EP110 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY II

BEP1031 MATERIAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

& EG 104 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING I

NO. OF EXPERIMENT: 4

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: DETERMINING THE ENTHALPY OF

VAPORIZATION

NAME & ID: ARRIANNA PAULINA PETER 1002162633

GROUP: 6

DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 6 JUNE 2023

TUTOR: MS. RAFIZAH BINTI ZAITON

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY &
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
2023
Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Problem Statements ................................................................................................................................ 6
Hypothesis .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Materials and Apparatus ......................................................................................................................... 7
Procedure ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Results and Calculations ......................................................................................................................... 9
Discussion ............................................................................................................................................. 13
Limitations ............................................................................................................................................ 16
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Reference .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Appendix ............................................................................................................................................... 18
Rubrics .................................................................................................................................................. 20
Introduction
Vaporization, conversion of a substance from the liquid or solid phase into
the gaseous (vapour) phase. If conditions allow the formation of vapour bubbles within a
liquid, the vaporization process is called boiling. Direct conversion from solid to vapour is
called sublimation. As a liquid evaporates, the vapour molecules exert pressure on their
surroundings. This pressure is referred as vapour pressure. As the vapour pressure of a liquid
increases, the temperature increases. Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the force of
attraction between the molecules reduces. As a result, they escape into the surrounding in the
form of vapours. This process involves the consumption of heat energy. Boiling occurs when
vapour pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 . In order for a liquid molecule
to convert to a vapour molecule, energy must be added and is referred to as the enthalpy of
vaporization (Δ𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 ).

Figure 1: difference between boiling and evaporation

In the first part of this experiment, to determine the enthalpy of vaporization of water
by measuring vapour pressure at different temperatures. Vapour pressure does not increase
linearly as temperature increases. The boiling points of various liquids can be illustrated in
a vapor pressure curve (figure below). A vapor pressure curve is a graph of vapor pressure as
a function of temperature. To find the normal boiling point of liquid, a horizontal line is
drawn from the y-axis at a pressure equal to standard pressure. A vertical line starting at
the x-axis can be drawn connected to the point at which the standard pressure and the vapor
pressure curve of a liquid intersect—the corresponding temperature is the boiling point of
that liquid.
 Figure 2: Vapour pressure curves

In figure 2, instead vapour pressure data is suitable by using the Clausius- Clapeyron
equation:

−∆𝐻
𝑃 = 𝐴 × 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 (1)

Where P is the vapor pressure, ΔH is the enthalpy of vaporization, T is the temperature

(Kelvin, K), R is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol K and A is a constant with units of pressure.
By taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation, it will become:

∆𝐻 1
𝑙𝑛 𝑃 = 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 − ( 𝑅 ) (𝑇) (2)

1
Graphing ln P on the y-axis and 𝑇 on the x-axis with the result in a straight line with a slope
∆𝐻
of - . When doing the calculations, the partial pressure due to air in the graduated cylinder
𝑅

must be accounted for, by recalling Dalton’s law of partial pressures:

𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 (3)

The moles of air will be determined by taking a measurement at 5˚C, a temperature where
the vapor pressure of water should be negligible. According to the ideal gas law,
 𝑃𝑉
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = (4)
𝑅𝑇

Where P is the atmospheric pressure (torr), V is the volume of gas (mL), R is the ideal gas
constant (6.237 x 104 mL torr/ mol K), and T is the temperature (K). During

the experiment the partial pressure due to the air will be calculated for every volume-
temperature measurement:

𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = (5)
𝑉

Finally, the partial pressure of water vapour is calculated using the third equation, where Ptotal
is atmospheric pressure.

In the second part of this experiment, the enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfusion) of ice will be
determined through calorimetry. The enthalpy of fusion is the energy required to convert a
solid to a liquid. By measuring the temperature change of water in a calorimeter, the energy
absorbed by the ice from the water can be calculated.

𝑞𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚∆𝑇𝐶𝑝 (6)

Where q is the energy loss by the water, m is the mass of the water in the calorimeter. ΔT is
the temperature change of water and Cp is the heat capacity of water (4.184 J/g ˚C). the heat
absorbed by the ice is equal to the heat loss by water:

qice=-qwater (7)

The enthalpy of fusion can then be calculated using the following equation:
 𝑞𝑖𝑐𝑒
Δ𝐻 = (8)
𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑒

Objectives
1. To measure the vapour pressure of water as a function on temperature change.
1
2. To prepare a graph of ln P as a function of 𝑇 (𝐾).

3. To calculate the enthalpy of vaporization (Δ𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 ) of water.

4. To identify the expansion of the air inside the graduated cylinder.

Problem Statements
The importance to determine the enthalpy of vaporization is stated that when heat or
enthalpy is given to any liquid substance at a certain pressure and temperature, the liquid
changes into a gaseous form. Thus, a transformation from one state to another state occurs.

This experiment aims to determine whether heat is absorbed when liquid boils due to
the molecules which are held together by intermolecular attractive interactions and are jostled
free of each other as the gas is formed. Such separation requires energy in the form of heat. In
general, the energy needed differs from one liquid to another depending on the magnitude of
the intermolecular forces. It is expected that liquids with strong intermolecular forces to have
larger enthalpies of vaporization.

This experiment also shows an insight of identifying the expansion of air inside
the graduated cylinder when the water is boiled to 80˚C or cooled down until it reaches 28˚C.
In this experiment, the enthalpy of evaporation of water is able to be determined by using the
formulas provided. Lastly, for this experiment, it gives an insight on how to measure the
vapour pressure of water as a function on temperature change in order to plot a graph.

Hypothesis
When water is heated more and more, then at some point the boiling point is reached.
At this point, the state of matter changes and the water finally begins to vaporize (also
referred to as boiling). During vaporization, no further increase in temperature is observed for
water, despite the continued supply of heat energy. During vaporization, the energy obviously
no longer benefits the increase of the kinetic energy of the molecules, which would otherwise
mean an increase in temperature. As vapor pressure went up, so did the temperature. One
can also infer that increasing the temperature and thus, kinetic energy, increases the vapor
pressure and the rate at which random interactions occur.

By constructing a graph, the gradient of the slope which equals to the enthalpy of
vaporization experimentally and also theoretically. Thus, using the two calculated values, the
percentage error can be identified. The Clausius- Clapeyron equation used is able to help to
find the enthalpy of vaporization.

Materials and Apparatus

1L beaker, graduated cylinder, thermometer, metal ruler, ice, electrical heater, retort stand and
clamp

Figure 3: apparatus setup during the experiment

Procedure
1. A 10mL graduated cylinder was obtained and it was approximately filled with 9mL of
water.
2. A 1L beaker was filled approximately three- fourths with water.
3. The top of the graduated cylinder was covered with your finger and it was inverted
into the 1L beaker. The finger must not be released until the mouth of the graduated
cylinder has gone under the surface of the water in the beaker.
4. If the graduated cylinder was not covered with water yet, more water should be added
to the 1L beaker to cover it.
5. The difference between height of the water in the graduated cylinder and the height of
water in the beaker was measure using a ruler. A slight adjustment for the pressure
that the water has exerted on the air in the graduated cylinder will be provided by the
height measured.

Figure 4: experimental setup for measuring vapor pressure of water at different

temperature and atmospheric pressure
 6. The barometric pressure is recorded in mmHg.
7. The 1L beaker is heated using the electrical heater until the water was about 80 ˚C.
the experiment will have to be restarted using a smaller amount of air, if the air in the
cylinder has expanded past the scale on the graduated cylinder.

Figure 5: beaker is heated until reaches 80 ˚C

8. The temperature and the volume were recorded.

9. The beaker was cooled until the temperature reaches 50 ˚C and for every 5 ˚C, the
temperature and volume were recorded.

Results and Calculations

Graduated cylinders are designed to measure volume standing in upright position.
Since volume is measured in an inverted position, there will be a slight error, since the
meniscus of the water is also inverted. To account for this error, 0.20 mL is subtracted from
each measurement to give the corrected volume. Through the experiment, the value of
enthalpy of vaporization through experimentally and theoretically is calculated. It was
calculated by using the formulas given in the manual. For the experimental value, the
gradient was taken from the graph plotted. Then, we have also compared the values of Δ𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝
which we have obtained experimentally and theoretically. From this, the error in it by using
the formula given to calculate the percentage error can be computed.

Table 1: values collected and measured during the experiment

Temperature, Height of water, h (mm) Height Volume of Corrected Total

˚C cylinder beaker trapped trapped volume, pressure,
air, h air, V mL mmHg
(mm) (mL)
28 97.00 114.00 17.00 4.4 4.2 761.31
80 65.00 120.00 55.00 6.4 6.2 764.23
75 75.00 120.00 45.00 6.0 5.8 763.46
70 80.00 120.00 40.00 5.8 5.6 763.08
65 84.00 119.00 35.00 5.4 5.2 762.69
60 87.00 118.00 3100 5.2 5.0 762.38
55 87.00 117.00 30.00 5.0 4.8 762.31
50 87.00 115.00 28.00 4.8 4.6 762.15

Table 2: summary of tabulated values

Temperature, Corrected Partial Vapor 1 ln (Pwater)

(K-1)
𝑇
K volume, L pressure of pressure of
air, Pair water, Pwater
(mmHg) (mmHg)
301.15 4.2x10-3 761.30 0.01 3.32x10-3 -4.61
353.15 6.2x10-3 745.98 18.25 2.83x10-3 2.90
348.15 5.8x10-3 748.71 14.75 2.87x10-3 2.69
343.15 5.6x10-3 760.44 2.63 2.91x10-3 0.97
338.15 5.2x10-3 760.45 2.24 2.96x10-3 0.81
333.15 5.0x10-3 762.30 0.08 3.00x10-3 -2.53
328.15 4.8x10-3 762.33 -0.02 3.05x10-3 -
 323.15 4.6x10-3 762.33 -0.18 3.09x10-3 -

By using 28 ˚C as a reference for calculating the following,

1. Corrected volume = volume of trapped air (initial) – 0.2 mL

= 4.4- 0.2
=4.2 mL

1.00𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
2. Ptotal= Patm + [h (mm H2O) × ]
13.00𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
1.00𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 760mmHg + [17.00mm × 13.00𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔]

=761.3077mmHg
≈761.31mmHg

3. Moles of trapped air at 28 ˚C,

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑇

761.31𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
( )(4.2 ×10−3 )𝐿
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚
(0.08206 )(301.15𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾

𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.702 × 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

4. Partial pressure of air in the cylinder,

When 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.702 × 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠,
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑇
𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚
(1.702×10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠)(0.08206 )(301.15𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
= (4.2 ×10−3 )𝐿
× 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

= 761.30mmHg

5. 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟

= 761.31𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 − 761.30𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 0.01𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
 1
6. Graph ln P of water vs
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Based on the first equation, it can be seen that this equation fits a straight-line y = mx
+ b where y = ln P, x=1/T, and slope, m = -∆Hvap /R. In order to linearize the Clausius-
Clapeyron Equation, there is a need to obtain values of ln P and 1/T.

1
Figure 6: graph of ln P against 𝑇.

7. (a) Value of ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 experimentally:

From the equation, the slope defines the gradient which can be obtained.
∆𝐻𝑣 1
ln 𝑃 = − (𝑇 ) + 𝐶
𝑅

Where,
∆𝐻𝑣
The slope= gradient, m = 𝑅
∆𝑦 ∆𝐻𝑣
=−
∆𝑥 8.314
∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝
-843.33 =− 8.314

Δ𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 7011.47 J/mol

(b) value of ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 theoretically:

 𝑃1 ∆𝐻𝑣 1 1
= − ( − )
𝑃2 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1

where P1= 14.75mmHg at 348.15 K

P2= 2.24mmHg at 338.15 K

In atm,
14.75𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
P1= × 1𝑎𝑡𝑚
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

= 0.019 atm

2.24𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
P2= × 1𝑎𝑡𝑚
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

= 2.95 x 10-3 atm

0.019 atm ∆𝐻𝑣 1 1

= − ( − )
2.95 × 10−3 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐽 348.15𝐾 338.15𝐾
8.314
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
6.44 = −∆𝐻𝑣 (−7.06 × 10−4 )
−∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = −9119.09 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

8. Percentage error
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
7011.47−9119.09
= × 100%
7011.47

=30.05%

Discussion

The aim of this experiment is to determine the heat of vaporization of water by using
the Clausius- Clapeyron equation:

∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝
ln 𝑃 = − +𝐴
𝑅

Where P is the vapor pressure of the water and T is the temperature of the water in Kelvin, R
is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol. K) and A is a constant. The equation shows the relationship
1
between the natural log of the vapor pressure and the reciprocal of the temperature 𝑇, such
1 ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝
that by plotting ln P (y-axis) vs 𝑇 (x-axis) a straight line with a slope − occurs. For a
𝑅
substance to change its physical state from liquid to gas, there must have an addition of heat
to the substance. The added heat will initiate the molecules and break intermolecular
attractions, allowing the molecules to turn into gas. In the experiment, liquid tap water was
heated to a gas:

𝐻2𝑂 (𝑙) → 𝐻2𝑂 (𝑔)

The amount of energy per mole required to vaporise water in known as the enthalpy
of vaporization of water and that is what was calculated in the experiment. A liquid boil when
its vapor pressure matches the prevailing atmospheric pressure, so as atmospheric pressure
decreases, so does the temperature at which the liquid boils. Based on table 1 and 2, it is
evident that vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature. Hence, vapor pressure is
directly proportional to temperature. This is because at higher temperatures, the liquid has
more energy, and likewise there is a greater probability of the gas escaping, and the escaped
gas has more energy so it exerts a greater force on the container resulting to greater pressure.

The relatively high magnitude of vaporization enthalpy of water compared to other

liquids indicates a strong intermolecular force of attraction between water molecules due to
its hydrogen bonding. Since its value is positive, it was also verified in the experiment that
vaporization is endothermic or heat-absorbing.

In this experiment, it will reduce the apparent atmospheric pressure in a closed flask
of water and measure the boiling temperatures of the water under these different conditions of
apparent atmospheric pressure. A set of corresponding vapor pressure and temperature values
will be collected for the water under these conditions. The collected set of vapor pressure and
temperature data are then plotted in order to find the slope of the straight line so that ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝
can be calculated:

∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = −[𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒][𝑅]
Value listed for the molar heat of vaporization of water is

−∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = −9119.09 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙.

The liquid boils when its vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, we were
able to acquire vapor pressure data at different temperatures by reducing the pressure inside a
flask of water and gradually heating the water to determine its vapor pressure and respective
boiling temperature under conditions of lower apparent atmospheric pressure. The plot of ln P
1
vs 𝑇 produced a nearly straight line with a linear best fit shown by the equation y=-843.33x -

1.81. the slope of the line is related to the molar heat of vaporization of water:

∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = −[𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒][𝑅] . The calculated value of ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 =7011.47 J/mol was determined from
the slope of the plotted data. The theoretical value is ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 9119.09 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙.

Although the procedure was properly observed, the percentage error identified is
30.05% was obtained. This is due to the following reasons: The actual vapor pressure of
water near zero centigrade is not exactly 0mmHg as opposed to what is assumed since water
vapor still exists at this temperature. Thus, the recorded value for the amount of air in the
cylinder is somewhat greater than the actual. Though, this number is somewhat insignificant
compared to the 2 to 3 figure pressures from 50 to 80 C.

Another thing is that the water in the cylinder is not constantly equal to the water level
in the water bath. Water pressure changes considerably depending on the depth, and the gas
measurement could change visibly just by moving the cylinder up or down a few centimetres.
Hence, the pressure in the cylinder is not actually equal to the prevailing barometric pressure.
Pressure corrections should have been made to compensate the difference in water levels to
minimize this effect.
 On the other hand, water vapor does not behave exactly as ideal gas since there is a
strong attraction between water molecules and it was not carried out in very high temperature
and very low pressure. Van der Waals equation or Virial equation of state could have been
used to minimize this issue; however, this is a bit tedious. In addition, only one trial has been
performed and statistically, this is prone to errors. More accurate results would have been
obtained if more trials were made.

Limitations
First and foremost, parallax error had been encountered when measuring the height of
water in the cylinder and the beaker. Eyes are needed to pe positioned perpendicular to the
meniscus of the water while the other person taking the reading and measuring the height of
water. This makes it difficult to take the reading at the correct temperature. Besides that, there
are also external factors affecting the heating of water, such as wind. All the doors and
windows are made sure to be closed whereas the fans are turned off. The temperature rises or
descends when the thermometer is not in use. Furthermore, when there is water pouring out
of the 1L beaker as it began to overflow, it could influence the temperature of the system in a
way that cannot be accounted for.

The sources of error for the experiment could be as the following: experimental value,
where the data is calculated through excel but an error can occur from the digits used or
entered in the software, leading to an incorrect use of equation. This could also then lead to a
chain reaction of incorrect plotting, slope and y-intercept. Precision could be another error,
since there are two sets of data, we should note that there is a difference in results from the
sets. Henceforth, the average of the two sets should be taken due to the different numbers
from a difference in measuring the pressure and temperature. Precision could also factor
small decimal places in incorrect positions and incorrect calculations such as marginal errors.
This could also affect the slope and y-intercept as well as giving a different enthalpy than the
one being analysed. Without analysis of both data, measuring the pressure and temperature
ranges from person to person analysing the data, in addition to the difference in height of the
manometer, cusp of liquid and incorrect analysis of the end of evaluations. The temperature
measure could also affect precision since the temperatures could also been read wrongly. The
reading error from the used equipment or no combination of random errors can not be ruled
out as concluded or calculated for this experiment.

The theoretical value of ΔHvap is calculated is -9119.09 J/mol. When compared to the
experimental value which has been calculated and analysed, ΔHvap= 7011.47 J/mol, the
percentage error calculated is 30.05%. this error stays well in the 95% confidence interval in
the given value. However, it is considered a good sign, as it could mean there were hidden
random errors that cannot be identified properly. The most important source of error is the
assumption that air is an ideal gas. Air is a mixture of multiple elements, and is very far from
ideal in nature. Making such the assumption that air is ideal is not only a significant one to
take, but also affects the manner of calculation of the number of moles of air in the graduated
cylinder and the partial pressure of air, two values critical to determining the enthalpy of
vaporization.

Conclusion
From the experiment, the relationship between the vapor pressure of water and
temperature had been successfully managed to be identified. The calculation of the vapor
pressure of water is used with the formula PV =nRT. Then, using the values recorded, a graph
ln P against 1/T. From the graph, the vapor pressure of water will decrease as the temperature
decreases. By using the graph, the gradient of the slope which equals to the enthalpy of
vaporization experimentally and also theoretically. Thus, using the two calculated values, the
percentage error is able to be identified, which is 30.05%. The Clausius- Clapeyron equation
used is able to help to find the enthalpy of vaporization. Therefore, the objectives above have
met.

Reference
1. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "vaporization". Encyclopedia Britannica,
19 May. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/science/vaporization. Accessed 10 June
2023.
2. Byju’s, what is Vaporization? – Factors affecting Vaporization and Examples, 20 April
2023, https://byjus.com/chemistry/vaporization/
 3. Agha Rehan Abbas, 12 August 2014, Why do we obtain a sigmoid curve in vapour
pressure versus temperature graph [online], Available at:
https://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/15174/why-do-we-obtain-a-sigmoid-
curve-in-vapour-pressure-versus-temperature-graph
4. LibreTexts Chemistry : Vapor Pressure Curves, [online] Available at:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introductory_Chemi
stry_(CK-12)/13%3A_States_of_Matter/13.10%3A_Vapor_Pressure_Curves
5. LibreText Chemistry: the Clausius- Clapeyron Equation, [online], Available at:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbo
ok_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_(Fleming)/08%3A_Phase_Equilibrium/8.05%3A_The
_Clausius-Clapeyron_Equation
6. Tec-science, 2 June 2021, Specific latent heat of vaporization, available at:
https://www.tec-science.com/thermodynamics/heat/specific-heat-of-vaporization-
latent-heat/

Appendix

Figure 7: measuring the height of water in cylinder and beaker using ruler
 Rubrics

Arrianna Paulina Peter 1002162633