New Trends in Forging Technologies

B.‐A. Behrens, T. Hagen, J. Knigge, I. Elgaly, T. Hadifi, and A. Bouguecha

Citation: AIP Conference Proceedings 1353, 380 (2011); doi: 10.1063/1.3589545

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 New Trends in Forging Technologies
B.-A. Behrensa, T. Hagena, J. Kniggea, I. Elgalya, T. Hadifia, A. Bouguechaa
a
Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machines, Leibniz Universität Hannover, An der Universität 2,
30823 Garbsen, Germany

Abstract. Limited natural resources increase the demand on highly efficient machinery and transportation means. New
energy-saving mobility concepts call for design optimisation through downsizing of components and choice of corrosion
resistant materials possessing high strength to density ratios. Component downsizing can be performed either by
constructive structural optimisation or by substituting heavy materials with lighter high-strength ones. In this context,
forging plays an important role in manufacturing load-optimised structural components. At the Institute of Metal Forming
and Metal-Forming Machines (IFUM) various innovative forging technologies have been developed. With regard to
structural optimisation, different strategies for localised reinforcement of components were investigated. Locally induced
strain hardening by means of cold forging under a superimposed hydrostatic pressure could be realised. In addition,
controlled martensitic zones could be created through forming induced phase conversion in metastable austenitic steels.
Other research focused on the replacement of heavy steel parts with high-strength nonferrous alloys or hybrid material
compounds. Several forging processes of magnesium, aluminium and titanium alloys for different aeronautical and
automotive applications were developed. The whole process chain from material characterisation via simulation-based
process design to the production of the parts has been considered. The feasibility of forging complex shaped geometries
using these alloys was confirmed. In spite of the difficulties encountered due to machine noise and high temperature,
acoustic emission (AE) technique has been successfully applied for online monitoring of forging defects. New AE
analysis algorithm has been developed, so that different signal patterns due to various events such as product/die cracking
or die wear could be detected and classified. Further, the feasibility of the mentioned forging technologies was proven by
means of the finite element analysis (FEA). For example, the integrity of forging dies with respect to crack initiation due
to thermo-mechanical fatigue as well as the ductile damage of forgings was investigated with the help of cumulative
damage models. In this paper some of the mentioned approaches are described.
Keywords: Acoustic emission, Cold forging, Damage models, Downsizing, Heatless hardening, Online monitoring,
Superimposed hydrostatic pressure, Transformation induced plasticity
PACS: 02.70.Dh; 81.20.Hy; 83.50.Uv; 62.20.M-; 62.20.fq; 62.20.me, 64.60.My

INTRODUCTION
In order to meet rising technical and social demands in times of scarce fossil energy and rising environmental
regulations, the use of light metals and load-adapted structure concepts increases in most domains of mechanical
engineering. The automotive industry as well as the aircraft industry as one of the first users of downsized and
weight reduced components have great interest in the development of innovative materials and process technologies.
Since the introduction of high strength and/or light weight non-ferrous metals in modern production engineering,
the group of metal forming techniques is facing great challenges. The common production processes are often not
suitable to utilise the full potential which these materials may offer. As a result, continuous attempts to improve the
characteristics, processing properties and combinations of materials are carried out.
This paper presents some of the new trends in forging processes of metastable austenitic steels and non-ferrous
wrought alloys on the material side. Regarding new numerical computation techniques, some approaches of the
numerical prediction of ductile damage in hot forging dies due to thermo-mechanical fatigue and the evolution of the
microstructure in forming processes are introduced. Furthermore, considering process monitoring acoustic emission
sensor systems can be a powerful tool to detect damage or crack occurrence online the forming operation.

The 14th International ESAFORM Conference on Material Forming

AIP Conf. Proc. 1353, 380-385 (2011); doi: 10.1063/1.3589545
© 2011 American Institute of Physics 978-0-7354-0911-8/$30.00

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 ADAPTED MARTENSITIC AREAS DUE TO FORMING-INDUCED PHASE
TRANSFORMATION IN METASTABLE AUSTENITIC STEELS
During the cold forging of metastable austenitic steels, transformation-induced martensite can occur. This leads
to an increase in flow stress and strength and offers new design possibilities for light-weight and/or crash
components. One research objective is to enable this effect of transformation-induced martensite in metastable
austenitic steels by the forging process [1]. In detail, by adjusting forging parameters such as true plastic strains,
strain rate and forging temperature, locally strengthened areas in solid components were created.
The dependence of the martensite content in the experiments on the forging parameters was analysed on the basis
of upsetting tests. Various chrome nickel steels and one manganese hard steel were examined regarding
transformation-induced martensite formation under compressive stresses. The quantification of the martensite
evolution was carried out by means of a Feritscope and a Magnatest. Then, the results were approved by
metallographic and numeric analyses. Based on test series with a constant strain rate of ̇φ = 0.1 s-1 and varying
forging temperatures of TF = -5, 20 and 60 °C, a significant influence of the forging temperature on the martensite
content was detected. Due to cooling the specimens to TF = -5 °C, an immense increase in the martensite evolution is
activated compared to those experiments taken at room temperature. On the other side, increasing the forging
temperature reduces the effect of the martensitic phase conversion. At a temperature of TF = 60 °C, a phase
conversion is close to be completely suppressed. Besides, a distinct strain rate dependency of the martensite content
was determined. This is the result of an increased adiabatic heating during the upsetting tests at high strain rates,
which also suppresses phase transformation due to increased inner temperature.

FORGING UNDER SUPERIMPOSED HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Forming under superimposed media-based hydrostatic pressure is a promising approach to handling low ductile
steels and non-ferrous metals in a forming process. The influence of superimposed hydrostatic pressure on the flow
stress as well as on the formability for various hydrostatic pressures, forming temperatures and aluminium and
magnesium alloys was analysed [2, 3]. By increasing the formability of the workpieces, larger local plastic strains
could be achieved.
Considering aluminium wrought alloys, in upsetting tests under superimposed pressure of 85 MPa the
formability of workpieces from thermosetting alloy AlSi1MgMn (AW-6082) was more increased compared to those
from self-hardening alloy AlMg4.5Mn0.7 (AW-5083). As a general tendency, the self-hardening alloys show a
lower increase in formability when forged under superimposed pressure. To determine the process limits considering
highest increase in formability and complexity of workpiece geometry a new tool-concept (see Figure 1, left) was
designed for applicably superimposing pressures up to max. 200 MPa.

Guide frame
Top
die insert

Ram Ducts

Load cell Closing plate

Bottom
Sealings Die inserts die insert
Die

Work piece

Ejector Upsetting Lateral Extrusion

FIGURE 1. left: Tool-concept for superimposed pressures of max. 200 MPa, right: Die inserts for upsetting and lateral
extrusion processes

The tool design uses a closing plate, an ejector and easily changeable die inserts (see Figure 1, right). Hereby,
various forging methods such as upsetting and extrusion processes can be carried out. The hydraulic pressure is

381

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 provided by an active hydraulic power unit and controlled by cascading chokes of specified diameters during the
forming operation. By using the formability increase the raw part geometries can be selectively varied to forms
which can not be forged in a conventional forging process. By forming these selected preforms under superimposed
hydrostatic pressure locally adapted strain hardening can be induced.

ACOUSTIC EMISSION ANALYSIS - A NEW FACILITY FOR ONLINE MONITORING

OF FORGING PROCESSES
Through this work, three main subjects have been studied: the feasibility of applying acoustic emission technique
to forging processes, determination of suitable parameter sets for signal acquisition under harsh industrial working
conditions, and finally, comparison of possible AE signal analysis methods that can be applied in order to reach a
conclusion about the quality of the manufactured component or the condition of the forging die [4].
The main part of investigation was performed using a high-end professional AE system (AMSY-5, Vallen
Systeme, Germany). The 8-channels system is capable of 10 MS/s sampling rate per channel, and is equipped with
different types of resonant and broadband sensors, various filters and transient recorder for real time acquisition. The
use of broadband sensors up to 2.4 MHz and the application of both hardware filters (400-1600 kHz) as well as
energy and duration-based criteria (e.g. E > 50x109 V2s & 20 μs < D < 1 ms) made it possible to cut off nearly all
encountered machine noise. The test specimens were machined out of extruded bars made of AZ31 and AZ80
magnesium alloys in addition to the widely used aluminium forging alloy (AW-6082).
At first, numerous upsetting tests were performed to examine different acquisition parameters and filter settings.
Optimal combination of acquisition parameters, filter range as well as auxiliary filtering criteria (e.g. energy level)
has been determined for both threshold-based and continuous signal acquisition. Further upsetting tests were
performed in order to investigate the influence of material type, specimen geometry, test temperature and strain rate
on the generation of AE [5]. With the aid of AE analysis, it was possible to detect cracking signals at different
strains according to the specimens’ geometry as well as the applied strain rate and test temperature. Moreover, the
analysis of upsetting experiments confirmed the proportionality of AE energy to the strain rate, especially in the
elastic-plastic transition zone, as reported for other types of materials [6].
In order to develop an online-capable inspection system, a more detailed analysis of the recorded AE patterns
was necessary. Examination of signal forms in time domain and their corresponding spectra in frequency domain
showed that characteristic AE patterns can be correlated with definite typical events and defects encountered during
the forging operations. The main pattern types that could be correlated with physical events are cracking-elated
patterns, yield-related patterns, plastic-deformation-related patterns as well as friction-related patterns. However, the
computational cost of the statistical correlation and classification methods (e.g. PCA) as well as other Time-
Frequency-Representation (TFR) methods, e.g. Gabor or Wavelet transforms, is too high and practically not
applicable in case of online monitoring. Therefore, a new indicator based on combined temporal and spectral
parameters has been developed within the scope of this work. The new Pattern Indicator For Forging (AE-PIFF)
considers the main attributes that characterise the encountered AE patterns – which are related to predefined defects
or events – in both time and frequency domain. Due to its structure, the AE-PIFF possesses a lower computational
cost when compared to other statistical correlation or TFR methods. This advantage makes it appropriate for online
monitoring and quality control purposes. Validation of this indicator on a variety of materials and test conditions
will facilitate the integration of AE technique into the mainstream of industrial forging processes. Further
improvement of the AE-PIFF parameter is required in order to be more efficient and flexible in determining more
types of patterns. The validity of the indicator should be also examined on more materials and under different test
conditions. AE-PIFF maps can be also established to represent diverse cases.

DUCTILE DAMAGE PREDICTION IN HOT FORGING DIES DUE TO THERMO-

MECHANICAL FATIGUE
Due to high temperatures and forming forces, which arise in forging processes, forging dies undergo high
thermal and mechanical loads. These loads have a major impact on the fatigue life of the shaping tools and thus can
lead to fatigue crack initiation on the die surface. Tool failure due to thermo-mechanical fatigue represents along
with abrasive wear the most frequent cause for forging tool failure [7]. Fatigue cracks arise in areas which are
subjected to cyclic plastic deformation caused by excessive mechanical loads. Plastic deformations combined with
thermal cycling on the die surface lead to material fatigue. This material fatigue predominantly leads to a decrease in
strength which can provoke a fatigue crack initiation. According to the theory of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics a

382

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 crack initiation is followed by crack growth and fracture. A low tool life quantity of less than 10,000 cycles as well
as a crack initiation in a die cavity radius is a clear sign for a low cycle fatigue failure. In this case the occurring
strain amplitude comprises an elastic and a plastic part which determines the crack initiation life within the low
cycle fatigue area [8].
An industrial forging process was analysed, where the lower dies failed due to fatigue crack initiation. This
forging process is used to produce an U-joint yoke screw connection a three-stage forming operation. As can be seen
in Figure 2, left, the fatigue crack initiation in the lower die occurs in the die cavity radius, which can be ascribed to
the high operational loads in that area. The maximum loads appear in the last stage of the forming process as full
form filling is at hand. In this stage the upper die travels towards the workpiece at a speed of 1200 mm/s and induces
high hydrostatic and shear stresses in the die cavities due to the form filling of the lower die. The upper die which is
irrelevant for the fatigue crack analysis has been assumed to be rigid within the FE simulation.

FIGURE 2. left: Lower die with fatigue crack in the cavity radius, right: Distribution of the Oyane cumulative damage parameter
in the lower die at the end of the third forming stage

The material behaviour of the hot work tool steel has been described with the help of a material model according
to the Norton-Hoff formulation [9] for conditions typical for hot forging. This material law calculates the local
material flow stress depending on the true strain, the strain rate and the temperature in the material. Appropriate
material model parameters for the hot work tool EN 1.2367 steel have been taken according to literature [10].
The FEA based damage analysis of the lower die has been done with the help of the process related loads and the
cumulative damage parameter according to Oyane [11]. This model is capable of computing the damage in
mechanical components based on the stress and strain history during service. The Oyane damage criterion calculates
the mechanical damage by means of integration over the plastic strain of a function which depends on the current
stress state, and expresses the stress function based on a ratio of the hydrostatic stress to the v. Mises equivalent
stress. The distributions of the qualitative damage (Figure 2, right) reveal that the fatigue crack location exhibits the
maximum tool steel damage.

FINITE-ELEMENT-ANALYSIS OF THE MICROSTRUCTURE EVOLUTION IN

FORMING PROCESSES
The prediction of residual stresses and shape distortion geometrical changes in forged parts with the help of
numerical simulation during the process design is of high economical and technical relevance. This may lead to a
reduction of the numerous tests for the design and optimisation of heat treatment and forging processes.
The fundamental causes for shape distortion in forged parts are according to [12] due to non-thermal volumetric
changes and plastic deformations. The former cause is induced by volumetric changes in the material due to
microstructural changes during the heat treatment process. Local plastic deformations in forged parts may arise,
when the residual stresses exceed the specific yield strength of the material.
Current commercial FEA systems are not able to predict the microstructure evolution and the resulting residual
stresses and geometrical changes in warm and hot forged parts in a realistic manner. In order to consider the phase

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 changes in FEA of forging processes an extended material model was implemented into the commercial FE code
Msc.Marc 2007r1. The model for phase transformation is described in [13] in detail. For the modelling of the
thermal-elastic-plastic-metallurgic behaviour, the strain increment dεij can be described by the sum of the elastic (el),
plastic (pl), thermal (th), isotropic transformation (tr), and transformation-induced plasticity (tp) strains by
dε ij = dε ijel + dε ijpl +dε ijth + dε ijtr + dε ijtp . (1)
The modelling of the isotropic transformation and transformation-induced plasticity strains due to phase
transformations is explained below.

Isotropic Transformation Strains

Due to the different lattice structures of austenite (fcc) and the resulting microstructures ferrite, pearlite, bainite
(bcc) and martensite (bct), a volume change occurs during the phase transformation. This phenomenon can be
ascribed to the isotropic transformation strains. The consideration of these is done by adding the isotropic
transformation strains and the thermal strains via
⎛ ant +Δt (T t +Δt ) ⎞
d ε ijth+tr = dε ijth + dε ijtr = ⎜ − 1⎟ δ ij (2)
⎜ ant (T t ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
as a function of the averaged lattice constants an at the start and end of a time step Δt. The averaged lattice
constants are a function of the Temperature T and can be determined by the microstructure fractions and the lattice
constants of the individual phases.

Transformation-induced Plasticity Strains

Due to changes in volume and shape of the crystals during the phase transformation, the softer phase has to adapt
to the environment of the harder phase. This leads to complicated residual stress conditions causing plastic yielding,
even if the stresses are smaller than the yield stress of the material. External stresses either initiate or amplify the
effect.
The transformation-induced plasticity strain increment can be described by the model according to Leblond, cf.
[14], via
4
⎛ dV ⎞ ⎛ σ vM ⎞ sij 3 s
d ε ijtp = ∑ 3 ⎜ ⎟ h ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ d ζ k ln (ζ k ) = d ε tp ij (3)
k =1 ⎝ V ⎠ γ, k ⎝ σ y,γ ⎠ σ y,γ 2 σ y,γ
The factor sij represents the deviatoric stress tensor and the phase fraction of the product phase k is ζk.
Furthermore, the yield stress of austenite is σy,γ and the equivalent stress according to von Mises is σvM. The factor
(dV/V)γ,k describes the volume change due to a phase transformation from austenite to the product phase k. Because
more than one new phase can develop within one time step, summing is done over all product phases k. The
correction function h has been taken according to [14].

Validation of the Material Model

The presented approach for the consideration of the phase transformations in the stress computation was
validated by dilatometer tests. This was done using the manganese-boron steel 22MnB5 (1.5528) as an example. The
experimental results are taken from the investigations of Somani et al. [15]. In Figure 3, the basic simulation model
is presented on the right. The austenitisation temperature is 900°C, and the specimen is quenched with a cooling rate
of dT/dt = –50°C/s. Three load cases are examined with a varying pressure p (p = –165 N/mm2, p = 0 N/mm2 and
p = 112 N/mm2).
A comparison of the measured and the computed diameter change Δd/d0 is shown in Figure 3 on the left. It is
obvious that with a load of p = 0 N/mm2 the simulation and the experiment match well. Because only thermal and
isotropic transformation strains occur in this case, the approach for the isotropic transformation strains is thus
validated. By means of the applied tensile or compression stress, the approach for the transformation-induced
plasticity is validated. The difference shortly before the start of transformation at T = 400°C can be partly explained
by the unknown force distribution in the sample during the experiment. Nonetheless, it can also be said that the
simulation and the experiment match well in these cases.

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 FIGURE 3. Simulation model of a dilatometer test and comparison of measured and computed diameter changes

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Collective Research for Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises research plan IGF AiF 15640 N with the lemma “Rissbildungssimulation” by the German Federation of
Industrial Research Associations. A special thank is to the Hirschvogel Umformtechnik GmbH company for
providing the industrial forging process.
The authors would also like to thank the German research foundation (DFG) for funding the Collaborative
Research Center 675 (SFB 675) - "Creation of high strength metallic structures and joints by setting up scaled local
material properties".

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