UNIVERSITY OF MALTA

Faculty of Theology

Mariz Cassar

THE DIFFERENT FACETS

OF THE MERCY OF GOD
IN LUKE 15

Dissertation presented
in part fulfilment of the requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Arts (Religious Studies)

Malta
May2007
 Abstract

The thesis proposes to study the general theme of "mercy" in the Bible with particular
focus on its expression in the Gospel of Luke. By analysing the wide spectrum of
terminology and imagery used by the Evangelist to express the "mercy" of God, we
shall be able to synthesise what is the Lucan theology expressed in that theme.
Particular attention will subsequently be given to the three parables found in chapter
fifteen of Luke, namely, the doublet of the parables of the Lost Sheep and the Lost
Coin, and the parable of the Prodigal Son, having "mercy" as their primary message.
Since the theme of "mercy" is not explicitly mentioned in the parables under analysis,
the thesis would ultimately show that Luke's aim for grouping together these three
parables was not mainly to focus on the figure of God Himself in His manifesting mercy
to all but to highlight the distinctive feature in this Gospel of the different facets in
which mercy is expressed in God's dealing with those in need of it.
 Table of Contents

Preface and Acknowledgments ................................................................... 5

Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 10

Introduction ................................................................................................ 11

Chapter One
Hebrew terminology of the "mercy" of God ............................ 18
1. 01 General overview .............................................................................................. 18
1.02 Wide spectrum of Hebrew terms for God's "mercy" and "love" ...................... 21
1.03 'aheb (verb)- 'ahaba (noun) ............................................................................ 21
1.04 d6d and ra ya ..................................................................................................... 22
1.os yadid........ .......................................................................................................... 22
1.06 hasaq ....... ........................................................................................................ 23
I.07 hanun!hen .......................................................................................................... 23
1.08 hesed...... .......................................................................................................... 23
I .09 rah"mim ... ......................................................................................................... 29
I.IO sha/om/sa/6m ..................................................................................................... 30
I.II Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 3I

Chapter Two
Greek terminology of the "mercy" of God ............................... 33
2.01 Usage of the Greek term €A.co( .......................................................................... 33
2.02 Usage of the Greek term arrA.dyxva ................................................................... 37
2.03 God's "mercy/love" revealed ............................................................................ 39
2.04 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 40
Chapter Three
The doublet of the Lost Sheep- Lk 15, 3-7
and the Lost Coin - Lk 15, 8-10 ................................................. 42
3.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 42
3.02 Analysis ofLk 15, 1-2 ....................................................................................... 44
3.03 Reading the parable of the Lost Sheep-Lk 15, 3-7 ........................................ .46
3.04 The ways of God ............................................................................................... 49
3.05 Reading the doublet of the Lost Coin-Lk 15, 8-10 ......................................... 52
3.06 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 55

Chapter Four
The parable of the Prodigal Son - Lk 15, 11-32 ....................... 56
4.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 56
4.02 The socio-cultural context ................................................................................. 58
4.03 The structure of the text ..................................................................................... 60
4.04 Reading of the parable of the Prodigal Son ....................................................... 61
4.05 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 74

Chapter Five
Conclusion .................................................................................... 77
5.01 Old covenantal love ........................................................................................... 77
5.02 New covenantal love ......................................................................................... 77
5.03 God's justice ...................................................................................................... 78
5.04 God's enduring love .......................................................................................... 78
5.05 God's Fatherhood and Sonship restored ........................................................... 78
5.06 God's call to conversion .................................................................................... 80
5.07 God's reconciliation .......................................................................................... 81
5.08 God's act of salvation ........................................................................................ 83
5.09 God's joy ........................................................................................................... 84
5.10 God's grace ........................................................................................................ 84
5.11 God's peace ....................................................................................................... 85
5.12 God's new order ................................................................................................ 85
5.13 Salvation by the Saviour.................................................................................... 86
5.14 Summary ........................................................................................................... 87

Bibliography ................................................................................. 89
 Preface and Acknowledgments

The primary aim of the thesis is to study the various aspects of the merciful face of God
when dealing with the sinner, in need of salvation. To achieve this goal the study
proposes to analyse the text of chapter fifteen, at the heart of Luke's Gospel, wherein
are contained Luke's three parables of Jesus, namely, the doublet of the Lost Sheep and
the Lost Coin, and the Prodigal Son. A considerable volume of scholarly work has been
made on this trio of parables, being one of the most well-known parables in the Bible.
These parables are called the parables of "mercy," in fact, chapter fifteen has earned the
title of "the Gospel of mercy," known as the "gospel in a gospel." Therefore, it is of no
surprise that these parables were chosen for a study on the different aspects on the
theme of "mercy," being a concept integral to the understanding of God's dealing with
humankind. Although wide attention has been given to these parables, there has not
been an exhaustive study on the theme of "mercy," therefore an analysis of the text shall
produce a synthesis of what is the Lucan theology expressed in that theme.
One can clearly note that by the exegetical study undertaken of the Greek text of
these parables, Luke expresses a distinctive theology on the theme of "mercy" as a
revelation of God's gracious mercy toward the one in need of it. The major part of the
study discusses the particular aspects in which God's mercy is expressed through the
images of God as the shepherd, the woman and the father, in the respective parables.
Through an extensive analysis of the wide spectrum of terminology and imagery used
by the evangelist to express this principal theme of "mercy" will reveal God's "joy,"
"conversion" and "forgiveness" as aspects of His mercy. It becomes evident that Luke's
aim for grouping together these three parables was not mainly to focus on the figure of
God Himself in His manifesting mercy to all but to highlight the distinctive feature in
this Gospel of the different facets in which "mercy" is expressed in God's dealing with
those in need of it.
In my opinion, the reason that an exhaustive study has not been undertaken on
the theme of "mercy" as expressed in the Lucan theology in these three parables, as a
revelation of God's enduring love and compassionate mercy, in and through Christ, is
the fact that the interpretations of these parables of Jesus have been focused more on the
"lost" rather than the "found" sheep or coin, and the emphasis is placed more on the
prodigal son rather than the love of the father for his two sons. When Jesus speaks in
these parables, these are not mere words: they constitute an explanation of his very
being and activity. His death on the Cross is the culmination of that turning of God
against himself in which he gives himself in order to raise man up and save him. 1 This is
love in its most radical form.2 God's salvific action takes form when, in and through
Jesus, it is God Himself who searches for the lost sheep and the lost coin. It is God the
Father who runs and embraces the younger son, offering forgiveness and the gifts of
love and life. Jesus' forgiveness of sins, justifies his attitude toward sinners by showing
that his way is in accordance with God's ways. Luke demonstrates the greatness of
God's love for man, that by becoming man he follows him even into death, and so
reconciles justice and love. God's initiative in each of the three parables indicates how a
repentant heart is totally reliant on God's grace, on the entreated "mercy" of God. The
Father who, with a paternal and maternal love, forgives his son all his transgression,
with a heart-felt mercy, is able to transform man's misery into a "new creation".
The thesis presupposes a secondary aim, the call for "mercy" as a Christian way
of living. The elder son is entreated by the Father to receive with joy the return of the
repentant son in a brotherly manner. The return of a repentant sinner is an invitation to
communal love and joy. Therefore the thesis has a catechetical purpose, as Pope
Benedict XVI said: "The aim of all Christian education is to train the believer in an
adult faith that can make him a "new creation."3 To rediscover the message of the Lucan
theology expressed in these three parables, is to call all Christians to be "witnesses to

1
POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Deus Caritas Est, Part II, 12 (25 December 2005) (on-line):
http://www.vatican.va [30 December 2005].
2
Ibid.
3
POPE BENEDICT XVI, Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Sacramentum Caritatis, On the Eucharist as
the Source and Summit of the Church's Life and Mission, Part II, 64 (22 February 2007) (on-line):
www.vatican.va [7 April 2007].
mercy" as Cardinal Schonbom said, repeating the words of John Paul II: "Apart from
the mercy of God there is no source of hope for humanity". 4
The original idea of studying the theme of the "mercy" of God was suggested to
me by my tutor Rev. Fr. Paul Sciberras. I am most grateful for his suggestion. I thank
him for his continual support by supplying literature, his constructive criticism, his
encouragement, his readiness to help, his availability and his attention to detail, which
all made this thesis possible. I thank all the staff at the Faculty of Theology for their
assistance over the years and the librarians, especially of the Archbishop's Seminary
Library and Pope John XXIII's Library, who were always of great help in my research.
I also thank Fr. Martin Micallef OFMCap., for the availability of his library.
A special thanks goes to my husband and children who were the ones who put
up with me the most. I thank my husband Henry, who has been patient and
understanding during the time I have dedicated to the thesis. I thank my beloved
children, Michelle and Robert, who have been supportive while I was writing the thesis
and attending evening lectures. I greatly thank my father for not complaining of the time
I took from being with him. I thank my deceased mother for the books I found available
at home, being an avid reader of religion and philosophy, which kept my memory of her
alive during these five years. I am full of gratitude to my dear friend Doreen Mercieca
who encouraged me to read for this B.A. in Religious Studies in the first place. My
thanks goes to Reuben Borg, a fellow student and IT instructor, who sorted out all my
computer problems, and there were plenty. I thank the dedication of the lecturers over
the five years, who through their various credits have contributed to a deeper
understanding and an ongoing maturity in faith.

4
ZENIT, 1'1 World Mercy Congress Announced. Opens on Anniversary ofJohn Paul !I's Death, World
Features, Vienna (6 April 2007) (on-line): zenitenglish@zenit.org ZE07040620 [7 April 2007].
to my dear husband, my beloved children, my father
and
in loving memory of my mother
 Abbreviations

ABD The Anchor Bible Dictionary

KJV King Jrunes Version of the Scriptures

LC Luca

LXX Septuagint

NIDNTT The New International Dictionary of New Testrunent Theology

NIGTC The New International Greek Testrunent Commentary

NIV New International Bible

NJB The New Jerusalem Bible

NT New Testrunent

OT Old Testrunent

RSV The Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testrunent

 Introduction

Objectives
The initial objective of the thesis is to grasp the rich theological concept of the word
"mercy" rendered by the :frequent Hebrew term hesed and its Greek translation €A.€o(,
with its derivatives. Since there is not one single English word that adequately translates
the term hesed, the initial study aims to demonstrate the wide spectrum of meanings for
the word "mercy." This study reveals how closely linked "mercy" is to "grace" (Hebrew
hen - Greek xapt() and "love" (Hebrew 'iiheb - Greek dyaTT17), whose meanings :from
"mercy" and "love" oscillate to "tenderness," "pity," "compassion," "clemency,"
"goodness" and "kindness." Ultimately it reveals that the divine reality of the name
Yahweh, or the salvation of Yahweh, is a substitute for Yahweh Himself as an object of
"love" (see 1.01, infra). It reveals God's hesed remains "forever," summing up the entire
history of Yahweh when dealing with Israel's unfaithfulness, thus it affirms the
enduring character of Yahweh. The experience of the People of Israel revealed that
"mercy" signified a special power of God's love which prevailed over sin and infidelity,
making IIim infinitely patient, and marks God's relationship with His people right down
to the coming of his Son (see 1.08, infra). Linking the two Testaments together
highlights the slight change in the meaning of God's hesed from a covenantal loyal-love
to the tender "loving mercy" similar to a mother's love for her children, expressed by
aTTA.ayxva (showing heart-felt compassion), particularly for the sinner.
Subsequently the analysis of the parables shall demonstrate Luke's intention to
apply aTTlayxva as an attitude of God Himself and the personifying of the divine mercy
in the figure of Jesus as Saviour. Luke depicts God as the shepherd, the woman and the
 10

father in the respective parables, which will reveal the emphasis of the Lucan theology
on the different facets of the "mercy" of God, which lies at the heart of His work of
salvation. Christ makes it incarnate and personifies it as he Himself, in a sense, is
"mercy." Thus in and through Christ, God become visible in His mercy. The Lucan
theology highlights the need in man of the Father's loving intervention, whose
gratuitous grace and merciful compassion transforms the disfigured image of God in
sinful man, to a new creation, as a beloved child of God again. This being "found" thus
"saved" gives the Father an incommensurate joy, a joy that cannot be contained. There
is good reason to celebrate, "it is fitting to make merry" (v. 32), all are invitation to
celebrate the Good News of salvation through the "mercy" of God. God rejoices with
the whole community in heaven as on earth.

Method
An extensive research was conducted of the lexical and theological meaning of the word
"mercy" in the Hebrew and Greek usage of the term and its derivatives, by using various
Dictionaries of Biblical Theology and Scriptural references. The research produces a
wide spectrum of meanings for the term "mercy" illustrating the richness of the word.
The present thesis does not pretend to deal with the whole terminology used for God's
"mercy" in the Bible, but the research proved to be a lengthy one. Subsequently an
analysis of the Greek text of chapter fifteen was undertaken, using as the main source
the software for Biblical Exegesis and Research, Bibleworks 7.
Although the synoptic Jesus hardly ever uses the term "love of God," either in
the substantive dyd'!T1J or the verb dya'!Tliv, he speaks of God's €A.cot; as olKdpµu;v
(showing pity) with an emphasis on mrA.dyzva (entrails, heart, womb, also used as a
description for children ) as a love that arises from a heart-felt compassion, similar to
the bond of a mother for her offspring. Jesus' treatment of the sinner (vv. 25-32),
revealing a new kind of judgment "rich in mercy" is a justification for Jesus against the
complaints of the Pharisees. Jesus' loving mercy represents the kind of association with
sinners, which is meant to result in the re-establishment of the sinner to a repentant state
wherein he can be called, once more, a child of God.
Luke reveals the merciful face of God when dealing with the sinner by
comparing God's ways to the paradoxical behaviour of the shepherd, the woman and the
father, in the respective parables. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that Luke's aim
for grouping the three parables was to express the different facets of the "mercy" of
 11

God, rather than to focus on the figure of God Himself manifesting His mercy to all.
Without the theme of "mercy" being explicitly mentioned in the parables, the analysis
brings out the theme of "mercy" as the primary message of the Lucan theology. This
was achieved by a research of the different interpretations and exegetical works of the
three parables, especially of the Prodigal Son. The research was limited because of the
specific nature of the theme. All of the commentaries gave a general interpretation of
the parables, so I relied more on my own exegetical work of the Greek text, with
particularly attention to the words related to God's specific merciful actions. An
analysis of the wide spectrum of terminology and imagery used by Luke in the three
parables produced a profound synthesis of what is the Lucan theology expressed on the
theme of "mercy".
The sources of particular interest were the ones with the social background of
the early communities, these books were Andrew Parker's Painfully Clear, The
Parables of Jesus, Kenneth E. Bailey's Poet and Peasant and Jesus and His Parables,
Interpreting the Parables of Jesus today, edited by V. George Shillington. A novel and
extensive commentary on the parables was given by Arland J. Hultgren's The Parables
of Jesus, A Commentary. An excellent source on the Lucan theology of salvation was
found in the book of I. Howard Marshall's Luke Historian & Theologian, and his other
book Gospel of Luke, A Commentary on the Greek text, was of further help with the
analysis of the text. The main Italian sources used as background reading were Gerard

Rosse, ii Vangelo di Luca, commento esegitico e teologico and Jean-Noel Aletti, JI

Racconto come Teologia, Studio narrativo del terzo Vangelo e del libro degli Atti degli
Apostoli, which give a thorough overall structure of the text, while highlighting the
primary messages and themes of the parables.
Sources from the renowned theologians, the Father of the Church St. Irenaeus of
Lyon, St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Augustine, proved to be beneficial to an
understanding of the Lucan theology. The Encyclical Letter of Pope John Paul II, Dives
in Misericordia (1980) was of particular relevance to the "mercy" of God. The approach
taken in the articles entitled Quddiem 'The Return of the Prodigal Son ' ta' Rembrandt
van Rijn by Rev. Fr. Paul Sciberras and Il-Parabbola ta' l-Imhabba tal-Missier by Fr.
Martin Micallef, OFM Cap., in lnqum u mmur ghand Missieri, were helpful and
insightful.
 12

Structure
The first chapter of this work concentrates on a general overview of the word "mercy,"
revealing God's mercy as a special instance of His grace and love. Through the biblical
texts of the 0 Id Testament, God's mercy is revealed as the steadfast love for Israel. His
faithfulness to the covenant promise to Israel is expounded in the fundamental political
and marriage imagery in Deuteronomy and Hosea, respectively. Similar to the familial
marriage relationship of the love of husband and wife, and parent for child, God dealt
faithfully, His reliability, trustworthiness was an aspect of His hesed. God's persistent
love despite Israel's failings demonstrates the concept of God's "love" as an important
aspect of the Old Testament. The prophets and psalmist relied on the everlasting love of
God. The endurance tends to identify itself with Yahweh Himself, as a key to
understanding His character. Furthermore, the meaning stretches from "loyalty" to a
"covenant" to "kindliness," "mercy" and "pity," as the goodness of the heart from which
love and kindness arise (see 1.08, infra).
A study of the wide spectrum of the meanings of the Hebrew term for "love"
reveals the rich meaning of the term "mercy." Mercy is indicated as "a broad embracing
benevolence, a will to do good to another rather than evil" (see 1.08, infra). This
indicates the aspects of God's hesed as a specific action. As hesed is associated with
shalom, which renders "wholeness" and "peace," found in the Old Testament as
"Yahweh is Peace" (Jg 6 24) and in the New Testament as ''the God of peace" (Rm 16,
20), this connects the people of Israel with the new life in Christ. "Peace" becomes
synonymous with "salvation."
The second chapter concentrates on an analysis of the Greek usage of the term
€)£0<; best translated as "mercy" or "to have mercy." Considering the usage in the

Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, 5 we find a7TA.ayxva is no longer employed as

"entrails" and it has completely replaced the LXX word of o{Knpµ6<; (pity), hence the
term €A.€o<; changes its meaning to "have and show compassion" or "to be sorry for,"
rendered by the verb €A.€€m (see 2.02, infra). In the LXX, compassion is found as
o{Knpµ6<; referring to "the exclamation of pity at the sight of another's misfortune" but

the term €A.Ea<;, from Homer onwards, is found as "the emotion roused by affliction
which comes undeservedly on someone else" (see 2.10, infra). Since the verb €A.€€m is

5
HELMUT KOSTER, aTTA.dyxvov KrA, Greek Usage, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
(TDNT), VII, edited by Gerhard Friedrich, Grand Rapids/MI 1971, 548.
 13

synonymous with the verb o{Knp£U, it came to mean to have compassion, "in the sense
both of mere feeling and of active merciful action."
The verb €).£@ marks that breaking in of the divine mercy into the reality of
human misery, which took place in the person of Jesus. He answered the cry of mercy,
which makes the cry of a confession of faith in the divine authority of Jesus, making His
own attitude toward sinners the model of EA£or;. In Luke's three parables the knowledge
of salvation through the forgiveness of sins through the tender "mercy" of our God,
concerns God's EAEo~ as the eschatological act in salvation history in Christ.
The major part of the thesis is formed by an extensive analysis of the text of
Luke's three parables, which takes up chapters three and four, with a summarising
conclusion in chapter five. The first two chapters are necessary as a platform to identify
the aspects of divine mercy in the three parables. An analysis of Luke's literary mastery
through imagery, common elements, catchwords, inclusions and repetitions, reveals that
by linking together the parables, Luke's aim is to demonstrate the different aspects of
the "mercy" of God when dealing with the sinner. The catchwords "lost and found" (vv.
6.9.24.32), "dead and alive" (vv. 24.32) and the common element at the end of each
parable, "rejoice/joy" (vv. 6. 7.9.10.32), highlight the theme of "forgiveness" and
"conversion" as a prevenient grace of God, His incommensurate "joy" as His attitude
toward the repentant sinner. It is a great feast for everyone when one is "found," Luke's
equivalent of being "saved." It necessitates a celebration, to "make merry" in a brotherly
fashion (v. 32). Neighbours and friends are invited (vv. 6.9), even the angels rejoice (v.
7.10), when a sinner returns to the Father's house.
The framing of the v. 20 with vv. 18.21 serves as an inclusio to underscore
arr,iayzv{(oµtxt compassion as God's out-flowing love arising from a heart-felt mercy.

Through the woman who searches for the lost coin similar to a mother's love for a
precious child and the father's forgiveness of the younger son in the Prodigal Son, Luke
reveals (JocJ's heart as the paternal and maternal love for a child. The Father's desire to
be Father again to the child he begot, to restore the true identity of the son to his former
state, as a child of God, is indicated by the Father's gifts of honour, authority and
freedom symbolised by the noble gifts of the robe, the ring and the shoes. The son has
broken his relationship with the Father and as a consequence suffers humiliation and
loss of dignity, the disfigured image of God.
Luke's emphasis is on the restoration of the son by the Father, not as a slave, but
a desire to regain His Fatherhood and to restore Sonship. God depicted as the father,
 14

interrupts the younger son's speech (vv. 18.21) and by not letting him finish the
prepared confession: "treat me as your hired servant" (v. 19), indicates that the father is
receiving him not as "servant" but as "son." This also indicates that the father lacked his
younger son, as he considered him as an employer. This is also the case of the elder son,
who says: "I have served you" (v. 29), demonstrating that the father also lacked the
elder son, thus the father lacked two of his sons. This recalls the importance of the
introduction of this parable, the father "who had two sons" (v 11 ). Luke demonstrates
the Father's love desiring to re-establish a Father/Son relationship with both of his two
sons. Luke's frequent use of the words "house" and "servants," are significant to
demonstrate the Father's desire to receive his two sons, not as slaves but to re-instate
them to their true identity as children of God. As in, the father "said to his servants" (v.
22) to put the robe, ring and shoes on the younger son, so also the elder son "called one
of the servants" to tell him what is happening. Luke then describes the elder son who
drew near the house and is entreated "to enter" the Father's house (v. 28). When one
excludes himself from the love of God, one is actually turning away from oneself,
abandoning one's own true identity as a child of God. This is the beauty of God's
merciful love, who wants to reconnect us to His life.
The evangelist gives a clear direction, by the description which introduces the
parables, of the particular background of the three stories. Present are sinners and
Pharisees who complained that Jesus "receives sinners" (v. 1-2) and it is in response to
this that these three stories are to be read. Luke seems to offer the necessary solution to
the existential problems. Jesus' attitude of readiness to associate with sinners, "who
calls the sinners to enter the Kingdom of God" (see 2.01, 3.04, infra), goes against the
exclusivism of the Pharisees. Luke demonstrates that Jesus makes the Father present
among men, by his actions and words, revealing that "mercy" and "love" are present in
the world. Jesus becomes a particularly clear sign of God who is "love," it characterises
the messianic compassion of Jesus. God's promise in the Old Testament reaches its
climax in the gracious self-humiliation of God to be humble in the event of Christ.
The grouping of the three parables shows Luke's expansiveness, who aims at
identifying the protagonists of each parable, the shepherd, the woman and the father in
the image of God. Thus he demonstrates the nature and attitude of God when dealing
with the sinner, through revealing the different facets of the "mercy" of God in these
three parables. It reveals God's continual concern for the sinner, who has each one of
his lost creatures on his heart. The shepherd searches for the one lost sheep "until he
 15

finds it" (v. 4), putting the emphasis on the enduring, everlasting mercy of God. His
limitless compassion is marked by a love given freely, as "an exigency of the heart" (see
1.09, 3.04, infra). God's mercy is compared to the shepherd whose heart goes to the lost
sheep, and with affection picks it up and puts it on his shoulder, rescuing it from danger.
By the exaggerated action of the shepherd, leaving ninety-nine sheep behind, willing to
risk all he has to save the strayed sheep, is symbolic of Christ's self-sacrifice. The
shepherd is not concerned in correcting the sheep but instead rejoices on having found
it, bringing it back to the fold.
This is God's incommensurate joy at salvation. God experiences joy at His
success of seeking out the lost one. The rejoicing is not so much in the success itself, the
accomplishment achieved, but "over" the person who has been brought back into faith
and discipleship. The sheep are used of "mankind" who as needing salvation, obey the
injunctions of him who provides it, and leads them to it - so of the followers of Christ
(see 3.04, infra). Jesus is responding to the complaint of the Pharisees, to which he
responded, "I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance" (Lk 5, 32).
Luke expresses the immensity of God's €A.€o~ as a loving Father who is ready to give
"his living" (v. 12), to give everything, all that He has, to save humanity.
It is precisely the paradoxical mystery of the merciful justice of God which is
shown forth in Luke's three parables, in its multifaceted form. Luke illustrates the
release from sin and "death" that leads to eternal life, in and through the sacrificial death
and resurrection of Christ. Each redemptive act of God, from the exodus from Egypt
and Jesus' crucifixion/resurrection, shapes the other. The "mercy" of God means a
joyful freedom from "death" to a liberated life in the peaceful reassurance of God's
eternal life. The themes of "mercy" and "joy" are common to all three parables,
illustrating God's joyful heart at the change of direction of a sinner, who through God's
grace, as St. Augustine puts it: "returns to himself' (his prior state) (see 4.03, infra).
Turning away from God is actually turning away from one.self, as a true child of <Jo<l.
The Sacraments of Reconciliation and the Eucharist anticipates the banquet of
the kingdom to come, as God's joyful and peaceful life made available on earth. The
Father's house constitutes our true homeland toward which we are moving in hope,
while we are still on earth. Luke's three parables of "mercy" reveal that it was by no
accident that God came into and among human existence with all its limitations,
incarnate in Jesus, to restore our inherent dignity by virtue of being created in the
"imago dei."
 Chapter One

Hebrew terminology of the "mercy" of God

1.01 General overview

The word "mercy" in the Bible is mainly rendered by the frequent Hebrew noun hesed. 6
The term hesed was translated into Greek in the Septuagint (LXX) by EA£O( and
olKnpµo(, and their derivatives. "Mercy" is closely linked to "grace" (Hebrew hiinun,
hen, Greek xdpu;), "goodness" and "love" (Hebrew 'iiheb/'iihab, Greek riyd7T1J). God's
"mercy" is a special instance of His grace and His love. It stems from His absolute
freedom, yet the sinner can have hope in it: 7 "With Him is plenteous redemption and He
will redeem Israel from all his iniquities" (Ps 130, 7-8). 8 God's hesedto Israel included
within it His goodness and loving kindness (KJV): 9 "Kindness and faithful love pursue
me" (Ps 23, 6) 10 or "Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me" (RSV). The "mercy"

6
The Hebrew equivalents are mostly derivatives of the roots hnn (to be gracious) and rhm (to have
compassion).
7
JOHANNES B. BAUER, Mercy, in Encyclopedia of Biblical Theology, II, edited by Johannes B. Bauer,
London 1970, 574.
8
All Bible verses are taken from The Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version (RSV), unless otherwise
stated.
9
Different versions give different translations to the same Hebrew terms. The King James Version of
Scriptures (1611) sometimes uses "kindness" or "loving kindness" following the Coverdale Bible of
1535, but most frequently translated "mercy" as suggested by the regular rendering €A.€ot; in the LXX,
quoted by KATHARINE DOOB SAKENFELD, Love (OT), in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, IV, editor David
Noel Freeman, New York 1992, 377.
10
The New Jerusalem Bible (NJB), Standard Edition, London, 1985.
 17

of God is most frequently called upon in the Psalms: "Have mercy on me, 0 God,
according to thy steadfast love; according to thy abundant mercy blot out my
transgressions. Wash me thoroughly from my iniquity, and cleanse me from my sin!"
(Ps 51, 1-2, cf. Pss 25, 6; 40, 11; 86, 15; 103, 8; 145, 8).
"Love" as a theological concept appears as a mutual sentiment between Yahweh
and Israel. The love of Yahweh for Israel is a continuation of His love for the
12
patriarchs, 11 which recurs, even in books influenced by the deuteronomic redaction.
The covenant between God and Israel is expounded in its fundamental political imagery
in Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy's usage oflove as a duty owed to God 13 in the covenant
context probably had its roots in the Near Eastern secular political terminology. This
love that can. be commanded by another has its conceptual roots, like the love by
Jonathan, 14 and of "all Israel and Judah" for David, in the rhetoric of international
relations. The references to the love for David continue this nuance of political loyalty.
A ruler may command subject vassals to show love to the ruler as expression of their
faithfulness to a treaty of protection provided by the ruler. 15
Hosea elaborates on God's love using the imagery of a marriage relationship.
Presupposed in Israel's culture, a husband's authority over his wife allows Hosea to
maintain the political pattern of ruler (God) and subject (lsrael). 16 At the same time, the
imagery is highlighting caring and intimacy as appropriate aspects of the covenant
relationship. One finds a special play on the imagery of God's love, using the marriage
imagery for the God/Israel relationship, taken from Jeremiah 2-3 and Ezekiel 16 and 23,
probably developed in Hosea's usage of the persistence of God's love. There is also the
political connotation of Israel's futile search for security apart from God and God's
judgment of its infidelity. It is God's "love" rather than any achievement by Israel that
makes possible restoration of the covenant/marriage relationship: "I have loved you
with an everlasting love ... therefore I have continued my faithfulness to you" (Jr 31, 3;
cf. Ilo J, 1-2). Hosea roots his usage explicitly in the nuances of fan1ilial relationship,
especially the love of husband and wife 17 and parent for child. 18

II Cf. Dt 4, 37; 7, 8.13; 10, 15; 23, 5.

12
Cf. I K 10, 9.
13
Cf. Dt 6, 5.17.
14
Cf. 1S18, 1, 3; 20, 17; 2 S 1, 26.
15
SAKENFELD,Love (OT), inABD, 376.
16
Ibid., 377.
17
Cf. Ho 3, 1.
18
Cf Ho 11, 1.
 18

God's love for his people is especially associated with the election/redemptive
theme: "Because you are precious in my eyes, and honoured, and I love you" (Is 43, 4).
One often reads the great redemptive words describing God's loving choice and care of
Israel, which is the root of election. 19 In the second century B.C. the covenant people
were recognised to be the Community of the Called. 20 To express the total relationship
obtained between Yahweh and this people whom He had called, the noun hesed is
normally employed. It is transferred from Israel as a whole to Judah and Jerusalem, the
seat of the dynasty of David.
One of Israel's earliest religious experiences is of Yahweh as "a gracious and
merciful God" (Ex 34, 6). "Mercy" is said to belong to the divine nature. Isaiah
proclaims: "Let him return to the Lord, that he may have mercy on him, and to our God,
for he will abundantly pardon" (Is 55, 7). No, God "will not stay angry forever, for He
is merciful" (Jr 3, 12), is what Jeremiah proclaimed. In Hosea God said: "My heart
recoils within me, my compassion grows warm and tender. I will not execute my fierce
anger [wrath] ... for I am God and not man" (Ho 11, 8-8). The New Testament also
knows of God's divine mercy which lies at the heart of His work of salvation. Christ
confers on the whole of the Old Testament tradition about God's "mercy" a definitive
meaning. He Himself makes it incarnate and personifies it; he Himself is, in a sense
"mercy." In Christ and through Christ, God also becomes especially visible in His
"mercy".
The reverence for the divine reality leads to the use of the name of Yahweh (Pss
5, 12; 69, 37; Is 56, 6) or to the salvation of Yahweh21 as a substitute for Yahweh
Himself as an object of "love." 22 God's "being for Israel" is expounded by God Himself
in the words 'ani 'ittecha, "I will be with thee ... "(Ex 3, 12). In the Exodus narrative
we see how the picture of the nature of the God who had promised to "become with" his
people is "filled out" (Ex 34, 5). Yahweh, as the subject of the verb, declares that it was
Yahweh who proclaimed his own name. 23 Yahweh therefore, expounds the significance
of his name in the words, "Yahweh, Yahweh, a God compassionate and gracious," (Ex
34, 6-7). The paraphrase in Exodus, "I AM WHO I am" (Ex 3, 14), affirms the name of

19
Cf. Ml 1, 2; Pss 47, 5; 78, 68; 87, 2.
20
GEORGE A.F. KNIGHT, A Christian Theology ofthe Old Testament, London 1998, 218.
21
Cf. Pss 40, 17; 70, 5.
22
St. Thomas Aquinas used an analogy for God's love: "A lover is placed outside himself, and made to
pass into the object of his love, inasmuch as he wills good to the beloved ... " and on God's love he
quoted: "that he Himself, the cause of all things, by His abounding love and goodness, is placed outside
Himself by His providence for all existing things" (I a, q. 20, a. 2, ad 1 um), quoted in WALTER
FARRELL - MARTIN J. HEALY, My Way ofLife, The Summa Simplified, Brooklyn/NY 1952, 36.
23
KNIGHT, A Christian Theology, 43.
 19

Yahweh as Saviour through his "mercy" for his people. Not only so, he is Saviour by
immediate contact with his people Israel. 24 He reaffirms His liberating sovereignty, as
we see in Isaiah's interpretation of the Exodus passage, by the great statement, '"ani
Yahweh," "I am Yahweh, The Holy One oflsrael, your Saviour" (Is 43, 3).

1.02 Wide spectrum of Hebrew terms for God's "mercy" and "love"
Unfortunately, there is not any one single English word which adequately translates the
word hesed. While scholars agree on this, however, they do not agree on the proper
translation of hesed. The Hebrew word hesed translated in the LXX by €EA.cot; and in the
Vulgate by misericordiae, is rendered by "mercy" in all but the most modem English
Bibles (NIV, NJB). 25 There is agreement that the divine and human attitude designated
by hesed is basic in Hebrew religion and Hebrew morality. English translations of these
Hebrew and Greek words oscillate between "mercy" and "love" through a wide
spectrum of meanings: "tenderness," "pity," "compassion," "clemency," "goodness" and
"grace".
The most commonly used Hebrew translations of the English word "love"
includes the :frequent noun hesed, (found two hundred and fifty times in the Old
Testament). 26 It is presented more at length, due to the fact that the combination of
factors involved in hesed in human interaction provides the basis for understanding its
theological use. Hesed became a central term for expressing God's relationship to Israel.
In the Old Testament English translations, the word "love" may represent any one of a
variety of the following different Hebrew terms as described in 1.03-1.06, infra. While
their meanings overlap, they are not fully synonymous, and therefore each word needs
to be described separately.

1.03 'iiheb (verb)- 'ahabii (noun)

The verb is a commonly used one, which occurs over two hundred times in the Hebrew
Scripture, together with its cognate nouns. The verb can refer to love between human
beings (secular love), resulting in marriage, e.g. Jacob's love for Rachel (Gn 29, 18).
The term iiheb also refers to the positive feeling of attachment of one person for another
in familial relationships, as is love of mother or father for child, e.g. Abraham and Isaac

24
KNIGHT, A Christian Theology, 41.
25
New International Bible (NIV), The New Jerusalem Bible (NJB).
26
SAKENFELD, Love (OT), inABD, 377.
 20

(Gn 22, 2). The verb extends to love of concrete things or behavioural qualities. In this
context, the word carries the connotation of setting one's heart and mind upon such
things (objects) or qualities, giving them special attention, thus making them the focus
in life (related to the life of upright believers). In the Psalms, the term aheb is primarily
referred to as love of righteousness (Ps 45, 8) or as love of God's laws/commandments
(Ps 119, 97; Ps 119, 47). It is also found in Proverbs, e.g. love of wine and oil (objects)
(Pr 21, 17), and extends to love of wisdom (quality) (Pr 29, 3). Furthermore, the verb
refers to God's love for individuals, as the love of neighbour27 and for the stranger,28 as
well as, love for groups. 29 The Leviticus 19 command to love neighbour and stranger
seeks to bring "stranger" into the realm of "neighbour" by insisting that strangers be
treated as native Israelites. 30

1.04 dod and ra 'ya

The less common nouns d6d and ra ya are more frequently used as a term most often
translated as "beloved or betrothed," as seen in the beauty of a betrothed couple in one
another's eyes and is evident in the JOY of their tender and intimate relationship. This
meaning appears regularly in the Song of Songs, a series oflove poems (Sg 1, 13.14.16;
2, 3.8.9). Outside this context, the term "beloved" appears only in Isaiah 5, 1. In a
number of occasions d6d is the term for a father's brother (paternal uncle).

1.05 yiidid
The adjective yadfd sometimes used as an adjectival noun, is most often used to refer to
all or part of the people of Israel as the beloved of God Noteworthy, is the frequent
association of this term with the concern for safety provided by divine providence. 31 It
is found in petitions to God, used to come to the rescue of the beloved, oppressed by
military enemies,32 and speaks of the tribe of Benjamin as beloved, thus protected by
God.

27
Cf. Lv 19, 18.
28
Cf. Lv 19, 34; Dt 10, 19.
29
Cf. Dt 7, 7; 10, 15.
30
SAKENFELD, Love (OT), inABD, 377.
31
Cf. Ps 60, 7; Ps 108, 7.
32
Cf. Dt 33, 12.
 21

1.06 hiisaq
The infrequent verb hafoq, a rare Qal verb, only occurs five times in the Hebrew Old
Testament. It spans the range of secular, theological and religious usage. 33 The term is
used for God's love for Israel, while deliverance is promised to the one who loves
God. 34

1.07 hiinun/hen
There is another Hebrew word that is used to expound God's constant attitude of
faithfulness to Israel, and that is, hen "grace." Never at any point in her history, did
Israel in any sense deserve God's hesed. All God did for her He did of "grace" alone. As
a gift and grace for Israel, the God of the Covenant, made a commitment to respect it,
His responsibility and faithfulness to keep it, revealing the truth about Himself, in
fulfilment of the (eschatological) promise and hope: "I will heal their faithlessness, I
will love them freely" (Ho 14, 5). The Hebrew noun hen does not possess the content of
the New Testament word xapu;. Seldom does the LXX translate hen to xapt~ since the
latter word, before New Test~ment times, ~arried the thought of a semi-physical
gracefulness or charm. Hen is rather hesed in its sovereign form, favour to the
indifferent, and to the disloyal.

1.08 hesed
Since hesed is the most frequently used Hebrew term, an understanding of its usage,
rendered as the word "mercy" in the Old Testament, needs to be seen more clearly. The
best way is by studying the words with which it is associated, even though, perfect
consistency should not be sought, since there is a development of the term over the
centuries of its usage. Although a basic meaning does appear which, even though
modified, has not been substantially changed.
The most common word used with hesed is 'emet (faith) which signifies
"solidity," "steadfastness" and "loyalty." 35 Since the word 'emet primarily means
"solidarity," "security" (in the Greek of the LXX "truth") and then "fidelity," it seems to
link up with the semantic content proper to the term hesed. Thus hesed is associated
with the quality which makes another person dependable and worthy of faith. "When

33
SAKENFELD, Love (OT), in ABD, 375.
34
Cf. Ps 91, 14.
35
JOHN L. McKENZIE, Mercy, in Dictionary of the Bible, London - Dublin 1966, 565.
 22

this is established between two individuals, they do not just wish each other well; they
36
are also faithful to each other by virtue of an interior commitment." Hesed also means
"grace" or "love"; therefore, this occurs precisely on the basis of this fidelity.
The term hesed has no verbal counterpart and it is frequently the object of the
37
verb "to do" ('sh). It is something which one can "do" for another, either God or
man. 38 In each of these instances, the one who does hesed is in a superior position. It is
something which a person is not obliged to do but the object of the deed depends on him
to do it from generosity, not obligation. Hesed is expected as a normal part of good
human relations, expected of a faithful retainer as Abner does hesed to the house of Saul
(2 s 3, 8).
The two virtues, judgment (mispat), justice and righteousness (~edakiih) are part
of a conversion demanded by Yahweh (see Ho 12, 7). They are attributes of Yahweh's
dealing with men (Jr 9, 23; Zc 7,9), imposed as a duty and they are mentioned as the
first attributes in the list of virtues of a ruler. 39 In the sense of judgment hesed is a part
of a conception of the judge, not as an arbiter, but as a deliverer and may be described
as the will to save. 40 The psalmist (Ps 13, 6) who trusts in the hesed of Yahweh, as the
will to save (yefa 'a - salvation), rejoices in the deliverance of Yahweh. He asks
Yahweh to show His hesed and to grant His salvation. 41 Therefore, it could be said that
hesed, as the movement of the will of Yahweh, initiates and sustains the history of
Israel's salvation. 42
Since the hesed of Yahweh, sometimes indicating or implying His will to save,
would be too narrow a translation, Nelson Glueck43 proposed that the usage of hesed
should be related to the covenant behaviour. It should indicate the affection and fidelity
between the partners which should unite members of a covenant. On the other hand,
there are other scholars, (Edmond Jacob, Hans Joachim Stoebe), 44 who point out that
there are other contexts in which hesed appears not only as a covenant love but also as
the movement of the will, which initiates the covenant. The word indicates a broad and
embracing benevolence, a will to do good to another rather than evil. It is not exactly

36
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Encyclical Letter D;ves in Misericordia, On the Mercy of God, Part III, footnote 52
(30 November 1980) (on-line): http://vatican.va [10 June 2006].
37
Cf. Gn 24, 12.
38
Cf. Gn 40, 14.
39
Cf. Ps 101, 1.
°
4
41
Cf. Gn 19, 19; 40, 14.
Cf. Ps 85, 8.
42
Cf. Is 54, 10; 63, 7; Jr 31, 3; Mi 7, 20.
43
NELSON GLUECK, in McKENZIE, Mercy, 566.
44
McKENZIE, Mercy, 566.
 23

"love" or "kindness" but the goodness of the heart from which love and kindness arise. 45
Thus, the meaning of hesed may stretch from "loyalty" to a "covenant" to "kindliness,"
"mercy" and "pity".
The entire history of the dealing of Yahweh with Israel can be summed up as
hesed. That hesed remains "forever" is emphasised in numerous passages which affirm
the enduring character of Yahweh. 46 The psalmist relied on the everlasting and steadfast
love of God, trusting in it, knowing that it endures for ever and ever (Pss 85, 8; 90, 14;
100, 5; 106, 1, 107, lff). 47 It is the dominating motive which appears in His deeds and
the motive which gives unity and intelligibility to all His dealings with men. 48 It is the
covenant hesed to which Israel and its representatives appeal, as a motive why Yahweh
should forgive their infidelity to the covenant. The endurance of hesed tends to identify
itself with Yahweh Himself and to make the hesed of Yahweh the key to the
understanding of His character.
Hesed in Yahweh is more enduring than hesed in man and is a forgiving
attribute which maintains good relations even when men attempt to destroy them. 49
Thus, "abounding in hesed' conveys the essential way in which divine hesed moves
°
beyond the normal parameters in human relationships. 5 Forgiveness springs from
God's radical commitment to the relationship with Israel (as well as all humankind, as
seen in the story of Jonah). God's forgiveness fulfils a "need" that is basic to all other
needs within the divine-human relationship. God offers the very possibility of the
continuation of the relationship, by offering forgiveness, "as a freely offered act and gift
from God." 51 In a similar vein, the deuteronomistic author of Samuel (2 S 7, 1lb-16)
insists on the perpetual establishment of God's relationship with David. It describes a
special relationship with the royal line, a relationship which will endure because divine
hesed will never be removed (2 S 15).
God's dealings with Israel, on God's side, implied his unswerving loyalty to
farad, as He "waits to be gracious to you" (Is 30, 18; cf. Am 5, 15). Thus hesed may
approach in content that great term 'aman, a root which represents the faithfulness of
the unchanging God. The root 'aman could be used of pillars which stand firmly (2 K
18, 16), or it represented the idea of form, sure and lasting - a sure place (Is 22, 23 ),

45
McKENZIE, Mercy, 566.
46
Cf. Is 54, 8; 55, 3; Jr 33, 11; Mi 7, 20.
47
Cf. Ps 52, 8; 100, 5; 103, 17; 106, 1; 107, 1; 118, 1; 136, 1.
48
McKENZIE, Mercy, 566.
49
See Ex 34, 6; Nb 14, 19; Jr 3, 12.
50
SAKENFELD, Love (OT), in ABD, 379.
51
Ibid.
 24

sure waters (Is 33, 16), waters which can be relied on. The noun 'emunah then means
"steadfastness," "trustworthiness," "faithfulness." This reliability is seen in how "the
doers of the work, [that is in repairing the Temple] ... dealt faithfully" (2 K 22, 5-7), i.e.
52
with 'emunah, in their building project.
Hence, the "faithfulness" of God was an aspect of the hesed He consistently
showed towards Israel. Yahweh's hesed was an attitude of self-consistent
trustworthiness both towards Israel and towards individuals. The concept of God's
persistent "love" is an important aspect of the Old Testament, especially when God's
hesed is considered, even though love shown by God to an individual or a community
(to Israel), is mentioned less than twenty-five times. 53 It seemed obvious to the
psalmists and prophets that the term "justice" ended up meaning the salvation
accomplished by the Lord and His mercy. 54 The Hebrew Bible constantly teaches that
God is a "God of justice" but it also reveals that "love is greater than justice." It is
primary and fundamental for Christians that the Father's mercy goes beyond justice.
Justice alone is not enough - the Father, being faithful to his paternity goes beyond the
strict norm of justice.
The hesed of Yahweh is most frequently associated with the covenant. Hesed is
very common in the Qumran texts, wherein the Essene community used it to praise the
loyalty of God to the covenant which they had experienced in the establishment of the
new, eschatological covenant. 55 In the covenant narratives (Ex 20, 6; 34, 6) the hesed of
Yahweh is conditioned to the fidelity of Israel to His commandments, in which the
covenant itself is called a hesed (Is 55, 3). This union with hesed and the covenant is
most evident as a preservation of hesed, by which David is promised an eternal dynasty.
The preservation of hesed depends on the fidelity of Israel to the covenant but this is
only a partial view of the hesed. It is the covenant hesed to which Israel appeals as a
56
motive to why Yahweh should forgive their infidelity to the covenant. The
understanding of proper covenant behaviour is the solidality which the partners in the
covenant owe one another. The covenant may be between equals or it may be made by
one who is stronger than his partner in it. In each case, it may result in one giving help
to the other in his need.

52
GEORGE A.F. KNIGHT, A Christian Theology, 219.
53
SAKENFELD, love (OT), inABD, 377.
54
Cf. Ps 40, 10-11; 98, 2-3; Is 45, 21; 51, 5.8; 56, 1.
55
HANS HELMUT ESSER, Mercy, Compassion, in The New International Dictionary ofNew Testament
Theology (NIDNTT), II, edited by Colin Brown, Grand Rapids/MI 1986, 595.
56
McKENZIE, Mercy, 566.
 25

Throughout the course of sacred history God has shown effectively that while
He must chastise His people for their sins, He is moved to commiseration when they cry
out for help to Him from the depths of their misery. Hosea reveals that if God has
decided no longer to have mercy on Israel (Ho 1, 6) and to punish her, His "heart turns
against it. His bowels tremble and He decides not to give rein to the warmth of His
anger" (Ho 11, 8-9). Moreover, one day the faithless bride will receive a new name,
"has received mercy" - Ruhiimiih. Hence, even though the prophets foretell dreadful
catastrophes, they know the tenderness of the heart of God. If God turns away from His
intention because of the misery or consequences of sin, it is only because He desires the
return of the sinner to Himself, his conversion. God will not stay angry forever but
wishes the sinner to recognize his evil ways, "Let the wicked return to the Lord, who
will have pity on him, and to our God, for He shall abundantly pardon" (Is 55, 7): "Hate
evil, and love good, and establish justice in the gate; it may be that the Lord, the God of
Hosts, will be gracious ... " (Am 5, 15).
Israel certainly cherished in the depths of its heart the conviction of a mercy
which had nothing that was human. This sentiment is not natural to man: Homo homini
lupus!~., Knowing this well, David preferred ''to fall into the hands of Yahweh whose
mercy is great, rather than into the hands of men" (2 S 24, 14). On this issue, God also
had to enlighten His people. He condemns the pagans who suffocate mercy 58 by
showing that His will is that man fulfil the law of fraternal love. 59 The example of God
Himself would gradually enlarge the human heart to the dimensions of the heart of God.
Furthermore, the divine mercy knows no other limitation except the sinner's hardness of
heart. 60 Thus by His astounding liberality, God finally shattered this remnant of human
meanness. 61 The lesson was understood after the exile. Yahweh wishes their return to
the land to symbolise their return to His life. 62
What God did for Israel, in rescuing this people from slavery in Egypt - he
"saved" them - was a part of the relationship he made with this people. God was
actively present with this people after the exile, even though their behaviour deserved
judgment, God bestowed his salvation instead. The prophets63 frequently allude to the

57
JULES CAMBIER - XAVIER LEON-DUFOUR, Mercy, in Dictionary ofBiblical Theology, edited by Xavier
Leon-Dufour, London 1973, 352.
58
Cf. Am 1, 11.
59
Cf. Ex 22, 26.
6
61
° Cf. Is 9, 16; Jr 16.5.13.
Cf. Ho 11, 9.
62
Cf. Jr 12, 15; 33, 26; Ez 33, 11; 39, 25; Is 14, I.
63
Cf. Is 10, 26-27; 43, 15-17; 51, 10; 63, 11-13; Je 2, 6; 31, 32; Ez 20, 5-6; Ho 11, 1.11; Mi 6, 4.
 26

exodus as a point of contrast between the saving works of Yahweh for Israel and the
infidelity of Israel toward Yahweh. 64 Isaiah repeatedly recounts how the "mercy" of
God is found in each redemptive act of God: 65 "Israel is saved by the Lord," (Is 45, 17)
and "in his love and pity he redeemed them" (Is 63, 9). In the second part of Isaiah66
images drawn from the exodus and the passage through the desert, are often employed
to describe salvation and the establishment of the Kingdom of Yahweh. 67
The fundamental factor in each act of God is "mercy"; God's compassionate love
for his creation that forgives and liberates those who have no right to such blessings. 68
God, having affirmed His freedom to grant mercy to whom He would (Ex 33, 19),
proclaims that His divine tenderness can triumph over sin without prejudice to His
holiness, "Yahweh is a God of tenderness [rahum] and grace [hanun], slow to anger and
abounding in mercy [hesed] and fidelity [ 'emet], showing kindness [hesed] to the
thousandth generation" (Ex 34, 6-7). While forgiving iniquity, transgression and sin, He
does not leave it unpunished, even to the third and fourth generation, thereby showing
the serious nature of sin.
On the other hand, the theological stream of the Sinai or the Mosaic covenant
tradition does not make God's hesed completely dependent upon Israel's obedience. It
stretches the meaning of the term beyond its usual secular usage 69 (it is never related to
forgiveness in secular terms) to incorporate the possibility of forgiveness as an act of
divine hesed This possibility is introduced immediately after the conditional statement
of the Decalogue, in the context of the apostasy of the Golden Calf (Ex 32-34). Even in
the face of the ultimate apostasy, the worship of other gods, God does not end the
relationship, but moreover, offers the possibility of pardon.
The experience of the People of Israel revealed that "mercy" signified a special
power of God's "love," strong enough to prevail over sin and infidelity. His "mercy,"
remaining intact unto the thousandth generation, makes Him infinitely patient, and is a
mark of God's relations with His people right down to the coming of his Son.

64
McKENZIE, &odus, 257.
65
Cf. Is 43, 12; 52, 3.9.
66
Cf. Is 41, 18; 42, 16; 43, 19; 48, 21; 49, 10.
67
McKENZIE, &odus, 257.
68
Ibid.
69
SAKENFELD, Love (OT), inABD, 379.
 27

1.09 rah°mim
The Hebrew word rah'1nim (Latin translation viscera misericordiae, Greek a7T).ayxva) is
a term used for "compassion." It is a difficult word to translate, due to the fact that it
varies in meaning and concept. It is frequently joined to hesed as a sentiment. Thus
hesed is associated with states of feeling, namely as a sentiment, not merely as an
attribute or a quality. Hesed is frequently joined with rah'1nim, which expresses the
instinctive attachment of one being to another. We find the meaning of rah'1nim as
intestines, visceral (entrails/bowels/belly) and as heart (see 2 M 9, 5-6), denoting a
feeling of tenderness that arises from the heart. Its relationship with rehem, (mother's
womb), denotes a certain emotion, the affection and love of a mother for her offspring
(a feminine variation of the masculine fidelity expressed by hesed). In the sense,
primarily as active love, rah'1nim becomes synonymous with hesed. The Testament of
the Twelve Patriarchs XII is the first book to contain the predominant meaning
"merciful," "show mercy," in the frequent use of both noun and verb. 70 They represent
rah'mim and rhm and form the preparation for the New Testament use. 71 In view of the
expression in Test. XII, God's final act of revelation is seen as the out-flowing of His
heart-folt mercy. 71
Since the Hebrews had little knowledge of the physiological functions of the
anatomy of the human body, they did not know that the seat of thought is in the brain.
They imagined that man thought, as well as felt, with his heart. The word "heart" was
used to represent the wholeness of an individual's life and experience. When Jeremiah
exclaims, "My bowels, my bowels, I am pained at my very heart" (4, 19 in KJV), 73 he is
acknowledging the moral and spiritual desolation which a whole personality can
undergo. "It may be objectified for him who experiences it primarily in those organs of
the body which he can feel actually physically reacting to the stress of the spiritual
emotion". 74
Its emphasis is on the conception of God's "maternal love." As one reads in
Isaiah 49, 15, from the deep bond and unity that links a mother to her child, there
springs a particular love, a particular relationship to the child. A love given freely and in

70
ESSER, Mercy, Compassion, inNIDNTT, II, 599.
71
Ibid., cf. TestZeb 7, 3; 8, 2.6 : lQS 1, 21; 2, 1; cf. HELMUT KOSTER, in Theological Dictionary of the
New Testament (TDNT), VII, edited by Gerhard Friedrich, Gnu--id Rapids/MI 1971, 552.
72
KOSTER, in TDNT, VII, 556-557.
73
King James Version ofthe Scriptures (KJV).
74
KNIGHT, 25.
 28

this aspect "constitutes an interior necessity, an exigency of the heart." 75 It indicates a

genuine emotional state and is best rendered by "mercy" or "pity" (see 2.2, infra).
The Old Testament attributes to the Lord precisely these characteristics, when it
uses the term rah<mim. "This faithful love, thanks to the mysterious power of
motherhood, is expressed as salvation from danger, especially from enemies; also as
forgiveness of sins." 76 In this respect, rah<mim generates a whole range of feelings,
including goodness and tenderness, patience and understanding - a readiness to forgive.
Rah<mim is exhibited toward those who have suffered misfortune or are like helpless
children, thus it is evident in the relationship with parents. It is to this understanding that
rah<mim of Yahweh is compared. 77 Yahweh's hesed and rah<mim for individuals and
for the whole of Israel 78 demonstrate His saving deeds and the psalmist appeals to these
attributes for forgiveness. 79 "God's forgiveness as an act of hesed that continues the
divine-human relationship is foundational to life itself'. 80

1.10 shalom/sii/Om
There are other associations which unite hesed with the Hebrew word shalom/siilom, 81
which renders "wholeness" and "peace." The cognate verb of the noun signifies "to
finish or to complete a transaction by paying a debt;" thus the word may be said to
signify "completeness, perfection" - a condition in which nothing is lacking. 82 The
people of Israel conceived "peace" as a gift of Yahweh, and thus becomes a theological
concept. 83 As the Lord said through the prophet Jeremiah, when Yahweh withdraws His
hesed there is "no longer any peace" (16, 5). When one possesses peace, one is in
perfect and assured communion with Yahweh. The state of perfect well-being which the
word designates is identified with the deity, "Yahweh is Peace" (Jg 6, 24). Perfect peace
is to be expected in the messianic salvation. As Isaiah, the greatest of all prophets
proclaimed, "the Messiah is the Prince of Peace" (9, 6-7) and in His Kingdom there will
be peace without end.

75
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Dives in Misericordia, Part III, footnote 52.
76
Ibid.
77
Cf. Ps 103, 13.
78
Cf. Is 63, 7.
79
Cf. Pss 25, 6; 40, 12; 51, 3.
80
SAKENFELD, Love (01), in ABD, 380.
81
Cf. Ps 85, 11.
82
McKENZIE, Peace, 651.
83
Ibid.
 29

Taking the sense of "peace" as found in the Old Testament, "peace" is precisely
the fruit of the preaching of the Gospel. 84 It is brought by Jesus Christ and comes
through union with Him, which comes through no achievement of humanity, as it
surpasses all human thought; it cannot be effected by human ingenuity: 85 "All the peace
of God, which passes all understanding, will keep your hearts and your minds in Christ
Jesus" (Ph 4, 7). Moreover, Paul's phrase, "the God of peace" (Rm 16, 20; 1 Th 5, 23) is
equivalent to a saving God, as "peace" in the New Testament becomes synonymous
with "salvation".
Peace is communion with God, and as Paul said, "Jesus Himself is our peace"
(Ep 2, 14) so, in this sense, Jesus is the bond of communion. "He creates in himself one
new man in place of two, so making peace" (Ep 2, 15): as He "reconciles us both to God
in one body through the cross" (Ep 2, 16). There is this oneness, we are made one in
Christ. We live in peace with God through Our Lord Jesus: "through whom we both
have access in one Spirit to the Father," who makes us no longer strangers but "fellow
citizens with the saints and members of the household of God" (Ep 2, 18-19).

1.11 Conclusion
In view of the different themes of the "mercy" of God and the much debated exact
nuances of the term, four categories for translation have been decided upon: 86

[1] kindness - in reference to a particular act of one person toward another;

[2] dealing with loyalty - in reference to the continuing behaviour of one person toward
another;
[3] steadfast love or love - in reference to God's consistent behaviour toward
individuals or communities (Israel);
[4] devotion, love, faithfulness or loyalty - in reference to Israel or individuals in
relation to God.

Finally, three general aspects of God's hesed can be analysed:

Firstly, hesed always involves persons. It is not associated with inanimate objects or
concepts (contrast love ('hb) of silver or righteousness). Secondly, hesed is "requested

84
Cf. Ep 6, 15.
85
MCKENZIE, Peace, 652.
86
Revised Standard Version translators of The Holy Bible, in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, IV, Love (OT),
Secular Usage: Hesed Between Individuals, 378.
 30

of'' or "done for another" with whom one is already in relationship. Thirdly, the term in
its most basic form is a specific action.
The Hebrew term hesed, translated m the Greek and Latin by ~co~ and
misericordiae respectively, reflects a slightly different facet of God's nature, one not
quite identical to his steadfast love. God's mercy (Heb hiinurzlhen or riiham/rah'7nim)
denotes his compassion, particularly for sinners, for the weak and for those in need.
When David asks that God have mercy on him "according to your hesed [steadfast
love]," (Ps 51, 5) here David asks that God have "mercy" on him by forgiving his sins.
He bases his request on God's steadfast and loyal love for him. In the Greek and Latin
translations, it is God's mercy that is highlighted, 87 whereas the Hebrew text highlights
God's steadfast love as a covenantal love.

87
Cf. Ps 118, I.
 Chapter Two

Greek terminology of the "mercy" of God

2.01 Usage of the Greek term EA£°'

In its definition of the "mercy" of God, the Greek terminology in the LXX builds upon
the inherited wealth of expressions and meanings that marked the Old Testament, thus
serving as the bridge between the two Testaments. The word "mercy" mainly
corresponds to the terms l:lco;, o{Knpµ6; and aTTA.ayxva. In the LXX, €A.co; and its
derivatives are found nearly four hundred times. It is normally represented by hesed,
and only six times by rah"mim. The verb normally represents hiinan (grace) but also
raham and €A€fX{,) which renders, sedaqah. 88 In the New Testament, l:lco; and its
derivatives are found seventy-eight times mainly in the Pauline writings (twenty-six
times) and in Luke-Acts (twenty times). 89 In the Synoptics the term is found mainly in
the narratives. The verb €A.c® means to "have and show compassion," "to be sorry for,"
while with the exception of Luke 1, 58, is used only in reports of speech. 90
91
O{Knpµ6;, compassion, (especially its root o{Kr-6;) refers to the exclamation of
pity at the sight of another's misfortune. 92 Other expressions like €A.cov €X{,), to find

88
ESSER, Mercy, Compassion, in NIDN1T, II, 594
89
Ibid., 595.
90
Ibid.
91
O{Kripµoi;occurs always in the plural because of the Hebrew plural form rah"mim.
92
Cf. 2 S 24, I; Is 63, 15; Ps 25, 6.
 32

mercy and Kar' €:lcov out of compassion, are found from Plutarch onwards. 93 Often
synonymous to €:ldUJ is the verb o!KrtpUJ, which means to have compassion, to pity "in
the sense both of mere feeling and of active merciful action". 94
The term €:lcoc; 95 is found, from Homer onwards, as "the emotion roused by
contact with an affliction which comes undeservedly on someone else" 96 vis-a-vis
"compassion," "pity" and "mercy." These feelings are contrary to envy another's good
fortune. Technically, €:lcoc; was used as a term to awaken the compassion of the judges
by the accused in his defence. 97 The koine form EAEaUJ in the passive, means "to find
mercy." The cry €A€'f/CJOV, "have mercy," was addressed to the gods. The derived noun
€A-cr;µoovvr; was originally the same as €A-coc; but was then applied to the act of kindness
following compassion. It later obtained the meaning of a contribution for or gift to the
poor, as almsgiving, which finds its earliest use in the LXX (see Dn 4, 27). The Greek
translators of the Old Testament (LXX) sometimes translated the Hebrew justice as
€A-cr;µoovvr; (almsgiving) or €A-coc; (compassion). The term €A-coc; appears frequently in
contexts where it renders hesed or is used in a way reminiscent of hesed. This is
particularly true of the Benedictus and the Magnificat of Luke (1, 50.54.72.78).
Luke has the definite teaching of alms instead of ritual purity (Lk 11, 41) in an
argument with the Pharisees. In his defence before Felix in Acts, Paul mentioned the
bringing of alms for his people as the purpose of his last journey to Jerusalem (Ac 24,
17). He stressed his active responsibility by using the term "doing alms" (€A-cr;µoovvac;
rrofrUJ, Hebrew 'iisah sediiqah), a Semitic expression. Moreover, in Acts (3, 1-8), by
healing the lame man Peter symbolically ended the time of begging and imperfect
mercy by the full mercy brought in the name of Jesus Christ. 98 In view of the wide-
spread rejection of the Gospel by Israel, Paul strove in the Letters to the Romans to
make clear that God's free mercy did not contradict His covenant loyalty (Rm 9, 15-18;
15, 1-30). God's plan for salvation for both Jews and Gentiles (Rm 11, 32) is based on
His mercy. Here there is a connection with the history of salvation. Paul speaks of
God's €A-coc; (Rm 9, 11; 15), which is concerned with the history of salvation as His
eschatological act in salvation history in Christ.

93
ESSER,Mercy, Compassion, in NJDNTT, II, 594.
94
Ibid., 598.
95
Found as masculine but normally neuter in the LXX and New Testament.
96
RUDOLF BULTMANN, D. m;, The Greek Usage, in TDNT, II, 477.
97
ESSER, Mercy, Compassion, in NIDNTT, II, 594.
98
Ibid., 597.
 33

The salvation of those made alive by faith and renewal in the Holy Spirit is the
basis of this mercy, not based on any good works. 99 They are admonished to pass on the
mercy they have experienced cheerfully, 100 so that mercy becomes one of the signs by
which a disciple can be distinguished. The term EA€O( is a component of the wisdom
from above, which in contrast to worldly wisdom, shows itself in good deeds. 101 When
God acts like this and also when man acts similarly, the stress is not on the basic attitude
in €A.€o(but on its manifestation in acts. Because ofYahweh's superiority as a partner in
the covenant who remains faithful, his €A.€o( was understood for the most part as a
gracious gift. He promised it at the making of the covenant. A gift given gratuitously,
thus the "mercy of God" is a present, a gift ensuring salvation (2 Tm 16-18). God is a
forgiving God, who forgives sin and rebellion. 102 John the Baptist preached a baptism of
repentance for the forgiveness of sins, in accordance to scriptures, to the words of the
prophet Isaiah, found in all four evangelists (Lk 3, 3-6; Mt 3, 3; Mk 1, 3; Jn 1, 23). In
Luke, the knowledge of salvation through the forgiveness of sins (1, 77) is preached to
all nations (24, 47); thus the gift of salvation is a gift to all. This affirms the
universalism of His mercy and His salvation, "all flesh shall see God's salvation" (3, 6).
The verb €A.€€UJ marks that breaking in of the divine mercy into the reality of
human misery, which took place in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. Through his work
of freeing and healing he demonstrated his authority. Jesus answered the cry for help:
"Have mercy on me" (Mk 10, 47; cf. Mt 9, 27; 15, 22; 17, 15). This makes the cry a
confession of faith in the divine authority of Jesus. On these occasions Jesus was
addressed by the messianic title - "Son of David," in which we find the title - "Master"
(Lk 17, 13) €marara (literally "foreman"), 103 while Matthew adds the post-resurrection
title of Kvpto( "Lord." The Gospels present €A.€o( as the duty of one man to another.
Jesus applies Hosea: "I desire steadfast love not sacrifice," (6, 6) to this duty and makes
His own attribute toward sinners the model of €A.€o(. His attitude of readiness to
associate with sinners is unlike the exclusivism of the scribes. He calls the sinners to
enter the Kingdom of God. 104 The same attitude is applied by Jesus 105 to the harsh
judgment by the Pharisees on those who do not observe the Pharisiac traditions and
interpretations of the Law. Mercy (€A.€o() is one of the more important features of the
99
C f . Ep 2, 4-9; Tt 3, 5.
100
Cf. Rm 12, 8.
101
See Js 3, 17.
102
Cf. Nm 14, 18; Ps 65,3; Ps 103,3; Jr 31, 34.
103
ESSER, Mercy, Compassion, in NIDNIT, II, 595.
104
Cf. Mt 9, 13.
105
Cf. Mt 12, 7.
 34

Law, with its righteousness and fidelity to it. Jesus makes the €.A.fat; which one shows
another the condition of the €.A.cot; which one may expect from God. 106 The proof of the
love of one's neighbour is the demonstration of €.A.cot; and as in the parable of the Good
Samaritan (Lk 10, 37), €.A.cot; is the rendering of assistance to one in need, where the
showing of mercy is demanded.
Echoing Old Testament usage of hesed, the €.A.Eat; of God in the New Testament
appears most frequently as the "will to save." It is the €.A.cot; "with God's love," which
moves Him to grant life in Jesus Christ. 107 The €.A.cot; of God is the motive of His saving
will, not of any merit of man. Mercy (€.A.cot;) and anger are contrasted as motives of
God's dealing with men. 108 When attributed to the €.A.cot; of God, it can be more easily
understood as His saving will which is an antecedent to or precedes any deed of man.
Whenever man becomes conscious of his unhappy and sinful condition, then the face of
His infinite mercy/love, more of less clearly, is revealed to him. Hence the New
Testament €.A.cot; between men is transformed by the conception of mercy/love, which is
a revolutionary development in the New Testament. It puts a deeper motivation behind
€.A.cot; than we find in the Old Testament.
Jesus wished to depict for all time the characteristic features of divine mercy
which showed forth in His actions. The mercy/love he showed to sinners is one such
example, since they saw themselves excluded from the Kingdom of God by the
pettiness of the Pharisees by their strict observance of the Law. Following from the
authentic pronouncement of the Old Testament, Jesus proclaimed a Gospel of infinite
mercy. Those who please the heart of God are not the self-righteous but the repentant
sinners. God has waited long and He still waits patiently for Israel who, like the barren
fig tree, will not be converted (Lk 13, 6-9).
Jesus is truly the "merciful high priest" (Heb 2, 17) who wished to "become like
His brethren in all things," in order that He might experience that very misery from
which lle came to save them. His actions are all an interpretation of the divine mercy,
even though they are not represented as such by the evangelists. With particular
attention to Luke, we see how he takes special pains to set this point out. Jesus has a
preference for the poor, 109 sinners find a "friend" in Him, 110 as He is not ashamed to

106
Cf. Mt 5,7; 18, 33.
107
Cf. I P 1, 3.
108
Cf. Rm 9, 22£
109
Cf. Lk4, 18; 7, 22.
°
11
Cf. Lk 7, 34.
 35

associate with them. 111 There is the general way in which the mercy of Jesus bears
witness as it takes on a personal aspect in Luke's accounts, e.g. the widow's son (7, 12-
13) and a bereaved father (8, 42; 9, 38-42). Furthermore, Jesus shows particular
kindness towards women and strangers. It is therefore understandable, that the afflicted
would address themselves to Him with their cry, "Kvptc 'E,U170ov!" (Mt 15, 22; 17, 15;
20, 30).
God is indeed the "Father of mercies" (2 Co 1, 3), who showed mercy to Paul 112
and also promises it to all men, as a clear manifestation of the completion of the task of
"mercy" in salvation and peace, which were announced in the early Gospel canticles (Lk
1, 50.54.72.78). Since the Jews, by their failure to recognise divine mercy, were
misconstruing justice to be something they could procure through their works and
observance of the Law, Paul declares that they too are sinners and also need this mercy,
through the justification of faith. "Through him justification from all sins which the Law
of Moses was unable to justify, is offered to every believer" (Ac 13, 38, 39) therefore,
all must acknowledge themselves sinners in order to become beneficiaries of His
mercy: 113 "God has made all men prisoners of disobedience so as to have mercy upon
them all" (Rm 11, 32).

2.02 The Greek usage of a'!Titiyxva

The noun mrA.dyxva, almost always in the plural, refers to the seat of the emotions, the
inward parts in the sense of bowels/entrails, or what we would call today the "heart," as
its transferred sense, the centre of personal "feeling and sensibility." 114 It referred to the
more valuable parts, i.e. the heart, lungs, liver and also the spleen and kidneys. The verb
crrr1ayxv{(oµat is used for the inner parts of a sacrifice and means, "to eat the inner
parts." Immediately after killing of the animal these parts were removed, roasted and
eaten as the first part of the sacrificial meal, therefore, the word came to mean "to carry
out the required sacrifice" for the official sacrificial meal itself. 115 Since the intestines
were regarded as the seat of the natural passions, i.e. anger, desire, fretfulness, the word
came to have the meaning of heart (as the organ of feelings and emotions) or the sense
of premonition. Finally it meant even the affection and love, hence from the fifth

111
Cf. Lk 15, 1-2; 19, 7.
112
Cf 1Co7,25;2Co4,1; 1 Tm I, 13.
113
LEON-DUFOUR, 353.
114
KOSTER, Greek Usage, in TDNT, VII, 548.
115
Cf 2 M 6, 7.21; 7, 42; Ws 12, 5.
 36

century onwards, it means "pity," "compassion" and "love." The term as an

anthropological one is a particularly forceful expression for the lower part of the body,
especially the womb, as the seat of the power of procreation, 116 hence children were
sometimes called a7TA.ayxva and EK a7TA.ayxvcuv, which means from one's own flesh and
blood. 117
Two verses in Proverbs respectively, presuppose that a7TA.ayxva might be
regarded as the seat of the positive stirring of pity and is the only LXX instance where
its meaning corresponds with the Hebrew rah°mim, (Greek €A.Ea~ and o!Knpµ6~ in OT)
(Pr 12, 10) and beten, inner parts, belly (Pr 26, 22). The metaphorical meaning "have
mercy on," "feels pity," is found only in the writings of Judaism and the New
Testament. 118 In the New Testament it is always used to describe the attitude of Jesus
and it characterises the divine nature of His acts. The verb a7TA.ayzv{(oµat has become
solely and simply an attribute of the divine dealings. 119
The translation of "heart," understood as the centre of loving action, is seen
when Paul (2 Co 6, 12) accuses his readers of giving their ability to love him only
limited space, while he says of Titus (2 Co 7, 15) that his heart goes out to them. It
means the heart as the source of action that helps and relieves need (1 Jn 3, 17). Luke
speaks of the a7TA.ayxva €A.€A.ov~, as the "merciful heart" (Lk 1, 78) of our God. In
Philippians: "how I yearn for you all with the affection of Christ Jesus," (Ph 1, 8) Paul's
use of qualifying Christ indicates that Christ is the source of the love that embraces and
lays claim to the apostle's whole personality. 120 In Philemon: "the hearts of the saints
have been refreshed through you," (Phm 1, 7) and "refresh my heart in Christ," (Phm l,
20) the refreshing of ra a7TA.ayxva of the saints and of Paul (RSV "heart"), means the
refreshing of the whole person. It draws attention to the conscious joy that Philemon has
given.
Heartfelt sympathy, a7TA.ayxva Kat otKrtpµot (Ph 2, 1), which creates unity of
spirit, must be expected from Christians as Jesus calls for merciful behaviour. 121 God
himself shows his "mercy" to him who is merciful and does not show it to him who is
unmerciful himself, 122 putting God's merciful attitude as the measure of human action.
"Mercy" from man to man is expressed by EAffUJ and EA.E17µcuv, only once, in the material
116
KOSTER, Greek Usage, in TDNT, VII, 548.
117
ESSER, Mercy, Compassion, inNIDNTT, II, 599.
118
Ibid.
119
KOSTER, New Testament Usage, in TDNT, VII, 553.
120
ESSER, Mercy, Compassion, in NIDNTT, II, 600.
121
Cf. Lk 6, 36.
122
Cf. Mt 18, 32.
 37

particular to Luke (16, 24) but in this case the motivation is clearly God's "mercy." Just
as God shows mercy to men, which sums up God's saving acts and plan of salvation; 123
so also, God's mercies are the presupposition for Christian life.
Luke, using the term a7T1ayxvt(oµat in the parable of the Good Samaritan (10,
33) "expresses the attitude of complete willingness to use all means, time and strength,
and life, for saving at the crucial moment." 124 Being prepared to help to relieve the one
in need, sets in motion as with Jesus Himself, a whole chain of events which together
are called ff}.£ot;. Neighbourliness and humanity are not qualities but action. The parable
of the unforgiving servant (Mt 18, 23-25) and the demand for mercy (v. 33) is based on
the "limitless compassion" of his lord, mrldyxva.
In the controversies with the Pharisees, Jesus bore witness to the sovereign
mercy of God, which seeks a response not in ritual details but in solidarity through
action with the lowly (poor) and hungry. In his woes, he also leveled against them the
charge that in their interpretation of the Law 125 they had shifted the main stress from
"justice and mercy, and faithfulness" to a more casuistic (false) formalism.
In the prologue to his Gospel, Luke announced its main theme in the two great
psalms of praise (Lk 1, 46-55; 68-79), that the covenant loyalty of God, promised in the
Old Testament, would reach its climax in the gracious self-humiliation of God to be
humble in the event of Christ. The thought of these two psalms is saturated with Old
Testament ideas of "judgment" and "mercy" while, one sees that the modem usage
identifies "mercy" with "compassion or "forgiveness".

2.03 God's "mercy/love" revealed

God's "mercy/love" is completed in the mystery of Christ's passion, death and
resurrection in which the Father's mercy is revealed; mercy stronger not only than sin,
but stronger than death itself. Although there is little mention of "love" in the Gospels,
the emergence of formulas like "the God of Love" (2 Co 13, 11) demonstrates that in
the early communities they were able to develop both a theology and Christology of
love. This theology, built in the first instance on the Jewish experience, was given a
strong impetus by Jesus, who may not have spoken much about "love" but practiced it

123
Cf. Rm 11, 32.
124
Mercy, Compassion, in NIDNTT,
ESSER, II, 600.
125
Cf. Mt 23, 23; Lk 10, 37.
 38

m an exemplary fashion. 126 The fruits of God's "love" are restoration to "grace,"
"forgiveness" and the re-establishment of the interior covenant.
It is especially for the sinners that the Messiah becomes a particularly clear sign
of God who is "love," a sign of the Father. By His actions and words, especially his life-
style, Christ makes the Father present among men and revealed that love is present in
the world we live, a love that addresses itself to man and embraces everything that
makes up his humanity. It is God's "mercy/love" which makes itself particularly
noticeable when in contact with the whole historical "human condition," that manifests
man's limitation and frailty. It is precisely in the manner in which "love" manifests
itself, that in biblical language is called "mercy." "Making the Father present as love
and mercy is, in Christ's own consciousness, the fundamental touchstone of His mission
as the Messiah." 127 God's love is described as the "centre of Christianity, the Christian
fundamental motif par excellence. " 128

2.04 Conclusion
One of the striking features of the Synoptic Gospels is that they say nothing explicitly
about God's love. Jesus himself never speaks about it, except to point out concretely in
parables how gracious and accepting God is, especially of people who fail or are
marginalised in any way. In manifesting the presence of God who is Father, who is
"love and mercy," Jesus makes "mercy" one of the principal themes of his preaching.
The term EA.cot; actually becomes a theme of God's "mercy" where both
"compassion" and "mercy" are used together. It is "through God's compassionate
mercy" that "God's act of salvation" is accomplished. "Mercy" is such a dominant
concept within salvation that the heirs of salvation are called "vessels of mercy" (Rm 9,
23). The belly-shaped vessel can be analogous to the womb, to procreation, thus it is
through God's creative mercy that salvation is made possible. This is the "mercy" of
God by which Christians, "have been born anew to a living hope by the resurrection of
Jesus Christ from the dead" (Ep 2, 4; cf. 1 Co 15, 19).
Although the term €A.€ot; is not explicitly mentioned in chapter fifteen of this
Gospel, Luke presents the theme of "mercy" in a new and profound way by grouping
together these three parables of Jesus; the Lost Sheep (15, 3-7), the Lost Coin (15, 8-10)

126
KLASSEN, Love (NT and Early Jewish), in ABD, 395.
127
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Dives in Misericordia, Part II, 3.
128
KLASSEN, Love (NT and Early Jewish), in ABD, 385.
 39

and the Prodigal Son (15, 11-32). As is customary to Jesus, "He teaches 'in parables,'
since these express better the very essence of things." 129 Jesus proclaims by His actions
even more than by His words that call to "mercy" which is one of the essential elements
of the Gospel ethos. This text occupies the central place, wherein Luke makes "mercy"
the primary message of these parables, which has earned him the title of "the Gospel of
mercy".

129
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Dives in Misericordia, Part II, 3.
 Chapter Three

The doublet of the Lost Sheep - Lk 15, 3-7

and the Lost Coin - Lk 15, 8-10

3.01 Introduction
An analysis of the text of chapter fifteen of Luke's Gospel, which is the chapter of the
New Testament already so well known and loved, will reveal the essence of the Good
News of salvation and peace which Jesus came to tell. God's "compassionate mercy" is
clearly depicted in the Jewish Scriptures and most importantly, seen as central is the
restoration and reconciliation of God with his people: "In his restoration of Israel,
Yahweh shows His own hesed and love of Israel" (see 1.09, supra). This language is
e"rried over into the portrayals of the ministry of Jesus, where we read that he "had
compassion" on people. He began to feed them, to heal them and to teach them.
In Luke the word <TTT/l,ayxv{(oµai "compassion" occurs only in a few places, but
is used by Luke in his key stories. One example is in our passage of the Prodigal Son,
wherein the father "had compassion" (v. 20) on seeing his younger son returning to his
house. Its use in this parable must have had quite a strong effect on identifying the
character of the father with Jesus and God himself. Identifying the characters of the
 41

protagonists in each of the three parables will reveal the distinctive features of the
"mercy" of God in dealing with the sinner.
Luke's three parables of Jesus, at the heart of Luke's Gospel, 130 known as the
"gospel in a gospel," arose out of a definite situation. Jesus was receiving criticism for
eating with tax collectors and sinners. It was an offence to the scribes and Pharisees that
Jesus associated with men and women who were labelled as sinners. A Pharisee was
forbidden to be the guest of any such person and they deliberately avoided every contact
with "the People of the Land," (the general classification for whose who did not strictly
observe the Law). 131 The strict Jews did not say, "There will be joy in heaven over one
sinner who repents," but rather, '"There will be joy in heaven over one sinner who is
obliterated before God." 132 The legalists looked forward not to the saving but to the
destruction of the sinner. Hence the Pharisees were shocked at the way Jesus associated
himself with people who were ranked as outcasts, as sinners, thus unclean; contact with
whom would necessarily defile.
These parables of "mercy" addressed to the Pharisees and scribes, urge an
openness of heart. Luke's achievement is "a warm and human work." 133 The real life
experiences and situations depicted in the parables make Luke's Gospel more of a
secular gospel than a theological treatise, wherein a synthesis of the profoundest Lucan
theology is expressed in the most wonderful trio of parables found in the Bible. The
Gospel message and the call to faith do not refer to some eternal, spiritual realm
unconnected with the men and women of earth. Jesus effectively addresses the real
problems, especially of those who are poor, afflicted and marginalised. The focus is on
God's boundless love is at work and His promise of salvation is in Christ, the Saviour of
the world, God, because he leads to life (Lk 15, 24.32; cf. Ac 5, 31). Among the
Synoptics, Luke alone entitles Jesus "Saviour". 134

Through these parables one can grasp a remarkable insight into the
compassionate and tender nature of God's mercy, the gentleness of Jesus and Luke's
own compassionate nature. The various human elements are central to the analysis of
these parables, through which we discover the central theological concern of Luke, the
seeking heart of God and joy at the success of salvation.

130
LEONARD RAMAROSON, Le coeur du troisieme Evangile, Le 15, in Bib!ica 60, (1979), title page.
131
WILLIAM BARCLAY, The Daily Study Bible, The Gospel ofLuke, Edinburgh 2001, 199.
132
BARCLAY, The Daily Study Bible, 200.
133
NJB, 1608.
134
JOHN NAVONE S.J., Themes ofSt. Luke, Rome 1970, 144.
 42

3.02 Analysis of Lk 15, 1-2

The opening sentences of this text actually set the framework for the entire chapter
fifteen of Luke's Gospel. Jesus had already been attracting large crowds that were
traveling with him (14, 25), but now he was not only attracting regular synagogue-
goers, but a new crowd altogether.
Lk 15, 1: "Now the tax collectors and sinners, were all drawing near to hear
him." The verb Tfaav €yy((ovre;, "coming near him" suggests more than a simple
physical proximity of sinners to be near Jesus, 135 they were drawn by the newness of
Jesus' message. Typically, Luke uses the descriptor "all" TTavre;, which may have
included three groups of sinners; there were Jews who could tum to their heavenly
Father in penitence and hope; Gentile sinners who were regarded as beyond the hope of
136
God's mercy; and Jews who had made themselves as Gentiles.
The "tax collectors" were considered traitors because they were Jews who
worked for the hated Roman oppressors. They had a reputation for being rapacious
(greedy) and unfair. Since the Roman tax farming system was run by contractors, the
chief tax collector would bid on the contract to tax a town or region. He kept whatever
he could get over his contract price. Then he hired other local tax collectors on the same
basis. These were men who loved money more than reputation, who often overcharged
the helpless populace.
The "sinners" frequently found in the New Testament may be understood as
"other Jews who have made themselves as Gentiles," by being unobservant of ritual
laws and duties. This term could be applied to immoral people or irreligious people but
also to those whose occupations were considered incompatible with ceremonial
cleanliness. Sinners - cfµaprt.uAot (meaning sinful or guilty), also includes those guilty
of sins against their neighbours. 137 Though it was "wrong" for the sinners to draw

around Jesus, they knew that Jesus had something "right" to offer them. Their purpose
was to listen to Jesus who spoke about a new kind of judgment, a judgment "rich in
mercy," which went contrary to the harshjudgment of the Pharisees. They came to hear
the "finest expressions of the concept of forgiveness in the teaching of Jesus." 138 The

135
I. HOWARD MARSHALL, Gospel of Luke, The New International Greek Testament Commentary(=
NIGTC), Grand Rapids/MI 1978, 599, notes that the periphrastic imperfect indicates that "the general
circumstances of Jesus' ministry rather than one particular incident are in mind".
136
NORMAN PERRIN, Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus, London 1967 (on-line): http://religion-online
[25 July 2006].
137
THAYER, Greek-English Lexicon of the NT, in BibleWorks 7, Software for Biblical Exegesis and
Research, BW 70-00101403, Norfolk/VA 2006.
138
PERRIN, Rediscovering the Teaching ofJesus (on-line).
 43

purpose clause aKovetv "to hear him," identifies this group as responding to the final
challenge in the previous chapter of Luke, "Let the one with ears to hear [aKouw]
listen," (14, 35). "Hearing" as a sign of conversion can be seen frequently in Luke's
Gospel. 139 The outcasts are becoming members of the restored people by responding to
the prophet. 140 Jesus was the fulfilment of the mission of the prophet.
Lk 15, 2: "And the Pharisees and the scribes murmured, saying, 'This man
receives sinners and eats with them."' It all began with the muttering of the Pharisees
and their cohorts, the teachers of their particular brand of Talmudic style teaching, who
Oicy6yyu(ov, grumbled aloud about Jesus' choice of friends. This one citation shows
that the displeasure with Jesus is grounded on a theological basis. In the Old Testament
the verb yovyu(w grumbling, is used against God (Ex 16, 2, 7-8; Nb 14, 2) for choosing
Moses and Aaron as his instruments, and grumbling at his choice of agents as leaders
(Jos 9, 18). In the New Testament, the verb otEyoyyu(ov (indicative imperfect) is only
used in v. 2 and is very similar to Lk 19, 7. The grumblings are against God for
choosing Jesus, who seemed to prefer to spend his time with people who were weak by
nature and so had little to contribute to the community. 141 To associate with sinners,
even dine with them, implies a social bonding with the risks that he will be seen to
approve of their conduct. There was also the risk that he could cut himself off from
those who maintain covenant loyalty and respectability.
That Jesus "receives" and "eats" with sinners, the present tense of these two

verbs (a continuing action), suggests that what the Pharisees and scribes find offensive
in Jesus is a habitual error, and so find serious fault with Jesus' apparent disregard or
ignorance of the Law. Their reasoning would be: "the intimate association of
welcoming and eating with sinners is surely against the mind of God". 142
His conduct was definitely unacceptable and by his behaviour he broke
solidarity with the "self-righteous." But Jesus had another way of looking at things. In
fact, Jesus' attitude of readiness to associate with sinners went contrary to the
exclusivism of the scribes (see 2.01, supra). If Jesus was serious about bringing in the
kingdom he would have to learn to invest himself where his efforts would pay

139
Cf. Lk 5, 1-15; 6, 17. 27.47.49; 7, 29; 8, 8-18.21; 9, 35; 10, 16.24.39; 11, 28.31.
14
°LUKE TIMOTHY JOHNSON, The Gospel of Luke(= Sacra Pagina 3), edited by Daniel J. Harrington, S.J.,
Collegeville/MI 1991, 235.
141
ANDREW PARKER, Painfully Clear, The Parables ofJesus, The Biblical Seminar 37, Sheffield 1996,
159.
142
JOHN J. K!LGALLEN, Luke 15 and 16: a Connection, in Biblica 78 (1997), 370-371.
 44

dividends: with people like his critics who were making things happen and getting
things done in the community. 143
The three parables of Jesus serve to answer the theological complaint of the
Pharisees and scribes that Jesus ate with sinners, to which Jesus responded: "I have not
come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance" (Lk 5, 32).

3.03 Reading the parable of the Lost Sheep - Lk 15, 3-7

Lk 15, 3: "So he told them this parable."
Jesus only told them one parable, so Luke's aim in the three-verse setting is a sign of his
expansiveness. 144 The fact that this parable comes first is not coincidental and even its
message is hardly incidental. Its relevance and importance is seen as it contains strong
echoes of scriptural texts (see Ez 34, 17). God's prophet speaks against the leaders of
Israel on account of their failure as "shepherds" of the people to seek out the lost and
scattered sheep and feed them. 145 The Israelites interpreted this to mean that God would
seek them when they were lost and destroy their enemies. Ta rrp6/3ara in distinction
from rd €p{<fna are good men as distinguished from bad people (Mt 25, 33). The
Pharisees and scribes would never have contemplated taking up the task of the
shepherd, as shepherds belonged to a class of despised trades. 146
Jesus' parables impose a new interpretation. It is important to understand the
framework in which these parables were set. The Hebrews had been a shepherd people
as far back as Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Though the economy had broadened
considerably, sheep were still a solid part of their agrarian life. To appreciate the thrust
of the story of the Lost Sheep one must remember that the relationship of a shepherd to
his animals is that they are his livelihood, his means of survival. Since ninety percent of
the agrarian population was typically rural farmers, we can assume that Galilean
peasants were also present.
There is also the social, constant struggle between shepherds and farmers to be
taken into account, in which also lay a theological nuance: the Israelites could not be
farmers; they could only be shepherds in their desert wandering. So shepherds struck the

143
Painfully Clear, 159.
PARKER,
144
MICHAEL D. GOULDER, Luke, A New Paradigm (= Journal for the Study of the New Testament
Supplement 20), edited by Stanley E. Porter et al., Sheffield 1994, 603.
145
STEPHEN C. BARTON, Parables ofthe Christian Life, Part IV, Parables on God's Love and Forgiveness
(Luke 15: 1-32) Chapter IX, quoted in The Challenge of Jesus' Parables, edited by Richard N.
Longenecker, Grand Rapids/MI - Cambridge 2000, 204.
146
GERARD RossE, ii Vangelo di Luca, commento esegetico e teo/ogico, Roma 2 1995, 601.
 45

cord of the desert wanderings, of a people without a homeland, while farmers

represented the People settled in their Land, the land given to them by Yahweh. This
background setting is especially significant when reading the parable of the Prodigal
son. The value of these assumptions is that it allows us to ask about the impact of the
story without allegorically pigeonholing each of the characters ahead of time.
Lk 15, 4: "What man of you, having a hundred sheep, if he has lost one of them,
does not leave the ninety-nine in the wilderness, and go after the one which is lost, until
he finds it?" The opening phrase, r!r; livBpw7Tot; €( uµt:Jv, "What man of you ... ?" is a
stylised phrase used by Luke to contrast with "What woman?" (v. 8) in the Lost Coin,
and since "which one of you?" indicates "someone other" both vv. 4.8 are addressed to
men. This question was obviously posed to the Pharisees and scribes and not to the
Gospel reader.
"Having a hundred sheep" is a good round number, which would be a fairly
large flock for a small farmer thus Jesus paints a picture on a grand scale. 147 This matter
is important for exegetical purposes. To lose one sheep out of a hundred is hardly a
devastating loss. The nuance here to be observed is the shepherd looking over his sheep,
having every one of them on his heart. He could not get along even without one of
them. Without a second thought, the shepherd makes the initiative, he leaves
immediately in an earnest search "going after the one" which is lost. This concern and
loving action continues "until he finds it" is more significant than in Matthew's version
"ifhe finds it" (18, 13). Luke puts the emphasis on the "limitless compassion" (see 2.02,

supra) of the shepherd in his enduring search for the one sheep which has strayed away.
The sheep that is lost is simply one part of the flock, no greater or lesser than the
rest. 148 The picture is that of the shepherd going off in a deliberate and single-minded
search. He took the great risk in abandoning the ninety-nine in the "wilderness," the
terrible devastation of the desert. Matthew's version of this story has the shepherd
leaving the sheep "on the hills" (Mt 18, 12), also a dangerous place, where they can
wander off and fall into precipices. Was it a wise decision to leave the ninety-nine
behind? It seemed foolish but this is the paradox, although it must not be taken as being
"disinterested or imprudent". 149

147
ARLAND J. HULTGREN, The Parables of Jesus, A Commentary, Grand Rapids/MI - Cambridge 2000,
53.
148 Ibid.
149
ROSSE, ii Vangelo di Luca, 601.
 46

The paradox here is the exaggerated concern for the lost one, which can be
portrayed as acting in a "non-typical fashion." 150 Dodd also speaks of the "extravagant
concern" shown by the shepherd for the "trifling" matter of one lost sheep. 151 Yet the
affection of the shepherd for even just one of his lost sheep is being portrayed as willing
to risk all he has for its sake. As George Adam Smith wrote, "You understand why the
shepherd of Judaea sprang to the front in his people's history; why they gave his name
to the king and made him the symbol of providence; why Christ took him as the type of
self-sacrifice". 152
Lk 15. 5: "And when he has found it, he lays it on his shoulders, rejoicing." On
finding it, no blame is directed over the straying sheep. Moreover, his heart goes out to
the one in need, he picks it up and here we see the heart-felt sympathy as the source of
action that helps and relieves need (see 2.02, supra). The emphasis Luke is making here
is that in seeking out something which is lost, on finding it, the shepherd celebrates the
discovery as a joyful event. We may note the vividness of imagination. The shepherd
strides home with the lost sheep across his shoulder "rejoicing," which shows even more
his instant, exultant joy in finding the lost one. The parable is not about correcting the
sheep but about the joy the shepherd has in finding it, and bringing it back to the fold. 153
This last feature appeals to Luke: "he lays it on his shoulder" which is an
imagery only found in Luke, the closest imagery is to God who "will gather the lambs
in his arms and carry them in his bosom" (Is 40, 11). It is the joy in the shepherd's heart
which he wishes to put emphasis on, "in contrast to the meanness of the elder brother in
the coming Lost Sons." 154 Finding the sheep and carrying it on his shoulder meant
saving it from danger, it also demonstrates the tender and gentle care of the shepherd; it
reflects the shepherd's goodness. It is the act of kindness that follows compassion (see
2.01, supra). The shepherd's joy is similar to the natural response when a lover finds the
beloved.
Lk 15, 6: "And when he comes home, he calls together his friends and his
neighbours, saying to them, 'Rejoice with me, for I have found my sheep which was
lost."' The shepherd calls his friends and neighbours, "Come and eat and drink with

150
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 53.
151
CHARLES HAROLD DODD, The parables of the Kingdom, London 1961, quoted in PARKER, Painfully
Clear, Chapter VII, Parables ExemplifYing Important Principles of Reconstruction and Interpretation,
137.
152
BARCLAY, The Daily Bible Study, 200.
153
Exod. Rab. 2, 2; quoted from MidR 3, 49. There is the Jewish legend of Moses who, after rescuing the
kid that had been lost, "placed [it] on his shoulder" and brought it home safely. (A literary source from
later times, but the tradition may be earlier), quoted in HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 58.
154
GOULDER, Luke, A New Paradigm, 605.
 47

me, to celebrate my finding the sheep that was lost." He wants to share the joy with the
whole community, so great is his over-flowing joy. The verb ovyKaA.i't (to call together)
is used as an invitation to a feast, implies that a feast will follow (as seen in the Prodigal
Son). 155 While it would be natural for a shepherd to be pleased at finding his animal,
and for his fellow shepherds to congratulate him, none of them would have made a song
and dance about something that was all part of the job. Luke uses the term ydrovm; (a
simpler word for neighbour) than the usual nuance 7TA.rfawv (as one close) (found
seventeen times in the New Testament). 156 This implies that the shepherd invites all his
friends and all who inhabit his neighbourhood without distinction. In Jesus' parables,
meals (and harvests) take on a festive air because rejoicing was a central element of the
parousia message in the early Church. That is why it was included in the tradition; it
was as central as that of judgment. 157
Lk 15, 7: "Just so, I tell you, there will be more joy in heaven over one sinner
who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons who need no repentance." Jesus
takes this parable from real life re-actions and now turns it to a spiritual application.
Luke demonstrates the divine joy in God's heart over the turning of sinners' hearts. He
wants to highlight the great joy over one sinner "who repents" µeravoofJvn, rather than

over the righteous one who need no repentance €zovatv µeravo'uxc,,. This is contrasted to
the ungenerous response of the murmuring Pharisees, who acted with hard-heartedness
toward those outside the fold.
158
Luke is not just saying, "God does not wish any Christian to go to hell," but
is making a different point, "/ tell you, that so there will be joy in heaven over one
sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons," in fact depicts the
Kingdom of God as a place, where the rules seem upside-down, that is, the ordinary
rules of business calculation do not apply. 159

3.04 The ways of God

This is the way God deals with the sinner, God as the shepherd, searches "until" he finds
the lost one, recalling the hesed that remains "forever" which affirms the enduring

character of Yahweh (see 1.08, supra). This is the picture Jesus drew of God: that is,
155
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 59.
156 Ibid.
157
PARKER, Painfully Clear, 139.
158
GOULDER, Luke, A New Paradigm, 606.
159
Lectionary, exegesis, Luke 15, 1-10 (on-line): www.lectionary.org [22 August 2006].
 48

what God is like. This is the clear message made by Jesus himself as God's envoy: God
delights in the recovery of the lost. 160 The point of the parable is God's incommensurate
joy in the restoration of the one who is lost. The loss of one lost soul breaks God's
heart, who takes the initiative Himself to seek out the sinner - this is the full discovery
of God's grace in Jesus.
God is a "God of justice" as the Hebrew Scriptures teaches, but His "mercy"
reveals that "love is greater than justice" (see 1.08, supra). Jesus takes no pleasure in the
ruin of a sinner (as the Pharisees did) but takes great pleasure in the return of the sinner.
It is not that God does not love the "righteous persons," he will be content with those
who need no repentance (not that there are any), but all must acknowledge that they are
sinners in order to become beneficiaries of His mercy (see 2.01, supra). While God
hates the evil-doers, 161 he is far from being distant, detached or uncaring of sinners. The
worst possible scenario of all is indifference toward the one that has strayed. The
prospect of actually having success in finding the strayed one begins the process of
restoration, it is anticipated. The outcome can only be rejoicing. God's heart is full of
joy when one comes back home, who is saved, who has a change of heart and mind.
God experiences joy at His success of seeking out the lost. It is a communal joy, as God
and the angels of heaven rejoice together - so does the shepherd with his friends and
neighbours. "God, too, knows the joy of finding things that have gone lost." 162 There is
a celebration for every victory, for every person who is in jeopardy and is now rescued.
The parable has verification in Jesus' own ministry (Sitz-im-Leben). The
possibility that a member of the community might go astray, or be misled, is deeply
rooted in the traditions of Israel and the Church. When Jesus associates with the
disreputables, he is actually acting out - by means of an enacted parable - the ways of
God. 163 His association with certain disreputables leads to their repentance. 164 In fact, it
is His will in the end that repentance and forgiveness of sins be preached in His name to
all the nations (Lk 24, 47).
As with the case of the Lost Coin (see 3.05, infra), all initiatives in looking for
the lost sheep or coin come from the shepherd/woman, standing for the heavenly God.
At the third stage of the Gospel formation (when the Church actually wrote the biblical
text), this would have solved a very pertinent and concrete problem that the early

160
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 58.
161
Cf. Ps 26, 5; Is 13, 9; Si 12, 6.
162
BARCLAY, The Daily Bible Study, 201.
163
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 62.
164
Cf. Lk 5, 29-32; 7, 36-50; 17, 11-19; 19, 1-10.
 49

Church was facing: how could the Church obey Jesus' command of going "to all
nations" proclaiming the Gospel when the Law said, "no mixing with the impure,"
whether Gentiles or sinners? Thus Jesus is saying to the Church: "take the initiative as
God himself does in going in search for the lost." Just as the Apostles had to speak to
certain audiences in their preaching and practice of worship, so also the Gospel writers
had to translate the kerygma into the cultural and historical context of the audience for
which it was written.
Since repentance cannot come about in persons merely on the basis of a demand,
it therefore, comes about in many cases as a response to prevenient grace. 165 Jesus'
association with tax collectors and sinners is precisely the enactment of such grace. It is
through God's mercy that grace is demonstrated. "When the one in need of repentance
is not taken by the throat but is set free in the safety and space that grace affords,
repentance has a chance." 166
One in a hundred does not appear to be much of a loss (only one percent), but in
the eyes of God, the loss of a single person is a tragedy. While men may give up hope of
a sinner, it is not so for God. The lost are not to be rejected, but rescued. This is a
distinctive feature of God's love, "his kindness and faithful love pursues us and his
goodness and mercy follows us" (see 1.01, supra). Paradoxically, he saves those who
are undeserving and unworthy, he calls the sinners to enter the Kingdom of God.
This analogy has been made by A. Parker: 167

As it makes economic sense for the shepherd So, does it not make sense, in the terms of the
to leave his flock and give himself entirely kingdom, to respond to the need of someone
to the business of rescuing the animal that in great difficulty, even though it should mean
has great need of him. temporarily abandoning the others?

Jesus, by showing how special treatment is required of an animal getting into difficulty,
shows the special treatment which is provided for those in danger. This is similar to the
concern for safety provided by divine providence, the protection for the beloved
(Hebrew yadfd), (see 1.05, supra). This is precisely God's mercy (Hebrew hanun!hen or
raham/rah"mim) which denotes his compassion, particularly for sinners, for the weak
and for those in need.

165
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 62.
166
Ibid.
167
PARKER, Paiefully Clear, 159.
 50

What Jesus also tries to do in this parable is to open up one's horizon to see the
urgency of seeking the one that has been lost. Since the time is short, the end of time is
approaching and the judgment is near, rescuing the one that has strayed is all the more
urgent. 168 Jesus' redemption is no mass salvation, but is one-to-one, person-to-person.
That was Jesus' mission. Jesus is on a search and rescue mission for each man or
woman in need of salvation; as the two key verbs throughout the three parables indicate

"lost" and "found."

God also shows concern for the righteous ones. He does not leave the ninety-
nine alone, as J. Jeremias stated: "For a shepherd, good management dictates that after
he has left the rest of his flock in a safe place, he must concentrate his attention on the
sheep that is lost, i.e. the one that has serious problems." 169 Thus, by leaving the rest of
the sheep in the desert, "in the wilderness" does not mean that the shepherd did not care

for the other ninety nine. The wilderness is where God had made a place of safety ready,
"a place prepared by God, in which to be nourished ... " (Rv 12, 1-6, 10). A deserted
place (Lk 5, 16) or on the mountain (Lk 6, 12) is a place were Jesus shares a time of
prayer and intimacy with God. It has connotations of the Old Testament; the emptiness,
the chaos, "was transformed into creation" (Gn 1, 1-31). It is a place where God enters
into the desolation, the emptiness of the soul, to restore humanity.

3.05 Reading the doublet of the Lost Coin -Lk 15, 8-10
In Luke, the stories about man are often paralleled by stories about woman. These
parallels generally occur in the exclusively Lucan material. 170 W. Bussman stated:
"Luke has the greatest number of doublets of all the Synoptics." 171 Luke builds his work
on the principle of pairs or triplets (as seen by these three parables). 172 Repetition has an
intensifying effect, 173 which is designed to deepen engagement with the fundamental
matters of faith and life.
Luke's parallel stories offer a dual witness to his interpretation of the Kingdom
of Heaven. According to H. Flender, Luke expresses by this arrangement that man and

168
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 56.
169
JOACHIM JEREMIAS, The Parables ofJesus, London 1972, 186-187.
17oCf. Lk 2, 25-38; 4, 25-28; 7, 1-17; 10, 29-42; 13, 18-21; 18, 1-14; 23, 50-55.
171
W. BUSSMANN, Synoptische Studien, I, Halle 1925, 57, quoted in NAVONE, 228.
172
BARTON, quoted in The Challenge ofJesus' Parables, 207.
173
Ibid.
 51

woman stand together and side by side before God. 174 They stand together in witnessing
to the truth of Christ. Luke's use brings out the universalism of God's merciful salvation
to both man and woman. They are equal in honour and grace, "all one in Christ Jesus"
(Ga 3, 28; cf. Gn 1, 27). Complementary Lucan parallelisms contain a certain word-
character which possesses a relevance which is both masculine and feminine.
While the source of the Lost Sheep is taken from the tradition shared with
Matthew (18, 12-14), the Lost Coin is Luke's own creation. 175 Luke's aim by adding
from his special "L" material this "twin" parable is to demonstrate another distinctive

feature of God, the maternal aspect of God's nature. The protagonist of the first parable
was a shepherd, but now the protagonist is a woman. Luke makes a remarkable
comparison; he now depicts a woman in the image of God, showing a mother's love as
a facet of God's nature, as seen in this doublet:

8 4
"Or what woman, having ten silver coins, "What man of you, having a hundred sheep,
if she loses one coin, does not light a lamp if he has lost one of them, does not leave the
and sweep the house and seek diligently ninety-nine in the wilderness, and go after the
one which is lost,
until she finds it? until he finds it?
9 5
And when she has found it, And when he has found it, he lays it on his
shoulders, rejoicing.
6
And when he comes home,
she calls together her friends and neighbours, he calls together his friends and his neighbours,
saying, "Rejoice with me, for I have saying to them, "Rejoice with me, for I have
found the coin which I had lost. " found my sheep which was lost."
10 7
Just so, I tell you, there is joy before Just so, I tell you, there will be more joy in
the angels of God over one sinner who repents". heaven over one sinner who repents
than over ninety-nine righteous persons who
need no repentance".

This parable also expresses the attitude of complete willingness to use all means, time
and strength, and life, for saving at the crucial moment (see 2.02, supra) as in the Lost
Sheep. Nevertheless, the loss of one sheep, even from a flock of a hundred, would never
have been considered a small matter, were it not for the companion parable of the lost
coin. 176 The coin in question was a silver drachma, which does not sound like a lot of

174
HELMUT FLENDER, St. Luke Theologian of Redemptive History, translated by R. & I. Fuller, London
1967, 10, quoted in NAVONE, Themes ofSt. Luke, Rome 1970, 225.
175
GOULDER, Luke, A New Paradigm, 604.
176
PARKER, Painfully Clear, 137.
 52

money, but it was more than a day's wage. It may have stood between food and real
hunger, as the Palestinians lived on the margins of life. The continuous search to find
the coin, the length of time spent lighting "wick after wick" and the urgent action of

sweeping done by the woman, presupposes the loving action of a mother's concern for a
beloved child.
The intensity of the search may have been to feed the family. It may also have
been an heirloom. The mark of a married woman was a head-dress made of ten silver
coins linked together by a silver chain. The head-dress was almost the equivalent of her
wedding ring. So the search was as intense as she would search for a lost marriage ring.
It is a common experience to us all that when we lose a personal possession it suddenly
becomes very precious - much more so than before we lost it. We exteriorise this
amplification of our feelings by behaving extravagantly. 177 First displaying a quite
unusual concern for what is lost and then giving displays of joy and relief when we find
it. So, the thrust of this story is that you can only appreciate the woman's extravagant
behaviour, her exaggerated rejoicing by seeing it in the light of her loss.
Luke makes a further response to Jesus' critics who were mocking him for the
inordinate amount of time and effort he expended to searching out people of apparently
little account. Jesus was seen devoting himself entirely to the needs of some worthless
individuals. They were questioning his disproportionate expressions of joy at their
smallest responses. 178 Luke was probably right to link the parables with the accusation
that Jesus was associating too freely with sinners. "Should one not be usually concerned
about people who are lost and inordinately joyful when they react?" 179 This was Jesus'
novel and pioneering message which went against the Talmudic teaching, against the
"good men" whose concern for obedience to God's law blinded them to God's love for

the ones in need.

The woman's extravagant concern with the loss of the drachma, one out of ten
silver coins of a head-dress (one percent again), is a mirror image of God's intimate love
and joy over one repentant sinner, similar to a mother's love for her offspring (see 1.09,
supra). In both the parables, the endurance of hesed tends to identify itself with God
Himself. The hesed of Yahweh is the key to the understanding of His character (see
1.08, supra). God's saving mercy is not only limited to the "righteous," but the Good

177
PARKER, Painfully Clear, 137.
178
Ibid., 140.
179
PARKER, Painfully Clear, 140.
 53

News of salvation is for all people. God's grace is freely available to all who will
receive it. Jesus' purpose of the parable was redemption, through His saving work.
These two parables support Jesus' statement of self-identity: "For the Son of man came
to seek and to save the lost" (19, 10).
The translation of €vui1Ttov before (v. 10), "in his presence" corresponds to the
expression "in heaven" (v. 7). It serves to avoid the portrayal of the angels as being
simply observers (as "before" can connote) or limiting the rejoicing to the angels alone,
(as "among" can connote). 180 God rejoices and even all the angels rejoice when one
sinner is lost and found, when he comes home. The whole company of heaven is meant.

3.06 Conclusion
Luke's expansiveness becomes evident with the use of this doublet, bringing out further
the loving attitude and merciful character of God when dealing with the lost. Through
the image of the shepherd, Luke demonstrates the care and concern of God for each one
of his flock, similarly through the woman's search for the lost coin, he demonstrates an
even stronger relationship, the powerful love of a mother for her child, as a
characteristic of God's mercy.
The change of scenery in this story must be noted, as a more secluded space, a
woman pursuing her work in a house, is now paired with the shepherd's story depicted
out in the open space, pursuing his occupation in the country. Luke's intention is to
bring out the joy of a home, when one who is lost returns to the Father's house, as in
"salvation has come to this house" (19, 9). It is like the coin that has stood between food
and starvation, between life and death.
Luke's aim is to demonstrate God's joy at salvation as a distinctive feature of the
"mercy" of God. It is compared to the joy of a woman who loses her most precious
possession and then finds it again. This is the one absolutely new thing that Jesus taught
men about the "mercy" of God - that is, He actually searches for each man and woman
in need of salvation. It is not the sinner who earns "mercy," but "mercy" has already
come to him as a gratuitous and overflowing gift of God's love. God, who is the
initiator, lovingly forgives the sinner, and once the sinner is returned to the fold, God's
joy cannot be contained. When the "lost" is "found" (vv. 9.6), He rejoices with all the
community in heaven as on earth. He calls together friends and neighbours as an
invitation to joy for all.
180
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 63.
 Chapter Four

The parable of the Prodigal Son - Lk 15, 11-32

4.01 Introduction
Luke has seen a way of making this parable his masterpiece, a literary gem, through the
centrality of the theme "mercy" and "joy" wherein God's "forgiveness of sins" becomes
more thematic than in the previous two parables. Forgiveness is Luke's characteristic
word for the content of salvation. 181 Luke's concern is with the salvation established by
the work of Jesus as an experience available to men. 182 As the aspect of God's hesed
"mercy" is a specific action (see 1.11, supra) and not just a word, Luke demonstrates
God's merciful activity without actually the need of mentioning the word €A.€o~ "mercy."

G.V. Jones sums it up when he showed that the parable expresses universal truths of
human experience and offers an existential interpretation in terms of freedom and
estrangement, the personalness of life, longing and return, anguish and reconciliation. 183
The theme of the parable is drawn from contemporary experience; every time we
experience love, we experience the life to come of glorification.

181
MARSHALL, Luke Historian & Theologian, Downers Grove/IL 1988, 169.
182
Ibid., 19.
183
G.V. JONES, quoted in MARSHALL, The Gospel ofLuke, A Commentary on the Greek Text(= NIGTC),
605.
 55

The Good News of Jesus is about the change of direction that starts from the
inside (see 4.03, v. 17, infra), from that reality we call sin, the disruption of that reality
experienced by guilt (v. 18). Humanity is by its nature sinful, by mankind's first sin the
divine image was disfigured in man - only the light of divine revelation clarifies the
reality of sin. First and foremost one must recognise the profound relation of man to
God, for only in this relationship is the evil of sin unmasked in its true identity as
humanity's rejection of God and opposition to him. 184 The exclusion of God, rupture
with God, disobedience to God is sin. It can go as far as a very denial of God and his
existence. It is the disobedience of a person who, by a free act, does not acknowledge
God's sovereignty over his or her life, at least at that particular moment in which he or
she transgresses God's law.
Without the knowledge revelation gives of God, we cannot recognise sin clearly
and are tempted to explain it as flaw, a weakness, a mistake, or the necessary
consequence of an inadequate social structure. 185 God created man a rational being,
conferring on him the dignity of a person who can initiate and control his own action,
"left in the hand of his own counsel" so that he might of his own accord seek his Creator
and freely attain his fully and blessed perfection by cleaving to him. 186 Like God, man is
created with a free will and master over his acts, so "temptations to sin are sure to
come" (Lk 17, 1). This reality of sin is present in human history, as evident in the past
history of Israel's unfaithfulness to the covenant of God. 187 In the Prodigal Son we
discover Jesus' clear teaching on the meaning of sin, when the younger son distances
himself from the Father's house taking his inheritance, and when the elder son refers to
his Father as an employer: "I have served you," thus the father lacked a loving
relationship with both of his beloved children, begotten by Him.
Luke's three parables reveal the "mercy" of God made possible to us through
Jesus Christ, whose forgiveness from sin reconnects us to God, a conversion as a
response to God's call to joy and happiness. Although salvation is the gift of God the
Father, 188 it is clearly linked with Jesus, the only Saviour; only through Him may men
receive salvation (Ac 4, 12). 189 Christ enters and renews the heart which leads to lasting
peace. The person of Jesus lies at the centre of the Christian message of salvation. To

184
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Catechism ofthe Catholic Church, London 1994, 386.
185
Ibid., 387.
186
Ibid., 388.
187
Cf. Ps 107, 17; Is 1, 4; Ezk 23, 49; Am 9, 8.
188
Cf. Ac 2, 39; 5, 32; 11, 18.
189
MARSHALL, Luke Historian & Theologian, 169.
 56

respond to God's calling (rightly and properly), means that we do not lose sight of our
eternal destination otherwise we lose sight of our Christian mission in the world.
Luke uses his own stylistic form and distinctive views, taking tradition from his
sources, which shows that he regarded tradition as important. His work does not
constitute a basic alteration of the theology of the early Church, but rather he has
performed a vital service in re-reading it for his own contemporaries - and for us. 190
Luke's two-dimensional discourses (vv. 21.31), create participation and illustrate
familial relationships.
The narrative changes its focus from one lost sheep or one lost coin to a lost son,
a human being. Luke portrays God's merciful forgiveness for each individual, by the
love of the father for both of his wayward children. 191 That God's mercy is "plenteous
redemption" (see 1.01, supra) is brought out as the attitude of God when dealing with
the lost. Redemption is restoration of the fallen creature, from a ruptured relationship, as
someone called back by God to the glorified state, by God's desire to embrace our
brokenness. Luke's aim is to illustrate the pardoning love of God, active as creator. His
divine presence as a re-creative presence, that gives new life and restores mankind to
the wholeness that was his when first created. Now forgiveness is Luke's characteristic
word for the content of salvation. 192 All are sinners, in need of salvation, in need of
redemption. God's forgiveness is present in the figure of Jesus, through the salvific
action of his death and resurrection. Thus Salvation is closely bound up with the person
of Jesus. 193 It is precisely because he is Christ that He can forgive sins.

4.02 The socio-cultural context

The socio-cultural backdrop is necessary to understand Jesus' teaching in this parable.
In the ancient Mediterranean, peasants were not individualistic people. Their
psychological centre was not the isolated ego but the family. They were "dyadic"
persons, who lived out the expectations of others. 19 ~ The family members are deeply
embedded in each other socially, economically and psychologically. This type of tightly

190
MARSHALL, Commentary, 20.
191
A theme already developed in the Old Testament, cf. Jr 3, 22. G. Quell notes how the backsliding
Israelites are summoned to return to God as to a Father, and "in Jr 31, 18-20, where the sons of
Ephraim are now the son, one may clearly perceive the origin of the parable of the prodigal," cf. Ho
11, 1-9; Is 63, 15f, in MARSHALL, Commentary, 604.
192
MARSHALL, Luke Historian & Theologian, 169.
193
Ibid.
194
RICHARD L. ROHRBAUGH, A Dysfunctional Family and Its Neighbours, (Luke 15: llb-32), The
Parable of the Prodigal Son, quoted in Jesus and His Parables, Interpreting the Parables of Jesus
Today, edited by V. George Shillington, Edinburgh 1997, 145.
 57

knitted circle of family and friends developed deeply felt community attachments. They
could hardly manage without calling on neighbours for economic and social support. 195
It was almost impossible for an individual to live isolated, thus going to a "far country"
where one was a stranger, was not such a good idea as the prodigal son soon found out.
Moreover, the story of sibling rivalry is especially strong in the tradition of
Israel. Fraternal rivalries were a serious risk to the family unit and a peasant's emotional
attachment to the land remained significant. "The land and the peasant are parts of one
thing, one old-established body of relationship." 196 Thus land is life to a peasant, so
every effort is made to keep it within the family. The story ofNaboth and Ahab, king of
Samaria (1 K 21, 1-3) brings this clearly to light. Naboth refuses to give his vineyard to
the king, his vineyard had a value beyond money, it was his father's inheritance;
inheritance linked him to his family; his family to his tribe; his tribe to his people; his
people to its God, Yahweh. Expulsion from the land was not only an economic disaster
but also a social one. It meant loss of honour, broken survival networks, and the
disintegration of the family unit. Since the land was indeed split in Israel, 197 networked
nuclear families are thus to be expected, and that is the pattern we see in the parable of
the Prodigal Son.
Luke demonstrates that the prodigal son's squandering of his father's inheritance
is not merely a private affair, individual sin leads to a darkening of the social fabric. His
personal dissipation also participates in larger societal vices, as "in loose living" (Lk 15,
13.30). Hence, much more is at stake here than losing and gaining an errant son. The
well-being of an entire family is also at stake. Its honour and place in the village, its
social and economic networks, are all an issue. By losing its "place" in society, the

family would be excluded from the necessary solidarity with neighbours, thus even its
ability to call on neighbours in time of need is lost.
Furthermore, this parable does not only bring to light the "sin" of one wayward
son, but rather of two errant sons. It is significant to note that when Luke says "a man
who had two sons" (v. 11), describing the Father as God, he is implying that the Father
is lacking two sons. When the younger son abandoned the Father, he no longer had a
filial relationship with him, so he lacked being a true son. This was similar in the case of
the elder son, "doing things perfectly for his father but not being a true son," made the
195
The Social Life of Peasants, Peasant Society: A Reader, editors Jack M. Potter, May N. Diaz and
George M. Foster, Boston 1967, 156.
196
ROBERT REDFIELD, Peasant Society and Culture, Chicago 1956, 28, quoted in Jesus and His Parables,
148.
197
Cf. Dt21, 17.
 58

Father a man who also lacked the elder son. Therefore, the Father could not be a Father
to either of them and they could not be called true sons of the Father. They were both
depriving themselves from their true identity as being sons begotten by the Father.

4.03 The structure of the text

This is the longest parable in the Gospels, divided into three parts, while maintaining a
unity:
[1] The departure of the younger son from his father to a far country where he is
wasteful and eventually in want (Lk 15, 11-19).
[2] The homecoming of the son and his welcome by the father (Lk 15, 20-24).
[3] The episode between the father and the elder brother (Lk 15, 25-32).

God's compassion is one of the main facets of the "mercy" of God, as emphasised by
Luke's repeated statement, "I have sinned against heaven and before you" (vv. 18.21),
which serves as an inclusion to the statement "the father saw him and had compassion"
(v. 20), underscoring the Father's (T!Tlayzv{(oµat "compassion." Another important
aspect of the "mercy" of God is highlighted by the difference in the ending of the
repeated verses (vv. 18.21). When the younger son begins to repeat the words (v. 21) of
his pre-determined confession (v. 18-19), the Father's immediate interruption of the
son's prepared speech (v. 21), highlights the theme of the Father who desires to regain a
"son" and not a "servant." This indicates the restoration of his freedom to regain his
dignity as a true child of God.
The reason for Luke's centrality of this verse, found at the very heart of this
parable, becomes evident when the verb (TITJ.ayzv{(oµat becomes solely and simply an
attribute of the divine dealings (see 2.02, supra). Luke's use of the catchwords
"lost/found" link the three parables together, highlighting the theme of conversion. The
paraphrasing repeated in vv. 24 and 32 of: "my son was dead, and is alive again; he was
lost, and is found," therefore, "it was fitting to make merry and be glad," puts the
emphasis on God's incommensurate joy of salvation, it is a great event, an invitation to
be merry, a theme that runs through all the three parables (vv. 6. 9.32).
 59

4.04 Reading of the parable of the Prodigal Son

Lk 15, 11: "And he said, 'There was a man who had two sons."' At the very beginning
one sees that this parable is not at all about the prodigal son, who does not appear till
after v. 24, but about the father, the protagonist (the subject of the verb), "who had two
sons." As in the previous parables the protagonist was depicted as God, now the father
is represented as the image of God. With the tradition in mind, Luke's opening line
evokes the two-brother stories taken from the Jewish Scriptures in which the younger is
victorious over the older one. 198 The "young brother" motif is prevalent in the Old
Testament 199 which continued long past New Testament times. A family with two sons
was considered a blessing, as they were an economic asset and considered a gift from
°
God. 20 Keeping sons together over marriage and inheritance was difficult but desirable.
Lk 15, 12: "and the younger of them said to his father, 'Father, give me the share
of property that falls to me.' And he divided his living between them." This is the first
out of four instances of the verb o{&vµt "to give." The father grants the son his wish, to
<56i; "give him" his inheritance, that portion of the property that is indebted to him, that

bnfJaUov "falls to him." Therefore, the younger son sees his inheritance as something

due to him and not as freely given by his father. Acquiring an anticipated inheritance
before his father's death meant that the son wished his father dead. 201
Paradoxically, the father divides "all his living" among the two sons, which he
was not obliged to do and was not the norm. 202 According to K. Bailey it is also highly
unusual in the light of the father's right to the usufruct, 203 but the legalities of
inheritance here are secondary to the story. The paradox of the story is that, the father
who does not wait is a fool, thereby destroying his own honour and authority. 204 A
further paradox is that granting his possession and disposition of the property meant
everything he possessed, "all his means of livelihood," since the word ovola "property"
is synonymous with the term fJ{oi; "living." A double portion of the real estate would go

198
Cf. Gn 25, 27-34; 27, 1-45; 37, 1-4.
199
Jesus and His Parables, footnote, 147.
200
BRUCE J. MALINA, The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology, Louisville/KY
3
2001, 108, as quoted in Jesus and His Parables, 150.
201
It is interesting how the first-century Roman poet Ovid counts among the "disloyal" any brother with
an excessive interest in inheriting the property, that is, "anyone who thinks his father is still too much
alive," quoted in Jesus and His Parables, 145.
202
Cf. Si 33, 19-24.
203
KENNETH E. BAILEY, Poet and Peasant: A Literary Cultural Approach to the Parables in Luke, Grand
Rapids/MI 1976, 166.
204
HULTGREN, 74
 60

to the elder brother and the younger would receive one-third. Like the other two
parables, this parable portrays things on a grand scale.
Lk 15, 13: "Not many days later, the younger son gathered all he had and took
his journey into a far country, and there he squandered his property in loose living." The
younger son's departure "not many days later" (similarly Ac 1, 5) was scandalous. A
son was expected to stay at home to maintain his father in his old age. By leaving his
father's house, he rejected the duty of a son to honour his father and mother, as spelled
out in the Decalogue. 205 Therefore, going away implied not only a geographical but also
a psychological distancing of the son from his father, as well as from his brother and the
whole community. The younger son was expected to marry within the village and form
a new nuclear family, so that the land would remain in the family and maintain all the
needed networks, 206 so the hopes and fears surrounding such a venture would have been
well known to Jesus' hearers.
The phrase awayayu)v TTavra "gathered all" signifies that his share of the land is
also included. The younger son gained the right to the capital, but since the father
retained the usufruct, he could not dispose of the property. Nevertheless, realizing his
assets, "after converting 'everything' [he had] into cash,"207 he ignored any moral claim
that his father might have on the property and also deprived himself of any further
claims on the father's estate. 208 A "far country" meant outside Palestine, 209 a country
populated mainly by Gentiles. Many Jews did leave their homeland (the diaspora) for
the money-making possibilities of the big cities, but the son's motive was different, as
his life is described as dauirw~ "dissipated" or "wild and disorderly." Whether immoral,

is not clear from the Greek term used (as implied later by the elder brother).
Lk 15, 14: "And when he had spent everything, a great famine arose in that
country, and he began to be in want." The result of the younger son's venture was the
loss of "all" his cash and property. Factors beyond his control took place, as a great
famine "began" the process of being "in want." A sinful state is a wasteful state, it
destroys the gifts of Providence, which are not our own but are "the Lord's goods that
the sinner wastes." 210 The woeful "want" represents the miserable state of the sinner,

205
Cf. Ex 20, 12; Dt 5, 16.
206
Jesus and His Parables, 152-153.
207
HULTGREN, 71.
208
MARSHALL, Commentary, 607.
209
Cf. Lk 19, 12.
210
HENRY MARSHALL, Commentary on Luke Chap. XV, in Bible Works 7.
 61

which is the result of the dry and barren state that begins the process of perishing, a
starvation, a "famine" that leads to death.
Lk 15, 15: "So he went and joined himself to one of the citizens of that country,
who sent him into his fields to feed swine." In traditional studies of the parable, the
climax of the story is that the boy became a swineherd. The degradation involved in a
Jewish person feeding swine is significant but it is equally important to notice that he
hired himself, €Ko:l:t1fB17 "joined himself' to a local citizen. Since ancient citizenship
was normally in a city and this citizen is a landowner capable of hiring wage labourers,
we can assume he was among the elite, thus a Gentile who raises pigs and swine. In
time of trouble, help comes from the largesse of patrons who broker resources to the
peasant class. 211 The younger son knows the system and seeks the aid of a local patron.
At this point, his status is that of an indentured servant,212 a status above that of a slave,
but still one that bound him by contract to work as a general labourer for his employer.
Furthermore, pigs were unclean animals in the law and tradition, 213 thus feeding pigs
was the worst kind of degradation. This was the predicament of the son. A further
description is worth quoting (the italics are a personal emphasis):

The emotional dependence of the peasant on the city presents an especially poignant case.
Peasants throughout history have admired the city and have copied many of the elements they
have observed there. The city, with its glitter and opportunity, holds a fascination, like a candle
for a moth. But at the same time, and for good cause, peasants hate and fear cities and the city
dwellers who exercise control over them. Since time immemorial city people have alternately
ridiculed, ignored, or exploited local country people, on whom they depend for food, for taxes,
for military conscripts, for labour levies, and for market sales. Peasants know they need the city,
an outlet for their surplus production and as the source of many material and nonmaterial items
they cannot themselves produce. Yet they recognize that the city is a source of their helplessness
and humiliation, and in spite of patrons half trusted, the peasant knows he can never really count
on a city man. 214

Lk 15, 16: "And he would gladly have fed on the pods that the swine ate; and no one
gave him anything." The wish of the son to be fed on the K€pana "pods," (a carob pod)
used as fodder for the pigs, that is, actually being envious of the pigs and being refused,
is even more degradmg and humiliating than the act of feeding the pigs itself. Luke puts
emphasis on the helplessness of the son's situation, M'u5ov "no one gave him anything,"
is the second use of the verb "to give," taking centre place of the first part of this parable
(Lkl 1-19). A sinful state is a state which cannot expect relief from any creature. 215

211
Jesus and His Parables, 154.
212
Cf. J.A. HARRILL, The Indentured Labor ofthe Prodigal son, 714-717, quoted in HULTGREN, 75.
213
Cf. Lv 11, 7; Dt 14, 8; cf. Is 65, 4; 66, 17; 1M1, 47; cf. 2 M 6, 18; 7, 1.
214
HULTGREN, 75.
215
MARSHALL, Bible Works 7.
 62

Lk 15, 17: "But when he came to himself he said, 'How many of my father's
hired servants have bread enough and to spare, but I perish here with hunger!"' With the
paraphrase "came to himself'' dr; €avrov t5€ €A.fJcJv Luke meant, that he "came to his
senses" from a state of misery and destitution. Most likely not from a "sense of sin" that
might have led to repentance. The fact that Luke did not use the word µETavoux
"repentance," a word he uses in noun and verb form twenty-five times in Luke-Acts,216
means that his emphasis is not on the repentance of the son, but more on the way the
father deals with the lost son. The younger son's return seems motivated primarily by
his stomach, and that initially he is more inclined to work his way back into the family
circle rather than depend on divine grace or family generosity. 217 He sought to get
himself out of his terrible situation by going back home, to regain his father's favour.
He comes to the realisation of his foolishness, trying to work it out on his own, away
from his father's house. Hence, coming to one's senses is the prelude to repentance,
even though not repentance itself. 218 St. Augustine, no stranger to the concept of
repentance, wrote that the young man had "gone away from himself' and now "he
[returned] to himself' (his prior state). 219 Augustine rightly points out that when the
younger son had gone away from his Father, the one who begot him into his existence
as son, he was actually going away from his very self. The prodigal son begins to see
himself and his actions in their full truth. 220
The son now recalls that his father's µ{afJwt "hired servants" have food in
abundance. The term "hired servant" meant becoming a day labourer which would be
moving down the social scale from being an indentured servant (which offered some
security) to being a servant without any assurance of ongoing employment. 221 Here we
see the horrible plight of the son's state, his willingness to become a day labourer which
implies that he would have a status lower, not only than that of sonship, but even lower
than that of a slave, of a oovA.or;servant of the household (v. 22) and of a worker of the
no:i&, fonn (v. 26). He is evidently heading for death, expressed by 1br6A.A.vµtxt "I am

perishing." It anticipates the father's statements that "his son was dead" (vv. 24, 32). It

216
HULTGREN, 76.
217
BAILEY, Poet and Peasant, 173-180.
218
HULTGREN, 76.
219
AUGUSTINE, Sermon 46, NPNF 6:409, quoted in HULTGREN, 76.
220
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Dives in Misericordia, Part IV, 6.
221
HULTGREN, 77.
 63

is only when he is received back to his father's house that he will know his father as the
gracious person he really is - and himself as a son again. 222
When Luke writes "my father's hired servants have bread," his listeners have
only spoken of the manna eaten by their ancestors, the food Israel was sustained with
during the forty years in the wilderness (Ex 16, 31-35). 223 This reference to the Mosaic
miracle sets the promise of the Eucharist, one bread, one body, one Lord for all, over
and against the manna. Jesus was anticipating the breaking of bread at the Last Supper,
His self-giving in the Eucharist, the nourishment needed not to perish, but as the source
of eternal life. This is the great merciful love God has for us, through the sacramental
bread he found a way of sustaining us, through Jesus who remains with us in the
Eucharist.
Lk 15, 18-19: "I will arise and go to my father, and I will say to him, 'Father, I
have sinned against heaven and before you; I am no longer worthy to be called your
son; treat me as one of your hired servants."' The son rehearses his homecoming speech
by using the language of repentance, as recalled in the Hebrew tradition. 224 I have
sinned "against heaven" meaning "against God," since the term "heaven" is
occasionally a pious circumlocution for "God". 225 The young man's sin, according to
modern interpreters, might have been with his way of life, when the elder son speaks of
the younger brother's devouring "your property" (v. 30) which was to maintain the
father beyond his working years when he turns the farm over to his sons,226 but ancient
storytellers think that most likely the sin was his insolence in not providing for his
father in old age, against the commandment requirement. 227 But an analysis of the
repeated statement by the younger son in v. 21, which was interrupted by the father who
wants to regain a "son" and not a servant, clearly reveals that the younger son's greatest
sin was cutting himself completely from the source of his own life; his Father, thus from
being a child of God.
Having left his family, abandoned his religious heritage, lost his integrity and
now with his life threatened, like many who come to the point of despair, he wants to
reunite with his injured family members. So he practices his soliloquy - hoping to find

222
HULTGREN, 77.
223
MAURICE EMINYAN, in The Sunday Times (Malta 13 August 2006), Religion 19.
224
Cf. Ex 10 16; Ps 51, 6 (LXX).
225
Cf. Dn 4, 26; IM 3, 18; Mt 21, 25; Lk 15, 7.
226
HULTGREN, 77.
227 Ibid.
 64

the right words to achieve his goal, his father's favour. Soliloquy 228 is an important
literary genre, "the other with whom we converse," that is, listening to the soul. It is the
return to "myself'' that takes place, in and through dialogue with God and with my inner

self. The son plans a threefold statement to his father, expecting punishment: A
confession of guilt - "I have sinned," admitting his destruction of the father-son
relationship - "no longer worthy to be called your son" and a resolution of the father's
plight - "treat me ... " but the father's way of dealing with him is very different to the
norm.
Lk 15, 20: "And he arose and came to his father. But while he was yet at a
distance, his father saw him and had compassion, and ran and embraced him and kissed
him." This scene is portrayed as highly emotional. At the very heart of the whole
parable the father's mrA.ayzv{(oµat (visceral as heart), is characterised as God's heart-
felt compassion. God's eyes of "mercy" are quick-sighted, constantly seeing and
searching, just as the father who gazes his eyes on the prodigal son still at a distance.
Here we see the bowels of "mercy," those bowels turning within him, at the sight of the
son returning home, as his heart is filled with love, he is "moved" by compassion.
Compassion is a response to anguish, to suffering, thus "he had compassion"
€o"TTAayzv{oB17 describes the father's otKrtpµo~ pity, "in the sense both of mere feeling
and of active merciful action" (see 2.01, supra), that goes out to his son who is in
"want." This indicates a genuine emotional state, otKrtpµo~ an exclamation of pity at
the sight of another's misfortune (see 2.01, supra). The father "saw" the degrading
condition the son found himself in, and "had compassion" for him. The father's
o7TA.ayzv{(oµat is the compassion that arises from the depth of feeling, total absorption,
an all-encompassing inner sense or reaction, which "constitutes an interior necessity, an
exigency of the heart" (see 1.09, supra).
The centrality of the term o7TAayzv{(oµat has already been noted by the use of
Luke's inclusion (see 4.03, supra). While it only occurs a dozen times in the Gospels
and apart from its use here, and in two other parables (Lk 10, 33; Mt 18, 27), it always
expresses the divine compassion revealed by Jesus, hence also here the father's
compassion reflects divine compassion. It is similar to rehem ''the deep bond and unity
that links a mother to her child, from which springs a particular love, a particular
relationship to the child" (see 1.09, supra). It denotes the affection and love of a mother,
as an active love. Thus there also springs from the father's heart the tenderness of a

228
The term from Late Latin "soli/oquim" was coined by St. Augustine.
 65

mother's love, that affection that arises from the relationship of arrA.dyzvalrehem, (in its
original meaning mother's womb, the maternal bowels), that close link of a mother with
her offspring. There can be no closer relationship than this. On seeing his son the father
immediately linked to him, being the fruit of his begetting. This maternal love,
rah'mimlarrA.dyxva becomes synonymous with hesed/€A.co~, a heart-felt mercy which
generates a whole range of feelings (rah'mim), "goodness and tenderness, patience and
understanding - a readiness to forgive" (see 1.09, supra).
Here the Fatherhood of God is described as the mysterious power of
motherhood, which depicts even better the mysterious love of God. It is like the
extraordinary love of a mother, who is always ready to forgive any one of her children.
The Father, with the instinctive love of a mother, who wants to protect and save her
children from any form of danger, is always ready to embrace an errant child who
returns home. We find these two images of a man and woman also in H.J.M. Nouwen's
book The Return of the Prodigal Son. He who points out that in Rembrandt van Rijn's
painting, the left hand of the father is masculine, putting pressure on the shoulders of the
kneeling son, to show him he is now secure in his father's house, reassuring him of his
love, while the left hand is of a woman, depicted as a mother's delicate hand, offering
the kind of forgiveness and love that only a mother knows how to give. 229 Could this be
why Luke did not include the mother in this parable, when he so often included women
in his stories? It seems Luke wanted to emphasis the maternal love of the Father for
each one of his beloved children begotten by Him, as another facet of the "mercy" of
God.
Paradoxically the father, an elderly, oriental gentleman, breaks with all normal
custom and decorum, when upon seeing his son returning, he "runs" immediately to
meet him without even waiting for him to arrive home. According to tradition, the
"way" a man walks "shows what he is" (Si 19, 30; cf. 2 S 18, 27). A dignified man does
not nm. 230 Even in a Gentile Greco-Roman context, a "proud man" makes slow stcp. 231
The father's undignified behaviour therefore demonstrates the extent of the Father's
faithful love, who knows no boundaries and which cannot fail in the light of a repentant
sinner. The initiative of the father is a comparison to God's freely given grace, which
initiates conversion.

229
PAUL SCIBERRAS, Quddiem 'The Return of the Prodigal Son' ta' Rembrandt van Rijn, in lnqum u
mmur ghand Missieri, Malta 2001, 6.
230
HULTGREN, 78.
231
ARISTOTLE, Nichomacheon Ethics, 4.3.1125.10.10-15; quoted in KENNETH BAILEY, Finding the Lost:
Cultural Keys to Luke 15, St. Louis/MO 1992, 144.
 66

The father has been waiting patiently for this moment, with the same longing of
a mother for the return of a lost son. Yet "at a distance" the father sees the son, denoting
the constant watch for his son's return, always looking out, desiring his come-back. This
denotes the father's endured anguish and heartache at the abandonment of his son, so
having lacked his son he embraces and kisses him, as a sign of forgiveness for his
transgression. The extraordinary actions of the father, the extent he is prepared to
belittling himself in this humiliating fashion for the sake of the lost son, the enduring
love and merciful action of the father, is the extent of God's hesed.
Contrary to the Jewish mentality, the proper response would be to let the son
arrive home, fall to his knees and ask for forgiveness or even meting out a punishment
by stoning. Paradoxically the father acts in an abnormal manner. Not hearing what the
son might have to say, with a heart full of mercy he forgives him, "with an embracing
benevolence, with a will to do good to another rather than evil" (see 1.08, supra). It is
not exactly "love" or "kindness" but the goodness of the heart from which love and
kindness arise, thus the meaning of hesed may stretch from "loyalty" to a covenant to
"kindliness," "mercy" and "pity" (see 1.08, supra).
Lk 15, 21: "And the son said to him, 'Father, I have sinned against heaven and
before you; I am no longer worthy to be called your son."' The younger son starts to
repeat (v. 19) his pre-determined confession, but before he can complete what he
intends to say, his father interrupts him, not letting the son get in the last line "treat me
as one of your hired servants" (v. 19b). The son, who has recognised that his
transgressions are of a religious nature "I have sinned against heaven," makes an
admission, it is a confession that he has sinned against God. But the Father has heard
enough and without reprimand or anger, he pardons all transgressions. Of greatest
importance to the father is that his son has returned to him, who welcomes him back not
as a slave but as a son, to be part of His family, an heir to heavenly kingdom. An
import:mt 11spect of the "mercy" of God is that the Father wants to regain the
relationship he had with his son, as a beloved child of His, begotten by the Him. He
rejects the son's wish to become a hired servant in his Father's house, thus restores the
relationship from employer/servant to Sonship/Fatherhood.
Now the repentant younger son is fully restored to a personal relationship with
the father, which is precisely how God deals with the sinners. At the first cry of
repentance, "Abba! Father! I confess," God is moved to commiseration when they cry
out for help to Him from the depths of their misery (see 1.08, supra). God takes pity,
 67

showing mercy as sympathy for the sinner, thus "moved with compassion" he forgives
sin without hesitation. The Father knows the sorrows and misery of each one of his lost
children, by liberating and healing all transgressions, he restores them as sons and
daughters, as His adoptive children. As Paul exhorts: "but you have received the spirit
of sonship ... that we are children, then heirs - heirs of God and co-heirs with Christ
... " (Rm 8, 17). Luke demonstrates God's eschatological act in salvation history is in
Christ (see 2.01, supra). Paul encompasses God's saving wisdom:

When the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son ... to ransom those under the law, so that
we might receive adoption as sons. As proof that you are sons, God sent the Spirit of his Son into
our hearts, crying out, "Abba! Father!" So, through God you are no longer a slave but a son, and
if a son then also an heir (Ga 4, 4-7).

Lk 15, 22: "But the father said to his servants, 'Bring quickly the best robe, and put it on
him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet;"' The father issues a set of
commands (in the imperative) to his servants, which shows the nature of the welcome
he gives to his lost son. Jesus shows how eager God is to receive back those who have
wandered off from an intimate relationship, a friendship with Him. Luke highlights the
importance of the gifts given by the father, by placing this verse at the centre of the
second part of the parable (vv. 20-24).
The first item is the finest "robe" owA.T,v rT,v 7rpu5r17v (literally "the most
prominent robe or first robe"). J. Jeremias explains that when a sultan wanted to honour
one of his officials, he would present him with an expensive robe. 232 The investiture of
this robe was a sign of a new era, which he compares to the episode in Gn 41, 42.233
Two significances can be given to the expression the "best" robe, which are, either the
best robe the father possessed or else that it was the robe the younger son possessed
before he left home. K.H. Rengstorfs interpretation is that the robe was the "former"
garment the son wore before he was disinherited, and now is the insignia of his
reinstatement. 234 This indicates that the younger son regains his identity as a son, a place
of honour in his father's house, the same position he held before he abandoned his
father. This becomes a symbol signifying a status of honour. 235 His honour regained is

232
Cf. JOACHIM JEREMIAS, Rediscovering the Parables, London 1966, 103, in MARTIN MICALLEF, 1/-
Parabbola ta' l-Imhabba tal-Missier, in Inqum u immure ghand Missieri, Malta 2001, 22.
233
Ibid.
234 M
ARSHALL, Commentary, 610.
235
Recalls also Gn 27, 15; I Mc 6, 15.
 68

of the highest status. St. Augustine compares the robe given by the father as a sign of
236
dignity restored by God, the dignity lost by Adam's sin.
The second gift, the "ring" could have been what we call today "the signet ring,"
<56rc, "give" (the third use of the verb "to give") not simply as an ornament, but as a
symbol of kingship, of royal authority. Here trust and authority are restored. 237 The third
gift, the placing of the "shoes on his feet" indicates a twofold symbolic action. The
shoes were worn in the house only by the master, (even the guests took them off on
arrival). It was a significant gesture, as shoes were considered a luxury, only to be worn
by free people, that is, not by slaves who many times did not wear shoes. The fact that
the younger son was being received as a "free person," a sign of freedom from slavery,
means that he is fully restored as a son. He regains the identity as a true son which was
proper to him and the Father regains his Fatherhood.
Lk 15, 23-24: "and bring the fatted calf and kill it, and let us eat and make
merry;" These were the second set of instructions now given to the farmyard workers,
making a distinction from the household servants. This was another significant gesture,
mrcvr6t; "fattened" calf (as in v. 27) is an animal specially fed on, literally "grain"
(sitos), which meant, that this beast was destined for special feasts, stuffed with grain to
put on extra weight and tenderness. It was kept to be slaughtered for a special occasion,
"to sacrifice, "238 in contrast to the cattle left to graze on the grass. The killing of a fatted
calf, that could feed more than a hundred people, demonstrates what kind of grand feast
the father was planning to celebrate.
It is worth noting that the calf, according to St. Irenaeus of Lyon's
representation, is the second (living creature) symbol representing the evangelists, as
taken from the Apocalypse (Rv 4. 7). The calf characterises the disposition of Christ as
self-sacrifice and as priest,239 thus signifying (His) sacrificial and sacerdotal order. The
identification of the calf becomes a foundational aspect in Luke's Gospel: "For now was
made ready the fatted calf, about to be immolntcd for the finding again of the younger
son." 240 According to Luke, taking up (His) priestly character, commenced with
Zechariah the priest offering sacrifice to God. As the father in the parable gave the
fatted calf to be sacrificed by others, similarly, God the Father, in a specific moment in

236
MICALLEF,11-Parabbola ta' l-Jmhabba tal-Missier, 22.
237
Cf. Gn 41, 42; 1Mc6, 15; cf. Es 3, 10; 8,2.
238
Cf. Lk 22, 7; Ac 14, 13; 15, 18.
239
PAOLO SINISCALCO, La parabola de! Figlio Prodigo (Le. 15, 11-32) in !reneo, edited by Angelo
Brelich, in Studi in onore di Alberto Pincherle, Roma 1967, 1.
240
SAINT IRENAEUS OF LYONS, (ea. 120-202 AD) -Adversus Haereses 3.11.8, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, I,
Irenaeus, Chapter XI, 8 (on-line): http://www.ccel.org/fathers2 [12 December 2006].
 69

the history of man, sacrificed for man the designated victim, Jesus. 241 Our access to
God's gift of life was only made possible through the death of His own son, Jesus
Christ.
The instructions of the father led to the celebration of the son's return with a
joyful feast, the whole village was to join in, so it was no small celebration. The term
Evr:jJpaivw "to make merry," is often used in connection with the merriment of
banqueting. 242 It is a celebration that serves to restore authority, honour and dignity to
the one who had been disgraced in the eyes of the villagers. It is an appropriate
ceremony involving reinstatement as a son, 243 which fits with the bestowal of the
choicest signs of honour, the kingly gifts of a robe, a ring and shoes.
Lk 15, 25-28: "Now his elder son was in the field; and as he came and drew near
to the house, he heard music and dancing. And he called one of the servants and asked
what this meant (v. 26). And he said to him, 'Your brother has come, and your father
has killed the fatted calf, because he has received him safe and sound' (v. 27). But he
was angry and refused to go in. His father came out and entreated him (v. 28)." The
third part of the parable begins here - with another highly emotional and dramatic
episode. The elder son is pictured as a loyal son, probably working abroad in the
country "in the field." As he approaches his father's house, returning from a
hardworking day, he hears "music and dancing." Wondering "what this meant" he
questions the servants and does not receive the news from his father, implying a distant
relationship to the father.
That his wasteful brother is back angers him, which is in contrast to the rejoicing
of the father, who welcomes his return with a great feast. The elder son is not at all
happy with the situation, which reflects no brotherly love, thus a wrong relationship
exists with his brother and as also with his father. He finds out that his father is
rejoicing, he has even killed the fatted calf, for his younger son's 1)yu:dvov "safe and
sound" return (v. 27), meaning "in health both in body and mind," that is, returned to his
right mind, converted. This meant being reconciled with his father. The elder brother is
envious at the brother's reception and refuses to enter the house. The anger he has
toward the father is deflected onto the younger son, whom he regards in v. 29, as
privileged although unworthy. 244

241
SINISCALCO, La parabola de! Figlio Prodigo, 4.
242
Cf. Dt 14, 26; 27, 7; Eccl 8, 15; Lk 12, 19; 16, 19, in LXX.
243
MARSHALL, Commentary, 606.
244
JOHNSON, The Gospel ofLuke(= Sacra Pagina 3), 241.
 70

Unfailingly, the father's love is expressed by his going out to meet the elder son,
leaving his guests inside the house, risking humiliation and shame in their eyes. He
"entreated him" moreover, he pleads with him to come in and join in the celebration, but
he refuses to enter the father's house, choosing to stand outside, which puts him in the
same situation as those whose behaviour kept them locked outside the heavenly banquet
(Lk 13, 25-29). This is like the Pharisee who stood by himself: "I am not as other men
... nor even like this tax collector," (Lk 18, 11 ). Thinking too well of himself, he cannot
find in it in his heart to receive those whom God has received. This is a reproof to the
Pharisees and scribes, to show them the folly and wickedness of their discontent of
receiving sinners and the favour Christ showed on them (Lk 7, 34; 15, 2; Mt 11, 19).
Lk 15, 29: "but he answered his father, 'Lo, these many years I have served you,
and I never disobeyed your command; yet you never gave me a kid that I might make
merry with my friends."' Again the centrality of the fourth use of the verb "to give" is
found at the heart of the third part of the parable (vv. 25-32). In the negative sense this
time, this statement, "Yet you never gave me a kid," €pujJov a young male goat, a small
gift as compared to the great gift of the "fatted calf' given to the younger son. The elder
son is accusing his father of favouritism but the fact that he wants to celebrate with his
friends and not with his father, also denotes that the elder son had a distant relationship
with the father. Furthermore, his complaint to the father was that he had been a dutiful
son, for "many years I have served you" and "I never disobeyed your command," so he
thought the father was indebted to him for his loyalty, as a slave, thus did not consider
him as a father but as an employer. The elder son worked in the field (v. 25), so he did
not live at his father's house, which also gives another indication that he was alienated
from his father, just like the younger son. Furthermore, the response of the elder son
overflows with painful protest and it was an offence to the highest degree that the elder
son did not address his father as "Father," like the younger son did (v. 21), but rather
used a title of disrespect.
The fact that the elder son chose to refer to himself as a t5ouA.€au servant
(literally "I served you"), proves that the father lacked the elder son as well. Therefore,
through this dialogue we discover that the father lacked two sons. Since the elder son
has never felt rewarded by the father for his work and diligence, he deeply resents his
 71

father's joy for the younger son's return to his house, showing his rage by every gesture
and word.
The Pharisees and scribes undoubtedly would have recognised that this was
intended for them. Like the elder son, they remained obedient to the commandments
and claimed to have stayed faithful to the covenant. However, out of discontent and
resentment they refused to accept Jesus and the message he embodied, as they were
closed to the Good News he brought. Jesus saw their hypocrisy, how their loveless
obedience to the Law went against God's law of love. Those who have long served God
and have been kept from gross sin, have a great deal to be humbly thankful for, but
nothing to be proudly boastful of.245
Lk 15, 30: "But when this son of yours came, who has devoured your living with
harlots, you killed for him the fatted calf!" The elder brother's accusation,
notwithstanding the fact that the Greek text does not indicate how the younger son blew
the money, maligns his brother. This shows the common fault of man. He angrily makes
an accusation and judgment that his brother has been squandering his money on
prostitutes (literally "living wastefully"), which was never mentioned in the first part of
the story. In his rage he exaggerates the younger son's sin, imagining him as consorting
. h prostitutes.
wit . 246

The elder brother, by referring to the younger brother as "this son of yours"
denies having any brotherly relationship with him. All this indicates that the elder son is
also lost and out of a loving, personal relationship with his brother, as well as his father.
Discontent festered in his soul and self-righteousness inhabited his heart. The elder
brother thinks that his younger brother triumphs over him and begrudges the father's
kindness but from the father's perspective the younger son is welcomed back, not to
outrank his older sibling but to rejoin him as brother, to be part of the family again. This
shows how the "mercy" of God is more enduring than the "mercy" in man. God's mercy
is a forgiving attribute which maintains good reJations even when men nttempt to
destroy them (see 1.08, supra).
Lk 15, 31: "And he said to him, 'Son, you are always with me, and all that is
mine is yours.'" The father, however, is deeply and equally concerned with both of his
wayward sons. As the story unfolds, the father declares to the elder son that all that he
possesses belongs to him. The father clearly remains the head of the household as he

245
MATTHEW, Commentary, in Bible Works 7.
246
JOHNSON, The Gospel ofLuke(= Sacra Pagina 3), 241.
 72

continues to possess the "share" that he designated for the elder son. He still has means

by which to host a grand party (vv. 22-24) and can tell the elder son at the end (v. 31),
that all he "still" possesses is his. It emerges that what the younger son is given is in
effect pure gift. 247 In the case of the older son, custom and law are followed, but as long
as the father is still alive, it remains under his control. 248 Rebuffed and insulted the
father responds in terms of endearment, calling the elder son "my son" dKvov, assuring
him of his constant presence as a loving, compassionate father. The pledge to share his
possession "all that is mine is yours" with his disgruntled son is the Father's way of
healing a ruptured relationship, restoring Sonship.
Lk 15, 32: "It was fitting to make merry and be glad, for this your brother was
dead, and is alive; he was lost, and is found. The aspect of return is made explicit by the
use of the "dying" and "rising" language. The lost/found theme and the joyous
merriment link the three parables together. The invitation to joy made to the elder
brother over the younger son's return, implicates that those who enter into the joy are
included in the company of the divine happiness over the recovery of the lost. Those
who refuse (in this case the Pharisees) exclude themselves. The son's return to his
Father's house, to a life in communion with the Father, cannot be contained. The son
who had been considered as "good as dead" is now alive again, therefore there is good
reason to "make merry and be glad."
God's joy at salvation is compared to the joyful life made available on earth.
The brother's return can only be understood when one grasps the knowledge of God's
plan for man. Sin is an abuse of that freedom that God gives to His created persons, so
that they are capable of loving Him and loving one another. The invitation to joy is a
plea to accept the return of a repentant sinner, a call to love others in a brotherly manner
and thus be peacemakers.

4.05 Conclusion
Hearing this parable the tax collectors and sinners must have been greatly reassured,
having identified themselves with the younger son. They would have rejoiced in
knowing that they would be received joyfully by the merciful Father. Contrary to the
complaints of the Pharisees, the repentant sinner is to be warmly welcomed to the
heavenly royal banquet. God is more joyful with a penitent's broken heart, than the

247
HULTGREN, 75.
248
DIOGENES LAERTIUS, Lives 9, 35-36, quoted in HULTGREN, 75.
 73

prayers and devotions of the Pharisees and scribes, thinking that they needed no
repentance. There is more joy for the conversion of one great sinner, such as Paul, who
had been a Pharisee in his time, than for the regular conversion of one that had always
conducted himself/herself decently and well, not requiring a change of life as those
great sinners need. 249 The upright believers are called to celebrate, to join in brotherly
communion. "The parable indirectly touches upon every breach of the covenant of love,
every loss of grace, every sin".250
The paradoxical nature of this parable can only be seen in its deeper reality, as
the abounding love of God for the one in need. Mercy is manifested in its true and
proper aspect when it restores the value of a dignified life. God's forgiveness restores
the sinful to their former status, as children of God, with the authority and honour to
possess a share in the life of God's heavenly kingdom. True, the younger son has
nothing to lose by returning to his father's house, he has lost everything, but his
decision to return, to leave his old life gained him a new life, regaining his inheritance -
eternal life.
This is also a teaching for the elder son, who does not recognise the kind of
fatherly love shown in ordinary family relations. Also of great importance is the elder
son's relationship with the younger brother. The father invites the elder son to open his
heart, to forge a deeper loving relationship, a brotherhood with the prodigal son. The
father aims at re-establishing a new unity between the sons. "Mercy" is seen as the
oneness with another, the concern for others, in this case, filial and sibling relationships.
The paradox of God's merciful forgiveness from sin, which goes beyond
retribution, goes against all human reasoning. When the younger son realises he has
abused of his father's privileges and he expects appropriate punishment. The elder and
the younger son both use the same criteria. The elder son would have been in total
agreement with the younger son's reasoning, as they both based their understanding on
the proportional retribution due according to the transgression. 251 Thus, a]so rnr.ompense
for loyalty should be in proportion to the fidelity given. Luke demonstrates how they are
both reasoning according to the old Jewish teaching. Jesus supplants the Jewish
mentality, reversing human judgment to God's law of love. Against this background,
one may appreciate the startling nature of Jesus' proclamation of the forgiveness of sins,

249
MATTHEW, Commentary, in BibleWorks 7.
250
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Dives in Misericordia, Part IV, 5.
251
Cf. JEAN-NOEL ALETTI, JI Racconto come Teologia, Studio narrativo de! terzo Vangelo e de! libro
degli Atti degli Apostoli, Roma 1996, 187.
 74

and understand the point at dispute between himself and the Pharisees who took offence
at this proclamation.
The four references to the verb o{ou;µi "to give" put emphasis on the life-giving
nature of God. God gives the gift of His life and love252 to his people. He gives all of
Himself, every breath and depth of it. God who is "love" wants to give everything that
He is and that He has. This is God's free gift of grace, who reaches out to all living
beings, drawn by their needs. The younger son sees the Father's gift oflife as a debt due
to him, asking for his share of the inheritance, and not as a gift freely given to him. In
tum, to be able to effectively benefit from God's gifts necessitates concrete acts of
brotherly love on our part. It is God's invitation to joy and peace, in heaven as on earth.
The "mercy" of God means enjoying His promise of love and peace, the joy of
belonging to His family. Through the effect of the Father's love, the two sons He lacked
returned to their Father's house, not as servants but as true children of God. It is through
the Father's mercy that we regain Sonship, calling out "Abba" Father. God's Spirit
reassures us that we are His children: "For all who are led by the Spirit of God are sons
of God ... "(Rm 8, 14). Our true identity is now found in our access to our heavenly
Father, through our friendship with Jesus and the constant indwelling of the Holy Spirit.
God makes known the riches of his glory to the "heir" of salvation as "vessels of
mercy" (see 2.04, supra), which he has prepared for his glory. God, who is merciful
love, created humankind as the "objects of his love," that they may enjoy an eternal life
with Him. When we reject God and turn to other sources to define ourselves, this leads
to the destruction of that special intimate relationship with God. This broken
relationship cannot be regained through our own effort, but only through the immense
love of the Father, whose grace and mercy transforms us and reconnects us with Him, as
true children of God.

252
Cf. Dt 13, 18; Is 47, 6. LXX in both cases &Mvat.
 Chapter Five

Conclusion

5.01 Old covenantal love

The analysis of the word "mercy" in the Hebrew and Greek terminology in the first two
chapters of the thesis demonstrate that the establishment of God's old covenantal love
with this people of Israel is the basis of God's gracious "mercy" as a provision of
salvation. God is forever reconciling the world, with each redemptive act of His hesed
from the exodus through to Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, each one shapes the
other. What God did for Israel, in rescuing this people from slavery in Egypt, that is He
"saved them," was His promise and faithfulness to the old covenant, albeit Israel's
unfaithfulness and undeserved help. Israel experienced Yahweh as a "gracious and
merciful God" (see 1.01, supra) as the basis of God's fidelity. Hesed becomes a central
term for expressing God's relationship to Israel (see 1.02, supra).

5.02 New covenantal love

Now in Christ, the "salvation from sin" is the new exodus, which forms the basis for the
new covenant with humankind. The Hebrew term hesed slightly changes its meaning
from "steadfast love" to the fundamental factor of each act of God's €A.€ot; as
"compassion" ( mrA.dyxva), "kindliness" and "pity" ( olKdpµUJv), particularly for the
 76

sinner. God's merciful love is revealed as greater than justice, a new judgment which
went contrary to the loveless law of the Hebrew Scripture. It means being "born anew to
a living hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ" (Ep 2, 4; 1 Co 15, 19). Jesus is the
revelation of what is possible with God.

5.03 God's justice

It is precisely this paradoxical mystery of the merciful justice of God that is shown forth
in Luke's three parables. Luke underscores the theme of the "mercy" of God, making it
the crucial motive, the key to understanding God's character. God as the image of the
shepherd, the woman and the father reveals the distinctive feature of the "mercy" of
God, as the salvific aspect of the Good News of Jesus Christ, more than any other
Gospel. God's love is not only limited to the righteous, as in the shepherd who leaves
the ninety-nine to search for the one lost sheep. It is not the "one who never repents"
(Lk 15, 10), the self-righteous Pharisees and scribes, or the ones who refuse to enter the
banquet hall (the elder son) but the repentant sinner (the younger son) who pleases the
heart of God. God's law oflove is the embrace of the merciful Father for the lost.

5.04 God's enduring love

In these three parables Luke brings out the distinctive feature of God's enduring
character, the everlasting action of His love and mercy, indicated by the shepherd's
search for the lost sheep "until he finds it," the woman's continuous sweeping in search
of the lost coin and the father's constant watch for the return of his younger son. God's
grace is limitless, His mercy everlasting, His salvation boundless. He ensures that no-
one is abandoned in the time of need, even when there is rebellion God loves us and
gives us His most precious gift of salvation. He is not a God who is absent, distant or
indifferent to the misfortunes of humanity: "Certainly I will be with thee" (Ex 3, 12)
was a truth now more fu11y explicable than it ever co11lci hnw~ been to Moses. This is the
nature of the "mercy" of God, it truly reveals that God's love endures all things, love
never ends (1 Co 13, 7b-8a).

5.05 God's Fatherhood and Sonship restored

The parable of the father "who had two sons" indicates that the father lacked two sons.
The younger son has left his father's house and the elder son has been working in the
fields, therefore both of his sons are not at home. The younger son had broken his
 77

relationship with the father, taking his inheritance and squandering it in a far away
country. The elder son also did not have a filial relationship with the father, evident by
the fact that he complained to the father that "you never gave me a kid that I might
make merry with my friends" (v. 29), which meant he wanted to celebrate with his
friends and not with his father.
God represented as the Father is saddened by the lack of his two sons, and thus
the loss of His Fatherhood. It becomes apparent that the Father's desire is to regain his
Fatherhood and Sonship with the two sons he lacks. His concern for the two sons is
demonstrated by the paradoxical actions of the Father, as he "runs" to the younger son
and goes out to "entreat" the elder son to enter the Father's house. The Father's divine
gifts, the noble gifts given are a sign of honour and dignity (robe), authority and
possession (ring), receiving the younger son as a "free person" (shoes), a freedom that
restores his dignity as a true child of God. The Father also reassures and reinstates the
elder son, "all that is mine is yours" (v. 31 ). Luke plays with the words "house" and
"servant," to indicate that both the two sons consider the father as an employer, as the
word Jou.A.or; "servant" designates a person who is actually employed. Therefore, when
the younger son in his prepared speech says, ''treat me as your hired servant" (v. 19b)
and when the elder son implies that he "serves as a servant" (v. 29), shows both the sons
considered the father as an employer and not as a loving-father. But the father interrupts
the son's prepared speech (v. 19b), receiving him not as a "servant" but as a "son." Here
we see the great desire of the Father to regain the two sons begotten by Him, restoring
them both to a rightful relationship as His children. God restores the sinner to the
fullness of life, a sanctified life, as partakers of His divine life.
Sharing in the divine life of God is what is called "divinization." We become
adopted children of God, heirs to His kingdom, and in this sense, the "mercy" of God is
such an important revelation for a real union with God, thus for our own divinization. 253
Through the example of the gentleness of Christ, the forgiver of sins, who filled with
compassion at seeing people's needs, cannot but restore our true identity as children of
God. In and through Jesus, each creature begotten by God regains the freedom and
dignity as a child of God, the authority which was proper to him from the foundation of
creation, only possible through the Father's merciful love.

253
THEODORE KOEHLER, Misericorde, in Dictionnaire de Spiritua/ite, Tome x, Paris 1980, 1313.
 78

5.06 God's call to conversion

Repentance µerdvota means to take on a new perspective, seeing things in a new way in
the light of God's grace. It is a total interior renewal, a radical conversion, a profound
change of mind. It involves a "paradigm shift" concerning the relationship of the self

before God that is possible only in the light of the Good News of the graciousness of a
loving God. 254 Besides being a response, it is above all a gracious gift that is granted by
God's mercy and compassion. His love and grace stems "from His absolute freedom,
that the sinner can have hope in God's mercy" (see 1.01, supra). It is based on the will
of God that none should perish. 255
While the true sign of conversion is a return to oneself (v. 17), as the son's
interior transformation, it cannot be achieved through human effort but can only come
from God's grace. This is compared to the loving initiative made by the shepherd and
the woman in their desperate search for the lost sheep and coin, seen as well by the
paradoxical action of the elderly father who "runs" toward the younger son. Conversion
takes on an even more important role in the parable of the Prodigal Son. It is assumed
by the willingness of the son to enter into dialogue with the father (v. 21), with a
confession of guilt, a sin against God "against heaven" (v. 18). When the son tells the
father "and before you" it also implies that sin is not only made against God but also
made against fellowmen, indicating the social aspect of sin. The inner transformation
necessitates a brotherhood among men.
The awareness of sin: "I am a sinner" (Lk 15, 18; cf. Lk 18, 13 ), is the start of
repentance. The experience of guilt can only lead to the bond of communion with Jesus,
who reconciles us to God and with others, in one body through the cross (see 1.10,
supra). Jesus who is the revelation of God's absolute love and mercy, whose
sovereignty is not manifested in keeping for Himself what belongs to Him, but rather to
share His life with each one of His creatures. The more one is awareness of sin, the
more one is aware of God's grace. God's grace always means His faithfulness and
merciful help. It is His grace which He has promised, so that, although one cannot claim
it, one may certainly expect it. God has truly and freely bound Himself to His people.
If one does not make this change, µerl:tvota the conversion of heart, it has
catastrophic consequences, it means "death" instead of life. It means directly refusing
God's love and Fatherhood. "For godly grief produces a repentance that leads to

254
PARKER, Painfully Clear, 133.
255
HULTGREN, The Parables ofJesus, 56.
 79

salvation and brings no regret, but worldly grief produces death" (2 Co 7, 10). When
one who cuts himself off from a personal relationship with God, God's gift of
forgiveness restores one's life to a new creation. The Father's forgiveness is the
experience of being safely "found" (v. 27), a restoration to wholeness, which means
regaining perfect unity with God. We turn back to God so that as an effect of his loving
mercy we regain our true identity as children of God.
When one relies on one's own ability, denying God's help, one realises one's
powerlessness and misery (as the younger son soon found out), resulting in the lack of
dignity and value to one's life. An intimate relationship with God, His mercy and grace
leads to the gift of eternal life, a share in His kingdom as children of God. Luke
demonstrates how God deals with the wretchedness of living apart from Him, the
spiritual death which results from the separation from the Father, whose desire is to
have a loving relationship with each of His creatures. This filial relationship commences
here on earth when one encounters Jesus through the Sacrament of Reconciliation and
the Eucharist. Conversion is the most concrete expression of the working of love and of
the presence of the "mercy" of God for humanity. It is as an act given freely by God's
grace which leads to a regenerated life, in total freedom from the enslavement of sin, as
a son or daughter of God and not as a servant. The inner stirrings that one experiences
as a result of sin, the guilt, is a returning to himself (v. 17), to the prior state as a child of
God. Conversion in this text defines, in a certain sense, the journey of salvation. 256 By
the prodigal son who ventures out on his own and then returns to his Father's loving
embrace, as a creature returning to His creator, as a sinner to His forgiving God, who
realises himself/herself through God's mercy and grace. 257

5.07 God's reconciliation

God's law of love, a compassionate love that arises from a heart-felt mercy, is a stark
contrast to the hard-hearted, loveless judgment of the Pharisees for the sinners and
marginalised. How willingly and lovingly the Father pardons the sinner, with open arms
He embraces and kisses the younger son (v. 20), offering relief from his affliction, from
his lack of worth as a result of sin. God's will to save brings a newness of life, "he was
dead and is now alive again" (vv. 24.32), thus His gift of forgiveness is linked to
salvation.
256
MIECZYSLAW MIKOLAJCZAK, II Messagio de/la parabola de/ figlio prodigo (LC 15, 11-32), in
Collectanea Theo/ogica, A. 69 Fasc. Specialis 1999, 38.
257 Ibid.
 80

Luke's three parables are the basis of the Sacrament of Reconciliation. In the
same way the merciful Church opens her arms with the Father's love and the Mother's
love embracing each one of her errant children. God's judgrnent is being able to whisper
freely in the ear of a merciful and compassionate Father the sorrows of one's life. God
responds to the cry of mercy "KvptC 'E).irpov" "is this unique saving dialogue that is
sacramental confession."258 As Pope John Paul II exhorts:

How can we fail to think of the moving meeting between the prodigal son and his forgiving
Father? Or the image of the sheep which was lost and then found, and which the Shepherd
joyfully lifts onto his shoulders? The Father's embrace and the Good Shepherd's joy must be
visible in each one of us, dear Brothers, whenever a penitent asks us to become ministers of
forgiveness." 259

The priest who shares in the priesthood of Christ "in persona Christi," embodies the
merciful Father who forgives, who knows no other way, but to love with the tenderness
of a mother. Who is "able to reach down to every prodigal son, to every human misery
and above all, to every form of sin." 260 When God pardons, "the person who is the
object of mercy does not feel humiliated, but rather found again and restored to
value."261 Furthermore, God's forgiveness is not just a "covering up" of sin, wherein
one is still bound by it, but a "removing" of sin, indicated by the father's interruption of
younger son's confession (v. 20), forgiving all his transgression. This is the greatness
and immensity of God's merciful justice, who transforms us into a new creation in the
place of the old, a reinstatement to the state one was at the start, formed as a child
begotten by God.
God's creative mercy makes salvation possible, present in the figure of Jesus.
Thus salvation is closely bound up with the person of Jesus. 262 It is precisely because he
is Christ that He can forgive sins. Jesus' real presence in the Eucharist helps us to truly
relive what the Creator wanted at the outset, and which Jesus' redemptive mission
renewed. As Paul said:

Therefore, if any one is in Christ, he is a new creation: the old has passed away, behold the new
has come. All this is from God, who through Christ reconciled us to himself and gave us the
ministry of reconciliation; that is, God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself, not
counting their trespasses against them, and entrusting to us the message of reconciliation. So we
are ambassadors for Christ, God making his appeal through us. We beseech you on behalf of

258
Letter of the Holy Father to Priests for Holy Thursday (17 March 2002) (on-line):
POPE JOHN PAUL II,
http://www.vatican.va [25 August 2006], 4.
259
Ibid.
260
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Dives in Misericordia, Part IV, 6.
261
Ibid.
262
Ibid.
 81

Christ, be reconciled to God. For our sake he made him to be sin, who knew no sin, so that in
him we might become the righteousness of God (2 Co 4, 17-21 ).

As also Pope John Paul II exhorts: "The Eucharist is the summit of the sacramental
economy . . . charged with 'mediating' the forgiveness of God, who welcomes the
repentant sinner back into his embrace ... which also serves to deliver us from sin". 263
Everything Jesus did and taught was for the reconciliation of the world. Luke
highlights Christ's mission and the Church's mission, her central task of reconciling
people with God and with the whole of creation. This was at the heart of creation. God's
original plan was a life of peace and happiness in communion with Him to share His
life, as children of God. As the "living" God, He did not merely create the universe in
the beginning; he recreates all life each new day. Sin degrades, distorts and damages the
image and similitude of God in man. "Man has been given a sublime dignity, based on
the intimate bond which unites him to his Creator; in man there shines forth a reflection
of God himself."264

5.08 God's act of salvation

In these three parables, Jesus presents the act on God's part of salvation as exclusive to
God. The first step of conversion comes from God. Salvation is always an act of God,
demonstrated by the paradoxical behaviour of the shepherd, the woman and the father.
This is such a dominant facet of the "mercy" of God, His desire to save. He offers
salvation as a gift of His love and compassion directed toward the sinner. As Pope John
Paul II wrote:

Mercy comes first, encouraging conversion and valuing even the slightest progress in love,
because the Father wants to do the impossible to save the son who is lost: "The Son of Man
came to seek and save the lost" (Lk 19: 10).265

The reverence for the divine reality leads to the use of the name of Yahweh, or to the
salvntion of Ynhwch os n substitute for Yahweh Himself as ai1 object of "love" (see
1.01, supra). God is salvation, thus both His "love" and "salvation" are synonymous
with His mercy, a "mercy" that cannot be contained by God, His will to save the lost.
God desires a comprehensive understanding of salvation described by the
prophets as shalom - peace, wholeness and well-being (see 1.10, supra). When one

263
JOHN PAUL II, Letter ofthe Holy Father for Priest on Holy Thursday (17 March 2002), 2.
264
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Encyclical Letter Evangelium vitae, On the Value and Inviolability of Human Life
(25 March 1995), Part II, 34.
265
POPE JOHN PAUL II, Letter of the Holy Father for Priest on Holy Thursday (17 March 2002), 8.
 82

possesses peace, one is in perfect and assured communion with Yahweh, thus perfect
peace is to be expected in the messianic salvation (see 1.10, supra). It is this state of
interior calm and of harmonious relations with the Christian community, both of which
are implied in the Christian vocation to peace (Rm 14, 17; 1 Co 7, 15). God's salvation
266
is meant to be very concrete, incarnate. Jesus Himself makes it incarnate and
personifies it (see 1.01, supra). Salvation means "we live in peace with God through
Our Lord Jesus Christ" (Rm 5, 1).

5.09 God's joy

God's attempt to restore the one who has gone astray may be drawn from the images of
the shepherd, the woman and the father, but more emphatic is God's joy in their being
found - their awakening to His grace. God's joy at the resulting repentance overflows
so as to affect the angels. 267 It is a great moment of celebration, in heaven as well as on
earth, as all are invited to partake in the merriment. All are invited, friends, neighbours,
siblings, the whole household, including the servants, are to rejoice at the return of the
lost son, who regains his position as son in the Father's house. God's joy at salvation is
emphasised by the common theme of "joy" at the end of all three parables (vv.
6.7.9.10.32). It is Jesus' teaching that reveals to man what joy salvation brings to God
and how it is a joy for the whole community, when a sinner repents. A turning from the
state of sin, regaining the true identity as a child of God, brings joy not only to God and
to oneself but also to others (vv. 6.9). It is universal call to rejoicing in a brotherly
manner, to join the festive celebration (v. 28). "Joy comes from God, and God gives it
not only to those He loves, but also to those who love."268

5.10 God's grace

11 11
When the father 111115, "emhrnccs" (literally "fell upon his neck.") and "kisses" the
younger son (v. 20), all these three verbs signify reconciliation and prevenient grace on
the part of the father, which makes one aware of God's initiative. The grace through
which one's heart converts, one could never hope to attain without the help of divine
intervention, namely, the gratuitous grace of God. The prodigal son has experienced the
inner stirrings of God's Spirit, when "he arises and goes to the father" (v. 20). His grace

266
RENE CAMILLERI, in The Sunday Times (Malta 10 December 2006), Religion 19.
267
HULTGREN, 69.
268
MAURICE EMINYAN, Invitation to Joy, in The Sunday Times (Malta 10 December 2006), Books 33.
 83

leads to a new way of life, a rebirth from a life in "want" (v. 14), perishing from
starvation (v. 17). This brokenness results in the loss of one's dignity (as the younger
son's wretched and humiliating state), to a life transformed into a new creation, was
"dead" and is now "alive" (v. 24.32). It happens the same way creation did ... the chaos
was transformed into creation. This is at the heart of Jesus' redemptive mission,
whenever he refers in these three parables to being "lost and found" or "dead and alive
again," he means the "new creation" and "eternal life," which consists of being freely
called, in the Son by the power of the Sanctifying Spirit, to an eternal inheritance.
It is in the birth of Jesus Christ, the incarnation and story of Jesus that we find
the story of God. We find unfolding in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ a
story through which we obtain a "newness of life." We find new spiritual resources, in
situations in which we would otherwise experience ourselves as being powerless, as did
the younger son, "a great famine arose" (v. 14) which he had no control over. Yet, every
person is freely called in and through Jesus, by the power of God's grace to the fullness
of life, a sanctified life as a child of God, as heirs to the heavenly kingdom, attainable
during one's life here on earth.

5.11 God's peace

Christianity is fundamentally an invitation to joy and peace. The invitation to joy does
not ignore the fact that we live in a world of sorrow and not free from sin, but Jesus
teaches that the Father has a tender love and compassion for the sinner. He desires all to
experience the joy and peace that the forgiveness of sins makes possible on earth,
through the Sacrament of Reconciliation and the Eucharist. In a world in which the very
truth of the Gospel is continually undermined, Luke's three parables can only be heard
and understood when the listening community is prepared to be permeated by a
compassion that manifests itself in gracious forgiveness. 269 It is God's compassion that
redeems and reconciles and draws believers into the realm of grace and places them
under the command of their sovereign Lord. Thus "mercy" is a gift ensuring salvation
and eternal peace.

5.12 God's new order

The "mercy" of God is the discovery of a new perspective on one's relationship to God
as Father, who has reached out to reconcile the world, through the ministry of Jesus.

269
SYLVIA C. KEESMAAT, Strange Neighbours and Risky Care, in The Challenge ofJesus' Parables, 284.
 84

Beyond the earthly ministry of Jesus, God's reconciling work has taken place by means
of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, leading to a new creation for those who
believe. 270 The discovery of this new way of being is, in the profoundest sense, is a
being "found," a rebirth to a restored to life, the eternal life in the kingdom of Heaven.
Jesus was known to associate with sinners and consistently move amongst the
marginalised of society, therefore understanding identification with Jesus as withdrawal
from the world, cutting ourselves away from the "sinner" greatly weakens our witness.
We also risk misunderstanding the Gospel, as Luke's three parables remind us to be
authentic witnesses who communicate the Gospel by deed, as well as word. These
parables of "mercy" reveal to the Pharisees the profoundest love of the Father and "the
true mercy of the new covenant, in and through Jesus." 271 Jesus is the self-
communication of God's merciful, saving and communitarian love.
The fact that Jesus' demand for love is now so self-evident is an indication that
He has more to proclaim than a new demand. He proclaims the "mercy" of God, not as a
disposition which God always and in all possible ways expresses, but as an unheard of
event which has the basis of its possibility in God alone, but which now places man in a
completely different situation. He proclaims and creates a new world order. 272 Jesus
brings forgiveness of sins and in those who experience it, new peace. By His act of
forgiveness God has instituted for humanity a new order which removes and superseded
the old worldly order. The new relationship of God to man lays the foundation for a
new, peaceful relationship of man to man but those who judge their fellowmen place
themselves outside the new order, as did the Pharisees and the elder son.

5.13 Salvation by the Saviour

Luke affirms that God's attitude to sinners justifies the attitude of Jesus Himself. Jesus
is able to defend himself and his attitude to sinners, by appeal to the attitude of God.
This lays claim that Jesus acts as the representative of God in pardoning sinners. In and
through Christ, God becomes especially visible in his "mercy" (see 1.01, supra). Jesus is
the instrument of God, chosen by God to proclaim the Good News of salvation, "a
salvation by the Saviour."273 Being chosen by God, empowered by the Spirit of God,

270
Cf.2Co5, 17-21.
271
ETHELBERT STAUFFER, dyaTTdw, The Words for Love in Pre-biblical Greek, in TDNT, I, 47.
272
Ibid.
273
MICALLEF,11-Parabbola ta' l-Jmhabba tal-Missier, 22.
 85

Jesus is not only the prophet, the sultan, but also Son of God (bigger than the other
prophets).

5.14 Summary
It becomes evident that Luke's aim in grouping these three parables is not mainly to
focus on the figure of God Himself in his manifesting "mercy" to all, but rather to focus
on the Lucan theology expressed in the text under analysis, namely, the theme of
"mercy" as the prime message of God's salvation. Luke demonstrates how God's
judgment is rich in mercy, a "mercy" greater than sin. His forgiveness of sins surpasses
any human understanding. Luke's three parables concern the distress that keeps us from
seeing the joy and peace of God when someone is no longer one with God, when one
rejects God and turns to other sources to define oneself.
Though we abandon God, He still cares for us as a loving Father and gives every
person their dignity, because to create someone is not only to care but also to give them
their dignity and identity. God created us in his image to enjoy relationship with him.
When we image ourselves after his son Jesus Christ, we enjoy God's promise of love,
joy and belonging. Enjoying relationship with God gives us a meaningful purpose and
defines our true identity as his children. This relationship is what we are all longing and
searching for because we were created for it.
God delights at His success of the salvation of one of His children, when one is
"found" and made "alive" again. As the Father who entreats the elder son to join the
banquet hall, all are invited to accept a "dead" brother as "your brother" (v. 32). The
open ended parable is a challenge to all self-righteous people to join in the celebration
and merriment, when a Son returns to the Father' house, that is, the house of God, the
Church of the living God.
As the father in the parable humbled himself to save his two sons, Jesus Christ
did the same. Jesus, who was God: "emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being
born in the likeness of men" (Ph 2, 5-7). 274 Jesus "humbled himself and became
obedient unto death, even death on a cross" (v. 8) for our sake, that we may rise and be
saved, but it was because Jesus "humbled himself' that God raised him unto heaven,
which is also what the father in the parable did. 275 This is like what the Father does

274
In these three lines ofa Christological hymn, the words are full of theological content and rich in noble
beauty, whereby those frrst-century believers professed their faith in the mystery of Christ. in quoting
the phrases of the hymn, Paul wished to emphasis that this mystery is the hidden vital principle which
makes the church the house of God.
275
SCIBERRAS, Quddiem 'The Return of the Prodigal Son' ta' Rembrandt van Rihn, 7.
 86

through His mercy, He lifts us up from the state of sin in which we have fallen, and with
sorrow we ask for His forgiveness. 276 It is precisely because of Jesus' death and His
resurrection for us (1 Co 15, 20-22), that we are able to be "reborn," as a baptismal
rebirth, "so that as Christ was raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, we too
might walk in newness of life" (Rm 6, 3-4).
Luke affirms that the mystery of God's enduring love and heart-felt mercy is
capable of reaching each sinner, evoking an inner movement of heart and mind to
conversion, in order to redeem each one of His creatures. It is His will to forgive, in and
through Jesus, that our relationship with God is restored. This transformation into a
"new creation" restores our true identity as children of God. Luke reveals how central
and basic the "mercy" of God is for our salvation. Through it, man is capable of
reconciling with God and with others. Being "found" thus being "saved" means a joyful
and peaceful existence, which exceeds earthly existence, because it consists in sharing
the very life of God, His wholeness, His perfection.

276
SCIBERRAS, Quddiem 'The Return ofthe Prodigal Son' ta' Rembrandt van Rihn, 7.
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: http://www.vatican.va [25 August 2006].

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 88

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 90

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