Cold Weather

CHAPTER17
Effect of Freezing on Fresh Concrete

Concreting
Concrete gains very little strength at low temperatures.
Freshly mixed concrete must be protected against the
disruptive effects of freezing (Figure 17-2) until the degree
of saturation of the concrete has been sufficiently reduced
by the process of hydration. The time at which this
Concrete can be placed safely without damage from reduction is accomplished corresponds roughly to the time
freezing in cold climates if certain precautions are taken. required for the concrete to attain a compressive strength
Cold weather is defined by ACI Committee 306 as existing of 3.5 MPa (500 psi) (Powers 1962). At normal
when the air temperature has fallen to, or is expected to temperatures and water-cement ratios less than 0.60, this
fall below 4°C (40°F) during the protection period. Under occurs within the first 24 hours after placement. Significant
these circumstances, all materials and equipment needed ultimate strength reductions, up to about 50%, can occur if
for adequate protection and curing must be on hand and concrete is frozen within a few hours after placement or
ready for use before concrete placement is started. before it attains a compressive strength of 3.5 MPa
During cold weather, the concrete mixture and its
temperature should be adapted to the construction
procedure and ambient weather conditions. Preparations
should be made to protect the concrete from excessively
low temperatures using: enclosures, windbreaks, portable
heaters, insulated forms, and blankets to maintain a
suitable concrete temperature (Figure 17-1). Concrete must
be delivered at the proper temperature and the
temperature of forms, reinforcing steel, the ground, or
other concrete on which the fresh concrete is cast must
also be considered. Concrete should not be cast on frozen
concrete or on frozen ground. Forms, reinforcing steel, and

Figure17-1. Whensuitablepreparationsto buildenclosuresand insulateequipment

have been made, coldweatheris no obstacleto concreteconstruction.
embedded fixtures must be free of snow and ice at the
time concrete is placed. Thermometers and proper storage
facilities for test cylinders should be available to verify that
precautions are adequate. °
\ Casting temperature, F
32 52 72 92
200
itial set at 23 C (73 F)
°

150
°

327
100
 held constant.

Per
Cement A Cement B

0
0 10 20 ° 30 40
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
Figure 17-2. Closeup view of ice impressions in paste of frozen °
Casting temperature, F
fresh concrete. The ice crystal formations occur as unhardened 32 52 72 92
concrete freezes. They do not occur in adequately hardened 200
concrete. The disruption of the paste matrix by freezing can cause

Percent final set at 23 C (73 F)

reduced strength gain and increased porosity.

°
150

°
(500 psi) (McNeese 1952). Concrete exposed to deicers
should attain a compressive strength of 35 MPa (4,500 psi) 100
prior to repeated cycles of freezing and thawing (Klieger
1957 and Gebler and Klieger 1986).
50 Mix proportions
held constant.
Concrete that has been frozen just once at an early age can Cement A Cement B
be restored to nearly normal strength by providing
0
favorable subsequent curing conditions. Such concrete, 0 10 20 ° 30 40
Casting temperature, C
however, will not be as resistant to weathering nor as
impermeable. The critical period after which concrete is
Figure 17-3. Initial set characteristics as a function of casting
not seriously damaged by one or two freezing cycles is temperature (top), and final set characteristics as a function of
dependent upon the concrete ingredients and conditions of casting temperature (bottom) (Burg 1996).
mixing, placing, curing, and subsequent drying. For °
Casting temperature, F
example, air-entrained concrete is less susceptible to 32 52 72 92
damage by early freezing than non-air-entrained concrete. 250

See Chapter 11 for more information on freeze-thaw

Percent slump at 23 C (73 F)
°
resistance. 200
°

150
Strength Gain of Concrete at Low
Temperatures 100

Mix proportions
Temperature affects the rate at which hydration of cement 50 held constant.
occurs – low temperatures retard hydration and Cement A Cement B
consequently retard the hardening and strength gain of 0
0 10 20 ° 30 40
concrete. Casting temperature, C

If hardened concrete is frozen and kept frozen above about Figure 17-4. Slump characteristics as a function of casting
minus 10°C (14°F), it will still be able to gain strength temperature (Burg 1996).
slowly. However, below that temperature, cement
hydration and concrete strength gain cease. Figure 17-3
illustrates the effect of cool temperatures on setting time of Heat of Hydration
concrete. Figure 17-4 illustrates the effects of casting
temperature on slump. Figures 17-5 and 17-6 show the Concrete generates heat during hardening as a result of the
agecompressive strength relationship for concrete that has chemical reaction by which cement reacts with water to
been cast and cured at various temperatures. Note in form a hard, stable paste. The heat generated is called heat
Figure 17-6 that concrete cast and cured at 4°C (40°F) and of hydration; it varies in both amount and rate for
13°C (55°F) had relatively low strengths for the first week;
but after 28 days—when all specimens were moist-cured at
23°C (73°F)—strengths for the 4°C (40°F) and 13°C (55°F)
concretes grew faster than the 23°C (73°F) concrete and at
one year they were slightly higher.
Casting temperature, C

328
 Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting

Water to cement ratio = 0.43 Heat of hydration is useful in winter concreting as it

Air content: 4 to 5% RH 6 contributes to the heat needed to provide a satisfactory
%
Cement: Type I, 50
40 310 kg/m 3 (517 lb/yd 3) curing temperature. This is especially true even without
other temporary heat sources, particularly in more massive

Compressive strength, 1000 psi

5
Compressive strength, MPa

F)
(7 °
° F) elements.

3
3
(7

23 °
C
30 ° C
23 4 Figure 17-7 shows a concrete pedestal being covered with a
tarpaulin just after the concrete was placed. Tarpaulins and

RH
RH

3 insulated blankets are often necessary to retain the heat of

5 0%
20
0%

hydration more efficiently and keep the concrete as warm

10

2 as possible. Thermometer readings of the concrete’s

10
temperature will indicate whether the covering is
° )
° (2 5 F 1 adequate. The heat liberated during hydration will offset to
C RH
- 4
10
0% a considerable degree the loss of heat during placing,
0 0 finishing, and early curing operations. As the heat of
1 3 7 28 90 365 hydration subsides, the need to cover the concrete
Age at test, days
becomes even more important.
Figure 17-5. Effect of temperature conditions on the strength
development of concrete. Concrete for the lower curve was cast at
4°C (40°F) and placed immediately in a curing room at -4°C
(25°F). Both concretes received 100% relative humidity curing for
first 28 days followed by 50% relative humidity curing (Klieger
1958).
140
Mix data:
Water to cement ratio = 0.43
Air content: 4 to 5%
120 Cement: Type I,
310 kg/m3 (517 lb/yd3)
Compressive° strength, percent of

100
28-day 23 C cured concrete

F)
(40 °

80
4C
°
F)
(5 5 °

60
C
13 °

Figure 17-7. Concrete footing pedestal being covered with a

F)
(7 °
3

tarpaulin to retain the heat of hydration.

C
23 °

40

20
0
1 3
Figure 17-6. Effect of low temperatures on concrete
compressive strength at various ages. Note that for this
particular mixture made with Type I cement, the best
temperature for long-term strength (1 year) was 13°C (55°F)
(Klieger 1958).
different cements. Dimensions of the concrete placement,
ambient air temperature, initial concrete temperature,
water-cement ratio, admixtures, and the composition,
fineness, and amount of cementitious material all affect
heat generation and buildup.
Curing:
Specimens cast and moist-cured
at temperature indicated for first
28°days. °All moist-cured at
23 C (73 F) thereafter.
7 28 90
Age at test, days
Special Concrete Mixtures
High strength at an early age is desirable in cold weather
construction to reduce the length of time temporary
365 protection is required. The additional cost of high-
earlystrength concrete is often offset by earlier reuse of
forms and shores, savings in the shorter duration of
temporary heating, earlier setting times that allows the
finishing of flatwork to begin sooner, and earlier use of the
structure. High-early-strength concrete can be obtained by
using oneor a combination of the following:
1. Type III or HE high-early-strength cement
2. Additional portland cement [60 kg/m3 to 120 kg/m3
(100 lb/yd3 to 200 lb/yd3)]
3. Set accelerating admixtures

329
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
Principal advantages occur during the first 7 days. At a 4°C accomplished more quickly (Figure 17-9). Concrete
(40°F) curing temperature, the advantages of Type III mixtures with higher slumps provided by water or retarding
cement are more pronounced and persist longer than at water-reducing admixtures usually take longer to set.
the higher temperature (Figure 17-8).

50 7
Mix data:
Waterto cement ratio = 0.43, Type I cement
= 0.45, Type III cement
Aircontent:4 to 5% 6
40 Cementcontent:310kg/m3 (517lb/yd3)

Compressive strength, 1000 psi

Compressive strength, MPa

30
4

20 3
TypeIII,°mixed° and cured
at 23 C (73 F)
Type I, °mixed° and cured 2
at 23 C (73 F)
10 Type III,
° mixed° and cured 1
at 4 C (40 F)
Type I,° mixed
° and cured
at 4 C (40 F)
0
1 3 7 28 Figure 17-9. Finishing this concrete flatwork can proceed because
Age of test, days a windbreak has been provided, there is adequate heat under the
slab, and the concrete has low slump.
Figure 17-8. Early-age compressive-strength relationships for
Type I and Type III portland cement concretes mixed and cured at
4°C (40°F) compared to 23°C (73°F) (Klieger 1958).
Air-Entrained Concrete

Small amounts of a set accelerating admixture can be used Entrained air is particularly desirable in any concrete that
to accelerate the setting and early-age strength will be exposed to freezing weather while in service.
development of concrete in cold weather. Set accelerators Concrete that is not air entrained can suffer strength loss
containing chlorides should not be used where there is an and internal as well as surface damage as a result of
in-service potential for corrosion, such as in concrete freezing and thawing (Figure 17-10). Air entrainment
members containing steel reinforcement or where provides the capacity to absorb stresses due to ice
aluminum or galvanized inserts will be used. Chlorides are formation within the concrete.
not recommended for concretes exposed to soil or water 400
containing sulfates or for concretes susceptible to alkali-
aggregate reaction.
Cured normally
Set accelerators must not be used as a substitute for proper (never frozen )

curing and frost protection. Specially designed accelerating

Percentage of the strength at 7 days

300
admixtures allow concrete to be placed at temperatures
down to -7°C (20°F). The purpose of these admixtures is to
reduce the time of initial setting, but not necessarily to Frozen dry
speed up strength gain. Covering concrete to keep out 200
moisture and to retain heat of hydration is still necessary.
Furthermore, traditional antifreeze solutions, as used in
automobiles, should never be used. The quantity of these
Frozen wet
materials needed to appreciably lower the freezing point of
concrete is so great that strength and other properties can 100
be seriously affected.

Since the goal of using special concrete mixtures during

cold weather concreting is to reduce the time of setting, a
0
low water-cement ratio, low-slump concrete is particularly 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
desirable, especially for cold-weather flatwork. In addition, Number of cycles of freezing and thawing
bleed water is minimized so that finishing can be

330

Figure 17-10. Effect of freezing and thawing on strength of
concrete that does not contain entrained air (cured 7 days before
first freeze) (Powers 1956).
Air entrainment should always be used for construction
during the freezing months. The exception is concrete
work done under roof where there is no chance that rain,
snow, or water from other sources can saturate the
concrete and where there is no chance of freezing. See
Chapters 7 and 11 for more information on air-entraining
admixtures and freeze-thaw resistance of concrete due to
air-entrainment.
There is a likelihood of water saturating a concrete floor
during construction. Figure 17-11 shows conditions in the
upper story of an apartment building during winter
construction. Snow accumulated on the top deck and when
heaters were used below to warm the deck below, then the
snow melted. Water ran through floor openings down to a
level that was not being heated. The watersaturated
concrete froze, which caused a strength loss, particularly at
the floor surface. This could also result in greater deflection
of the floor and a surface that is less wear-resistant than
originally designed. Steel trowelled (burnished) floor
finishes should not be used when entrained air content is
specified for slabs. Entrained air may promote blistering
and delamination of the slab surface. In addition, the
intense energy applied to the slab surface densifies that
surface, removing the entrained air content leaving the
surface vulnerable to surface scaling deterioration in cold
weather conditions.
Figure 17-11. Example of a concrete floor that was saturated with
rain, snow, or water and then frozen, showing the need for air
entrainment.
Temperature of Concrete
Temperature of Concrete as Mixed
The temperature of fresh concrete as mixed should not be
less than shown in Lines 1, 2, or 3 of Table 17-1 for the
331
Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting
respective thickness of section. Note that lower concrete
temperatures are recommended for more massive
concrete sections because heat generated during
hydration is dissipated less rapidly in heavier sections. Also
note that at lower ambient air temperatures more heat is
lost from concrete during transporting and placing.
Therefore, the recommended concrete temperatures as
mixed are higher for colder weather.
There is little advantage in using fresh concrete at a
temperature much above 21°C (70°F). Higher concrete
temperatures do not afford proportionately longer
protection from freezing because the rate of heat loss is
greater. Also, high concrete temperatures are undesirable
since they increase thermal shrinkage after hardening,
require more mixing water for the same slump, and
contribute to the possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking
(caused by rapid moisture loss through evaporation).
Therefore, the temperature of the concrete as mixed
should not be more than 8°C (15°F) above the minimum
recommended in Table 17-1.
Aggregate Temperature. The temperature of aggregates
varies with weather and type of storage. Aggregates usually
contain frozen lumps and ice when the temperature is
below freezing. Frozen aggregates must be thawed to avoid
aggregate pockets in the concrete after batching, mixing,
and placing. If thawing takes place in the mixer, excessively
high water contents in conjunction with the cooling effect
caused by melting ice must be considered.
At air temperatures consistently above -4°C (25°F) it is
seldom necessary to heat aggregates, the desired concrete
temperature can usually be obtained by heating only the
mixing water. At temperatures below freezing, in addition
to heating the mixing water, often only the fine aggregate
needs to be heated to produce concrete of the required
temperature, provided the coarse aggregate is free of
frozen lumps.
Three of the most common methods for heating aggregates
are: (1) storing in bins or weigh hoppers heated by steam
coils or live steam; (2) storing in silos heated by hot air or
steam coils; and (3) stockpiling over heated slabs, steam
vents, or pipes. Although heating aggregates stored in bins
or weigh hoppers is most commonly used, the volume of
aggregate that can be heated is often limited and quickly
consumed during production. Circulating steam through
pipes over which aggregates are stockpiled is a
recommended method for heating aggregates. Stockpiles
can be covered with tarpaulins to retain and distribute heat
and to prevent formation of ice. Live steam, preferably at
pressures of 500 kPa to 900 kPa (75 psi to 125 psi), can be
injected directly into the aggregate pile to heat it, but the
resultant variable moisture content in aggregates might
result in erratic mixing-water control and must be
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
accurately measured and accounted for in batching. Avoid
heating methods that may promote hot spots in the
aggregates of greater than 100°C (212°F) or average
temperatures greater than 65°C (150°F).
Ta, Ts, Tc, Tw, and Tws and Twa = temperature in degrees
Celsius (Fahrenheit) of the coarse aggregate, sand, cement,
added mixing water, and free moisture on sand and free
moisture on coarse aggregate;

Table 17-1. Recommended Concrete Temperature for Cold-Weather Construction – Air-Entrained Concrete*
Thickness of sections, mm
(in.)

Less than 300 to 900 900 to 1800 Over

300 (12) (12 to 36) (36 TO 72) 1800
Line Condition (72)

1 Minimum temperature of Above -1°C (30°F) 16°C (60°F) 13°C (55°F) 10°C (50°F) 7°C (45°F)
fresh concrete as mixed for
2 weather indicated. -18°C to -1°C (0°F to 30°F) 18°C (65°F) 16°C (60°F) 13°C (55°F) 10°C (50°F)

3 Below -18°C (0°F) 21°C (70°F) 18°C (65°F) 16°C (60°F) 13°C (55°F)

4 Minimum temperature of fresh concrete as placed and 13°C (55°F) 10°C (50°F) 7°C (45°F) 5°C (40°F)
maintained.**
* Adapter from Table 5.1 of ACI 306R-10.
** Placement temperatures listed are for normal-weight concrete. Lower temperatures cn be used for lightweight concrete if justified by
tests.
generally Ts = Tws and Ta = Twa
For recommended duration of temperatures in Line 4, see Table
17-3. Ma, Ms, Mc, Mw, Mws and Mwa = mass in kilograms
(pounds) of the coarse aggregate, sand, cement, mixing
On small jobs aggregates can be heated by stockpiling water, free moisture on sand, and free moisture on
over metal culvert pipes in which fires are maintained. coarse aggregate
Care should be taken to prevent scorching the aggregates.
If the weighted average temperature of aggregates and
Mixing-Water Temperature. Of the ingredients used to cement is above 0°C (32°F), the proper mixing water
make concrete, mixing water is the easiest and most temperature for the required concrete temperature can be
practical to heat. The mass of aggregates and cement in selected from Figure 17-12. The range of concrete
concrete is much greater than the mass of water. temperatures in the chart corresponds with the
However, water can store about five times as much heat recommended values given in Lines 1, 2, and 3 of Table 17-
per unit weight as can cement and aggregate. For cement 1.
and aggregates, the average specific heat (that is, heat
units required to raise the temperature 1°C (1°F) per kg
(lb) of material) can be assumed as 0.925 kJ (0.22 Btu)
compared to 4.187 kJ (1.0 Btu) for water.

Figure 17-12 shows the effect of temperature of materials

on temperature of fresh concrete. The chart is based on
equation 1.

[0.22(TaMa+TsMs+TcMc)+TwMw+TwsMws+TwaMwa
T=
[0.22(Ma+Ms+Mc)+Mw+Mws+Mwa] (Eq. 1)
Where:

T = temperature in degrees Celsius (Fahrenheit) of the

fresh concrete

332
 Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting
Weighted average temperature
° of Temperature Loss During Delivery
aggregates and cement, F
40 50 60 70 Temperature loss during haul time may be an issue when
180
Mix data: delivery times approaching or greater than 1 hour are
78 Aggregate = 1360 kg (3000 lb)
Moisture in aggregate = 27 kg (60 lb) anticipated. The following equations may be used to
Added mixing water = 108 kg (240 lb)
Portland cement = 256 kg (564 lb) estimate temperature loss. These equations accommodate
70 160 the adjustments to initial temperature to assure minimum
Mixing water temperature, C

Mixing water temperature, F

temperature requirements at delivery. Adjust the values

°
°

Concrete temperature proportionally for times less or greater than 1 hour (ACI
62 °
24 °C 140 306-10).
(75 F)
For revolving drum mixers T = 0.25 (tr – ta)
54 °
20 °C For covered-dump body T = 0.10 (tr – ta)
(68 F)

° 120 For open-dump T = 0.15 (tr – ta)

46 16 °C
(61 F) Where:
°
12 °C tr – Is required delivery temperature in degrees Celsius
38 (54 F) 100 or Fahrenheit
°
8 C°
30 (46 F) ta – Is required air temperature in degrees Celsius or
Fahrenheit
80
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Weighted average temperature
° of
Temperature of Concrete as Placed and Maintained
aggregates and cement, C
The concrete should be placed in the forms before its
temperature drops below that given on Line 4 of Table 17-
Figure 17-12. Temperature of mixing water needed to
produce heated concrete of required temperature. 1. That temperature should be maintained for the duration
Temperatures are based on the mixture shown but are of the protection period given in Chapter 15 under Curing
reasonably accurate for other typical mixtures. Period and Temperature.

Cooling After Protection

When the temperature of one or more of the aggregates is
below 0°C (32°F) the free moisture on the aggregates will To avoid cracking of the concrete due to sudden
freeze, equation 1 can be modified to account for the temperature change at the end of the curing period, ACI
additional heat required to return the frozen free moisture Committee 306 requires that the source of heat and cover
to a thawed moist state. protection be slowly removed. The maximum allowable
temperature drop during the first 24 hours after the end of
Si units – substitute Mws(0.5Ts – 80) for TsMws the protection is given in Table 17-2. The temperature
drops apply to surface temperatures. Notice that the
substitute Mwa(0.5Ta – 80) for TaMwa
cooling rates for surfaces of mass concrete (thick sections)
Inch pounds – substitute Mws(0.5Ts – 128) for TsMws are lower than they are for thinner members.
substitute Mwa(0.5Ta – 128) for TaMwa Table 17-2. Maximum Allowable Temperature Drop During First
24 Hours After End of Protection Period*
To avoid the possibility of a quick or flash set of the Section size, minimum dimensions, mm (in.)
concrete when either water or aggregates are heated to Less than 300 to 900 900 to 1800 Over
above 38°C (100°F), they should be combined in the mixer 300 (12) (12 to 36) (36 to 72) 1800
first, before the cement is added. If this mixer-loading (72)
sequence is followed, water temperatures up to the boiling 27°C (50°F) 22°C (40°F) 17°C (30°F) 11°C (20°F)
point can be used, provided the aggregates are cold *Adapted from Table 5.1 of ACI 306R-10.
enough to reduce the final temperature of the aggregates
and water mixture to appreciably less than 38°C (100°F).
Monitoring Concrete Temperature
Fluctuations in mixing-water temperature from batch to
batch should be avoided. The temperature of the mixing Calibrated thermometers are needed to check the concrete
water can be adjusted by blending hot and cold water. temperatures as delivered, as placed, and as maintained.An
inexpensive pocket thermometer is shown in Figure 17-13.

333
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
Figure 17-13. A bimetallic pocket thermometer with a metal
sensor suitable for checking fresh concrete temperatures.
After the concrete has hardened, temperatures can be
checked with special surface thermometers or with an
ordinary thermometer that is kept covered with insulating
blankets. A simple way to check temperature below the
concrete surface is shown in Figure 17-14. Instead of filling
the hole shown in Figure 17-14 with a fluid, it can be fitted
with insulation. In that application the bulb would remain
exposed.
Thermometer
Gasket stopper
Surface of concrete
Water or
alcohol
Drilled or
preformed
hole
Figure 17-14. Scheme for measuring concrete temperatures below
the surface with a glass thermometer.
Concrete test cylinders must be maintained at a
temperature between 16°C (60°F) and 27°C (80°F) at the
jobsite for up to 48 hours until they are taken to a
laboratory for curing (ASTM C31, Standard Practice for
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
or AASHTO
T 23). For concrete mixtures with a specified strength of 40
MPa (6,000 psi) or greater, the initial curing temperature
shall be between 20°C and 26°C (68°F and 78°F). During
this period, cylinders should be kept in a curing box and
covered with a nonabsorptive, nonreactive plate or
impervious plastic bag. The temperature in the box should
be accurately controlled by a thermostat (Figure 17-15).
When stored in an insulated curing box outdoors, cylinders
334
are less likely to be disturbed by vibrations than if left on
the floor of a trailer. If kept in a trailer the heat may be
inadvertently turned off at night or over a weekend or
holiday in cold weather conditions. In that case, the
cylinders would not be at the prescribed curing
temperatures during this critical period.
Cylinders stripped of molds after the first 24±8 hours must
be wrapped tightly in plastic bags or laboratory curing
started immediately. When cylinders with strengths less
than 40 MPa (6000 psi) are picked up for delivery to the
laboratory, they must be maintained at a temperature of
16°C (60°F) to 27°C (80°F) until they are placed in the
laboatory curing room. Cylinders with strengths of 40 MPa
(6000 psi) or greater must be maintained at a temperature
of 20°C (68°F) to 26°C (78°F) (ASTM C31).
Figure 17-15. Insulated curing box with thermostat for curing test
cylinders. Heat is supplied by electric rubber heating mats on the
bottom. A wide variety of designs are possible for curing boxes.
In addition to laboratory cured cylinders, it is useful to field
cure some test cylinders in order to monitor actual jobsite
curing conditions in cold weather. It is sometimes difficult
to find the right locations for field curing. Differences in the
surface to volume ratios between cylinders and the
structure, in conjunction with differences in mass, make
correlating field cured cylinder strengths to in-place
strengths difficult. A preferred location is in a boxout in a
floor slab or wall with thermal insulation for cover. When
placed on a formwork ledge just below a heated,
suspended floor, possible high temperatures there will not
duplicate the average temperature in the slab, or the
lowest temperature on top of the slab. Still, field cured
cylinders are more indicative of actual concrete strength
than laboratory-cured cylinders. Particular care should be
taken to protect compressive strength test cylinders from
freezing; their small mass may not generate enough heat of
hydration to protect them.
Cast-in-place cylinders (ASTM C873, Standard Test Method
for Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders Cast in
Place in Cylindrical Molds) and nondestructive testing

methods (see Chapter 18) as well as maturity techniques
(discussed later in this chapter) are helpful in monitoring in
place concrete strength.
Concreting on Ground During Cold Weather
Concreting on ground during cold weather involves some
extra preparation. Placing concrete on the ground involves
different procedures than those used at an upper level: (1)
the ground must be thawed before placing concrete;
(2) cement hydration will furnish some of the curing heat;
(3) construction of enclosures is much simpler and use of
insulating blankets may be sufficient; (4) in the case of a
floor slab, a vented heater is required if the area is
enclosed; and (5) hydronic heaters can be used to thaw
subgrades using insulated blankets or to heat enclosures
without concern for carbonation. For more on hydronic
heaters, see Heaters later in this chapter.
Once cast, footings should be backfilled as soon as possible
with unfrozen fill. Concrete should never be placed on a
frozen subgrade or backfilled with frozen fill. Once these
frozen materials thaw, uneven settlements may occur and
cause cracking.
Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting
surface imperfections that might occur on exterior concrete
placed in late fall and winter, many concrete contractors
choose to delay concrete placement until spring. By waiting
until spring, temperatures will be more favorable for
cement hydration; this will help generate adequate
strengths along with sufficient drying so the concrete can
resist freeze-thaw damage.
Concreting Above Ground During Cold
Weather
Working above ground in cold weather usually involves
several different approaches in comparison to work at
ground level:
1. The concrete mixture may not need to be changed to
generate more heat because portable heaters can be
used to heat the undersides of floor and roof slabs.
However, there are advantages to having a mix that
will produce a high strength at an early age; for
example, artificial heat can be cut off sooner (see
Table 17-3), and forms can be recycled faster.
2. Enclosures must be constructed to retain the heat
under floor and roof slabs.

ACI Committee 306 requires that concrete not be placed on 3. Portable heaters used to warm the underside of
any surface that would lower the temperature of the formed concrete can be direct fired heating units
concrete in place below the minimum values shown on Line (without venting).
4 in Table 17-1. In addition, concrete placement Before placing concrete, the heaters under a formed deck
temperatures should not be higher than these minimum should be turned on to preheat the forms and melt any
values by more than 11°C (20°F) to reduce rapid moisture snow or ice remaining on top. Temperature requirements
loss and the potential development of plastic shrinkage
cracks. Table 17-3A. Recommended Duration of Concrete Protection in
Cold
When the subgrade is frozen to a depth of approximately Weather – Air-Entrained Concrete*
80 mm (3 inches), the surface region can be thawed by (1)
High-
steaming; (2) spreading a layer of hot sand, gravel, or other Conventional earlystrength
granular material where the grade elevations allow it; (3) concrete,** concrete,†
removing and replacing with unfrozen fill; (4) covering the Service category days days
subgrade with insulation for a few days; or (5) using
No load, not exposed‡
hydronic heaters under insulated blankets. Placing concrete
favorable moist-curing 2 1
for floor slabs and exposed footings should be delayed until
the ground thaws and warms sufficiently to ensure that it No load, exposed, but later
will not freeze again during the protection and curing has favorable moist-curing 3 2
period.
Partial load, exposed 6 4
Slabs can be cast on ground at ambient temperatures as
Fully stressed, exposed See Table B below
low as 2°C (35°F) as long as the minimum concrete
temperature as placed is not less than shown on Line 4 of Table 17-3B. Recommended Duration of Concrete Protection for
Fully
Table 17-1. Although surface temperatures need not be
Stressed, Exposed, Air-Entrained Concrete
higher than a few degrees above freezing, they also should
preferably not be more than 5°C (10°F) higher than the Required Days at 10°C (50°F) Days at 21°C (70°F)
percentage
minimum placement temperature. The duration of curing of Type of Type of
should not be less than that described in Chapter 15 for the standard- hydraulic hydraulic
appropriate exposure classification. Because of the risk of cement cement

335
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
cured I or II or III I or II or III When slab finishing is completed, insulating blankets or
28-day GU MH or GU MH or other insulation must be placed on top of the slab to
strength HE HE ensure that proper curing temperatures are maintained.
The insulation value (R) necessary to maintain the concrete
50 6 9 3 4 6 3
65 11 14 5 8 10 4 surface temperature of walls and slabs above ground at
85 21 28 16 16 18 12 10°C (50°F) or above for 7 days may be estimated from
95 29 35 26 23 24 20 Figure 17-16. To maintain a temperature for longer periods,
* Adapted from Table 7.1 of ACI 306-10. Cold weather is defined
more insulation is required. ACI 306 has additional graphs
as when the temperature has, or is expected to, fall below 4°C and tables for slabs placed on ground at a temperature of
(40°F). For recommended concrete temperatures, see Table 17-1. 2°C (35°F). Insulation can be selected based on R values
For concrete that is not air entrained, ACI Committee 306 states provided by insulation manufacturers or by using the
that protection for durability should be at least twice the number information in Table 17-4.
of days listed in Table A.
Part B was adapted from Table 8.2 of ACI 306R-10. The
values shown are approximations and will vary according to
the thickness of concrete, mix proportions, and so on. They
are intended to represent the ages at which supporting forms
can be removed. For recommended concrete temperatures, see
Table 17-1.
** Made with ASTM C150 Type I, II, or C1157 GU, or MH
hydraulic cement.
† Made with ASTM C150Type III or C1157 HE hydraulic
cement, an accelerator, or an extra 60 kg/m3 (100 lb/yd3) of
cement.
‡ “Exposed” means subject to freezing and thawing.

for surfaces in contact with fresh concrete are the same as

those outlined in Concreting on Ground During Cold
Weather. Metallic embedments at temperatures below the
freezing point may result in local freezing that decreases
the bond between concrete and steel reinforcement. ACI
Committee 306 suggests that a reinforcing bar having a
cross-sectional area of about 650 mm2 (1 in.2) should have a
temperature of at least -12°C (10°F) immediately before
being surrounded by fresh concrete at a temperature of at
least 13°C (55°F). Caution and additional study are required
before definitive recommendations can be formulated.
Good concrete placement practice suggests heating
surfaces of formwork and large embedments to no more
than 5°C (10°F) above and no less than 8°C (15°F) below
the temperature of the concrete mixture. See ACI 306 for
additional information.

336
 Wall or slab thickness, in.

0 12 24 0 12 24 0 12 24

Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting

10 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
50
R= Wall or slab thickness, mm
0.3 R= R
5 5 (2) 0.3 =0 40
5( .35
2)
R (2)
0 =
0. 30
70

R
(4

R
)

0.

=
-5

70
R

0.
70
=

(4
20
Minimum ambient temperature, C

1.

Minimum ambient temperature, F

R

(4
06

°
°

=1

)
-10

(6

.06
10

)
R

R=
(6)
=1
-15 .41

1.0
0

R=

6(
(8)

-20

6)
1.4
1
-10

(8)
-25

R=
1.4
-20
-30

1 (8
)
-30
-35

-40 -40
Cement content Cement content Cement content
237 kg/m3 296 kg/m3 356 kg/m3
-45 (500 lb/yd3) -50
(400 lb/yd3) (600 lb/yd3)

-50
Figure 17-16. Thermal resistance (R) of insulation required to maintain the concrete surface
temperature of walls and slabs aboveground at 10°C (50°F) or above for 7 days. Concrete temperature as placed: 10°C (50°F). Maximum
wind velocity: 24 km/h (15 mph). Note that in order to maintain a certain minimum temperature for a longer period of time, more insulation
or a higher R value is required (adapted from ACI 306).
When concrete strength development is not determined, a
conservative estimate can be made if adequate protection
at the recommended temperature is provided for the
duration of time found in Table 17-3. However, the actual
amount of insulation and length of the protection period
should be determined from the monitored in place
concrete temperature and the desired strength. A
correlation between curing temperature, curing time, and
compressive strength can be determined from laboratory
testing of the particular concrete mixture used in the field
(see Maturity Concept). Corners and edges are
particularly vulnerable during cold weather. As a result, the
thickness of insulation for these areas, especially on
columns, should be about three times the thickness that is
required for walls or slabs. On the other hand, if the
ambient temperature rises much above the temperature
assumed in selecting insulation values, the temperature of
the concrete may become excessive. This increases the
probability of thermal shock and cracking when forms are
removed. Temperature readings of insulated concrete
should therefore be taken at regular intervals and should
not vary from ambient air temperatures by more than the
values given in ACI 306. The maximum temperature
-60
differential between the concrete interior and the concrete
surface should be about 20°C (35°F) to minimize cracking.
The weather forecast should be checked and appropriate
action taken for expected temperature changes.
Columns and walls should not be cast on foundations at
temperatures below 0°C (32°F) because chilling of
concrete in the bottom of the column or wall will retard
strength development. Concrete should not be placed on
any surface that would lower the temperature of the as-
placed concrete below the minimum values shown on
Line 4 in Table 17-1.
Enclosures
Heated enclosures are very effective for protecting
concrete in cold weather, but are expensive (Figure 17-17).
Enclosures can be of wood, canvas tarpaulins, or
polyethylene film (Figure 17-18). Prefabricated, rigid plastic
enclosures are also available. Plastic enclosures that admit
daylight are the most popular but temporary heat in these
enclosures can prove expensive.

Table 17-4. Insulation Values of Various Materials

Thermal resistance, R, for 10-mm (1-in.)
thickness of material,* (m2 • K)/W ([°F • hr • ft2]/
Material Density kg/m3 (lb/ft3) Btu)

337
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001

Board and slabs

Expanded polyurethane 24 (1.5)
Expanded polystyrene, extruded smooth-silk surface 29 to 56 (1.8 to 3.5)
Expasnded polystyrene, extruded cut-cell surface 29 (1.8)
Glass fiber, organic bonded 64 to 144 (4 to 9) 0.437 (6.25)
Expanded polystyrene, molded beads 16 (1) 0.347 (5.0) 0.277
Mineral fiber with resin binder 240 (15) (4.0)
Mineral fiberboard, wet felted 256 to 272 (16 to 17) 0.277 (4.0)
Vegetable fiberboard sheathing Cellular 288 (18) 0.247 (3.85) 0.239
glass 136 (8.5) (3.45) 0.204 (2.94)
Laminated paperboard 480 (30) 0.182 (2.64) 0.201
Particle board (low density) 590 (37) (2.86) 0.139 (2.00)
Plywood 545 (34) 0.128 (1.85) 0.087
Loose fill (1.24)
Wood fiber, soft woods 32 to 56 (2.0 to 3.5)
Perlite (expanded) 80 to 128 (5.0 to 8.0) 0.231 (3.33) 0.187
Vermiculite (exfoliated) 64 to 96 (4.0 to 6.0) (2.70) 0.157 (2.27)
Vermiculite (exfoliated) 112 to 131 (7.0 to 8.2) 0.148 (2.13)
Sawdust or shavings 128 to 240 (8.0 to 15.0) 0.154 (2.22)

Thermal resistance, R, for 10-mm (1-in.)

thickness of material,* (m2 • K)/W ([°F • hr • ft2]/
Material Density kg/m3 (lb/ft3) Btu)

Mineral fiber blanket, fibrous form 50 to 70 (2 to 2.75) 1.23 (7)

(rock, slag, or glass) 75 to 85 (3 to 3.5) 1.90 (11)
5 to 32 kg/m3 (0.3 to 2 lb/ft3) 90 to 165 (5.5 to 6.5) 3.34 (19)
Mineral fiber loose fill (rock, slag, or glass) 95 to 125 (3.75 to 5) 1.90 (11) 3.34
10 to 32 kg/m3 (0.6 to 2 lb/ft3) 165 to 220 (6.5 to 8.75) (19)
190 to 250 (7.5 to 10) 3.87 (22)
260 to 350 (10.25 to 13.75) 5.28 (30)
* Values are from ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Enginers, Inc.,
New York, 1977 and 1981.
R valuesare the reciprocalof U values (conductivity).

Figure17-17. Evenin the winter,an outdoorswimmingpool

can be constructed i a heated enclosure is used.
f

Figure 17-18. (top) Tarpaulin heated enclosure maintains an adequate

temperature for proper curing and protection during severe and prolonged
winter weather. (bottom) Polyethylene plastic sheets admitting daylight
are used to fully enclose a building frame. The temperature inside is
maintained at 10°C (50°F) with space heaters.

338

When enclosures are being constructed below a deck, the
framework can be extended above the deck to serve as a
windbreak. Typically, a height of 2 m (6 ft) will protect
concrete and construction personnel against biting winds
that cause temperature drops and excessive evaporation.
Wind breaks may be taller or shorter depending on
anticipated wind velocities, ambient temperatures, relative
humidity, and concrete placement temperatures.
Enclosures can be quickly transported using flying forms;
more often, though, they must be removed so that the
wind will not interfere with maneuvering the forms into
position. Similarly, enclosures can be built in large panels
with the windbreak included; much like gang forms (Figure
17-1).
Insulating Materials
Heat and moisture can be retained in the concrete by
covering it with commercial insulating blankets or batt
insulation (Figure 17-19). The effectiveness of insulation
can be determined by placing a thermometer under it and
in contact with the concrete. If the temperature falls below
the minimum required on Line 4 in Table 17-1, additional
insulating material, or material with a higher R value,
should be applied. Corners and edges of concrete are most
vulnerable to freezing. In view of this, temperatures at
these locations should be checked more often.
Figure 17-19. Stack of insulating blankets. These blankets trap
heat and moisture in the concrete, providing beneficial curing.
The thermal resistance (R) values for common insulating
materials are given in Table 17-4. For maximum efficiency,
insulating materials should be kept dry and in close contact
with concrete or formwork.
Concrete pavements can be protected from cold weather
by spreading 300 mm (1 ft) or more of dry straw or hay on
the surface for insulation. Tarpaulins, polyethylene film, or
339
Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting
waterproof paper should be used as a protective cover over
the straw or hay to make the insulation more effective and
prevent it from blowing away. The straw or hay should be
kept dry or its insulation value will drop considerably.
Insulating blankets for construction are made of fiberglass,
sponge rubber, open cell polyurethane foam, vinyl foam,
mineral wool, or cellulose fibers. The outer covers are
made of canvas, woven polyethylene, or other tough
fabrics that will withstand rough handling. The R value for a
typical insulating blanket is about 1.2 m2• °C/W for 50 to 70
mm thickness, (7°F • hr • ft2)/Btu, but since R values are not
marked on the blankets, their effectiveness should be
checked with a thermometer. If necessary, they can be used
in multiple layers to attain the desired insulation.
Stay-in-place insulating concrete forms (ICF) became
popular for cold-weather construction in the 1990s (Figure
17-20). Gajda (2002) showed that ICFs can be used to
successfully place concrete in ambient temperatures as low
as -29°C (-20°F). Forms built for repeated use often can be
economically insulated with commercial blanket or batt
insulation. The insulation should have a tough moisture
proof covering to withstand handling abuse and exposure
to the weather. Rigid insulation can also be used (Figure 17-
21).
Figure 17-20. Insulating concrete forms (ICF) permit concreting
in cold weather.
Heaters
Three types of heaters are used in cold weather concrete
construction: direct fired, indirect fired, and hydronic
systems (Figures 17-22 to 17-25). Indirect fired heaters are
vented to remove the products of combustion. Where heat
is supplied to the top surface of fresh concrete – for
example, a floor slab – vented heaters are required. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the exhaust must be vented to the outside
and prevented from reacting with the fresh concrete
(Figure 17-23). Direct fired units can be used to heat the
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
enclosed space beneath concrete placed for a floor or a Figure 17-22. Two types of air heaters.
roof deck (Figure 17-24).

Figure 17-23. An indirect-fired heater. Notice vent pipe that

carries combustion gases outside the enclosure.

Figure 17-21. With air temperatures down to -23°C (-10°F),

concrete was cast in this insulated column form made of 19-mm
(3⁄4-in.) highdensity plywood inside, 25-mm (1-in.) rigid
polystyrene in the middle, and 13-mm (1⁄2-in.) rough plywood
outside. R value: 1.0 m2 • °C/W (5.6 [°F • hr • ft2]/Btu).

Figure 17-24. A direct-fired heater installed through the enclosure,

thus using a fresh air supply.

Any heater burning a fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide

(CO2); this gas will combine with calcium hydroxide on the
surface of fresh concrete to form a weak layer of calcium
carbonate that interferes with cement hydration (Kauer
and Freeman 1955). The result is a soft, chalky surface
that will dust under traffic. Depth and degree of
carbonation depend on concentration of CO2, curing
temperature, humidity, porosity of the concrete, length of
exposure, and method of curing. Direct-fired heaters,
therefore, should not be permitted to heat the air over
concreting operations – at least until 24 hours have

340

elapsed. In addition, the use of gasoline-powered
construction equipment should be restricted in enclosures
during that time. If unvented heaters are used, immediate
wet curing or the use of a curing compound will minimize
carbonation.
Carbon monoxide (CO), another product of combustion, is
not usually a problem unless the heater is using
recirculated air. Four hours of exposure to 200 parts per
million of CO will produce headaches and nausea. Three
hours of exposure to 600 ppm can be fatal. The American
National Standard Safety Requirements for Temporary and
Portable Space Heating Devices and Equipment Used in the
Construction Industry (ANSI A10.10) limits concentrations
of CO to 50 ppm at worker breathing levels. The standard
also establishes safety rules for ventilation and the stability,
operation, fueling, and maintenance of heaters.
Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting
nearly eliminated as is the danger of accidentally
overheating the concrete and in potentially damaging long
term strength gain.
Typical applications for hydronic systems include thawing
and preheating subgrades. They are also used to cure
elevated and on-grade slabs, walls, foundations, and
columns. To heat a concrete element, hydronic heating
hoses are usually laid on or hung adjacent to the structure
and covered with insulated blankets and sometimes plastic
sheets. Usually, construction of temporary enclosures is not
necessary. Hydronic systems can be used over areas much
larger than would be practical to enclose. If a heated
enclosure is necessary for other work, hydronic hoses can
be sacrificed (left under a slab on grade) to make the slab a
radiant heater for the structure built above (Grochoski
2000).

A salamander is an inexpensive combustion heater

without a fan that discharges its combustion products
directly into the surrounding air; heating is accomplished
by radiation from its metal casing. Salamanders are fueled
by coke, oil, wood, or liquid propane. They are one form of
a direct-fired heater. A primary disadvantage of
salamanders is the high temperature of their metal casing;
a definite fire hazard. Salamanders should be placed so
that they will not overheat formwork or enclosure
materials. When placed on floor slabs, they should be
elevated to avoid scorching the concrete.

Some heaters burn more than one type of fuel. The

approximate heat values of fuels are as follows:
No. 1 fuel oil 37,700 kJ/L (135,000 Btu/gal)
Kerosene 37,400 kJ/L (134,000 Btu/gal)
Gasoline 35,725 kJ/L (128,000 Btu/gal)
Liquid-propane gas 25,500 kJ/L (91,500 Btu/gal)
Natural gas 37,200 kJ/m3 (1,000 Btu/ft3)
The output rating of a portable heater is usually the heat
content of the fuel consumed per hour. A rule of thumb is
that about 134,000 kJ are required for each 100 m3 (36,000
Btu for 10,000 ft3) of air to develop a 10°C (20°F)
temperature rise.
Figure 17-25. Hydronic system showing hoses (top) laying on
Hydronic systems transfer heat by circulating a glycol/ soil to defrost subgrade and (bottom) warming the forms while
water solution in a closed system of pipes or hoses (see fresh concrete is pumped in.
Figure 17-25). These systems transfer heat more efficiently
than forced air systems without the negative effects of
Electricity can also be used to cure concrete in winter. The
exhaust gases and drying of the concrete from air
use of large electric blankets equipped with thermostats is
movement. The specific heat of water/glycol solutions is
one method. The blankets can also be used to thaw
more than six times greater than air. As a result, hydronic
subgrades or concrete foundations.
heaters can deliver very large quantities of heat at low
temperature differentials of 5°C (10°F) or less between the Use of electrical resistance wires that are cast into the
heat transfer hose and the concrete. Cracking and curling concrete is another method. The power supplied is under
induced by temperature gradients within the concrete are 50 volts, and from 7.0 to 23.5 MJ (1.5 to 5 kilowatt-hours)

341
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
of electricity per cubic meter (cubic yard) of concrete is
required, depending on the circumstances. Where
electrical resistance wires are used, insulation should be
included during the initial setting period. If insulation is
removed before the recommended time, the concrete
should be covered with an impervious sheet and the power
continued for the required time.
Steam is another source of heat for winter concreting. Live
steam can be piped into an enclosure or supplied through
radiant heating units. In choosing a heat source, it must be
remembered that the concrete itself supplies heat through
hydration of cement; this is often enough for curing needs
provided the heat can be retained within the concrete
using insulation.
Duration of Heating
After concrete is in place, it should be protected and kept at
the recommended temperatures listed on Line 4 of Table
17-1. These curing temperatures should be maintained
until sufficient strength is gained to withstand exposure to
low temperatures, anticipated environment, and
construction and service loads. The length of protection
required to accomplish this will depend on the cement type
and amount, whether accelerating admixtures were used,
and the loads that must be carried. Recommended
minimum periods of protection are given in Table 17-3. The
duration of heating structural concrete requiring full service
loading before forms and shores are removed should be
based on the adequacy of in-place compressive strengths
rather than an arbitrary time period. If no data are
available, a conservative estimate of the length of time for
heating and protection can be made using Table 17-3.
Moist Curing
Strength gain stops when moisture required for hydration is
no longer available. Concrete retained in forms or covered
with insulation seldom loses enough moisture at 5°C to
13°C (40°F to 55°F) to impair curing. However, a positive
means of providing moist curing is needed to offset drying
from low wintertime humidity and from the dry air
produced by heaters used in enclosures during cold
weather.
Live steam exhausted into an enclosure around the
concrete is an excellent method of curing because it
provides both heat and moisture. Steam is especially
practical in extremely cold weather because the moisture
provided offsets the rapid drying that occurs when very
cold air is heated.
Liquid membrane forming compounds can be used for early
curing of concrete surfaces within heated enclosures.
342
Terminating the Heating Period
Rapid cooling of concrete at the end of the heating period
should be avoided. Sudden cooling of the concrete surface
while the interior is still warm may cause thermal cracking,
especially in massive sections such as bridge piers,
abutments, dams, and large structural members; thus
cooling should be gradual. A safe temperature differential
between a concrete wall and the ambient air temperature
can be obtained from ACI 306R-10. The maximum uniform
drop in temperature throughout the first 24 hours after the
end of protection should not be greater than the amounts
given in Table 17-2. Gradual cooling can be accomplished
by lowering the heat or by simply shutting off the heat and
allowing the heat to dissipate. Form Removal and
Reshoring
It is good practice in cold weather to leave forms in place as
long as possible. Even within heated enclosures, forms
serve to distribute heat more evenly and help prevent
drying and local overheating.
If the curing temperatures listed on Line 4 of Table 17-1
are maintained, Table 17-3A can be used to determine the
minimum time in days that vertical support for forms
should remain in place. Before shores and forms are
removed, fully stressed structural concrete should be
tested to determine if in-place strengths are adequate. In-
place strengths can be monitored using one of the
following: (1) field-cured cylinders (ASTM C31 or AASHTO
T 23); (2) probe penetration tests (ASTM C803, Standard
Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened
Concrete);
(3) cast-in-place cylinders (ASTM C873, Standard Test
Method for Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders
Cast in Place in Cylindrical Molds); (4) pullout testing
(ASTM C900, Standard Test Method for Pullout Strength of
Hardened
Concrete); or (5) maturity testing (ASTM C1074, Standard
Practice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the Maturity
Method). Many of these tests are indirect methods of
measuring compressive strength; they require correlation
in advance with standard cylinders before estimates of
inplace strengths can be made.
If in-place compressive strengths are not documented,
Table 17-3B lists conservative time periods in days to
achieve various percentages of the standard laboratory
cured 28-day strength. The engineer issuing project
drawings and specifications in cooperation with the
formwork contractor must determine what percentage of
the design strength is required (see ACI Committee 306R-
10). Vertical forms can be removed sooner than shoring
and temporary falsework (ACI Committee 347).
 Chapter 17 Cold Weather Concreting
Maturity Concept The Time-Temperature Factor method presents maturity in
terms of °C•hr. Most maturity equipment uses a datum
The maturity concept is based on the principle that temperature of 0°C, which further simplifies the
strength gain in concrete is a function of curing time and calculation. Given this simplification, maturity is typically
temperature. The maturity concept, as described in ACI calculated using metric units.
306R-10 and ASTM C1074 can be used to evaluate strength
To monitor the strength development of concrete in place
development. Two maturity methods to estimate the in-
using the maturity concept, the following information must
place concrete strength are shown in Table 17-5. The first
be available:
method is based on the Nurse-Saul function, also called
TimeTemperature Factor method. This method is simple 1. The strength-maturity relationship of the concrete
and very popular. However, it fails to recognize the fact that used in the structure. The results of compressive
maturity increases disproportionately at elevated strength tests at various ages on a series of cylinders
temperatures and that this increase depends on the type(s) made of a concrete similar to that used in the
of cementitious materials used and the water-to- structure; this must be done to develop a strength-
cementitious materials ratio. Therefore, the Time- maturity curve. These cylinders are cured in a
Temperature Factor method typically underestimates the laboratory at 23°C ± 2°C (73°F ± 3°F).
strength development at elevated temperatures. The 2. A time-temperature record of the concrete in place.
“Equivalent Age” maturity function is based on the Temperature readings are obtained by placing
Arrhenius equation; this function presents maturity in expendable thermistors or thermocouples at varying
terms of equivalent age of curing at a specified depths in the concrete. The location giving the lowest
temperature. values provides the series of temperature readings to
be used in the computation (Figure 17-26).
Table 17-5. Time-Temperature Factor and Equivalent Age
Maturity Equations See Figure 17-27 for an example using the maturity
° concept. Before construction begins, a calibration curve is
Time-Temperature M = maturity index, C-hours drawn plotting the relationship between compressive
Factor T = average concrete temperature, strength and the maturity factor for a series of test
∑ t cylinders (of the particular concrete mixture proportions)
°C, during the time interval t
M =(T–T0) cured in a laboratory and tested for strength at successive
t T0 = datum temperature (usually ages.
0 taken to be 0°C) t = elapsed
time, hours t= time intervals, The maturity concept is imprecise and somewhat limited.
hours However, the concept is useful in checking the curing of
concrete and in estimating strength in relation to time and
Equivalent te = equivalent age at the reference
temperature. It presumes that all other factors affecting
Age temperature
concrete strength have been properly controlled. With
  E = apparent activation energy, these limitations in mind, the maturity method has gained
J/mol (see ASTM C1074 for
∑ typical values)
greater acceptance as a surrogate for measuring the
te = t e–RE compressive strength of the concrete for removal of
T1r– R = universal gas constant, 8.314 shoring or opening a pavement to traffic. It is no substitute
 J/mol-K for quality control and proper concreting practices (Gajda
T1  t
T = average concrete temperature, 2007, Malhotra 1974, and ACI Committee 347).
0
Kelvin, during the time interval
t
Tr = absolute reference temperature,
Kelvin
t= time intervals, hours

343
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures EB001
Development Bulletin RD090, Portland Cement Association,
http://www.cement.org/pdf_files/RD090.pdf, 1986.

Grochoski, Chet, “Cold-Weather Concreting with

Hydronic Heaters,” Concrete International, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, April 2000,
pages 51 to 55.

Kauer, J.A., and Freeman, R.L., “Effect of Carbon Dioxide on

Fresh Concrete,” Journal of the American Concrete Institute
Proceedings, Vol. 52, December 1955, pages 447 to 454.
,American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan.
Discussion: December 1955, Part II, pages 1299 to 1304.
Klieger, Paul, Curing Requirements for Scale Resistance of
Figure 17-26. Downloading data from a maturity sensor Concrete, Research Department Bulletin RX082, Portland
embedded in a pavement. Cement Association, http://www.cement.org/pdf_
files/RX082.pdf, 1957.
Compressive strength,
MPa Compressive strength,
psi
6000
Klieger, Paul, Effect of Mixing and Curing Temperature on
40 Concrete Strength, Research Department Bulletin RX103,
35 5000 Portland Cement
30 Association, http://www.cement.org/ pdf_files/RX103.pdf,
25.3MPa(3675psi) Laboratory 4000
25 curve 1958.
20 3000
°
3600°C • hr
15 (6480F • hr) 2000
10 Malhotra, V.M., “Maturity Concept and the Estimation of
° 1000
5
1000
C • hours
3000 5000 7000 9000
Concrete Strength: A Review,” Parts I and II, Indian
Concrete Journal, Vol. 48, Associated Cement Companies,
2000 ° 4000 6000 800010000120001400016000
F • hours Ltd., Bombay, April and May 1974.
Maturity,
temperature
• hours

McNeese, D.C., “Early Freezing of Non-Air-Entrained

Figure 17-27. Maturity relation example.
References
ACI Committee 306, Cold-Weather Concreting, ACI 306R-
10, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Michigan, 2010, 30 pages.
ACI Committee 347, Guide to Formwork for Concrete, ACI
347-04, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
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