THERMOFLUID LABORATORY (BEP2021)

NO. OF EXPERIMENT: 2
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT/ PVT:
DETERMINATION OF RATIO OF VOLUME AND HEAT CAPACITY
(OPEN ENDED)
NAME: ARRIANNA PAULINA PETER 1002162633
ZHOU DAO 1002267122
HAMIZAN 1002165107
AGBO SIMON IFEANYI 1002162783
GROUP: 2
DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 22 JAN 2024
TUTOR: MS. RAFIZAH BINTI ZAITON

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & BUILT

ENVIRONMENT
Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3

Hypothesis .............................................................................................................................................. 6

Problem Statement .................................................................................................................................. 6

Objective ................................................................................................................................................. 6

Material and Apparatus ........................................................................................................................... 7

Procedure ................................................................................................................................................ 7

Results and Calculations ......................................................................................................................... 9

Discussion ............................................................................................................................................. 12

Limitations and Precautions .................................................................................................................. 13

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 14

Reference .............................................................................................................................................. 15

Appendix ............................................................................................................................................... 15

Rubrics .................................................................................................................................................. 23
Introduction
As indicated in Figure 1, the apparatus utilised on the left side is the pressurised chamber,
while on the right side is the vacuum chamber, which is separated by a valve. Assume the
instrument is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, which implies the temperature is
the same inside and outside.

Figure 1: drawing of gas chamber

This is a concept employed in perfect gas expansion, in which we will witness temperature
and pressure changes when the valve opens. When the valve is opened, the gas molecule
rushes from the pressure chamber to the vacuum chamber until the pressure, number of moles
of gas, and temperature of both chambers are equal. That is why, when you examine the
results after the valve is opened, the temperatures are nearly identical. The perfect gas law
(PV=n RT) is applied before, during, and after expansion, with the volume V doubling during
the process.

a) Ratio of volume

The ratio of volume is a fundamental concept in the field of fluid dynamics and
thermodynamics and plays a crucial role in characterizing the behaviour of gases and liquids
under different conditions. When studying the physical properties of substances,
understanding how their volumes change with changes in pressure is essential for predicting
and interpreting their thermodynamic properties. In this experiment, the ratio of the initial
volume to the final volume is calculated by controlling the pressure of the ideal gas. The
principle of this experiment is based on Boyle's law:
 P1*V1=P2*V2
or
P1/P2=V2/V1
where:
P1 is the initial pressure of the gas,
V1 is the initial volume of the gas,
P2is the final pressure of the gas，
V2 is the final volume of the gas.

b) Ratio of heat capacity

For a perfect gas,

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅

Where Cp is the molar heat capacity at constant pressure and Cv is the molar heat capacity at
constant volume.

The relationship between the heat capacity of a real gas and its equation of state may be
stated, however it is more complex than that of a perfect gas. The heat capacity ratio may
then be calculated experimentally using a two-step procedure.

1. An adiabatic reversible expansion from the initial pressure Ps to an intermediate

pressure Pi

{Ps, Vs, Ts} →{Pi, Vi, Ti}

2. A return of the temperature to its original value Ts at constant volume Vi

{Pi, Vi, Ti} → {Pf, Vi, Ts}

For a reversible adiabatic expression

dQ = 0

From the First Law of Thermodynamics,

dU = dQ + dW

Therefore, during the expansion process

dU = dW or dU = -pdV

At constant volume, the heat capacity relates the change in temperature to the change in
internal energy.

dU = CvdT

Substituting into equation x,

CvdT = -pdV

Substituting in the ideal gas law and then integrating gives

𝐶𝑣 𝑇 𝑉
ln (𝑇2 ) = − ln (𝑉2 )
𝑅 1 1

Now, for an ideal gas

𝑇𝑖 𝑃𝑖𝑉𝑖
= 𝑃𝑠𝑉𝑠
𝑇𝑠

Therefore,

𝑃 𝑉 𝑉
𝐶𝑣 ln (𝑃𝑖 ) + ln (𝑉𝑖 ) = − Rln (𝑉𝑖 )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Rearranging and substituting in from equation x,

𝑃 𝐶𝑝 𝑉
ln (𝑃𝑖 ) = − ln (𝐶𝑣 ) ln (𝑉𝑖 )
𝑠 𝑠

During the return of the temperature to the starting value,

𝑉𝑖 𝑃𝑠
= 𝑃𝑓
𝑉𝑠

Thus,

𝑃 𝐶𝑝 𝑃𝑠
ln (𝑃𝑠 ) = 𝐶𝑣 ln ( 𝑃𝑖 )
𝑖

Rearranging gives the relationship in its required form:

𝐶𝑝 ln 𝑃𝑠−𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑖
= ln 𝑃𝑠−𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑓
𝐶𝑣

Hypothesis

In the experiment of determination of ratio of volume, according to Boyle's Law, there exists
a direct proportionality between the pressure and the inverse of the volume of the gas at
constant temperature. Specifically, as the pressure increases, the volume of the gas should
decrease. Therefore, the result of our experiment will also conform to Boyle's law.

In the experiment of determination of ratio of heat capacity, because the specific heat
capacity （Cp/Cv） of an ideal gas is a constant (k), it remains constant regardless of
pressure or temperature changes, hence the specific heat capacity obtained after many
experiments should be a fixed value.

Problem Statement

In this experiment, by using the ideal gas expansion apparatus to control the pressure of the
ideal gas, several experiments were conducted to calculate the volume ratio after the pressure
change according to Boyle's law, whether the actual volume ratio is consistent with the
theoretical volume ratio, and if not, what is the error value. When calculating the specific heat
capacity of ideal gas, compare the error between the experimental results and the theoretical
specific heat capacity, and whether the specific heat capacity of multiple experiments is a
fixed value, and analyse what causes these errors.

Objective
1. To determine the ratio of heat capacity and compare it to the theoretical value.
2. To determine the volume and compare it to the theoretical value.
3. To analyse the causes of experimental errors or inconsistencies with the theory.
Material and Apparatus

1 2 3

4 6
5

Figure 2: Gas Expansion Apparatus (Model TH 11)

1. Valve 1
2. Valve 2
3. Valve 3
4. Pressurized chamber
5. Vacuum chamber
6. Vacuum pump

Procedure
General startup procedure

1. Equipment connected to the single-phase power supply and the unit was switched on.
2. All valves were fully opened, and pressure reading was checked. This is to ensure the
chambers were under atmospheric pressure.
3. All valves are closed fully.
 4. The pipe from compressive port of the pump is connected to pressurized chamber or
the pipe from vacuum port of the pump is connected to the vacuum chamber.
5. Unit is ready to be used.

Experiment procedure

a) Ratio of volume
1. General startup procedures are performed.
2. The compressive pump is switch on and allows the pressure inside the chamber
increase up to 160kPa. Then, switch off the pump and remove the hose from the
chamber.
3. The pressure reading inside the chamber is monitor until it stabilizes.
4. The pressure reading for both chambers before the expansion is recorded.
5. The V 02 is open and allows the pressure air flow into the atmospheric chamber
slowly.
6. The pressure reading for both chambers after the expansion is recorded.
7. The experiment procedure is repeated for difference condition.
(a) From atmospheric chamber to vacuum chamber.
(b) From pressurized chamber to vacuum chamber.
8. Then, the ratio of the volume is calculated and compare with the theoretical value.

b) Ratio of heat capacity

1. General startup procedures are performed.
2. Hose from compressive pump was connected to pressurized chamber.
3. Compressive pump is switched on and the pressure inside is allowed to build up to
about 160 kPa. Pump is then switched off and hose is removed from the chamber.
4. Pressure reading inside the chamber was monitored until it stabilized. Pressure
reading PT1 and temperature reading TT1 is recorded.
5. Valve V01 is fully opened and brought back to closed position after a few seconds.
Pressure and temperature reading, PT1 and TT1 are recorded until they become stable.
6. Ratio of heat capacity is determined and compared with theoretical value.
Results and Calculations
a) Ratio of volume

Conditions PT 1 (kPa) PT 2 (kPa)

Pressure to Before 146.8 100.9
atmosphere
After 130.1 132.2
(Pressurize chamber)
Atmospheric to Before 147.0 66.2
vacuum (vacuum
After 120.0 121.5
chamber)

Experimental value

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

(i) From atmospheric chamber to pressurized chamber

𝑉2 𝑃1
= 𝑃2
𝑉1
𝑉2 146.8
= 130.1
𝑉1
𝑉2
= 1.1284
𝑉1

(ii) From atmospheric chamber to vacuum chamber

𝑉2 𝑃1
= 𝑃2
𝑉1
𝑉2 66.2
= 121.5
𝑉1
𝑉2
= 0.5449
𝑉1

Theoretical value

𝑉2 25.0
= 12.5
𝑉1

= 2.0
Percentage error between theoretical and experimental value:

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

× 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

(i) From atmospheric chamber to pressurized chamber

2.0−1.1284
× 100% = 43.58%
2.0

(i) From atmospheric chamber to vacuum chamber

2.0−0.5449
× 100% = 72.755%
2.0

b) Ratio of heat capacity

PT 1 (kPa) TT 1 (˚C)
Initial reading (kPa) 147.0 23.5
Intermediate reading (kPa) 101.8 23.2
Final reading (kPa) 105.5 22.6

Experimental value

Formula given:

𝐶𝑣 𝑇 𝑉 𝑉2 𝑃 𝑇
ln (𝑇2 ) = − ln (𝑉2 ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑅 1 1 𝑉1 2 2

𝐶𝑣 22.6 + 273.15𝐾 147.0𝑘𝑃𝑎(296.65𝐾)

−1 −1
ln ( ) = − ln ( )
8.314𝐿. 𝑘𝑃𝑎. 𝐾 𝑚𝑜𝑙 23.5 + 273.15𝐾 105.5𝑘𝑃𝑎(295.75𝐾)

𝐶𝑣 43607.55
(ln (0.99696612)) = − ln ( )
8.314 31201.625

(−3.038 × 10−3 )𝐶𝑣 43607.55

= − ln ( )
8.314 31201.625
 (−3.038 × 10−3 )𝐶𝑣
= −0.33476
8.314

𝐶𝑣 = 915.98 𝐿𝑘𝑃𝑎𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 = 915.98 𝐿𝑘𝑃𝑎𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 + 8.314𝐿. 𝑘𝑃𝑎. 𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝐶𝑝 = 924.294 𝐿𝑘𝑃𝑎𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝐶𝑝
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐶𝑣

924.294
= 915.98

= 1.009

Theoretical value

𝐶𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.005𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾

𝐶𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.718 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾

𝐶𝑝 1.005
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 0.718 = 1.4
𝐶𝑣

Percentage error between theoretical and experimental value:

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

× 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

1.4−1.009
× 100%
1.4

= 27.93%
Discussion
For experiment (a) that is to determine ratio of volume, the Boyle’s law equation can be
manipulated to find the volume ratio of gas. From the equation 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 , the volume
𝑉2 𝑃1
ratio of gas is then changed to 𝑉1 = 𝑃2.

Before the experiment was conducted, all the valves were opened to let the air flow out and
then closed. The pressure in the chamber was increased 150 kPa and then it stabilized to 146.8
kPa. Then, the initial readings of pressure and temperature were recorded. After that, Valve 02
was opened and the pressure and temperature after the expansion were recorded once the
readings have stabilized. Two conditions were done to determine the ratio of volume. The
same procedures were done to determine the ratio of heat capacity, except Valve 01 was
opened fully and closed within a few seconds. Similarly, the pressure and temperature
readings were recording before expansion, after depressurization as intermediate pressure, and
after expansion. The volume of chamber 1 was measured to be 25 L and chamber 2 was
measured to be 12.5 L.

To determine the ratio of volume, the process is assumed to be isothermal according to

Boyle’s law. Two different conditions were recorded. The first condition being from
pressurized chamber to atmospheric chamber and the second condition being from
pressurized chamber to vacuumed chamber. For the first condition, the pressure before
expansion were recorded to be 146.8 kPa and 100.9 kPa for the pressurized and atmospheric
chamber, respectively. After expansion, the pressure readings were recorded to be 130.1 kPa
and 132.2 kPa for pressurized and atmospheric chamber, respectively. Then, the theoretical
ratio was calculated to be 2 by dividing 25 L with 12.5 L. The experimental ratio was
calculated by finding the change in pressure of chamber 2 divided by the change in pressure
of chamber 1, which was 1.1284. The percentage error when compared to the theoretical ratio
for the first condition was estimated to be 43.58%. For the second condition, the pressure
before expansion were recorded to be 147.0 kPa and 66.2 kPa for the pressurized and vacuum
chamber, respectively. After expansion, the pressure readings were recorded to be 120.0 kPa
and 121.5 kPa for pressurized and vacuum chamber, respectively. The experimental ratio was
calculated the same way as the first condition, which was 0.5449. The percentage error when
compared to the theoretical ratio for the second condition was estimated to be 72.755%. The
cause for the pressure to not be the same may be caused by not opening the valve slowly. This
is because the gas will cool as it expands or heat up as it is compressed when it the gas does
work against restraining forces like friction. Which is why the gas must absorb heat to
conserve energy. To keep the temperature of the process constant, the valve should be opened
slowly to ensure that any heat transfer between the system and its surrounding will balance
out the cooling as the gas expands.

For the experiment (b), it is to determine the ratio of heat capacity, the process is assumed to
be isentropic which is just adiabatic and reversible. The first chamber pressure was increased
to 150 kPa and then it stabilized to 147.0 kPa whereas the second chamber was set to
atmospheric pressure. The initial pressure of the first chamber, PT1 was recorded as 147.0
kPa at 23.5 °C. Immediately after the depressurization process and once the valve was closed,
the pressure was recorded as 101.8 kPa at 23.2 °C and taken as the intermediate pressure.
Once the pressure readings have stabilized, the final pressure was recorded as 105.5 kPa at
22.6 °C. The theoretical heat capacity of air at constant pressure, Cp is 1.005 kJ/kg·K and if it
is at constant volume, Cv is 0.718 kJ/kg·K. The temperature of the second chamber dropped
by only 0.1 °C throughout the process whereas the pressure remained as a constant. The
theoretical ratio of heat capacity is calculated by dividing Cp with Cv, which is 1.4. The
experimental ratio of heat capacity is calculated using the formula and the value for the
experimental ratio of heat capacity is 1.009. The percentage error for the ratio of heat capacity
when compared to the theoretical ratio is estimated to be 27.93%. Since the percentage error
is too large (> 10%), this experiment is not considered successful. This may be the reason of
the error while handling this equipment.

Limitations and Precautions

The compressor pressure level should not exceed the limits set by the instructor while
carrying out the experiment as excessive pressure may result the glass cylinder breaking. The
apparatus used must also be set up properly before running the experiment. The readings of
the initial and final pressure and temperature should only be taken once the readings stop
fluctuating. Moreover, sufficient time needs to be given for the gas to return to room
temperature for the final pressure when conducting the experiment for ratio of heat capacity.

The experiment was conducted under low temperature and high pressure, which means the
ideal gas law should not be assumed. This is because the force of attraction between the
molecules like the Van der Waals forces become relevant and affect the volume of air. The
perfect gas expansion unit was also not well insulated which could result in heat loss to
surrounding. Moreover, the heat loss is impossible to prevent according to the 2nd law of
thermodynamics and the calculations for the ratio of heat capacity was assumed to be
isentropic.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the objectives of the experiment were not fully achieved. When valve 02 was
opened, the chamber with higher pressure decreased while the chamber with lower pressure
increased as shown in the calculation using Boyle’s law. As for the second part of the
experiment, when valve 01 was opened, expansion process occurred and so the pressure of
chamber 1 decreased drastically. The pressure before expansion was higher than the pressure
immediately after expanding and the pressure after returning to room temperature was higher
than after the expansion. Ergo, the hypothesis of the experiment was proven to be true. The
theoretical ratio of volume was calculated to be 2. The experimental ratio of volume for the
first and second condition were calculated to be 1.1284 and 0.5449 with a percentage error of
43.58% and 72.755% respectively. The percentage error is unaccepted. The theoretical ratio of
heat capacity was calculated to be 1.4. The experimental ratio of heat capacity was calculated
to be 1.009 with a percentage error 27.93%. The significant percentage error is most likely
due to not letting the gas expand back to the temperature before expansion. Therefore, the
final pressure was recorded wrongly. Some precautions were considered before conducting
the experiments. Namely, not increasing the pressure of the chamber too high so that it still
obeys the ideal gas law and allowing sufficient time for the gas to return to room temperature.
Some limitations were encountered during the experiment as well, such as insufficient
insulation to prevent any heat loss to surrounding or the pressure may have been too high
which could result in the gas not following the ideal gas behaviour.
Reference

1. Bertrand, G.L., & McDonald, H. O. (1986). Heat capacity ratio of a gas by adiabatic
expansion: A physical chemistry experiment with an erroneous assumption. Journal of
Chemical Education, 63(3), 252.
2. Moore, W. M. (1984). The adiabatic expansion of gases and the determination of heat
capacity ratios: A physical chemistry laboratory experiment. Journal of Chemical
Education, 61(12), 1119.
3. Reid, R., Prausnitz, J.M., and Sherwood, T. K. (1977). The Properties of Gases and
Liquids, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill.
4. Martin Silberberg, 2007. Principles of General Chemistry, 1st Edition, McGraw-Hill.
5. Yusus, A., Cengal, M. A. (2011). Second Law of Thermodynamics. In
Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach (pp. 273-309). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Appendix

Figure 3: connect hose from compressive pump to pressurized chamber.

Figure 4: PT1 reading in pressurized chamber before gas is released. (Experiment A)

Figure 5: PT1 reading in pressurized chamber after gas is released.

Figure 6: PT2 reading in pressurized chamber after gas is released.

Figure 7: valve 2 is opened.

Figure 8: connect hose from pump to vacuum/ atmospheric chamber.

Figure 9: Pressure in vacuum chamber is reduced to 60kPa and switch is turned off.
Figure 10: PT1 reading in vacuum chamber before gas is released.

Figure 11: PT2 reading in vacuum chamber before gas is released.

Figure 12: PT1 reading in vacuum chamber after gas is released.

Figure 13: PT2 reading in vacuum chamber after gas is released.

Figure 14: initial temperature and pressure reading in pressurized chamber (Experiment B)

Figure 15: intermediate temperature and pressure reading in pressurized chamber.

Figure 16: final temperature and pressure reading in pressurized chamber.

Figure 17: raw data

Rubrics