs.

1 cubic mtr aluminium = 2,700kg
1 cubic mtr steel = 7,800kg

Strength of Aluminium Alloys

By appropriate alloying and treatment, aluminium alloys are available in a
variety of strengths.

Some aluminium alloys have strength as high as 300 MPa and are stronger
than some steels.

Strength may be selected to match product needs.

High Strength-To-Weight Ratio of Aluminium

Alloys
In terms of strength to weight ratio, aluminium outperforms other materials.
Aluminium’s advantage in this respect founded the modern aerospace
industry and serves widely in various forms of transportation and other
applications.

Resilience under Static and Dynamic Loading

Aluminium products behave elastically under static and dynamic loading
conditions, that is, they have the ability to resume both shape and size which
is good when flexible strength is required.
Mast and spars of racing yachts are designed to withstand the stress of the
wind versus the waves.

Strength at Low Temperatures

Brittle fracture problems do not occur with aluminium. As the temperature is
reduced, aluminium alloys increase in strength without loss in quality, making
them particularly suitable for low temperature applications.

Used for cryogenics, LNG storage tanks and LNG tankers. An aluminium
“moon buggy” was used to negotiate the rough terrain in the deep cold of
outer space.

Corrosion Resistance of Aluminium Alloys

When aluminium is exposed to air, a thin oxidised film forms on the surface,
protecting the metal from corrosion. When scratched, the layer rapidly reforms
retaining the protection. This feature is utilised in construction, buildings and
household utensils.

Non Toxic
Aluminium itself is non toxic and odourless. Its surface is smooth, easily
washable and hygienic because no germs can grow on it. Thus, it is widely
used in beverage cans, food packaging, cooking utensils and in the fishing
and dairy industries.

Heat Conducting
Aluminium conducts heat better than any other common metal. It is about
three times as thermal conductive as steel. It is important in heat exchange
applications - either heating or cooling - and commonly used in the food,
chemical, petroleum, aircraft and automotive industries.

Reflective Surface
Aluminium is an excellent reflector of radiant energy. It reflects more than
80% of visible light, radiation (heat) and electric waves. The purer the metal,
the more so. This feature is used for reflecting mirrors, reflectors (stoves,
infra-red dryers, lighting), and wave guides. It is also used as an insulating
material in buildings and as roofing sheet.
Electrically Conductive
Aluminium’s ability to conduct electricity is approximately 62% of that of
copper, but it weighs less than 1/3. This means that it conducts about twice as
much electricity as copper of the same weight.

Aluminium is a very economical material as an electrical conductor and is

used in power transmission cables, bases of electric bulbs and in other
electric fields.

Non Magnetic
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Economics and Design
This property of aluminium makes it particularly useful for a variety of
electrical and electronic applications, for high voltage hardware, busbars,
magnetic compasses, parabolic antennas, computer disks, etc.

Non Sparking
Aluminium’s non sparking characteristic (against itself and other non ferrous
metal) makes it an essential material for products used with highly flammable
or explosive substances and atmospheres.

* Petrol pump nozzles are made from non sparking aluminium.

Non Combustible
Aluminium does not burn and so is widely used in buildings, vehicles and in
other applications where fire is a potential hazard. Hazardous emissions are
not generated when aluminium is exposed to heat.

Product Advantages of Aluminium and

Aluminium Alloys
Attractive and Aesthetically Pleasing Finish
The natural metallic surface of aluminium is aesthetically pleasing; the surface
supplied is adequate and does not require further finishing. If additional
protection is required, the natural oxide film may be thickened by anodising
without affecting the metal’s appearance.

Wide Range of Available Finishes

A wide range of finishes may be applied to aluminium to enhance its surface
characteristics, or alter its appearance. The metallic surface may be coloured
by chemical or anodising processes.

Surface textures may be created, varying from rough to matte to mirror

smooth. Coatings such as paint, lacquer, enamel, electroplating or laminate
may also be applied.

Virtually Seamless
Aluminium extrusions are seamless one-piece products both visually and
functionally. There are no mechanically joined seams to mar appearance or to
become loose or leak, even in tubes and other hollow shapes.

Easy to Fabricate
Aluminium can be easily fabricated into various forms such as foil, sheets,
shapes, rods, tubes and wires. It also displays excellent machinability and
plasticity in bending, cutting and drawing. Aluminium is considered to be the
best material for complex extrusion to tight tolerances.
Joinable
Aluminium extrusions can be joined to other aluminium products or to different
materials by all major methods, including welding, brazing, soldering, bolting,
riveting, clinching, crimping, clipping, adhesive bonding and slide-on, snap
together or interlocking joints.

Complex Integral Shapes

Aluminium’s capacity for integral design and production can reduce cost and
improve performance and reliability. Extrusion can economically provide
product shapes that would be difficult, if not impossible, to produce in any
other way.

Aluminium extrusions can be designed for ease of assembly with other parts.
The production of large items in the form of dis-assembled kits that require a
minimum of manpower and skill to assemble are cost saving.

Aluminium extrusions, of uniform high quality, may be produced in large

numbers with minimal rejection rates and little need for corrective fabrication.
Recyclable
The Aluminium industry includes a large “secondary metal” sector which
accepts scrapped aluminium products for remelting and recovery of metal.
Recycling aluminium requires only 5%of the energy needed to produce new
aluminium.

Aluminium extrusions may be recycled and therefore have substantial scrap

value.

2. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Magnesium alloy developments have traditionally been driven by

aerospace industry requirements for lightweight materials to operate
under increasingly demanding conditions. Magnesium alloys have
always been attractive to designers due to their low density, only two
thirds that of aluminum. This has been a major factor in the widespread
use of magnesium alloy castings and wrought products.

A further requirement in recent years has been for superior corrosion

performance, and dramatic improvements in this regard have been
demonstrated for new magnesium alloys. Improvements in mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance have led to greater interest in magnesium
alloys for aerospace and other specialized applications, and alloys are now
being specified on projects like the McDonnell Douglas MD 500 helicopter.

Key properties of magnesium alloys

 Lightweight
 Low density (two thirds that of aluminum)
 Good high-temperature mechanical properties
  Good to excellent corrosion resistance

Applications of magnesium alloys

Aerospace
For many years, RZ5 alloy has been the preferred material for helicopter
transmission casings due to the combination of low density and good
mechanical properties. However, more recently, the requirement for longer
intervals between overhauls and hence improved corrosion properties has
caused manufacturers to reconsider material choice.

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Heat Treatment?
In the past, RZ5 was generally used for gearbox casings, but many new
projects will use WE43 instead, including the main rotor gearbox casings. For
this application, an aluminum transmission would have been used but the
exceptional corrosion resistance of WE43 makes it the preferred material. The
Eurocopter EC120 and NH90 helicopters have also flown with WE43
transmission casings and WE43 is specified for the Sikorsky S92. Further
applications for WE43 will go ahead in the future both on new programmes
and also replace RZ5 on older helicopters.

RZ5, ZRE1, MSR and EQ21 alloys are widely used for aircraft engine and
gearbox casings. This will continue although it is likely that WE43 will be used
increasingly for its corrosion and high-temperature properties. Very large
magnesium casings can be made, such as intermediate compressor casings
for turbine engines. These include the Rolls Royce Tay casing in MSR, which
weighs 130 kg, and the BMW Rolls Royce BR710 casing in RZ5.

Other aerospace applications include auxiliary gearboxes (F16, Eurofighter

2000, Tornado) in MSR or RZ5, generator housings (A320 Airbus, Tornado,
Concorde) in MSR or EQ21, and canopies, generally in RZ5.

Magnesium alloy forgings are also used in aerospace applications, including

critical gearbox parts for the Westland Sea King helicopter and aircraft
wheels, both in ZW3. Forged magnesium parts are also used in aircraft
engine applications. In the future, magnesium forgings are most likely to be
used in higher temperature applications.

Automotive – motor racing

In motor racing, RZ5 is generally used for gearbox casings, although MSR
and EQ21 alloys are also being used increasingly due to their superior
ambient temperature properties or because of increased operating
temperatures.

RZ5 wheels have been shown to have significantly better performance than
Mg-Al-Zn alloy wheels under arduous racing conditions. Due to the high
operating temperature of racing engines, WE54 casings have been used for a
variety of Formula 1 engine parts and are used for engine components for a
limited-edition road car. Forged WE54 pistons offer great future potential for
motor racing and other applications will exist for other wrought products.

Bicycles
As mentioned above, the metal matrix composite Melram 072 is used in the
bicycle industry due to its excellent stiffness and reduced weight compared to
aluminum.

Other Magnesium Alloy Applications

Magnesium alloys are also used in many other engineering applications
where being lightweight is a significant advantage. Magnesium-zirconium
alloys tend to be used in relatively low-volume applications where they are
processed by sand or investment casting, or wrought products by extrusion or
forging.

Zirconium-free alloys, principally AZ91 but also other alloys, are used in
automotive and various other high-volume applications.

Other applications include electronics, sporting goods, nuclear applications,

office equipment, flares, sacrificial anodes for the protection of other metals,
flash photography and tools.

4.TITANIUM ALLOYS

Titanium alloys have good features such as high specific strength, good
high temperature mechanical properties and excellent corrosion
 resistance, thus have been applied in aerospace, transportation, power
generation and chemical industries. However, wider use of these materials is
limited by their expense.

What are 5 characteristics of titanium?

Titanium Qualities
 Outstanding corrosion resistance.
 Superior strength-to-weight ratios.
 Low density.
 High heat-resistance.
 High heat transfer capability.
 Very good oxidation capabilities.
 High melting point.
 Low elasticity module.

What are the applications of titanium alloys?

Titanium is used in a wider range of applications in our daily life, including not
only golf clubs, but also tennis rackets, wristwatches, glasses, knives,
jewelry, and sculptures.
3. NICKEL BASED ALLOYS

Nickel and nickel alloys are non-ferrous metals with high strength and toughness,
excellent corrosion resistance, and superior elevated temperature properties.

What are the properties of nickel alloys?

Strong, ductile, resistant

Tough and versatile, nickel alloys are resistant to corrosion by a range of

media, and stay impressively strong even at temperatures over 1000°C.

What are various properties and applications of important nickel alloys?

Nickel-based alloys contain Fe and Cr, are strong at high temperatures, are
resistant to corrosion, and have higher creep strength compared with
austenitic and F/M steels.

4. MATERIALS FOR CRYOGENIC APPLICATIONS

What materials are used in cryogenic applications?

Liquid nitrogen, liquid oxygen and carbon dioxide are the most common
cryogenic materials used in the laboratory. Hazards may include fire,
explosion, embrittlement, pressure buildup, frostbite and asphyxiation.

5. MATERIALS FOR SPACE APPLICATIONS

Space travel is happening today and will be very much a part of

humanity’s future. Finding the right materials is therefore key. Our current
best practices are evident in the materials used for the International
Space Station (ISS) and satellites that service our planet and go out into
the Solar System on voyages of discovery. Some materials handle a
vacuum environment better than others. To give you a little bit of an idea
about what engineers and scientists are already using in materials and
may use in the future, we’ve compiled a list.

Aluminum
Perhaps aluminum’s most useful feature is that it’s simultaneously strong
and remarkably lightweight. Aluminum on its own isn’t durable enough for
use in space, but it’s a common additive when fabricators make alloys
being used in space. Aluminum is added because it lowers the weight of
finished products without sacrificing too much strength. For example,
astronauts use aluminum alloy shutters on the ISS to protect the station
from flying space debris.

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Featured in jet aircraft, titanium is a lightweight metal that is used on its
own and in alloys for space materials. There is lots of titanium in current
space infrastructure both on the ISS, as well as on satellites. The Rosetta
Project, an etched pure titanium plate today is mounted on the outside of
the ISS and contains an archival record of Earth’s languages. Titanium can
withstand the extreme hazards of space including temperature
fluctuations, and cosmic and solar radiation.

Reinforced Carbon-Carbon Composite

Otherwise known as RCC, this material was essential in the U.S. shuttle
program. It covered vital areas of the shuttle’s wing surfaces
redistributing extreme heat upon re-entry into the atmosphere. It works
like a complicated car radiator releasing heat. It was placed wherever
extreme heat could affect the shuttle’s operation and redirected the heat
away from more sensitive areas of the spacecraft. RCC is lightweight but
also delicate. A piece of polyurethane foam insulation that broke off the
external tank during the launch of the shuttle Columbia caused sufficient
damage leading to the disaster in 2003 and the deaths of its seven-
member crew. The successors to the shuttle, the X-37 military shuttle,
and Sierra Nevada’s Dream Chaser, use a more advanced version of RCC
called TUFROC (which is short for Toughened Uni-piece Fibrous Reinforced
Oxidation-Resistant Composite).

Kevlar
Kevlar is a useful space material. You probably are aware of it in clothing
designed to be durable. The military and law enforcement use kevlar vests
to protect soldiers and police from bullets. In the same way it stops
bullets, kevlar in space protects satellites, spacecraft and the ISS from
pieces of junk and space debris floating around in Earth orbit. Kevlar is
lightweight and durable. It can handle extremely hot and cold
temperatures without warping.

Thermal Glass
The windows of the ISS, Dragon capsule and other space vehicles with
humans on board are made of thermal glass. Regular glass would shatter
in the space environment and wouldn’t be capable of handling launch or
re-entry through the atmosphere. Thermal glass properties allow it to
withstand the changing pressure as spacecraft make their way into and
back from space. It withstands exceedingly hot and cold temperatures
without cracking or breaking.

Silica cloth and silica aerogels

For areas on a spacecraft that need to be more flexible, silica cloth is
commonly used. For example, the areas around the U.S. shuttle’s landing
gear used silica cloth. While not the most durable material, it withstands
the rigours of space travel without breaking down.

Silica aerogels were used in the U.S. shuttle, and currently are found on
NASA’s Mars rovers, both Curiosity and Perseverance. Silica aerogels are
similar in chemical structure to glass, and incorporate gas or air in their
pores instead of liquid. The individual pores are less than 1/10,000th of
the diameter of a human hair, just a few nanometers. The nanoporous
nature of silicon aerogels gives the material the lowest thermal
conductivity of any known solid.

6. EVALUTION OF MATERIALS FOR EXTREME ENVIRONMENT

7. INTRODUCTION TO METTALLIC FOAMS

For years, materials scientists and engineers have been trying to create
porous metals and metal foams based on in an attempt to emulate
naturally porous materials, such as bone, coral and cork.

Metal foam is a cellular structure made up of a solid metal containing a large

volume fraction of gas-filled pores. These pores can either be sealed (closed-
cell foam), or they can be an interconnected network (open-cell foam). The
closed-cell foam is referred to as metal foams, while the open-cell foam is
referred to simply as porous metal.

Metals that Can Be Used

The metal that is commonly used to make metal foams is aluminium.
However, other  varieties of metals can be used to make the foam, such as
titanium and tantalum.

Properties of Metal Foam

The key properties of metal foam are as follows:
  Ultralight material (75–95% of the volume consists of void spaces)
 Very high porosity
 High compression strengths combined with good energy absorption
characteristics
 Thermal conductivity is low
 High strength

Metal Foam - Science Nation

Production Method
Metallic melts can be foamed by creating gas bubbles in the liquid. These gas
bubbles in the metallic melt tend to rise to the surface due to the high
buoyancy forces in the high-density liquid. In order to prevent this from
happening, the viscosity of the molten metal has to be increased. This can be
done by adding fine ceramic powders or alloying elements to form stabilizing
particles in the melt.

Three ways of foaming metallic melts are listed below:

 Injecting gas into the liquid metal from an external source

 Causing the precipitation of gas that had just been dissolved in the
liquid
 Causing an in-situ gas formation in the liquid by admixing gas-releasing
blowing agents to the melt

Foaming of Metallic Melts using Gas Injection

Foaming aluminium and aluminium alloys is used by Cymat Aluminium
Corporation in Canada and Hydro Aluminium in Norway. Silicon carbide,
aluminium oxide, or magnesium oxide particles can be used to enhance the
viscosity of the melt.

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The mixing techniques should be consistent to ensure uniform distribution of

particles throughout the melt. The melt is then foamed by injecting gases,
namely, air, nitrogen, and argon into it using rotating impellers or vibrating
nozzles.

Foaming of Melts with Blowing Agents

A second method for foaming melts directly is to add a blowing agent to the
melt instead of injecting gas into it. Gas is introduced into the melt by using
compounds such as hydrides or carbonates.

The compound tends to decompose and forms gas bubbles when heated in a
liquid metal or semi-solid pellet. The resulting foam has to be stable so that
the porous metals will have uniform pore sizes and densities.

Shinko Wire Company, Amagasaki, Japan, has been producing foams using
this method. About 1.5 wt.% calcium metal is added to an aluminium melt at
680°C (1256F°). The melt is mixed well and the viscosity starts to increase
due to the formation of calcium oxide, calcium aluminum oxide, or Al 4Ca
intermetallics. This aids in thickening of the liquid metal.

Once the viscosity reaches the desired value, titanium hydride as a blowing
agent is added serving to release hydrogen gas in the hot viscous liquid. The
melt then begins to expand slowly and gradually, filling the foaming vessel.
The foaming has to take place at constant pressure. When the vessel is
cooled below the melting point of the alloy, the liquid foam turns into solid
aluminium foam and can be taken out of the mold for further processing.
Solid-Gas Eutectic Solidification
Porous materials formed by solid-gas eutectic solidification are called ‘gasar’,
meaning ‘gas-reinforced.’ It has been a known fact that certain liquid metals
form a eutectic system with hydrogen gas.

When one of these metals is melted in a hydrogen atmosphere under high

pressure of up to 50 atm, the resultant melt is homogeneous and charged with
hydrogen. The melt will have a eutectic transition to a heterogeneous
solid+gas system when the temperature is lowered. The solid+gas system
should have a eutectic concentration, and then a segregation reaction will
occur at a specific temperature.

The melt begins to solidify causing gas pores to precipitate and become
entrapped in the metal. Mostly elongated pores oriented in the direction of
solidification are formed.

Applications
The main applications of metal foams and porous metals are listed below:

 The closed variety is used for structural applications requiring load-

bearing features, and for weight-saving and impact-absorbing
structures in vehicles
 The open variety is ideal for vibration and sound absorption, filtration
and catalysis at high temperatures, for heat exchange and in medical
devices.
 The open variety is also useful in functional applications such as
filtration and damping.
 Foam metal is being used as an experimental prosthetic in animals.
 Metal foams with high strengths can act as high-capacity impact-
energy absorbers.
 Automotive industry - the foams reduce the number of parts in the car
frame, facilitate assembly, thereby reducing costs and improving
performance.

Sources
 Manufacturing Routes for Metallic Foams-tms

Disclaimer: The views expressed here are those of the author expressed in
their private capacity and do not necessarily represent the views of
AZoM.com Limited T/A AZoNetwork the owner and operator of this website.
This disclaimer forms part of the Terms and conditions of use of this website.

Gary graduated from the University of Manchester with a first-class honours degree in
Geochemistry and a Masters in Earth Sciences. After working in the Australian mining
industry, Gary decided to hang up his geology boots and turn his hand to writing. When
he isn't developing topical and informative content, Gary can usually be found playing his
beloved guitar, or watching Aston Villa FC snatch defeat from the jaws of victory.

What metal is foam?

Metal foam is a celled structure made up of solid ligaments and

permeable pores. This matrix of cells and ligaments is fully customizable and
can be optimized to meet the performance requirements of a broad range of
applications.

What is metal foam characteristics?

The defining characteristic of metal foams is a very high porosity: typically
75–95% of the volume consists of void spaces. The strength of foamed metal
possesses a power law relationship to its density; that is, a 20% dense
material is more than twice as strong as a 10% dense material.