APPLIED CHEMISTRY LABORATORY (BEP 1021)

&
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1 (EP
109)

NO. OF EXPERIMENT: 2
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Characterization of Organic Components with
Physical Means
NAME & ID: Arrianna Paulina Peter 1002162633

DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 14 FEBRUARY 2023

TUTOR: Ms. RAFIZAH BINTI ZAITON

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY
& BUILT ENVIRONMENT

2023

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 Table of Contents

Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. page 3 - 4

Hypothesis ………………………………………………………………… page 4 - 5

Objective ………………………………………………………………….. page 5

Problem statement ………………………………………………………… page 5

Material and Apparatus …………………………………………………… page 6

Procedure ………………………………………………………………….. page 6 - 9

Results and Calculations …………………………………………………... page 9 - 12

Discussion …………………………………………………………………. page 12 - 14

Precautions or Limitations ………………………………………………… page 14 - 15

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… page 15 - 16

Reference …………………………………………………………………...page 16 - 17

Appendix …………………………………………………………………... page 18 - 21

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Introduction

The task of identifying an unidentified compound can be tedious and exacting. An object can
be recognised by looking at its chemical and physical characteristics. It is quite possible for
two different compounds to share some physical or chemical characteristics, which is why it
is important to determine both the compound's chemical and physical properties. The only
way a substance can display chemical properties is by changing its chemical composition. A
substance's physical characteristics are those that it can have without changing its chemical
composition.

Due to the sample is not destroyed during the analysis, the identification of a substance by its
physical characteristics is the better technique. Colour, odour, density, solubility, condition
(solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature), melting point, and boiling point are a few of the
more common physical characteristics. The fact that a pure substance is required to calculate
precise values is the biggest challenge. Most natural elements are not pure. The melting point
of two unknowns—A and B (pure substances), boiling point of three unknowns—A, B and C
as well as refractive index of five named substances with an unknown will be measured in
this experiment to determine their identities.

A solid's melting point measurements can also reveal details about the purity of the material.
The range of temperatures over which a pure crystalline solid melt to become a liquid is
known as the solid's distinctive melting point. The melting temperature of pure crystalline
solids is extremely high. They have an extremely limited temperature range (called the
melting range), whereas mixtures melt over a wide variety of temperatures. Additionally,
mixtures frequently melt at temperature lower than the melting points of pure solids. In the
organic laboratory, a lot of solid materials are originally impure. The melting point of a
material is impacted by these impurities.

A substance's boiling point is the degree at which it transforms from a liquid into a gas. For
instance, at STP, water turns to vapour at a temperature of 100 C. But unlike that, the
influence of atmospheric pressure on the melting and boiling points is considerable. Like
melting points, pure organic substances' boiling points are distinguishing physical
characteristics. The method for figuring out the boiling point is more difficult than the

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method for figuring out the melting point. It is not a reliable indicator of purity because it
needs more material and is less impacted by impurities.

Refractive index is a property of liquids that can be used to distinguish between solutions by
measuring how much light is bent as it penetrates the liquid using a refractometer. The
refractive index can be used in organic chemistry to evaluate the purity of liquid substances.
The refractive index of a compound can also be compared to its published value to prove its
purity.

Figure 1: the behaviour of a refracted ray of light

As for reflection, a simple law characterizes the behaviour of a refracted ray of light.
According to the Law of Refraction, also known as Snell’s Law: The quantities and are
constants, called indices of refraction that depend on the two media through which the light is
passing. The angles and are the angles that the ray of light makes with the normal to the
boundary between the two media. In this experiment, you will test the validity of this law.

Hypothesis

When a substance changes from a solid to a liquid form, the energy particles acquire causes
melting. The melting point is the temperature at which this happens. The lower the melting
point range, the purer the compound. Purer substances will have greater temperatures and a
1–2-degree temperature range. The lower and wider the melting point range of a substance,
the more impure it is. Impurities will cause the freezing point to vary by 2-3 degrees.

When heat is applied to a liquid at a constant pressure, the temperature of the liquid rises and
bubbles begin to form. After a certain point, the temperature stops rising and the gas pressure

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inside the bubble equals that of the surrounding atmosphere. When the temperature cannot be
raised any further, the substance has reached its boiling point. Intermolecular forces are
pressures that attract molecules together. The greater the boiling point of a compound, the
stronger its intermolecular interactions. There are diverse types of intermolecular forces
which includes London-dispersion, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonds, and ion-dipole. The
stronger intermolecular forces a compound has the higher the boiling point is. The results for
this experiment show a pattern indicating that greater molar mass causes the substances to
have a higher boiling point.

Refractometry is a method for determining how light is refracted when it passes through a
given substance, in this instance an unknown compound. The refractive index is determined
by the quantity by which light is refracted. The refractive index can be used to recognize an
unknown liquid compound or to measure the purity of a liquid compound by comparing it to
published values. The purer the sample, the closest the refractive index is to the literature
readings.

Objective

1. To identify the purity of organic compounds.

2. Identify melting point, boiling point, and refractive index of organic compounds.
3. To learn how to determine the melting point of an organic solid, using the melting
point in identifying an unknown sample from a given list of possibilities and finding
the refractive index of the samples.

Problem Statement

1. How can a reading of melting or melting point analysis tell a compound is pure?
2. How do you determine the purity of a compound?
3. What does refractive index relate about purity?
4. Why can melting and boiling point be used to test for purity?
5. How does boiling point relate to purity?
6. What is the relationship between the boiling point of a solution and the pure solvent?

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Material and Apparatus

Solid compounds (salicylic acid, benzoic acid, sodium chloride or naphthalene), liquid
compounds (ethanol, tap water, chloroform, or propanol), solution mixture of toluene and
methanol, melting point instrument, melting point tube, thermometer, hot plate, beaker,
refractometer, distilled water.

Procedure

a) Melting point
You will be given a solid unknown. Your unknowns are from two of the following
compounds: salicylic acid, benzoic acid, sodium chloride or naphthalene, which are
available in the lab.
1. A small amount of solid sample is taken and poured into the melting point tube
and making sure that the substance rest at the bottom of the melting point tube.
2. The melting point tube is then inserted into the apparatus and making sure that the
tube goes right to the end and very well visible under the magnifying lens.
3. The heater of the melting point apparatus is then started and left at a rate of
heating of 5 degrees per minute.
4. The substance and the temperature in the thermometer provided is then
continuously observed. The temperature is then noted down which the substance
starts to melt and completely melt. This is the melting range. This is visible as the
solid changes to liquid.
5. The experiment may be repeated at a slower rate of heating to get a more accurate
result.
6. The reading is inserted in the data column in result and calculation part.

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Figure 2: arrangement setup of melting point tube and thermometer in melting point
instrument

b) Boiling point

You will be given a liquid unknown. Your unknown is from three of the following
compounds: ethanol, tap water, chloroform and propanol which are available in the
lab.
1. 30ml of liquid given is being taken and then arrange the equipment as will be
shown to you by the lecturer.
2. At a rate of 5 degrees per minute, the liquid is starting to heat up until the
substance begin to boil.
3. The temperature is then noted down at which the substance is boiled.
4. The experiment may be repeated at a slower heating rate to get a more accurate
result.
5. The reading is then inserted as in the data column in result and calculation part.

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Figure 3: arrangement setup of unknown substance and thermometer in beaker being heated
up on hot plate.

c) Refractive index

1. The prism of the refractometer is cleaned and dry using a paper towel.
2. 1-2 drops of the sample are then placed on top of the prism and then the cover is
locked.
3. The temperature is then taken note in the table.
4. The refractive index is then read as the lecturer will demonstrate how to use the
equipment.

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 5. Five solutions will be provided with known compositions as well as one unknown
solution. The refractive index is then taken note in the data column in the result
and calculation part.

Figure 4: refractometer instrument arrangement setup

figure 5: reflection borderline and scale of reflectometer

Results and Calculations

Prepare a table(s) of the data you collected. Be sure to add a title to your table and include
units of measurement and significant figures. Make sure to do all the calculations given.
a) Melting point

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 Temperature sample Temperature sample Melting range (oC)
start to melt (oC) completely melt (oC)
Unknown solid A 138 168 30
Unknown solid B 113 128 15

b) Boiling point

Temperature sample starts to boil (oC)

Unknown liquid A 82
Unknown liquid B 78
Unknown liquid C 83

c) Refractive index

Composition of solutions Refractive index Reading Temperature (°C)

0% Toluene, 100% 1.333 25.0
Methanol
25% Toluene, 75% 1.369 25.3
Methanol
50% Toluene, 50% 1.478 25.6
Methanol
75% Toluene, 25% 1.484 25.8
Methanol
100% Toluene, 0% 1.494 26.0
Methanol
Unknown 1.488 26.1

1. Using the data, show how you identify the unknown solid and liquid.
2. Plot the correlation curve of refractive index against the composition of the solution
mixture.
3. From your graph, read the % of composition of the solution provided.

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 Figure 6: sample through lens of refractometer
Graph of Refractive Index against Composition of Solution Mixture

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Discussion

The experimental determination of melting point and boiling point of organic compounds are
dependent on several factors which are involved in the experiment such as temperature
emitting of the apparatus, pressure, mass of the sample and the time flow while conducting
every procedure. Whereas experimental determination of refractive index of organic
compounds are dependent on factors which are speed of light in the medium, temperature of
the medium, colour or wavelength of light and optical density of the medium while
conducting every procedure in the experiment.

In the melting point experiment, we found that that the unknown solid A is salicylic acid,
which gave name of hydroxybenzoic acid in IUPAC system. Based on the results, the
salicylic acid starts to melt at 138°C until it melts completely at 168°C. The standard melting
point of salicylic acid is 158.6°C, which falls within the melting range of this experiment.
Next, the unknown solid B that we investigated is benzoic acid. Based on the results, the
benzoic acid starts to melt at 113°C until it melts completely at 128°C. The standard melting
point of benzoic acid is 122.3°C, which falls within the melting range of this experiment.
This experiment's goal is to identify the integrity of the solid substance. The melting range
obtained in this experiment corresponds to the normal melting points of salicylic acid and
benzoic acid. A pure crystalline substance has a sharp melting point and a limited melting
temperature range, whereas a combination dissolves over a wide temperature range. Based on
our findings, we can conclude that the salicylic acid and benzoic acid used in this
investigation were pure solids with no impurities.

In the boiling point experiment, we found that the unknown liquid A is ethanol. Based on the
experiment, we obtained boiling point of liquid A as 82°C. Where else the standard boiling
point of ethanol is about 78.5 °C, which is remarkably close to the boiling point we obtained
from the experiment. In another part, the boiling point of unknown liquid B we obtained from
the experiment is 78°C, which is not close to the standard boiling point of tap water, which is
100°C. Therefore, we assume the unknown liquid B given is tap water since the odour of the
substance does not smell like alcohol or chloroform. Furthermore, in the experiment, we can
find that unknown liquid C is propanol as we obtained boiling point of liquid C as 83°C
which is close to the standard boiling point of propanol, which is 97°C. As the process of

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determining boiling point is less affected by the impurities, the liquid that we used does not
give a sharp boiling point which has a narrow boiling-point range from the theoretical value
of the samples. The boiling point of ethanol is more accurately than the boiling point of tap
water and propanol of each standard boiling point in this experiment. Hence, we can say that
the liquid we obtained is not pure substances. Impure substances contain impurities which
will affect the boiling point. Higher energy is needed to overcome the force of attraction
between molecules.

In the refractive index experiment, the speed of light in a substance is slower than in a
vacuum since the light is being absorbed and reemitted by the atoms in the sample. Since the
density of a liquid usually decreases with the temperature, it is not surprising that the speed of
light in the liquid will normally increase as the temperature increases. The index of refraction
normally decreases as the temperature increases and you can see that in the results. With the
results I had found, my unknown sample compared to the other composition of solutions is
80% Toluene, 20% Methanol as the corrected refractive index is 1.491 which is in between
75% Toluene, 25% Methanol with the refractive index of 1.484 and 100% Toluene, 0%
Methanol with the refractive index of 1.491.

In your discussion discuss about your result (either you get accurate result or not) and about
the experiment you have done. Include also the errors happen in your experiment and
precautions step needed to be taken in the experiment. Include the answers to the following
questions:

a. Why fast rate of heating gives higher melting and boiling point that the true one?
The temperature is higher because hence make the boiling point and the melting point
is higher than the standard temperature.

b. Why impure substances give different readings?

The impure substance contains other impurity mix with the compound.

c. Which method shows better indications of purity, melting point, or boiling point?
Why?

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 Melting point. This is because pure solid have a sharp melting point and the boiling
point requires more materials, and it is less affected by impurities.

d. Why we need to state the temperature when measuring the refractive index?
Refractive index values are usually determined at standard temperature. A higher
temperature means the liquid becomes less dense and less viscous, causing light to
travel faster in the medium. This results in a smaller value for the refractive index due
to a smaller ratio. A lower temperature means the liquid becomes denser and has a
higher viscosity, causing light to travel slower in the medium. This results in a larger
value for the refractive index due to a larger ratio.

Precautions and Limitations

This experiment has some limitations. Because a thermometer's sensitivity is only up to

100°C, there may be an uncertainty of plus or minus one degree when measuring the boiling
point in the experiment. Therefore, we should use a digital thermometer because it is more
exact and precise. We also discovered that the object may have been heated too quickly. In
comparison to heating the specimen too quickly and failing to achieve thermal equilibrium, a
reasonable rate of heating will produce an outcome that is more accurate.

Moreover, preparation for melting point measurement is simple. The dry sample should be
placed in a melting point tube, which is essentially a glass capillary tube with one open end.
The sample must be crammed tightly into the tube's closed end. This can be accomplished by
lightly tapping the tube or by placing it vertically on a firm surface.

Furthermore, to obtain reliable and coherent results for this experiment, it is important to
operate the apparatus at constant conditions of the temperature. To avoid obtaining
amplified inaccurate readings. Paying attention to the set-up while recording the
temperature will avoid additional human error. If the errors obtained are caused by the
apparatus itself, then it should be repaired or replaced.

In this experiment, safety measures have been made to lessen the likelihood of random errors.
To reduce the level of contamination, distilled water was used to clean the equipment. To

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minimise parallax error and obtain an accurate measurement of temperature, our eye level
must be directly above the scale of the thermometer. To measure the refractive index, we then
made sure the prism was locked by cover each time the solution was lowered. Then, we could
repeat One of the precautions that have taken in this experiment was clean the glass prism
and make it sure the glass prism was free from air bubble. The experiment several times to
obtain an average value to obtain the most accurate outcome.

Conclusion

The determination of boiling point, melting point and refractive index of organic
compounds was successfully done. The values must be expected to be constant but
due to minimal human errors and equipment error it was slightly deviated from the
theoretical value. Melting points and boiling points mirror the strength of forces
between molecules. The more they pull each other together, the more forces it will
take to isolate them into fluid and gas particles, individually. It also can be useful
in determining whether the material is pure or not. The purer the sample
the narrower the range will be. The higher the energy exerted to the crystal the faster
it will melt. The measurement of temperature sample completely melt of unknown
solid A and B are closer to their actual melting point, thus, to identify the unknown
solids are accurate, which shows that unknown solid A is salicylic acid and unknown
solid B is benzoic acid.

The boiling point of a fluid fluctuates with the encompassing atmospheric pressure. A
fluid at a higher pressure has a higher boiling point than when that fluid is at lower
atmospheric pressure. The typical boiling point of a compound is the gauge of the
unpredictability of that compound. The higher the boiling point, the less unstable is
the compound. On the other hand, the lower the boiling point, the more exceptionally
unpredictable is the compound. The greater the amount of an impurity, the bigger the
differences from the standard melting point and boiling point. We conclude that the
melting point method is the best indicating the purity of the substances because the
melting point is the one method less affect by impurities. The unknown liquids A, B
and C which are being measured does not have 100% accuracy of their boiling point.
The boiling point of ethanol (unknown liquid A) in experiment is 82°C as the
standard boiling point is 78.5°C. The boiling point of tap water (unknown liquid B) is

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 78°C whereas the standard boiling point is 100°C. The boiling point of propanol
(unknown liquid C) is 83°C as the standard boiling point is 97°C. The solutions
experimented may have impurities that is why the difference in range of the boiling
point and the standard boiling point of the liquids are quite different.

The experiment to determine the refractive index before mixing and show that the
ideal mix of two liquids with distinct refractive indices is always accompanied by a
rise in refractive index. We understand this result in terms of shifting regions of space
where London dispersion forces operate, centred on the mixture's dissimilar
molecules. Non-specific interactions exist between unlike molecules in
thermodynamically ideal liquid mixtures, even though the associated force constants
are entirely governed by pure-component characteristics. The refractive index of the
composition of solutions are 1.333 (0% toluene, 100% methanol), 1.369 (25%
toluene, 75% methanol), 1.478 (50% toluene, 50% methanol), 1.484 (75% toluene,
25% methanol), 1.494 (100% toluene, 0% methanol) and 1.488 (unknown—80%
toluene, 20% methanol). The relationship between refraction index and composition
of solutions. A higher temperature means the liquid becomes less dense and less
viscous, causing light to travel faster in the medium. This results in a smaller value for
the refractive index due to a smaller ratio. A lower temperature means the liquid
becomes denser and has a higher viscosity, causing light to travel slower in the
medium. This results in a larger value for the refractive index due to a larger ratio.

Reference

1. Dr. Schornick, Melting Point & Refractive Index. The Theory and uses of Melting
Point and Refractive Index to Verify or Identify Organic Compounds Study Materials
Slayden- pp. 25-27 Pavia- Tech 2; 3.9, 24- Tech #9 (9.1- 9.5; 9.7- 9.9) Available at:
https://www.slideserve.com/kenyon-mcpherson/melting-point-refractive-index
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https://authors.library.caltech.edu/25032/1/Organic_Chemistry.pdf.
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2001, p. 489-491.

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Appendix

Raw data

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 Unknown B

Unknown A

Figure 7: unknown A and unknown B in melting point tube

Figure 8: unknown and unknown B in melting point instrument before melting.

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Figure 9: Unknown B after completely melted (128oC)

Figure 10: unknown A after completely melted (168oC)

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Figure 11: dripping composition of solution mixtures on prism of refractometer.

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