A RT I C L E 139

Silent illumination: a study on Psychology of Music

Psychology of Music
Chan (Zen) meditation, anxiety, Copyright © 2008
Society for Education, Music
and musical performance quality and Psychology Research
vol 36(2): 139–155 [0305-7356
(200804) 36:2; 139–155]
10.1177/0305735607080840
http://pom.sagepub.com

PETER LIN
C O L U M B I A U N I V E R S I T Y, U S A
J OA N N E C H A N G
CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK, USA
VA N C E Z E M O N
Y E S H I VA U N I V E R S I T Y , U S A
ELIZABETH MIDLARSKY
C O L U M B I A U N I V E R S I T Y, U S A

This study investigated the effects of Chan (Zen) meditation on musical

A B S T R AC T
performance anxiety and musical performance quality. Nineteen participants were
recruited from music conservatories and randomly assigned to either an eight-week
meditation group or a wait-list control group. After the intervention, all participants
performed in a public concert. Outcome measures were performance anxiety and
musical performance quality. Meditation practiced over a short term did not significantly
improve musical performance quality. The control group demonstrated a significant
decrease in performance quality with increases in performance anxiety. The meditation
group demonstrated the opposite effect – a positive linear relation between performance
quality and performance anxiety. This finding indicates that enhanced concentration
and mindfulness (silent illumination), cultivated by Chan practice, might enable one to
channel performance anxiety to improve musical performance.

KEYWORDS: acceptance, Buddhism, mindfulness, performance anxiety, vipassana

Musical performance anxiety represents a relatively unexamined but seriously debili-

tating problem that functionally impairs large numbers of musicians (Kendrick et al.,
1982). Most musicians, both amateur and professional, experience some degree of
musical performance anxiety during their musical careers. If unmanageable, it can
discourage students from further study of music (Appel, 1976). Tension in musical
performance has much in common with other anxieties, such as fear of heights, in
that the individual responds biochemically, physiologically and behaviorally to the
feared situation. However, there is an additional element in performance anxiety. It
affects intricate behavior that involves a sequence of skilled actions that may easily
be disrupted, with unfortunate consequences. The musician is particularly challenged

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140 Psychology of Music 36(2)

in that the physical systems sustaining a performance are precisely those most likely
to be disturbed by excessive tension (Steptoe, 1983).
There have been many attempts at reducing performance anxiety: relaxation,
insight therapy, beta-blockers, alcohol, systematic desensitization, hypnosis, cognitive
restructuring, and the traditional approach of ‘practice more’, each with different
degrees of efficacy. An internal survey of symphony and opera musicians indicated
that beta-blockers were by far the most common form of treatment used, mostly with
prescription (Pezenik, 1994).
These anxiety-reducing approaches were studied scientifically in the past few
decades. For example, systematic desensitization was demonstrated to be more effective
than music analysis (Appel, 1976) or insight relaxation (Wardle, 1969) in reducing
musical performance anxiety. However, the latter two techniques still were found to be
helpful in reducing anxiety. Some researchers combined different treatment techniques.
Nagel et al. (1981) found that the combination of progressive muscular relaxation,
mental techniques and biofeedback training was successful in reducing performance
anxiety. Finally, standard psychological interventions such as cognitive therapy were
found to be effective as well (Kendrick et al., 1982).
In the past two decades, there has been considerable interest in meditation as an
approach to reduce emotional distress among a large community of clinicians and
empirical psychologists (Bishop et al., 2004). The purpose of the present study is to
assess the effect of meditation on musical performance anxiety, as well as on quality
of musical performance. Specifically, meditation practice from Chan Buddhism (the
predecessor of Zen Buddhism, ‘Zen’ is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese
word ‘Chan’) was the intervention used in this study.
Chan meditation is a disciplined practice that cultivates concentration and mindful-
ness. The purpose of meditation is to learn to experience life fully as it unfolds – moment
by moment. Through the practice of meditation, one can develop greater calmness, clar-
ity and insight in facing life’s experiences and in turning them into occasions for learn-
ing, and thus deepening one’s wisdom (Kabat-Zinn and Santorelli, 1999).
Meditation research is a young but vigorous field. More than 1500 publications
have demonstrated a variety of psychological, physiological and chemical effects of
meditation (Dunn et al., 1999; Smith, 1975; Walsh, 1996). Psychologists have often
utilized meditation in clinical settings because it offers the benefits of reducing stress
(Astin, 1997; Carlson et al., 2003), coping with chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1982),
relieving depression (Deberry et al., 1989), and, mostly, reducing anxiety (Kabat-Zinn
et al., 1992; Pearl and Carlozzi, 1994). Meditation has shown to be an effective treat-
ment for anxiety disorders such as simple phobia, panic attack, agoraphobia and
obsessive-compulsive disorder (Dillbeck, 1977; Kornfeld, 1995). The literature also
suggests that meditation reduces public speaking anxiety (Kirsch and Henry, 1979)
and test anxiety (Linden, 1973). However, studies that investigate the effect of medi-
tation on musical performance anxiety are rare in the literature.
The practice of Chan meditation incorporates both concentration (samatha – calming
the mind in Pali) and mindfulness (vipassana – insight into nature). This process is
described as ‘silent illumination’ by Chan Masters since the 11th century (Master Sheng-
Yen, 2002). The word ‘silent’ indicates calmness; one is not influenced by both the
outer environment and inner mental states. The word ‘illumination’ indicates being
mindful or aware of all events that occur in the present moment, such as irrational
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 Lin et al.: Meditation and performance quality 141

thoughts (an inner event) or loud sounds (an outer event). Thus, by practicing silent
illumination, one is practicing to be mindful of both inner mental states and outer sur-
roundings that take place in the present moment, with a calm and non-judgmental
attitude towards them.
During Chan meditation practice, one learns to step back and identify one’s own
mental process. By stepping back and observing the flow of consciousness, one real-
izes that each thought (e.g. ‘I am going to fail on stage’) and feeling (e.g. anxiety) is
only a passing event in the mind rather than an inherent aspect of the self or a valid
reflection on reality (Bishop, 2002). Contrary to cognitive-behavioral treatment,
a common practice of psychotherapy, the goal of meditation is not to ‘challenge’ or
‘change’ those dysfunctional thoughts and undesired feelings, but rather to observe
their rise and fall with an open attitude. The literature describes this approach some-
times as ‘acceptance’ (Kabat-Zinn and Santorelli, 1999). Acceptance in meditation
practice does not mean giving up or resigning. By fully being aware and accepting
what each present moment offers without reacting habitually, one may learn to
respond to situations more reflectively (Kabat-Zinn and Santorelli, 1999).
In the literature, the operational definition of mindfulness is similar to the concept
of silent illumination. Recently, a group of behavioral scientists (Bishop et al., 2004)
proposed a two-component model of mindfulness. The first component involves the
self-regulation of attention that allows one to focus on immediate experience, which
allows for increased recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second
component involves adopting a particular orientation toward the experience of the
present moment that is characterized by curiosity, openness and acceptance. In this
context, meditation ability can be considered a metacognitive skill – cognition about
one’s cognition (Bishop et al., 2004). Today, ancient meditation practice has been
integrated with modern psychotherapeutic techniques such as dialectical behavioral
therapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.
Ultimately, good performance quality is the goal of every musician, and perform-
ance anxiety is an obstacle one needs to overcome. Evidence shows that meditation
may enhance concentration and reduce anxiety. Therefore, a reasonable hypothesis
is that meditation may enhance one’s musical performance quality. In this study, the
effects of meditation on musical performance quality and performance anxiety, as
well as the relation between performance and anxiety, were examined. A preliminary
report of partial results from this study was published previously (Chang et al., 2003).
We had shown that meditation might be effective in reducing musical performance
anxiety. In comparing the pre-performance anxiety and post-performance anxiety
scores, the meditation group had a significant decrease in the anxiety score, whereas
there was no significant difference between the pre- and post-measures in the control
group. A graphical representation of this result will be presented in this article. This
article will focus on the relationship between musical performance anxiety and per-
formance quality.

Methods
PA RT I C I PA N T S
After receiving Columbia University’s Institutional Review Board approval, posters
offering free meditation classes were placed on the campuses of the Manhattan
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142 Psychology of Music 36(2)

School of Music, Teachers College Columbia University and the Mannes College of
Music in New York. These included sign-up sheets where the students could leave
their telephone numbers and email addresses. The poster stated that a free medita-
tion course would be provided, and that meditation may be an effective strategy for
reducing musical performance anxiety. No financial incentive was provided. After two
weeks had elapsed, the sign-up sheets were collected from each campus. There were
48 participants signed up for this study. However, 29 of the 48 were obliged to drop
out owing to scheduling conflicts and limited time availability.
In order to participate in this study, participants needed to be at least 18 years of age
and studying at the undergraduate level, the graduate level or equivalent in conserva-
tories/schools of music. Also, a solo performance was required (an inclusion criterion) of
each participant, regardless of group. Nineteen music students from different music con-
servatories were recruited for this study. Participants’ ages (M 5 25.1 years, SD 5 6.7)
ranged from 18 to 41; five were male (26%) and 14 were female (74%). Approximately
55 percent were Asian Pacific Islanders, and 45 percent were European Americans.
There were 12 pianists, two oboists, three singers and two violinists. The average length
of training in music was 13.9 (SD 5 5.4) years. Table 1 presents the demographic vari-
ables for the meditation group, the control group and the total sample.

MEASURES
The main outcome variables for this study were musical performance anxiety and
musical performance quality.

TA B L E 1 Demographic summary

Independent variable

Meditation Control Overall

N 9 10 19
Age
Mean 23.6 26.5 25.1
SD 6.8 6.6 6.7
Gender
Male 2 3 5
Female 7 7 14
Race
White 4 5 9
Asian 5 5 10
Instrument
Piano 7 5 12
Violin 2 1 3
Voice 0 3 3
Other 0 1 1
Years of learning music
Mean 15.0 12.9 13.9
SD 7.2 3.0 5.4

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 Lin et al.: Meditation and performance quality 143

Musical performance anxiety

Musical performance anxiety was measured by two instruments that tapped into the
state and trait aspect of anxiety. According to Spielberger et al. (1970), state anxiety
reflects a transitory emotional state that may fluctuate over time and can vary in
intensity. In contrast, trait anxiety denotes relatively stable individual differences in
anxiety proneness.
The first of these measures was the State Anxiety Inventory (SAI), which was drawn
from the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y) developed by Spielberger et al. (1970).
This scale is a 20-item instrument (Cronbach alpha 5 .85) and it measures transitory
anxiety state (e.g. ‘At this moment, I feel calm’). Scores range from 1 (not at all) to 4
(very much so).
The second measure used in the study was the Performance Anxiety Inventory
(PAI), adapted by Nagel et al. (1981) from the Test Anxiety Index, developed by
Spielberger and his collaborators (1980). The PAI (Cronbach alpha 5 .91) is a 20-item
measure that assesses trait performance anxiety by asking people how they generally
feel about performing (e.g. I feel confident and relaxed while performing before an
audience). Scores range from 1 (almost all the time) to 4 (never).

Musical performance quality

The quality of the participants’ performance was measured by the Music Performance
Quality Rating Form (MPQ). This form is developed by the Educational Testing Service
(1998), and it includes six items with a five-point rating scale, ranging from 1
(0–25%) to 5 (95–100%). The first five items are as follows: (a) Pitch Production,
(b) Rhythmic/Tempo Production, (c) Technical Competency, (d) Expressiveness/
Musicianship, and (e) Tone Quality. The final item is an overall rating of the quality
of the performance. A sample item is given below:

Technical competency
[1] 5seldom performs with right notes [0–25%] or with mistakes constantly
[2] 5occasional correct notes with some right passages [25–50%]
[3] 5sometimes performs with mistakes but technique is adequate [50–75%]
[4] 5secured techniques with occasional wrong notes [75–95%]
[5] 5very secured strong fingers with perfect techniques in the difficult passages
[95–100%]

Two measures can be obtained from the MPQ. One is the average performance quality
(APQ), which is the mean score from the first five items; another one is the overall per-
formance (OP), which is measured by the final item.
Two independent professional musicians were recruited to serve as jurors for the
participants’ musical performance at the concert. In addition, these jurors were given
the videotape of the performance. The jurors were blind to the research purpose, and
they completed the rating form within two days. Reliability measured by intraclass
correlation coefficients (ICC) for the two jurors were calculated for the APQ score (ICC
5 .77, p ,0.001) and OP score (ICC 5 0.70, p ,0.01).

A NA LYS I S
The independent variable in this study is treatment condition. The dependent variables
are scores on the MPQ, PAI and SAI. First, descriptive statistics were calculated for the

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144 Psychology of Music 36(2)

anxiety measures. Next, we used one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)

to compare the meditation and control groups on the two measures of musical perform-
ance quality (measured by the MPQ). Finally, for each group, we calculated Pearson
product–moment correlation coefficients and produced scatterplots between the scores
on the two anxiety measures and the two measures of musical performance quality.

P RO C E D U R E S
Design
People who agreed to participate in the study were randomly assigned (using SPSS
8.0 (manufacturer SPSS Inc.), Select Cases procedure) to either an experimental
group (who received meditation instruction and practice) or a wait-list control group
(no treatment received prior to their performance). Participants in both groups
responded on measures of performance anxiety prior to the treatment, which was
eight weeks in duration. After the end of the meditation training, participants from
both study groups performed in a concert that was open to the public. Musical per-
formance quality, performance anxiety and state anxiety were assessed immediately
after the performance. Differences between the groups in musical performance qual-
ity and performance anxiety were explored.
Following random assignment, participants from the wait-list control group were
informed that they would attend meditation classes three months later. The control
group was kept informed about the concert performance, so as to make it possible to
schedule the concert date and to gather performance data. The consent form, medi-
tation information, confidential personal information form and PAI were mailed to
the participants in the wait-list control group. In the cover letter, they were asked to
sign the consent form, complete the baseline measures, and mail it back to the prin-
cipal investigator in a stamped, self-addressed envelope. The participants were left free
to do their regular study/work without any specific expectations of lifestyle changes
prior to the concert. After the concert performance, meditation classes were offered
to the wait-list control-group participants as promised.
Each participant chosen for the experimental group was invited to attend an eight-
week meditation class that began one week after the invitation was made. At the first
session, participants were handed the research description, consent form, confiden-
tial personal information form, eight-week syllabus, list of meditation benefits, medi-
tation checklist, procedure of everyday practice and the PAI. Participants signed the
consent form and completed the baseline measures prior to the beginning of the class.
After eight weeks of meditation training, participants from both groups partici-
pated in a solo concert performance that was open to the public. The event took place
in Horace Mann Auditorium of Teachers College, Columbia University, a hall that
seats approximately 600 people and has a Steinway grand piano. A concert an-
nouncement was posted two weeks prior to the concert within institutions from
which participants were recruited. The audience consisted of the two jurors, guest
professors, the participants’ relatives and friends and a public audience. There were
approximately 50 people present for the concert.
The concert provided a way to gather data for a comparison of the experimental and
wait-list control groups, following the experimental group’s meditation phase. Each par-
ticipant performed a 5- to 10-minute solo piece (with an accompanist, if they were

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 Lin et al.: Meditation and performance quality 145

vocalists or string players, and depending on the repertoire choice). Each participant
filled out the PAI and SAI immediately after his or her performance. Due to the restricted
time available after the concert, most of the participants were emailed a list of open-
ended questions to evaluate the meditation program and replied by email.

Meditation intervention
The meditation instructor was a certified instructor with eight years of meditation
experience and training from the Chan Meditation Center in Elmhurst, New York.
Participants in the experimental group met once a week (1 hour and 15 minutes) for
eight weeks at the Manhattan School of Music to receive group meditation training.
The initial sessions included a brief introduction to meditation and its benefits for alle-
viating musical performance anxiety. Every class session included 15 to 20 minutes of
practice in meditation. Group discussions addressed personal meditation experiences
and common questions. Each participant was also expected to practice meditation on
his/her own for approximately 20 minutes daily, especially immediately before his/her
daily instrumental and/or vocal practice sessions. The later weeks of the classes con-
sisted of instruction regarding standing, walking, lying down and sleeping forms of
meditation, as well as direct contemplation, awareness of body and room, performance
audio/visualization, and mental rehearsal. Within every class, meditation participants
had opportunities to ask questions related to their daily meditation practice experiences
and the applications of meditation to their performance preparations. The instructor
repeatedly reinforced the idea that meditation does not replace the need for musical
practice, and that the skill of meditating does not constitute a ‘magic pill’ to enhance
performance. It is important to note that, on average, participants missed approxi-
mately 40 percent of classes due to limited availability. Three out of nine participants
missed 50 percent of the course. However, because an important aspect of this course
was practicing at home, missing some classes might not have had a large impact. In
addition, the main conclusion of this article remained the same even when we
excluded the data from these participants from the calculations. Finally, this article is
based on intent-to-treat analyses. While it may seem logical to exclude non-compliant
participants, restricting the analyses to compliant participants can lead to biased
results. Thus, data from all participants were included in the statistical tests. A brief
outline of the meditation training is presented in Table 2.

Results
Examination of frequency distributions, histograms, and tests of homogeneity of vari-
ance and of normality for the criterion measures indicated that the assumptions for the
use of parametric statistics were met. All of the analyses presented were performed with
the significance level (alpha) set at .05, two-tailed tests. Means and standard deviations
for musical performance quality and anxiety scores are presented in Table 3.

M U S I CA L P E R F O R M A N C E A N X I E T Y
A graphical depiction of the anxiety scores, reported in the previous publication
(Chang et al., 2003), is presented in Figure 1. Based on reference populations, which
have mean raw scores of 38–39, raw scores equal to 46–47 are approximately one

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146 Psychology of Music 36(2)

TA B L E 2 Syllabus of meditation training

Session Description
I. The Mind as Instrument Awareness of attitude and mind
Tools, clothing, postures
Method: relaxation, awareness of breath, counting
the breath
II. Past, Present and Future Conditions, time, place, view, head exercises, massage,
yoga stretches
III. States of Mind Meditative states of mind
Breathing modes
Theory of the circle
IV. Child and Critic Standing, walking, sitting, lying down, sleeping,
meditation
V. Reality Check Direct contemplation
VI. Best Friend Awareness of body and room
VII. Imagine the Best Awareness of body and room
Performance audio/visualization and mental rehearsal
VIII. Giving and Receiving Giving to the audience and to the composer
Rehearsing your mind
Enjoying your music and performance

TA B L E 3 Descriptive data for independent and dependent variables

Independent Variable

Control Meditation

Dependent variable Mean SD Mean SD

Pre-Performance Anxiety Inventory 41.4 6.00 47.3 13.0
Post-Performance Anxiety Inventory 41.4 6.42 41.6 14.5
State Anxiety Inventory 40.0 8.53 35.9 8.18
Average Performance Quality 4.21 .52 3.93 .46
Overall Performance Quality 4.20 .63 3.94 .46

standard deviation above the mean. Thus, as shown in Table 3, the mean pre-
performance anxiety measure in the experimental group was approximately one stan-
dard deviation above the mean. The results indicated that a decrease in musical
performance anxiety was associated with meditation.

M U S I CA L P E R F O R M A N C E Q UA L I T Y
The means of the two jurors’ scores on average performance quality and overall per-
formance were the dependent measures in this analysis. One-way MANOVA indicated
that there were no significant differences in musical performance quality between the
meditation and control groups, F (2, 16) 5 1.23, p 5 .32. The partial h2 was .13,
and the observed power was .23.

P E R F O R M A N C E Q UA L I T Y A N D A N X I E T Y
Initially, to examine the relationship between anxiety and performance quality,
Pearson product–moment correlation coefficients were calculated to determine
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 Lin et al.: Meditation and performance quality 147

48

46

44

42

40

38

Pre-PAI
36
Post-PAI
Mean

34 SAI
control group experimental group

FIGURE 1 Mean anxiety scores (Pre-PAI, Post-PAI, and SAI) for control and meditation groups.

whether state anxiety and musical performance quality were related linearly within
each group. Scatterplots of overall performance quality versus anxiety for each group
are illustrated in Figure 2. Results indicated that average performance quality (r 5
2.718, p 5 .019) and overall performance (r 5 2.749, p 5 .013) were negatively cor-
related with state anxiety in the control group. In contrast, the average performance
quality (r 5 .407, p 5 .277) and overall performance (r 5 .375, p 5 .320) were not
correlated significantly with state anxiety in the meditation group. Overall perform-
ance vs. state anxiety is plotted separately for the control and meditation groups in
Figures 2(a) and 2(b), respectively. Note, the negative linear relation found with the
control group explained 56.1 percent of the variability.
Similarly, average performance quality (r 5 2.711, p 5 .021) and overall perform-
ance (r 5 2.816, p 5 .004) were negatively correlated with post-performance anxiety
in the control group. However, average performance quality (r 5 .682, p 5 .043) and
overall performance (r 5 .715, p 5 .030) were positively correlated with post-performance
anxiety in the meditation group. Overall performance vs. post-performance anxiety is
plotted separately for the control and meditation groups in Figures 2(c) and 2(d),
respectively.
Finally, the correlation between average performance quality and overall perform-
ance was highly significant for both the meditation group (r 5 .866, p 5 .003) and
the control group (r 5 .919, p 5 .001).

Discussion
In this study, the relations among meditation, anxiety and musical performance qual-
ity were explored. The hypothesis stated that participants in the meditation group
would have less anxiety during a performance, which would lead to better musical
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148 Psychology of Music 36(2)

a b
control group experimental group
5.00
Mean Overall Performance

4.50
C

4.00

R Sq Linear = 0.561
3.50
R Sq Linear = 0.141

3.00

20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00

State Anxiety

c d
control group experimental group
5.00
Mean Overall Performance

4.50

4.00

3.50 R Sq Linear = 0.666

R Sq Linear = 0.512

3.00

20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00

FIGURE 2 Scatterplots of overall performance vs. post-performance anxiety and state anxiety for
control and meditation groups.

performance experience and quality. This hypothesis is not supported by the data.
Instead, in the meditation group, a positive correlation is found for performance qual-
ity (obtained with either OP or APQ scores) and performance anxiety. Conversely, the
control group yielded a negative correlation between performance quality and anx-
iety (both performance and state anxiety). Thus, it appears that the group that did
not participate in meditation exhibited a detrimental effect of reported anxiety levels
on musical performance quality. The meditation group, however, seemed to benefit
from the experimental treatment in that performance quality actually increased with
increases in reported performance anxiety levels. Perhaps, the anxiety scores reflect
awareness of internal (physiological) states that are typically associated with anxious
feelings. In the control group, these autonomic effects may produce the adverse psy-
chological reactions that are usually interpreted as anxiety (e.g. my heartbeat is going

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 Lin et al.: Meditation and performance quality 149

fast; I am afraid that I will mess everything up). In the meditation group, however, the
internal state of silent illumination created by the intervention may enable those par-
ticipants to accept the autonomic effects without the adverse psychological reaction
(e.g. this is a fast heartbeat, but I will concentrate on the task) and channel the ele-
vated state of arousal to a more focused attention on the complicated task at hand –
the performance.
The attitudes of mindfulness and acceptance were also described by the partici-
pants in this study. For example, a jazz pianist described her performance as ‘the most
relaxed I had been during a solo performance in a long time, despite the fact that I
was still incredibly nervous (my hands were cold)’. This jazz pianist described a state
in which she was aware of her feelings during the moment, without getting caught
up in the emotional reactions to the situation.
The mechanism of meditation, such as having a greater attitude of acceptance and
non-judgmental awareness, is well described in the literature. As mentioned earlier,
Bishop et al. (2004) proposed that a meditation practitioner learns to direct his or her
attention to the mental and physical states in the immediate present moment, with a
curious and open attitude. Kutz et al. (1985) described that the purpose of meditation
practice is to enable one to become a detached observer of one’s own mental activity,
so one may identify its habits and distortions. This metacognitive skill, the ability of
detached observation, enables one to perceive a mental object and its affiliated emotion
as separate entities. For example, during the performance, a thought is observed, then
the feeling (e.g. anxiety) provoked by this thought, is experienced. The anxiety is not
viewed in terms of self, as ‘I am feeling so anxious’, but is partially separated from the
observer, as ‘there is the feeling of anxiety’. The process of stepping back and ob-
serving one’s own mental states is sometimes described as a shift toward greater use of
primary-process thinking – a mode of mental functioning known for its intuitive con-
ceptual flexibility (Kutz et al., 1985). The ability to step out of conceptual limitations
and identify a new solution is considered the feature of mindfulness and insight.
Physiologically, the literature has shown that mindfulness is a unique form of con-
sciousness and is not merely degrees of a state of relaxation. For example, electro-
encephalographic (EEG) recordings from long-term meditators showed that the
mindfulness meditation produced relatively slow (delta and theta) and relatively fast
(alpha and beta 1) wave activity compared with concentration meditation (Dunn et al.,
1999). This EEG pattern corresponds with Chan meditation practice. During the prac-
tice, a person has quieted his or her mind (silent), while concurrently being aware of
mental objects as they appear (illumination). Physiologically, the brain is calm and
relaxed, thereby producing more delta and theta waves, but is simultaneously awake
and alert, thereby producing more alpha and beta 1 activity (Dunn et al., 1999).
In addition, literature has shown that cultivating mindfulness might be associated
with changes in the brain’s physical structure. Lazar et al. (2005) used magnetic res-
onance imaging to assess cortical thickness in long-term mindfulness meditation
practitioners. Their results showed that brain regions associated with attention, intero-
ception and sensory processing were thicker in meditation participants than
matched controls. In addition, the thickness of the regions correlated with medita-
tion experience. In another study, a recent randomized clinical trial has established
that mindfulness meditation could increase left-sided anterior activation, a pattern

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150 Psychology of Music 36(2)

previously associated with positive affect and significant enhancement in immune

response (Davidson et al., 2003). The magnitude of increase in left-sided activation
predicted the magnitude of enhancement in immune response. These findings sug-
gest that meditation may change brain and immune functions.
Psychological interventions that incorporate mindfulness and acceptance have been
shown to be effective (Bishop, 2002). Psychopathology such as anxiety disorder is usu-
ally treated by mainstream cognitive-behavioral approaches. However, recent literature
suggests that the primarily change-based emphasis of cognitive-behavioral therapies
may be limited, and may have unintended unfavorable consequences (Roemer and
Orsillo, 2002). In many areas such as depression, schizophrenia, or borderline person-
ality disorder, psychologists have been advocating renewed attention to the importance
of acceptance and mindfulness in the course of successful psychotherapy (Kutz et al.,
1985; Roemer and Orsillo, 2002). The concepts of mindfulness and acceptance have
been highlighted across theoretical schools of thought in modern psychology (Kutz
et al., 1985), and they have been characteristics of eastern philosophy (Roemer and
Orsillo, 2002). Currently, psychologists have integrated acceptance-based techniques
in psychological intervention. For example, dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT),
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), and acceptance and communication
therapy (ACT) have been developed to help patients live a more satisfying life while
experiencing anxiety instead of attempting to control it.
Current literature shows that meditation may be an effective intervention in differ-
ent clinical populations. For example, in a study on the effects of meditation on per-
formance anxiety in singers, a major proportion of the participants (69%) reported
that meditation is an effective way of dealing with their performance anxiety (Taylor,
2002). In another study on public speaking anxiety, meditation was effective in reduc-
ing self-reported anxiety in the intervention group as compared to the control group
(Kirsch and Henry, 1979). Finally, a controlled trial conducted by Speca et al. (2000)
demonstrated that meditation reduced mood disturbance (e.g. anxiety) by 65 percent
and stress symptoms in a mixed sample of cancer patients by 35 percent.
In comparing the pre-performance anxiety and post-performance anxiety scores in
a previous study (Chang et al., 2003), the meditation group as compared to a con-
trol group had a small but significant decrease in this measure. This effect for the
meditation group is negligible when compared with the between-group bivariate
analysis of performance quality and performance anxiety reported here.
The most important conclusion from this study is that Chan meditation, a practice
that cultivates concentration and mindfulness, or silent illumination, may be beneficial
to musicians who suffer with performance anxiety. By cultivating nonjudgmental
awareness of the present moment, the musicians learn to accept their anxiety and per-
formance on the stage as it is. Although the change in performance quality may not be
noticeable, the musicians learn to appreciate their performance on stage, which leads
to more self-satisfying performances. Traditional therapeutic approaches have focused
on trying to alleviate or control anxiety, but this approach may be limited (Roemer and
Orsillo, 2002). Thus, acceptance-based interventions may be valuable tools in the cur-
rent treatment repertoire.
In addition, the results of this study are particularly encouraging because partici-
pants in the meditation group missed approximately 40 percent of the training sessions

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 Lin et al.: Meditation and performance quality 151

because of limited availability. Most of the participants were recruited from prestigious
music conservatories and it was difficult for them to attend all of these sessions. Larger
effects might have been found if they were able to attend all of the sessions.
In practice, Chan meditation is an easy technique to learn, and it is relatively inex-
pensive compared to other treatments. However, it is important to note that musical
performance is a complicated behavior. A high level of performance requires many
years of training. Although meditation is beneficial in facing anxiety, it did not en-
hance the quality of the complicated behavior in question during the eight-week inter-
vention. This study incorporated a randomized between-group design, which has
broad within-group variability associated with individual differences. Thus, in order
to detect a small beneficial effect of meditation on musical performance, a future
study would be better served by a within-group design.
There are several limitations to the present study. First, it should be noted that these
results are based on a small sample. Thus, the findings of interest need to be replicated
in a more extensive investigation. Second, participants were self-selected and therefore
are not necessarily representative of the general population of musicians.
In addition, there are methodological weaknesses related to this study. A critical
weakness is that there was no baseline for musical performance quality. On the other
hand, it was extremely difficult to obtain a baseline in this population because musi-
cians tend to have a very busy schedule. It requires many hours of preparation to
perform in a concert.
Related to the above points, all anxiety measures were not completed immediately
before the performance. We did not measure anxiety level immediately before the per-
formance for the following reasons:

1. The performance anxiety inventory asks questions about anxiety during one’s
performance on stage. It would be inappropriate to assess the participants imme-
diately before their performance on these items.
2. Participants did not want to be disturbed right before their performance on stage.
Filling out anxiety questionnaires before their performance is not part of their
performance routine and might increase their anxiety level.
3. All meditation group participants meditated immediately before their perform-
ance as preparation. We believe that the anxiety measure is still valid because
we asked the participants to reflect on their anxiety immediately after their per-
formance.
Furthermore, participants’ performance level and anxiety coping skills could be signifi-
cant confounds in this study. These confounds should be addressed in a future larger
study. The best way we can address these confounds here is by pointing out that there
were no significant differences in number of years of training between the meditation
group (M 5 15.0, SD 5 7.2) and the control group (M 5 12.9, SD 5 3.0). In add-
ition, we had one item that assessed stage fright experience with a scale that ranged
from 0 (never) to 5 (very often). Both groups reported similar experiences. Finally, this
study was conducted using random assignment of participants to each group. We
hoped that this procedure would reduce some of the differences between groups.
The final methodological weakness is that there was no true comparison group.
A better comparison would have been achieved with inclusion of a relaxation group
such as systematic desensitization or one with cognitive-behavioral therapy.

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152 Psychology of Music 36(2)

In conclusion, meditation practiced over a short term was not found to yield a
noticeable improvement in musical performance quality, but it was shown to benefit
participants with regard to channeling performance anxiety to achieve a higher level
of performance. Perhaps this study can inspire further exploration of the benefits of
this ancient spiritual practice – the practice of silent illumination.

AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S

Both Dr Chang and Dr Lin have made equal contributions to the development of this manu-
script. Support for this project was provided by funds from PSC-CUNY grant, City University of
New York Research Foundation (grant # 66716–0035, Principal Investigator: Joanne Chang,
EdD). During the writing of this manuscript, Dr Lin was supported by center grant P30
MH43520 from the National Institute of Mental Health to the HIV Center for Clinical and
Behavioral Studies (Anke A. Ehrhardt, PhD, Principal Investigator) and grant NRSA T32
MH19139, Behavioral Sciences Research in HIV Infection (Anke A. Ehrhardt, PhD, Program
Director; Theo Sandfort, PhD, Training Director). We would also like to thank Drs Alex
Carballo-Diéguez, Susie Hoffman, Raymond Smith, Sharlene Beckford, Sheri Kirshenbaum,
David Lounsbury, Ouzama Nicholson, Rogerio Pinto, and Michael Stirratt for their support
and feedback on earlier drafts of this article. Finally, we would like to express our appreciation
to Dr Lindley Hanlon and Master Sheng Yen of the Dharma Drum Mountain (www.chancenter.org)
for their impeccable meditation instruction and guidance.

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PETER LIN, PHD, is an Assistant Professor at St Joseph’s College and a licensed psychologist in
New York City. He received an MS in biostatistics from Columbia University and a PhD in
Clinical Health Psychology from Ferkauf Graduate School and Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Yeshiva University. His primary clinical training was at Weill Cornell Medical College, and his
postdoctoral training was at the HIV Research Center of Columbia University. Dr Lin has great
interest in the parallelism between western psychology and Buddhism. His research interest
focuses on mindfulness meditation and Zen Buddhism. As a Taiwanese immigrant, his profes-
sional goal is to provide mental health service for the Asian minorities in the USA.
Address: Psychology Department, St Joseph’s College, 155 West Roe Boulevard, Patchogue,
NY 11772, USA. [email: PL2107@columbia.edu]

J OA N N E C H A N G , E D D ,
is a New York-based classical pianist who has performed internation-
ally as a recitalist, soloist with orchestra, and in chamber music ensembles in four continents.
She has also established herself as a researcher and has been awarded many scholarship, prizes
and grants. Her recent performances include recitals at New York’s Carnegie Hall and Steinway
Hall. Dr Chang received her BM degree from Queensland Conservatorium of Music, her MM
degree from the Manhattan School of Music, and her EdD degree from Columbia University.
She is teaching at several colleges of the City University of New York, including Lehman
College, John Jay College, and Queensborough Community College, as well as Adelphi
University.
Address: Music Department, Queensborough Community College, 222-05 56th Avenue,
Bayside, NY 11364, USA. [email: Jcw@hotmail.com]

VA N C E Z E M O N , P H D ,
received a BS degree in physics from Clarkson College of Technology (cur-
rently Clarkson University) and MA and PhD degrees in experimental psychology from
Northeastern University. Following a National Institutes of Health postdoctoral associateship in the
Laboratory of Biophysics at the Rockefeller University, he held positions as research associate and
assistant professor at that institution, and is currently a member of the adjunct faculty there. Since
1992, Dr Zemon has been on the faculty of the Ferkauf Graduate School of Psychology, Yeshiva
University, and currently holds the position of Professor of Psychology. In addition, he is a visiting
scientist at the Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research in Orangeburg, NY.
Address: Ferkauf Graduate School of Psychology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine Campus,
1165 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, USA. [email: Vepman@aol.com]

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 Lin et al.: Meditation and performance quality 155

E L I Z A B E T H M I D L A R S K Y , PHD, is professor in the Department of Counseling and Clinical

Psychology at Columbia University, Teachers College. She obtained her MA and PhD degrees
in Psychology from Northwestern University, Evanston. She has published one book, numer-
ous research articles and book chapters, and has co-edited a second book. She has served as
Editor of an academic psychology journal, as Consulting Editor for a number of journals, and
is in her second term on the editorial board of the Journal of Traumatic Stress.
Address: Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University,
525 West 120th Street, Box 148, New York, NY 10027-6696. [email: em142@columbia.edu]

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