LectureNotes On Maths4Biz

Lecture notes on Mathematics for Business
Nguyen Thi Thu Van
International School of Business, UEH, Vietnam
September 21, 2022
International School of Business, UEH UEH, Vietnam September 21, 2022 1 / 202
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations
Outline of the chapter: In this chapter, we will review some concepts in college
algebra. Knowing algebra is a fundamental prerequisite to success in higher
mathematics. The topic includes
Expressions with one or more variables
Equations, inequalities of one or more variables
Linear/nonlinear equations, inequalities
The set of real numbers
Exponents
Radicals
Polynomials
Haeussler, Paul, and Wood: Introductory mathematical analysis for business, economics, and the life and social sciences,
14th edition, Pearson (2022)
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.1. Algebraic expressions with one or more variables
Definition
An algebraic expression is simply a combination of letters, brackets and other
mathematical symbols such as +, −, ×, :, and so on. Letters used in algebraic
expressions represent variables/unknown.
Example
x
20 + x, , x + 2y , x 2 + 3(y − 5),
y
Algebra is a language, and you must be familiar with its rules to correctly
interpret algebraic statements. The following order of operations has been agreed
upon through centuries of usage: Brackets first (B) - Indices second (I) -
Division and Multiplication third (DM) - Addition and Subtraction fourth
(AS). This is sometimes remembered using the acronym BIDMAS!
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.1. Algebraic expressions with one or more variables
Mathematical expressions provide a precise way of representing calculations that

need to be worked out in many business models.
Example
A company has a policy to reimburse employees for use of their cars for travel: for
the first 50 miles they may be able to claim 90 cents a mile, but this could fall to
60 cents a mile thereafter. If the distance, x miles, is no more than 50 miles, then
travel expenses, E (in dollars), could be worked out using the formula E = 0.9x.
If x exceeds 50 miles, the employee can claim $0.9 a mile for the first 50 miles
but only $0.6 a mile for the last (x − 50) miles. The total amount is
E (x) = 0.9 × 50 + 0.6(x − 50) = 15 + 0.6x.
Travel expenses can therefore be worked out using two separate expressions:
E = 0.9x when x is no more than 50 miles,
E = 15 + 0.6x when x exceeds 50 miles.
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.2. Equations, Inequalities of one or more variable
Definition
An equation is a mathematical statement that consists two equal algebraic
expressions, one on each side of an ’equals’ sign.
For example, 2x = 5, 2x = 3y are equations. Below are some equations/formulas

commonly used in economics:
Example
Net Income = Revenue – Expenses (net income equation)
Assets = Liabilities + Shareholder’s Equity (accounting equation) [Business

assets are items of value your business owns. Liabilities are debts you owe.
And, business equity is how much ownership you have in your business.]
Break-even Point = Fixed Costs / (Sales Price Per Unit – Variable Costs Per
Unit) [Use the break-even point formula to determine how many products
you need to sell during a period to break even.]
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.2. Equations, Inequalities of one or more variable
Definition
Inequality identifies two algebraic expressions are not equal by means of
the symbols like ̸=, <, >, ≤, ≥.
For example, x < 2, x + 3y > 5.
Inequalities arise in business when, for instance, there is a budgetary

restriction on resource allocation.
Example
A firm’s Human Resources department has a budget of $25,000 to spend
on training and laptops. Training courses cost $700 for one employee and
new laptops are $1200 per laptop.
(a) If the department trains E employees and buys L laptops, write down
an inequality for E and L.
(b) If 12 employees attend courses, how many laptops could be bought?

Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.3. Linear, non-linear equations/inequalities
A linear equation is of the form ax + by = c, where a, b, c are given, and x

and y are variables. For example: 2x + 3y = 1.
Equations that are not falling in the above form are called non-linear
equations. For example: 2x 2 + 1 = 2, x + y 3 = 4.
Similar to linear equations, a linear inequality is of the form ax + by < c

(or >, ≤, ≥). For example: x + y > 2.
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.4. Real numbers
The set of natural numbers is denoted IN = {1, 2, 3, . . . }

The set of whole numbers IN0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
The set of integers Z = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }

n is even then n = 2k with k ∈ ZZ,
n is odd then n = 2k + 1 with k ∈ ZZ.

I = {x|x is written as a quotient of 2 integers}
The set of rational numbers Q
I ∪ I, where I is the set of irrational numbers.

The set of real numbers IR = Q
To represent real numbers, we draw a horizontal line which is called the real
number line. The point representing zero is call the origin.
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.5. Exponents
Definition
Integer exponents. If n is a natural number, then an = a × a × a × · · · × a where
a appears as a factor n times and an is read as the nth exponent/power of a or a
raised to the nth exponent/power. By definition, we have that
am × an = am+n ; (am )n = am×n
Zero and negative exponents. By convention, a0 = 1 if a ̸= 0. If a is any nonzero

real number, and if n is a positive integer, then a−n = a1n
3 −1
= 43

Example. 20 = 1; 4
Newton binomial formula. Let n ∈ IN and x, y ∈ IR. Newton binomial says that
x n − y n = (x − y ) x n−1 + x n−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1

When x = 1, y ̸= 1, Newton binomial becomes

1 − yn
1 + y + · · · + y n−2 + y n−1 =
1−y
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.6. Radicals
√ √
Let n ∈ IN. The radical n
a is defined by n
a = a1/n and is read as the nth
root of a, where
the number a is the radicand,
n is the index of the radical.

√ √
The familiar symbol a is used instead of 2 a.
√
n
The relationship between the exponents and radicals is an = b ⇔ a = b.
Notice that
if the index n of radical is even then the radicand b ≥ 0,
if the index n is odd then b can be any.
Chapter R: Linear Equations and Non-linear Equations R.7. Polynomials
Definition
A polynomial is a term or a finite sum of terms in which all variables have whole
number exponents, and no variables appear in denominators. The degree is the
highest exponent.
Example
x 3 + 8 : polynomial of degree 3
x 2 y + xy 4 : polynomial of degree 5
Each variable plays a mathematical role equally in a polynomial. Therefore,

to compute the degree of a polynomial involving more than one variable, we
simply replace each by a common variable, for example, X and the highest
exponent of X will be the degree of the polynomial.
2x + 5 : polynomial of degree 1
√
x 2 + 3 x + 1 + 8: not a polynomial due to the fractional exponent in the
second term.
Chapter 1. Mathematics of Finance
This chapter includes the following features:

Percentages - Scale factors
Simple interest - Compound interest
Savings - Loans.
Investment appraisal
A calculator is handy while studying this chapter.
Chapter 1. Mathematics of Finance 1.1. Percentages
The word percentage literally means per cent, i.e. per hundred or out of
100. It stands for a portion of a whole expressed as a number between 0
and 100 rather than as a fraction and it is represented by the symbol %
Example
20 students out of a total of 37 in the student list are female. What
percentage are female?
20
Answer. Our class has 37 × 100 ≈ 54.3% female students. [This does not
mean that there are more than 54 female students in the class.]
An investment rises from $2,500 to $3,375. So

3375−2500
The percentage increase of the investment is 2500 = 0.35 = 35%
new value 3,375 3,375−2,500

The scale factor is old value = 2,500 =1+ 2,500 = 1.35.
At the beginning of a year, the population of a small village is 8,400.

If the annual drop in population is 5%, the population at the end of
the year is
5 5
8400 − 8400 × = 8400(1 − ) = 8400 × 0.95 = 7980
100 100
How to compute overall percentage changes
To compute the overall percentage change over an entire period, we

simply multiply all the scale factors together on each corresponding
individual period. For instance,
If share prices rise by 32% during the first half of the year and rise by
a further 10% during the second half, the scale factor for the whole
32 10
year is (1 + 100 ) × (1 + 100 ) = 1.32 × 1.1 = 1.452 and therefore the
overall percentage change during the year is 45.2%.
If the price of a good rises by 5% in a year but then is reduced by
30% in a sale, the scale factor for the whole year is
5 30
(1 + 100 ) × (1 − 100 ) = 1.05 × 0.7 = 0.735. In this case, the price is
reduced by 26.5% over the entire period.
Chapter 1. Mathematics of Finance 1.2. Simple interest - Compound interest
Suppose that Peter invests P0 dollars into a bank with the annual interest
rate of r %. How much will he receive?
After t days (t < 365), Peter receives
r% t
Pt = P0 + INT = P0 + P0 × t × = P0 1 + r % ×
365 365
Thus, after 1 year, he receives
P1 = P0 + INT = P0 + P0 × r % = P0 (1 + r %)
where INT is the interest paid direct to the investor and it is called
the simple interest.
However after 1 year, Peter still lets that amount in his account, so at the
end of the second year, he will receive
P2 = P0 (1 + r %) + INT = P0 (1 + r %) + r % × P0 (1 + r %) = P0 (1 + r %)2
Recursively, after n years: Peter receives Pn = P0 (1 + r %)n

The interest received in this case is called the compound interest,
which means interest earns on interest: INT = P0 (1 + r %)n − P0
The compound amount is P0 (1 + r %)n
Notations: P0 is called the present value and P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn are called the

future values of P0 after 1 year, 2 years, ..., n years, respectively.
Example
If $10,000 invested at 5% interest compounded annually then the amount
the investor receives
5
after 216 days is P216 days = 10, 000 + 10, 000 × 100 × 216
365 ≈ 10, 295.89
So the simple interest is 295.89 dollars.

5 4

at the end of the fourth year is P4 = 10, 000 1 + 100 = $12, 155.06
This infers that the compound interest is 2, 155.06 dollars.
It is worth noting that the interest are often compounded more frequently than a
year, so the periodic interest rates are required to be considered. The following is
the simple rule for periodic rates w.r.t. the annual rate r %:
If the interest is compounded semiannually then the semiannual rate is

2×n
rs = 2r , and thus, Pn = P0 1 + r 2%
If the interest is compounded quarterly then then the quarterly rate is

4×n
rq = 4r , and thus, Pn = P0 1 + r 4%
More general, if the interest is compounded m times per year [called

frequency of compounding per year] then the periodic rate is rq = mr , and
thus, m×n
r%
Pn = P0 1 +
m
However, r % is only nominal rate, because the interest rate that we actually
earn for a year if interest is compounded more than one time a year is higher.
This rate is called effective rate.
Indeed, suppose we invest $10 in a bank account and earn a return of 12 %

interest compounded semiannually. Then the compound interest earned after a
year is
2 " 2 #
12% 12%
10 1 + − 10 = 1+ − 1 × 10 = 0.1236 × 10 = 12.36% × 10
2 2
This means that we actually earn 12.36 %.
Generally, if r % is the nominal rate compounded m times per year then the
corresponding effective rate is
m
r%
re = 1 + −1
m
It’s clear that when m = 1 then r = re .
Example
A principal of $10 is invested at 12% interest for 1 year. The future value
if the interest is compounded
annually =
semiannually =
quarterly =
monthly =
weekly =
After calculating the future values above, we will see that the future value
rises as the frequency of compounding rises. However the rate of rise
appears to be slowing down, suggesting that numbers are converging to
some fixed value.
Indeed, if the interest is compounded in a smaller and smaller time periods (which
means m becomes very large) then the future value rises, however, after n years,
they appear to be approaching a fixed number
n×m " m/r % #n×r %
r% 1
Pn = lim P0 1 + = lim P0 1+ m = P0 e n×r %
m→∞ m m→∞
r%
In this case the interest is said to be compounded continuously.
Example. A principal of $2,000 is invested at 10% interest compounded

continuously. After how many days will the investment first exceed $2,100?
Remember that the number of periods must be a whole number because the
interests are only added on at the end of each compounding period.
The number e is named after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and is
m x
e ≡ limm→∞ 1 + m1 . Euler then proved that limx→∞ 1 + x1 = e. Note that
m ∈ IN, x ∈ IR
To summarize, if the investment earns a return of r % compounded

periodically then after k periods the future value of P0 is calculated by
Pk = P0 (1 + rp %)k ,
where rp = mr is the periodic interest rate and m is the frequency of

compounding per year.
If interest is compounded continuously then after n years, P0 becomes
Pn = P0 e n×r %
Chapter 1. Mathematics of Finance 1.3. Savings and loans
Recall that Newton binomial says that: when k ∈ IN and b be real

number. Then
1 − b k = (1 − b)(1 + b + b 2 + · · · + b k−2 + b k−1 )
So, if b ̸= 1 then
1 − bk
1 + b + b 2 + · · · + b k−2 + b k−1 =
1−b
101
1
1 2
1 100
1−( 12 )
Example. 1 + 2 + 2 + ··· + 2 = 1− 21
We’ll make use of the Newton binomial formula in the two important
activities in Finance, such as savings and loans.
In this section we focus on two applications of geometric series into

finance: savings and loans. We are approaching two topics by the
following examples.
[Savings] Peter saves $100 in a bank account at the beginning of
each month. The bank offers a return of 12% compounded monthly.
How much does Peter save after 12 months?
[Loans] Determine the monthly repayments needed to repay a

$100,000 loan which is paid back over 25 years at the end of each
month when the interest rate is 10% ?
If there is no other specification, it is often tacitly assumed that savings is
made at the beginning of each consecutive period and loans is due at the
end of each consecutive period.
Savings: Imagine simply one decides to invest regularly an equal amount

of money into a bank account in order to meet some future financial
commitment. This is sometimes referred to as a sinking fund!
Suppose that each payment is made at the beginning of the periods and
every payment is an equal amount a. Then the accumulated amount, after
n periods, will be calculated by
(1 + r )n − 1
Vn = a(1 + r ) + a(1 + r )2 + · · · + a(1 + r )n = a(1 + r ) .
r
Caveat: A fixed amount of money has different values at a different point
in time, which refers to as the time value of money. Therefore, a golden
rule for financial mathematics is never compare or identify capitals
without transforming them into a common date.
Loans: one needs an amount of money right now and decides to borrow it
from a bank. The loan is promised to pay back by a series of repayments
(or, also called, an annuity) made at equal time intervals. Such an annuity
can be thought of as the opposite of a sinking fund!
Suppose that each repayment is made at the end of the periods, then the
actual value of a debt, after n repayments made, is
1 − (1 + r )−n
V0 = a(1 + r )−1 + a(1 + r )−2 + · · · + a(1 + r )−n = a ,
r
where a is the amount repaid equally at each period.
Example
[Savings] Suppose $1,000 is placed in a savings account on the 1st of
December 2016 and, from then on, $50 is deposited in the account on
the first of the next months. If the interest is at 4.3% compounded
monthly, how much is in the account on 1 Jan., 2019?
[Loans] A debtor is to amortize an $18,000 car loan by making equal

repayments at the end of each month for 36 months. If the interest is
at 5% compounded monthly.
What is each monthly repayment?
Just after the 16th repayment, the debtor would like to pay off the rest
of loan by only three quarter repayments at the interest rate of 4.5%
compounded quarterly. What is each quarterly repayment?
Chapter 1. Mathematics of Finance 1.4. Investment appraisal
−k
Present value: P0 = Pk (1 + rp %) . Let’s recall that
Pk is the future value of P0 after k periods.
r % is the annual interest rate and thus, rp = mr in which m is the frequency

of compounding a year. In the backwards process, r % is referred to as the
discount rate [it’s customary to be used to calculate the present value of
promissory notes].
If interest is compounded continuously, P0 = Pn e −n×r % in which n is the years.
Example
Find the present value of $1,000 in 4 years’ time if the discount rate is 10%
compounded
(a) semiannually
(b) continuously ?
It is worth mentioning that a promissory note is a written statement agreeing to

pay a sum of money either on demand or at a definite future time. When a note
is purchased for its present value at a given interest rate, the note is said to be
discounted, and the interest rate is called the discount rate.
Example. Suppose a $10,000 note due eight years from now is sold to a financial
institution for $4700. What is the nominal discount rate with quarterly
compounding?
Present values are a useful way of appraising investment projects. Two

ways of assessing individual projects are based on Net Present Value
(NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR).
NPV = the present value of revenue - the present value of the costs.
A project is considered worthwhile if the NPV is positive.

IRR = the annual rate which, when applied to the initial outlay, yields
the same return as the project after the same number of years.
A project is considered worthwhile if the IRR is larger than market

rate.
It is often that if a decision is to be made between two different projects
then the one with higher NPV or IRR is the better choice. Of course, in
practice, other factors such as risk need to be taken into account before a
decision is made.
Example
A project requiring an initial outlay of $15,000 is guaranteed to produce a
return of $20,000 in 3 years’ time. Use the
Net Present Value
Internal Rate of Return

methods to decide whether this investment is worthwhile (i.e., the NPV is
positive) if the prevailing market rate is 5% compounded annually. Would
your decision be affected if the interest rate were 12%?
Caveat: the IRR method is sometimes an unreliable way of comparing

investment opportunities when there are significant differences between
the amounts involved. This is because the IRR method compares
percentages, and obviously a large percentage of a small sum could give a
smaller profit than a small percentage of a larger sum.
Example
Suppose that it is possible to invest in only one of two different projects.
Project A requires an initial outlay of $ 1,000 and yields $ 1,200 in four
years’ time. Project B requires an outlay of $ 30,000 and yields $ 35,000
after four years. Which of these projects would you choose to invest in
when the market rate is 3% compounded annually?
Chapter 2: Functions
Outline of the chapter: We will introduce linear functions, nonlinear

functions, and some functions used in Business.
Notice that at the end of this chapter, you must be able to:
determine independent/dependent variables of issues mostly arising in
Business,
represent relationship between quantities using
equations/inequalities/functions,
recognize possible properties of a quantity based on other quantities,
find the domain of a function and sketch a function,
know how to compute exactly or approximately related quantities,
finally know how to fit data points by regression model.
Chapter 2: Functions
Mathematical modeling
A mathematical model is a mathematical description (often by means of a

function or an equation) of a real-world phenomenon, such as the demand for a
product, the cost of emission reductions, and so on. The purpose of the model is
to understand the phenomenon and perhaps to make predictions about future
behavior.
There are many different types of functions that can be used to model
relationships observed in the real world. In what follows, we discuss the behavior
and graphs of these functions and give examples of situations appropriately
modeled by such functions.
Chapter 2: Functions 2.1. Linear functions
Slopes and equations of lines

An important characteristic of a straight line is its slope, a number that represents
the “steepness” or the “slant” of the line. The slope of a non-vertical line is

rise ∆y y2 − y1 y1 − y2
m ≡ tan θ = = = ≡
run ∆x x2 − x1 x1 − x2
Furthermore, the slope of a horizontal line is 0, while the slope of a vertical line is
undefined.
Note that using similar triangles, it can be shown that the slope of a line is
independent of the choice of points on the line.
The standard equation of a straight line:
Ax + By = C with A, B, C ∈ IR
The slope-point equation of a straight line passing through (xA , yA ) :
y = m(x − xA ) + yA
The slope-intercept equation of a straight line:
y = mx + b
Sketching the graph of linear functions
In general, to sketch a straight line from its mathematical equation, it is sufficient

to perform the following steps:
calculate the coordinates of any two distinct points lying on the line. The
easiest thing (in terms of the amount of arithmetic involved) is to put x = 0
and find y and then to put y = 0 and find x.
sketch the rectangular coordinate system consisting 2 perpendicular real

number lines. Horizontal line represents x− values and vertical line
represents y − values.
plot these two points on graph paper and use a ruler to draw the line
passing through them.
It is clear that x−intercept is the x coordinate of a point at which the

graph passes through the x−axis, while y −intercept is the y coordinate of
a point at which the graph passes through the y −axis.
Example
Sketch the line according to the equation 2x + 3y = 6.
Example 1. A car uses 6 liters of petrol for 100 km and 9 liters for 150 km. Find
the petrol usage equation, assuming it is linear. Find the amount of petrol used if
it traveled 30 km.
Example 2. A study determines the relationship between the time spent of a

student in study and the grade achieved. It found that a student spent 6 hours
per day in study may score 80 marks in a test and a student spent 3 hours per
day just scored 50 marks.
Find an equation to show the relationship between the time spend in study per
day, t, and the marks scored, S, by a student, assuming it is linear. Find the
marks scored by a student if he/she spent 5 hours per day in study.
Simple regression method used the least square lines

We use past data to find trends and to make tentative predictions about the
future. Assume that the data are related linearly, that is, if we plot pairs of data,
the resulting points will lie close to some line.
The least square line y = b1 + b0 x that gives the best fit to the data points
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . , (xn , yn ) has slope b0 and y-intercept b1
P P P P P
n (xy ) − ( x)( y ) y − b0 x
b0 = P P ; b1 =
n (x 2 ) − ( x)2 n
One measure of how well the original data fits a straight line is the correlation
coefficient developed by statistics pioneer Karl Pearson (1857—1936),
denoted by r , which can be calculated by the following formula.
P P P
n (xy ) − ( x) ( y )
r=p P P q p P P
n (x 2 ) − ( x)2 n (y 2 ) − ( y )2
Below are some scatterplots that correspond to values of r .
Note that if r is equal or close to zero, there is no linear correlation between the
data points (but some nonlinear function might provide an excellent fit for the
data). That is the reason why it is just as important to study non-linear
functions. Let’s move to the next topic.
Chapter 2: Functions 2.2. Nonlinear functions
In this section, we will introduce the following features:

What is a function?
Monotonic functions, symmetric functions, periodic functions
Four ways to represent a function
Special functions
Combinations of functions
Inverse functions
Let X, Y be two sets (or also called, for example, two events in
probability). A function f : X → Y is a rule that assigns, to each element
x of X , at most one element y of Y , denoted f (x).
It is useful to think of function as a machine: putting x into the machine

f , out of the machine we get f (x). Thus, x is called independent
input/variable, while f (x) is dependent variable/output which depends on
the input x.
Domain: the set of all inputs x allowable is called the domain of function
f and denoted D. Mathematically speaking,
D = {x|f (x) is well defined}
Range: If D is the domain of f then the set of all outputs f (x) is called
the image/range of f and denoted R. Briefly,
R = {f (x)|x ∈ D}
From now on, if no other specification is stated, D and R mean the
domain and the range of function of interest, respectively.
Example
Which following rule is a function? If it’s a function, find the domain and
range.
(a) x and f are related by f (x) = x1 .
(b) x and f are related by (f (x))2 = x.

Properties of function
Monotone: A function f is called increasing (resp. decreasing) on I ⊂ D
if, for all x1 , x2 ∈ I , x1 < x2 implies f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) (resp. f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ))
For example, f (x) = 2x + 1 is increasing on IR and g (x) = x 2 is increasing

on (0, ∞) and decreasing on (−∞, 0).
Symmetry: A function is called symmetric about the y −axis if
f (−x) = f (x).
For example, g (x) = x 2 is symmetric about the y −axis.

Periodic functions: A function is called periodic with period of T > 0 if
f (x + T ) = f (x) for all x.
For example, trigonometric functions such as sine, cosine, tangent,

cotangent are periodic.
Four ways to represent a function
A function can be represented

by a formula (algebraically)
by a table (numerically)
by a graph (graphically)
in words (verbally)
Notice that if a single function can be represented in all four ways, it’s
often useful to go from one representation to another to gain additional
insight into the function.
Special functions
Case-defined functions (or called also piece-wise functions): functions defined
by more than a formula over different intervals 
are called case-defined functions.
x if x ≥ 0
For example, the absolute-value function |x| =
−x otherwise.
Example. Let C be the cost of mailing an envelope with weight w . The rule that
the US Postal Service used as of 2010 is as follows: The cost is 88 cents for up to
1 oz, plus 17 cents for each additional ounce (or less). The mailing cost can be
given by a table as shown below
Write a general formula for the cost function and draw its graph.
Polynomial function of degree n:

f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where n is non-negative integer and the coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , an are
constants and an ̸= 0. Particularly,
n = 0: Constant functions f (x) = c, i.e. the value of f is always c
whatever x is.
n = 1: Linear functions f (x) = ax + b
n = 2: Quadratic function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c
Suppose that 0 < a ̸= 1.

Exponential function: f (x) = ax
Logarithmic functions: f (x) = loga x
Example
The percentage, y , of households possessing refrigerators, t years after
they have been introduced in a developed country, is modeled by
y = 100 − 95e −0.15t .
1. Find the percentage of households that have refrigerators
(a) at their launch,
(b) after 1 year,
(c) after 10 years,
(d) after 20 years.
2. What is the market saturation level?
3. Sketch a graph of y against t and hence give a qualitative description
of the growth of refrigerator ownership over time.
Combinations of functions
For any functions f and g , we define the following operations:
Sum/Difference: (f ± g )(x) = f (x) ± g (x)
Product: (fg )(x) = f (x) × g (x)
Quotient: (f /g )(x) = gf (x)

(x) for g (x) ̸= 0, i.e. we further restrict the
domain to exclude any value of x for which g (x) = 0.
Composition: f ◦ g (x) = f (g (x)) : the domain of f ◦ g is the set of

those x in the domain of g such that g (x) is in the domain of f .
Inverse: If g and f satisfy the fact that g ◦ f (x) = x and

f ◦ g (x) = x then g is called the inverse of f and denoted f −1 ≡ g .
Theorem
If g is one-to-one then its inverse exists and is unique!
A cryptograph is a coded message. The ability to code and decode messages is

useful because of the vast amount of information that is transmitted between
computers owned by companies, banks, governments and private users.
One method of protection from unauthorized viewers is to encode the information

using a mathematical function. This information can then be decoded only by
those who know the inverse of the encoding function.
Example. The logarithmic function ln x is the inverse of the exponential

function e x . The inverse trigonometric functions are arccos x, arcsin x, or
arctan x and so on.
Chapter 2: Functions 2.3. Functions used in Business
Demand function: p = D(q) where p is referred to as the unit price of a certain

commodity if customer demands q units. Supply function: p = S(q) where p is
referred to as the unit price at which the producer is willing to supply q units of
the commodity to the market. It turns out that, in any competitive market,
demand is decreasing, while supply is increasing.
Example. Suppose that Greg Tobin, manager of a giant supermarket chain, has
studied the supply and demand for watermelons. He has noticed that the demand
increases as the price decreases. He has determined that the quantity (in
thousands) demanded weekly, q, and the price (in dollars) per watermelon, p, are
related by the function p = 9 − 0.75q. Find the quantity demanded at a price of
$5.25 per watermelon and at a price of $3.75 per watermelon?
Greg also noticed that the quantity of watermelons supplied decreased as the
price decreased. Price p and supply q are related by p = 0.75q. Find the quantity
supplied at a price of $5.25 per watermelon and at a price of $3.00 per
watermelon. Graph both functions on the same axes.
The law of supply and demand says that in a competitive market environment,
supply tends to equal demand, and when this occurs, the market is said to be in
equilibrium. [Theory of Equilibrium points in N-person in-cooperative games were
studied by John Nash, 1950.]
When the market is not in equilibrium, it has a shortage when demand exceeds
supply [D(x) > S(x)] and a surplus when supply exceeds demand [S(x) > D(x)].
John Forbes Nash Jr. (June 13, 1928 – May 23, 2015) was an American mathematician who is the only person to be awarded
both the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in Game theory in 1994 and the Abel Prize in 2015. The movie ‘A
beautiful mind’ is about Nash’s life.
Total Cost = variable cost + fixed cost

variable cost, denoted c(x) which varies with output, is a function
used to express how production expenses will change at different
output levels (or number of units) x.
c(x) = x × p (the cost per unit)
fixed cost is costs which are independent of output

Revenue function denoted r (x) is a function used to express the amount
one receives after selling x units of a commodity.
r (x) = x × p (the selling price)
Profit function denoted p(x) is the interest received after selling x units
of a commodity.
p(x) = r (x) − total cost
Example. A firm producing poultry feed finds that the total cost C (x) in
dollars of producing and selling x units is given by
C (x) = 20x + 100
Management plans to charge $24 per unit for the feed.

(a) What is the fixed cost?
(b) Determine the revenue function.
(c) How many units must be sold for the firm to break even?
Chapter 2: Functions 2.4. Transposition
Transposing a formula is the rearrangement of a formula to make one of

the other letters the subject. It is often used to express a quantity in term
of price and vice versus.
Example
p = 2q + 8 where q is independent variable and p is dependent which
depends on q. We can transpose the equation into q = p/2 − 4, where p
is independent variable and q is dependent which depends on p.
Therefore, we write the demand function as p = D(q) or q = D(p). It is

the same for the supply function, which we write p = S(q) or q = S(p).
Chapter 2: Functions 2.5. Transformation
We can also obtain a new function by transformations of functions, such

as shifting, stretching, and reflecting their graphs. By applying certain
transformations to the graph of a given function we can obtain the graphs
of certain related functions.
Transformations of graph can be used to calculate new equilibrium quantity and

price after tax.
For instance, the tax on gasoline could either be imposed on the buyer or the
supplier. It is imposed on the buyer if the buyer pays a price for the good and
then also pays the tax on top of that. Similarly, if the tax is imposed on the seller,
the price charged to the buyer includes the tax.
Tax policy is the choice by a government as to what taxes to impose, in what

amounts, and on whom. For example, in the United States, gasoline sales taxes
are generally imposed on the buyer—the stated price does not include the
tax—while in Canada, the sales tax is generally imposed on the seller.
First, consider a tax imposed on the seller. At a given price p, and tax t,
each seller obtains p–t, and thus supplies the amount associated with this
net price. Taking the before-tax supply to be SBefore , the after-tax supply
is shifted up by the amount of the tax. This is the amount that covers the
marginal value of the last unit, plus providing for the tax.
The change in supply is illustrated in the figure below.
Now consider the imposition of a tax on the buyer, as illustrated in the

figure below. In this case, the buyer pays the price of the good, p, plus the
tax, t. This reduces the willingness to pay for any given unit by the amount
of the tax, thus shifting down the demand curve by the amount of the tax.
In both cases, the effect of the tax on the supply-demand equilibrium is to

shift the quantity toward a point where the before-tax demand minus the
before-tax supply is the amount of the tax. This is illustrated in the figure
below.
A deadweight loss is a cost to society created when supply and demand

are out of equilibrium. For more details, you will study in business courses.
Example
The demand and supply functions of a good are given by p = −2qd + 50
and p = 1/2qS + 25 where p, qD and qS denote the price, quantity
demanded and quantity supplied, respectively.
(a) Determine the equilibrium price and quantity.
(b) Determine the effect on the market equilibrium if the government

decides to impose a fixed tax of $5 on each good.
Chapter 3. Differentiation
Outline of the chapter:

Limits
Continuity
Tangent and velocity problems
Derivative of a function
Rules of differentiation
Some applications of differentiation in Business
Rates of change - Relative rate of change
Elasticity
Marginal functions
Optimization in Business: Economic lot size, Economic order quantity,

Diminishing point of returns
Chapter 3. Differentiation 3.1. Limits
In mathematics, a limit is the value that a function (or sequence)

”approaches” as the input (or index) ”approaches” some value. Limits are
essential to calculus and are used to define continuity, derivatives, and
integrals.
Definition
Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood of a point a but not
necessarily at a. We say loosely that the limit of f when x goes to a is L,
and write limx→a f (x) = L if we can make f (x) arbitrarily close to L by
taking x sufficiently close but not equal to a.
Sometimes we also want to talk about limit from one side.

Definition
necessarily at a. We say that the limit of f when x goes to a on the right
(resp., on the left) is L, and write
limx→a+ f (x) = L (reps., limx→a− f (x) = L)
if we can make f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently close but

bigger than a (reps., smaller than a ).
Theorem
limx→a f (x) exists if and only if limx→a+ f (x) and limx→a− f (x) exist and
are equal. In that case limx→a f (x) = limx→a+ f (x) = limx→a− f (x)
Consequently, if limx→a+ f (x) ̸= limx→a− f (x) then limx→a f (x) does not
exist.
We also want to talk about infinity as limit.

Definition
necessarily at a. We say that the limit of f when x goes to a is infinity,
and write
limx→a f (x) = ∞
if we can make f (x) arbitrarily big by taking x sufficiently close but not
equal to a.
Definition
If the values of the function f (x) approach a number L as x increases
without bound, we write
limx→∞ f (x) = L
Similarly, we write limx→−∞ f (x) = M when the functional values of f

approach a number M as x decreases without bound.
Theorem
If c ∈ R then the constant function f (x) ≡ c is often denoted c itself.
And we have
lim c = c and lim x = a
x→a x→a
It’d be worth introducing one of the important theorems of Euler:
1 x

1
lim (1 + x) x = e and lim 1+ =e
x→0 x→∞ x
The number e is named after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler

m
and is limm→∞ 1 + m1 .
Limit Laws
Theorem
If limx→a f (x) and limx→a g (x) exist then
(a) limx→a [f (x) ± g (x)] = limx→a f (x) ± limx→a g (x)
(b) limx→a f (x)g (x) = [limx→a f (x)][limx→a g (x)]
(c) limx→a gf (x)

(x) =
limx→a f (x)
limx→a g (x) if limx→a g (x) ̸= 0.
The laws are still valid with the process x → ∞ instead of x → a.
Corollary
Let n be a positive integer. If limx→a f (x) exists then
(a) limx→a cf (x) = c limx→a f (x)
(b) limx→a x n = an
(c) limx→a (f (x))n = (limx→a f (x))n
√ √
(d) limx→a n x = n a
In the above formula if n is even we assume that a > 0
p p
(e) limx→a n f (x) = limx→a n f (a)
In the above formula if n is even we assume that limx→a f (x) > 0.
Below are some remarks that are worth noting:

the limit of function f when x → a can be thought of as the limiting
value of f as x is very close to a, that is,
lim f (x) = L ⇔ f (x) ≈ L as x ≈a

x→a
the limit of function if exists must be unique.
Finally in reality nothing is exactly one hundred percent, so limits are

essential and you should know how to compute/use them proficiently!
Chapter 3. Differentiation 3.2. Continuity
In mathematics, a continuous function is a function that does not have

any abrupt changes in value. More precisely,
Definition
f is said to be continuous at a if limx→a f (x) = f (a)
which also means that sufficiently small changes in the input of a

continuous function result in arbitrarily small changes in its output. A
function that is not continuous is called a discontinuous function.
Economists speak quite often about the continuity and discontinuity of

economic functions/relationships.
Example
Suppose that a salesperson receives a salary according to a contract that
establishes a relationship between pay and the level of sales made by the
salesperson. In particular, suppose that the contract stipulates that the
salesperson’s monthly salary will be composed of three parts:
(i) a basic amount of $800,
(ii) a commission of 10%,
(iii) a lump-sum bonus of $500 if the salesperson’s sales for the month
reach or exceed $20,000.
From this description, one can see that her salary will jump by $500 if the
critical level of $20,000 worth of sales is achieved. This implies a
discontinuity in her salary schedule.
The definition of continuity of functions at a point is also extended to an

interval as follows.
Definition
A function f is continuous on an interval [a, b) if it is continuous at every
point in the interval and limx→a+ f (x) = f (a).
A function f is continuous on an interval (a, b] if it is continuous at every

point in the interval and limx→b− f (x) = f (b).
Accordingly, a function f is continuous on an interval [a, b] if it is

continuous at every point in the interval and limx→a+ f (x) = f (a) and
limx→b− f (x) = f (b).
Intuitively, a continuous function at a is a function that its graph has no
holes at a or is not broken into two pieces at a.
One often says that a picture is worth more than thousand words. So in
order to understand the concepts of continuity, let do the example below.
Example
Let f be given by the graph in the figure below. Which intervals is f
continuous on?
Example
Suppose the long-distance rate for a telephone call from Hazleton,
Pennsylvania to Los Angeles, California, is $0.08 for the first minute or
fraction thereof and $0.04 for each additional minute or fraction thereof. If
y = f (t) is a function that indicates the total charge y for a call of t
minutes duration then
Formulate the charge function
Sketch the graph of f for 0 < t ≤ 3 21
Determine the values of t at which discontinuity occurs.
Chapter 3. Differentiation 3.3. Tangent and Velocity Problems
Recall that a linear function f (x) = mx + b changes at a constant rate m

w.r.t. x, that is, the rate of change of f (x) is the slope or the steepness of
the line y = mx + b.
However if a function f (x) is not linear, the rate of change is not a

constant but varies with x. In particular, when x = c, the rate is given by
the steepness of the graph of f (x) at the point P(c, f (c)), which can be
measured by the slope of the tangent line to the graph at P.
Tangent problem. Find the slope of a tangent line at P(c, f (c)) on the
curve C of equation y = f (x).
Strategy: consider a point Q(c + h, f (c + h)) nearby P (Q ̸= P). The

slope of the secant line PQ is the difference quotient:
rise change in f f (c + h) − f (c)
mPQ = = =
run change in x h
Observe that if we let Q approach P by letting c + h approach c then the

pink lines PQ approach the blue line at P. In other words, the blue line is
considered as the limiting line of the pink lines. As a result, the slope of
the tangent line at P can be calculated as
f (c + h) − f (c)
m = lim mPQ = lim
Q→P h→0 h
Velocity problem. If an object is moving along a straight line according

to an equation s = f (t), where s is the displacement of the object from
the origin at time t, then the average velocity denoted va of the object
moving in the time interval from time a to time a + h is the following
difference quotient
displacement f (a + h) − f (a)
va = =
elapsed time h
If we consider the movement of the object in a shorter and shorter time

interval, the average velocity becomes the instantaneous velocity
f (a + h) − f (a)
v (a) = limh→0
h
Note that we are not concerned with the direction in which the movement
occurs, but displacement and velocity. The speed of the movement is
|velocity |.
Chapter 3. Differentiation 3.4. Derivative
Both problems lead to finding limit
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + ∆x) − f (a)

lim ≡ lim .
h→0 h ∆x→0 ∆x
This limit arises actually not only in geometry and physics but in many
other practical situations, so it is given a special name: DERIVATIVE!
Definition
Given y = f (x). The derivative of a function at the number a, denoted by
f ′ (x = a) (followed by Newton’s notation) which is read ’f dashed of x‘ or
denoted by dx df
(x = a) ≡ dy
dx (x = a) (followed by Leibnitz’s), is
f (a + h) − f (a) ∆f df
f ′ (a) = lim = lim = (x = a)
h→0 h ∆x→0 ∆x dx
if the limit exists and, in this case, f is said to be derivable (or also called
differentiable) at a.
It turns out from the definition of the derivative that
f must be absolutely defined at a and about a if f ′ (a) exists
If f is derivable at every point in an interval (a, b) then f is said to be

derivable on (a, b)
If a number a is replaced by a variable x, the derivative of f is also a

function in terms of x that is also called a derived function!
Noting that not all functions are derivable. For example, function is not
continuous at a point then it is not derivable at that point, that is, the
graph at this point is broken into two pieces or has a hole.
Even continuous functions that whose graph has a sharp corner are also
not derivable.
Chapter 3. Differentiation 3.5. Rules of Differentiation
Theorem
If f and g are derivable and c is a constant then
(f ± g )′ = f ′ ± g ′
(fg )′ = f ′ g + fg ′
f ′ g −fg ′
( gf )′ = g2
(cf )′ = cf ′
Theorem (Chain rule)

If f and g are derivable then
(f (g (x)))′ = f ′ (g (x))g ′ (x)
Example
Given two functions f , g whose graphs are shown below. Let
u(x) = f (g (x)), v (x) = g (f (x)), and w (x) = g (g (x))
Find u ′ (1), v ′ (1), and w ′ (1).
Thanks to the definition of derivative, we have that

If f ′ > 0 on a certain interval then the curve of f rises from the left to
the right of the interval and thus the function is said to be increasing.
If f ′ < 0, the curve of f drops and the function is decreasing.
The point at which f ′ = 0 and the curve changes from moving ups to
moving down or vice versa is called the turning point!
The second order is defined by f ′′ (x) = (f ′ (x))′ . Moreover, the sign of f ′′

enables us to identify the behavior of the function f . Precisely,
If f ′′ > 0 on a certain interval then the curve of f bends upwards on
that interval and the function is said to be convex.
If f ′′ < 0, the curve of f bends downwards and the function is said to

be concave.
The point at which f ′ = 0 and the curve changes the concavity is called
the point of inflection.
Chapter 3. Differentiation 3.6. Some applications of differentiation in Business
You may wonder what on earth differentiation has to do with economics?

In fact we cannot get very far with economic theory without making use of
calculus. In this section, we focus on the following topics:
Rate of change - Relative rate of change - Percentage rate of change
Elasticity
Marginal analysis
Optimization in Business
Rate of change
The rate of change of f (x) at x is defined by f ′ (x).
Example
An efficiency study of the morning shift [from 8:00 a.m. til 12:00 noon] at
a certain factory indicates that an average worker arriving on the job at
8:00 a.m. will have produced Q(t) = −t 3 + 8t 2 + 15t units t hours later.
At what time is the worker performing most efficiently? and least
efficiently?
Relative rate of change
In many practical situations, the rate of change of a quantity f is not as

significant as its relative rate of change, which is defined as change in f
size of f .
Example
A yearly rate of change of 500 individuals in a city whose total populations is 5
500
million yields a negligible relative (per capita) rate of change of 5,000,000 = 0.0001
or 0.01%, while the same rate of change in a town of 2,000 would yield a relative
500
rate of change 2,000 = 0.25 or 25%, which has enormous impact on the town.
∆f
The relative rate of change in f = f and the corresponding percentage rate of
change in f = 100f ∆f %.
Elasticity
We are known that demand, in general, is a decreasing function, that is,

an increase in the unit price of a commodity will result in decreased
demand. However, the sensitivity or responsiveness of demand to a change
in price varies from one product to another.
For instance, the demand for products such as soap, flashlight batteries, or
salt will not be much affected by a small percentage change in unit price,
while a comparable percentage change in the price of airline tickets or
home loans can affect demand dramatically.
Economists use a quantity called elasticity of demand to measure the

sensitivity of the change.
Point elasticity of demand is defined, supposed that q is a demand function in

terms of unit price p (q0 = q(p0 )), by
∆q
" #
percentage rate of change in demand q p ∆q p 1
E (p) = = ∆p = × = × ∆p
percentage rate of change in price p
q ∆p q ∆q
Therefore, when ∆p ≈ 0 and ∆q ≈ 0, we have that

p0 ∆q p0 dq p0 ′ p0 1
E (p0 ) = × lim = × (p0 ) ≡ × q (p0 ) = × ′
q0 ∆p→0 ∆p q0 dp q0 q0 p (q0 )
Demand is said to be
elastic if |E | > 1 ⇒ the percentage decrease in demand is greater than the
percentage increase in price that caused it, and thus, demand is relatively
sensitive to changes in price
inelastic if |E | < 1 ⇒ demand is relatively insensitive to changes in price
unit elasticity if |E | = 1
Example
The manager of a bookstore determines that when a certain new
paperback novel is priced at p dollars per copy, the daily demand will be
√
q = 300 − p 2 copies, where 0 ≤ p ≤ 300
(a) Determine where the demand is elastic, inelastic, and of unit elasticity
with respect to price.
(b) Interpret the results of part (a) in terms of the behavior of total
revenue as a function of price.
The relationship between revenue and price is shown below. Note that the
revenue curve is rising where demand is inelastic, falling where demand is
elastic, and has a horizontal tangent line where the demand is of unit
elasticity.
Example. Given a demand equation as
q = p 2 − 20p + 100
where p is the price per unit (in hundred dollars) and q is the quantity
demanded (in hundreds).
(a) Find the point elasticity of demand for $500.
(b) If this change in price of $500 is increased by 2%, what is the

approximate change in demand?
Example. The demand equation for a manufacturer’s product is

√
p = 50(151 − q)0.02 q+19
dp
(a) Find the value of dq when 150 units are demanded.
(b) Using the result in part (a), determine the point elasticity of demand
when 150 units are demanded. At this level, is demand elastic,
inelastic, or of unit elasticity?
(c) Use the result in part (b) to approximate the price per unit if demand
decreases from 150 to 140 units.
(d) If the current demand is 150 units, should the manufacturer increase
or decrease price in order to increase revenue?
Marginal functions
The additional cost incurred when the level of production is increased by ∆q

units, from q0 to q0 + ∆q is ∆C = C (q0 + ∆q) − C (q0 )
It turns out that the average additional cost will be
∆C C (q0 + ∆q) − C (q0 )

=
∆q ∆q
When ∆q ≈ 0 and ∆C ≈ 0, the average additional cost becomes
∆C C (q0 + ∆q) − C (q0 )

lim = lim = C ′ (q0 ) ≡ MC (q0 )
∆q→0 ∆q ∆q→0 ∆q
which is called the marginal cost.
The definition is analogously stated for the marginal revenue and marginal
profit.
Example 1. A manufacturer has determined that m employees will

produce a total of q units of product per day, where
q = m(50 − m)
If the demand function is given by
p = −0.05q + 10
find the marginal-revenue product when m = 2.
3
Example 2. If AC = 0.03q + 1.2 + q is an average-cost function, find the
marginal cost when q = 100.
Example
Unit of output Total cost (in dollars) Marginal cost (in dollars)
1 5 5
2 9 4
3 12 3
4 16 4
5 21 5
6 29 8
Observe that the marginal cost curve decreases sharply with smaller
output and reaches a minimum. As production is expanded to a higher
level, it begins to rise at a rapid rate.
Exercise. A manufacturer has found that when m employees are working, the
number of units of product produced per day is
p
q = 10 m2 + 4900 − 700
The demand equation for the product is
8q + p 2 − 19, 300 = 0
where p is the selling price when the demand for the product is q units per day.
(a) Determine the manufacturer’s marginal-revenue product when m = 240.
(b) Find the relative rate of change of revenue with respect to the number of
employees when m = 240.
(c) Suppose it would cost the manufacturer $400 more per day to hire an
additional employee. Would you advise the manufacturer to hire the 241st
employee? Why or why not?
Diminishing marginal productivity

The production function Q is simply defined as a function of labour L and capital
K . Moreover, in the short run the input K can be assumed to be fixed, so Q is
then only a function of one input L.
The diminishing marginal productivity states that the increase in output due to
a 1-unit increase in labour will eventually decline. In other words, once the size of
the workforce has reached a certain threshold level, the marginal product of
labour will get smaller. It’s kind of like the more you eat egg rolls, the less you
enjoy them.
A little more precisely, the marginal product of labour is

dQ
MQL = .
dL
When the values of MQL decline with increasing L, the production function
illustrates the law of diminishing marginal productivity (sometimes called the
law of diminishing returns).
√
Example. Q = 300 L − 4L.
Two general principles of marginal analysis
Derivatives can be used to optimize economic quantities. To find extreme

point of a quantity involving an other quantity, we can use the first order
derivative theorem or the second order derivative as follows.
[First order derivative (Fermat’s necessary condition)] If f ′ (a) = 0
and f ′ changes sign around a, a is an extreme point.
[Second order derivative (investigating the concavity of function)] If

f ′ (a) = 0 then
if f ′′ (a) > 0 then f attains a minimum value at a. The curve will
bends up ward at x = a.
if f ′′ (a) < 0 then f attains a maximum value at a. The curve will

bends down ward at x = a.
[Minimal average cost] Average cost is minimized at the level of

production where average cost equals marginal cost; that is, when
AC (q) = MC (q) followed by the first order derivative theorem.
Example. A manufacturer’s total-cost function if given by
q2
C= + 3q + 400
4
where C is the total cost of producing q units.
At what level of output will average cost per unit be a minimum? What is
this minimum?
[Maximum profit criterion] The profit P(q) = R(q) − C (q) is maximized at a

level of production q where marginal revenue equals marginal cost and the rate of
change of marginal cost exceeds the rate of change of marginal revenue; that is,
where
MR(q) = MC (q) and MR ′ (q) < MC ′ (q)
followed by the second order derivative theorem.
Example. Suppose that the demand equation for a monopolist’s product is

p = 400 − 2q (in dollars) and the average-cost function is
400
AC = 0.2q + 4 +
q
where q is the number of units.
(a) Determine the maximum profit
(b) If, a regulatory device, the government imposes a tax of $22 per unit on the
monopolist, what is the new price for profit maximization?
Economic lot size
Suppose that a company manufactures a constant number of units of a product

per year and that the product can be manufactured in several batches of equal
size throughout the year.
On the one hand, if the company were to manufacture one large batch every year,
it would minimize setup costs but incur high warehouse costs. On the other hand,
if it were to make many small batches, this would increase setup costs.
Calculus can be used to find the number that should be manufactured in each
batch in order to minimize the total cost. This number is called the economic
lot size.
Figure below shows several possibilities for a product having an annual demand of
12,000 units.
The first graph shows the results if all 12,000 units are made in one batch
per year. In this case an average of 6000 units will be held in a warehouse.
If 3000 units are made in each batch, four batches will be made at equal
time intervals during the year, and the average number of units in the
warehouse falls to only 1500.
If 1000 units are made in each of twelve batches, an average of 500 units
will be in the warehouse.
To solve the problem, we need to consider the variable q number of units in each
batch. In addition, we have the following constants:
k is cost of storing one unit of the product for one year;
f is fixed setup cost to manufacture the product;
g is cost of manufacturing a single unit of the product;
M is total number of units produced annually.
So the total production cost is the sum of the manufacturing and storage costs

M q fM kq
TC (q) = f × +g ×M +k × = + gM +
q 2 q 2
q
and the lot size that minimizes total costs is q = 2fM
k .
For example. A paint company has a steady annual demand for 24,500
cans of automobile primer. The comptroller for the company says that it
costs $ 2 to store one can of paint for 1 year and $ 500 to set up the plant
for the production of the primer.
Find the number of cans of primer that should be produced in each batch,
as well as the number of batches per year, in order to minimize total
production costs.
Economic order quantity

We can extend our previous discussion to the problem of reordering an item that is
used at a constant rate throughout the year. Here, the company using a product
must decide how often to order and how many units to request each time an order
is placed; that is, it must identify the economic order quantity. In this case, q is
the number of units to order each time. We also have the following constants:
k is cost of storing one unit for one year;
f is fixed cost to place an order;
M is total units needed per year.
q
fM kq 2fM
So the cost is storage cost + reorder cost is q + 2 and then q = k .
For example. A large pharmacy has an annual need for 480 units of a certain
antibiotic. It costs $3 to store one unit for one year. The fixed cost of placing an
order (clerical time, mailing, and so on) amounts to $31. Find the number of units
to order each time, and how many times a year the antibiotic should be ordered.
Chapter 4. Partial Differentiation

Functions of several variables
Unconstrained/constrained optimization
Partial elasticity and marginal functions
Chapter 4. Partial Differentiation 4.1. Functions of several variables
Most relationships in economics involve more than one variable. For

instance, the demand for a good depends not only on its own price but
also on the price of substitute and complementary goods, incomes of
consumers, advertising expenditure and so on. Likewise, the output from a
production process depends on a variety of inputs, including land, capital
and labor.
Note that
Substitutes are products/services in different forms that have the same
functionality. For example, butter and margarine are substitute goods.
Complementary goods/services is an item used in conjunction with another

good/service. Usually the complementary good has little to no value when
consumed alone, but when combined with another goods/services, it adds to
the overall value of the offering. For example, an iPhone and apps with it
are complementary products.
To analyze general economic behavior we must extend the concept of a function

of one variable, and particularly the differential calculus, to functions of several
variables.
Definition
A function, f , of n variables is a rule that assigns to each incoming tuple of
numbers, (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), a uniquely defined outgoing number, z. In symbols we
write this as z = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
Domain of a function of n variables is defined by

{(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is well defined}
a subset of IR × IR × · · · × IR ≡ IRn called the n dimensional space. In particular, if
n = 2 then it is a two dimensional space or a real plane.
Graph of a function involving two variables is a surface in three

dimensional space. It is necessary to bear in mind that the graph of
function of one variable is a curve in xy −plane.
To help you have a feeling of what is the graph of a function of two

variables, let us analyze how to sketch the graph of the following functions.
Example
Graph of the function f (x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 (D is the whole xy − plane)
First-order derivatives.
Definition
First-order partial derivative w.r.t. x:
∂f f (x0 +∆x,y0 )−f (x0 ,y0 )
∂x (x0 , y0 ) ≡ fx (x0 , y0 ) = lim∆x→0 ∆x
First-order partial derivative w.r.t. y :

∂f f (x0 ,y0 +∆y )−f (x0 ,y0 )
∂y (x0 , y0 ) ≡ fy (x0 , y0 ) = lim∆y →0 ∆y
∂f
Accordingly to compute for example ∂x , we need only to differentiate
mathematical expressions with respect to x and let all remaining letters in
the mathematical expressions constants in disguise. It is the same for
other variables.
Gradient vector of f at (x0 , y0 ) is denoted ∇f and determined by
∇f (x0 , y0 ) = [fx (x0 , y0 ); fy (x0 , y0 )]
Second-order derivatives.
∂2f
Second-order partial derivative w.r.t. x: ∂x 2
≡ fxx = (fx )x
∂2f
Second-order partial derivative w.r.t. y : ∂y 2
≡ fyy = (fy )y
∂2f
Second-order partial derivative w.r.t. x and y : ∂x∂y ≡ fxy = (fy )x
∂2f
Second-order partial derivative w.r.t. y and x: ∂x∂y ≡ fyx = (fx )y
Note that in general (fx )y ̸= (fy )x . In the scope of this course, we will
consider functions that satisfy (fx )y = (fy )x . [According to Weierstrass
theorem, (fx )y (x0 , y0 ) = (fy )x (x0 , y0 ) if the first order partial derivatives
are continuous at (x0 , y0 ).]
All variables to change: • If x changes a small amount ∆x and y changes a small

amount ∆y , the net change in z = f (x, y ) is
∂f ∂f
∆z ≈ × ∆x + × ∆y
∂x ∂y
which is called the small increments formula. The differential form of the small
increments formula states that
∂f ∂f
dz = × dx + × dy
∂x ∂y
• If z = f (x, y ) is a constant, then dz = 0. At this stage, after rearrangement, we

have that
∂z
dy
= − ∂x
∂z
dx ∂y
This formula is called the implicit differentiation and is a useful tool to compute
the derivative of an implicit function.
Example. Use the small increments formula to estimate the change in
z = x 2 y 4 − x 6 + 4y
when
(a) x increases from 1 to 1.1 and y remains fixed at 0;
(b) x remains fixed at 1 and y decreases from 0 to -0.5;
(c) x increases from 1 to 1.1 and y decreases from 0 to -0.5.
Chapter 4. Partial Differentiation 4.2. Optimization problems
Recall that a local/relative minimum point is a point whose value is

smallest compared to the value of points around. It is analogous to
definition of relative/local maximum point.
A global/absolute minimum point is a point whose value is smallest

compared to every points in the domain.
Let’s look at the three particular surfaces:

Example
Graph of the function f (x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 has the shape of a paraboloid
opened upwards.
(x = 0, y = 0) is called a minimum of f . Note that the tangent plane to

the surface at the minimum point is the xy −plane and the surface is
convex, which means it holds water in itself.
Example
Graph of the function f (x, y ) = −x 2 − y 2 has the shape of a paraboloid
opened downwards
(x = 0, y = 0) is called the maximum of f . Note that the tangent plane to

the surface at the maximum point is the xy −plane and the surface is
concave, which means it pours water.
Example
Graph of the function f (x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 has the shape of a hyperbolic
paraboloid
(x = 0, y = 0) is called the saddle point or minimax point of f . This

surface is neither convex nor concave at (0, 0).
Steps to solve the unconstrained problem Min/Max z = f (x, y )

S1. [Fermat’s necessary condition] Find the stationary point/candidates (x0 , y0 )
of the function f by solving the simultaneous system fx = fy = 0
S2. [Sufficient condition investigating the concavity of the function] Classify the
candidates as minimum or maximum or saddle points by determining
∆ = fxx (x0 , y0 ) × fyy (x0 , y0 ) − fxy2 (x0 , y0 ). If
∆ > 0 then (x0 , y0 ) is an extreme point. This point is the local
minimum if fxx (x0 , y0 ) > 0 and is the local maximum if fxx (x0 , y0 ) < 0.
Note that if ∆ does not consist of (x0 , y0 ) then minimum/maximum
obtained will be global.
∆ < 0 then (x0 , y0 ) is the saddle point or so called minimax, that is,
neither min nor max.
∆ = 0 then no conclusion is stated yet. To get further information, we
have to consider δ = f (x, y ) − f (x0 , y0 ). If
δ ≤ 0 for all x, y then (x0 , y0 ) is a maximum
δ ≥ 0 for all x, y then (x0 , y0 ) is a minimum
Otherwise, (x0 , y0 ) is a saddle point.
Example. [Price discrimination] Suppose a monopolist is practicing

price discrimination in the sale of a product by charging different prices in
two separate markets.
In market A, the demand function is pA = 100 − qA and in market B it is

pB = 84 − qB , where qA and qB are the quantities sold per week in A and
B, and pA and pB are the respective prices per unit.
If the monopolist’s cost function is C = 600 + 4(qA + qB ), how much

should be sold in each market to maximize the profit?
Example. [Constraint problem] A firm produces two goods A and B.

The weekly cost of producing x items of A and y items of B is
TC (x, y ) = 0.2x 2 + 0.05y 2 − 0.1xy + 2x − 5y + 1000
(a) State the minimum value of TC in the case when there are no
constraints.
(b) Find the minimum value of TC when the firm is committed to

producing 500 goods of either type in total.
Lagrange multiplier method for constraint problems.
Steps to find the optimal value of Min/Max z = f (x, y ) s.t. g (x, y ) = C

S1. Construct the Lagrangian function L(x, y , λ) = f (x, y ) − λ × [g (x, y ) − C ],
in which λ is called the Lagrange multiplier.
S2. Optimal conditions: ∇f = λ∇g [⇔ fx = λgx ; fy = λgy ] and g (x, y ) − C = 0.
Therefore, to find the optimal value we need to solve simultaneous system
Lx = Ly = Lλ = 0 for (x0 , y0 ) [and λ if necessary].
Example. Use Lagrange multiplier method to optimize the function z = 2x 2 − xy
subject to x + y = 12.
Chapter 4. Partial Differentiation 4.3. Partial elasticity and marginal functions
Our aim in this section is to study several applications of partial

differentiation in economics that have been considered in the case of
functions of one variable, such as
Substitute commodities and Complementary commodities
Elasticity of demand
Marginal utility and marginal production and so on.
Substitute/complementary commodities. It’s worth recalling that two

commodities are said to be substitute commodities if an increase in the demand
for either results in a decrease in demand for the other. Substitute commodities
are competitive, like butter and margarine.
On the other hand, two commodities are said to be complementary commodities

if a decrease in the demand of either results in a decrease in the demand of the
other. An example is provided by digital cameras and recording disks. If
consumers buy fewer digital cameras, they will likely buy fewer recording disks,
too.
Suppose D 1 (p1 , p2 ) units of the first commodity and D 2 (p1 , p2 ) of the second are
demanded when the unit prices of the commodities are p1 and p2 , respectively. It
is reasonable to expect demand to decrease with increasing price, so Dp11 < 0 and
Dp22 < 0.
For substitute commodities, the demand for each commodity increases with
respect to the price of the other, so Dp12 > 0 and Dp21 > 0.
However, for complementary commodities, the demand for each decreases with
respect to the price of the other, and Dp12 < 0 and Dp21 < 0.
Example
Suppose the demand function for flour in a certain community is given by
10
D 1 (p1 , p2 ) = 500 + − 5p2 ,
p1 + 2
while the corresponding demand for bread is given by
7
D 2 (p1 , p2 ) = 400 + − 2p1 ,
p2 + 3
where p1 is the dollar price of a pound of flour and p2 is the price of a loaf of
bread. Determine whether flour and bread are substitute or complementary
commodities or neither.
Elasticity. Suppose that demand function Q = f (P, PA , Y ) in which P is

the price of a certain good, PA is the price of an alternative good, and Y
is the income of consumers. So
P ∂Q P
The price elasticity of demand is EP = Q × ∂P ≡ Q × QP .
PA ∂Q PA
The cross-price elasticity of demand is EPA = Q × ∂PA ≡ Q × QPA .
If the alternative good is substitutable then QPA > 0 and thus EPA > 0.
If the alternative good is complementary then QPA < 0 and thus

EPA < 0.
Y ∂Q Y
The income elasticity of demand is EY = Q × ∂Y ≡ Q × QY .
If the good is inferior then QY < 0 and thus EY < 0.
If the good is normal then QY > 0 and thus EY > 0. Furthermore, if

EY > 1 then the good is superior.
Example. Given the demand function Q = 100 − 2P + PA + 0.1Y where

the price of a certain good P = 10, the price of an alternative good
PA = 12, and the income of consumers Y = 1000.
(1) Find
price elasticity of demand
cross-price elasticity of demand
income elasticity of demand
(2) Is the alternative good is substitutable or complementary?
(3) If income rises by 5%, calculate the corresponding percentage change

in demand. Would this good be classified as inferior, normal or
superior?
Utility. Consumers are faced with a choice of how many items of various goods to
buy and has a preference between options available. To analyze the behavior of
consumers quantitatively, we associate with each set of options a number, U,
called utility, which indicates the level of satisfaction. For instance,
If a customer prefers apples to oranges no matter the amount consumed, the

utility function could be expressed as U(apples) > U(oranges).
If a customer prefers (1 avocado and 3 apples) to (2 avocados and 1 apple),

the utility function could be expressed as U(1, 3) > U(2, 1).
A little more general, suppose that there are two goods, G1 and G2 , and that the
consumer buys x1 items of G1 and x2 items of G2 . The variable U is then a utility
function of x1 and x2 , which we write as U = U(x1 , x2 )
Suppose that utility is a function of two variables x1 and x2 and if x1

changes by a small ∆x1 and x2 changes by a small ∆x2 , then the net
change in U can be found from the the small increments formula:
∆U ≈ Ux1 ∆x1 + Ux2 ∆x2

1/4 3/4
Example. Given the utility function U(x1 , x2 ) = x1 x2 . Determine the
values of marginal utilities Ux1 and Ux2 when x1 = 100, x2 = 200. Hence
estimate the change in utility when x1 decreases from 100 to 99 and x2
increases from 200 to 201.
In this example, we will evidence that Ux1 x1 < 0 and Ux2 x2 < 0. This
illustrates the law of diminishing marginal utility, meaning the
consumption of good G1 or G2 increases, each additional item of G1 or G2
bought confers less utility than the previous item.
Marginal rate of commodity substitution (MRCS). If two commodities are

substitutable, then in order to maintain a constant value of utility when x1
decreases by ∆x1 units, it is necessary that x2 increases by a corresponding
quantity ∆x2 such that ∆U ≈ Ux1 ∆x1 + Ux2 ∆x2 = 0.
Ux1
It turns out that MRCS ≡ − ∆x
∆x1 =
2
Ux2
If fewer purchases are made of G1 , then the consumer has to compensate for this
by buying more of type G2 to maintain the same level of satisfaction.
Indifference/level curve is a curve that consists all points of the same utility:
C (U, U0 ) = {(x1 , x2 )|U(x1 , x2 ) = U0 }
√ √
Example. Given the utility function U = x1 x2 find a general
expression for MRCS in terms of x1 and x2 .
(a) Calculate the particular value of MRCS for the indifference curve that
passes through (300, 500).
(b) Hence estimate the increase in x2 required to maintain the current

level of utility when x1 decreases by 3 units.
Production. The output, Q, of any production process depends on a

variety of inputs, known as factors of production. These comprise land,
capital, labor and enterprise.
For simplicity we restrict our attention to capital and labor. Capital, K ,

denotes all man-made aids to production such as buildings, tools and plant
machinery. Labor, L, denotes all paid work in the production process. The
dependence of Q on K and L may be written
Q = f (K , L)
which is called the production function.

Example
If Q = 100K 1/3 L1/2 then the inputs K = 27 and L = 100 lead to an
output
Q = 100(27)1/3 (100)1/2 = 100(3)(10) = 3000
Production functions can be studied in a similar way to utility functions.

So we also have ∆Q ≈ ∂Q ∂Q
∂K × ∆K + ∂L × ∆L ≡ QK × ∆K + QL × ∆L
Marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) is the amount by

which capital needs to rise to maintain a constant level of output when
QL
labour decreases by 1 unit: MRTS ≡ − ∆K ∆L = QK .
Example
√
Given Q = 2LK + L. If the current level of K and L are 7 and 4,
respectively, estimate the increase in capital needed to maintain the
current level of output given a 1-unit decrease in labour.
Homogeneous function. A production function f (K , L) is said to be homogeneous

of degree n if, for any number λ,
f (λK , λL) = λn f (K , L)
A production function is then said to display decreasing returns to scale, constant

returns to scale or increasing returns to scale, depending on whether λ < 1, λ = 1
or λ > 1, respectively. One useful result concerning homogeneous functions is
known as Euler’s formula, which states that
∂f ∂f
K +L = nf (K , L)
∂K ∂L
The special case n = 1 is worthy of note because the right-hand side of the
formula is then simply f (K , L), which is equal to the output, Q.
Euler’s formula for homogeneous production functions of degree 1 states that if

each input factor is paid an amount equal to its marginal product then each term
on the left-hand side gives the total bill for that factor.
The Cobb—Douglas production function given by Q = AK α × Lβ , in

which A, α, β are positive constants, is an homogeneous function of degree
α + β.
The Cobb-Douglas production function is based on the empirical study of

the American manufacturing industry made by Cobb-Douglas. It is widely
used to represent the technological relationship between only two inputs,
labour and capital.
Chapter 5. Integration
Indefinite integration
Definite integration
Applications in Business
Probability [for your further reference]
Consumers’ surplus - Producers’ surplus
Continuous money flow
Discounting
Chapter 5. Integration 5.1. Indefinite integration
Definition
If F ′ (x) = f (x) for all x in an interval I then we say that F (x) is an
anti-derivative of f (x) on I .
Theorem
If F is an anti-derivative of f then all other anti-derivative have the form
F (x) + C where C is a real number.
Chapter 5. Integration 5.1. Indefinite integration
Definition
If the function f has an anti-derivative then the integral of f denoted by
R R
f or f (x)dx is the collection of all anti-derivatives of f .
If F is an anti-derivative of f then the integral of f is often written as

Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C
where C is any real number.
3 ′
x3 x
x 2 dx = = x 2.
R
Example. 3 + C because 3
Chapter 5. Integration 5.2. Definite integration
To define the definite integral, let’s study the following area problem.
Problem. Find the area of the region S enclosed by the curve y = x 2 , the x-axis,
and the vertical lines x = 0 and x = 1.
One of the ways to find the area of this region is approximating each strip by a
small rectangle. As we have seen in the picture below, the more the number of
sub-intervals, the better the approximation.
Area between curves. Consider the region S enclosed by the curve

y = f (x) ≥ 0, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b, where
f (x) is continuous function over x ∈ [a, b]
The area of the indicated region can be calculated by performing the

following steps (Rectangular Approximation Method, or RAM for short).
1. We first divide up [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length by n + 1
points
x0 = a < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn = b
2. Set
b−a
, ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n
∆x ≡ xi − xi−1 =
n
3. We take any point xi∗ ∈ [xi−1 , xi ], ∀i = 1, . . . , n
4. Area of a rectangle of width ∆x and height f (xi∗ ) is f (xi∗ )∆x
5. Total areas of rectangles = ni=1 f (xi∗ )∆x [is called Riemann sum].
P
6. Exact area
Rb
= limn→∞ ni=1 f (xi∗ )∆x ≡ i=1
Pn=∞
f (xi∗ )∆x ≡ a f (x) dx
P
Theorem (Fundamental theorem of Calculus)

If f is continuous on [a, b] and F is an anti-derivative of f then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (x)|ba = F (b) − F (a) [Newton-Leibnitz formula]
a
In summary, to compute a definite integral we can possibly use definition or

theorem.
Rb Pn=∞
[by definition] a
f (x) dx = i=1 f (xi∗ )∆x
b−a ∗
where x0 = a, xi = a + i × ∆x, xn = b; ∆x = xi − xi−1 = ; xi ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]
n
Rb
[by theorem] a
f (x)dx = F (x)|ba = F (b) − F (a)
R1
Example. Let compute the integral 0 x 2 dx by both the Riemann sum and the
Fundamental theorem, and then compare results obtained.
Chapter 5. Integration 5.3. Applications in Business
Probability of a continuous random event

The probability density function or PDF of a continuous random variable gives
the relative likelihood of any outcome in a continuum occurring. Unlike the
case of discrete random variables, for a continuous random variable any single
outcome has probability zero of occurring.
Probability that a random variable X takes a value in the open or close interval
[a, b] is given by the integral of a function called probability density function fX
Z b
P(a ≤ X ≤ b) = fX (x)dx and P(X = c) = 0 for any c ∈ [a, b]
a
Consumers’ surplus.
Given a demand function P = f (Q). At Q = Q0 the price P = P0 .
P0 is the price that consumers are prepared to pay for the last unit that they buy,
which is the Q0 th good. For quantities up to Q0 they would actually be willing to
pay the higher price given by the demand curve. The consumer’s surplus is the
shaded area which represents the benefit to the consumer of paying the fixed
price of P0
Z Q0 Z Q0
CS = f (Q)dQ − P0 × Q0 = PdQ − P0 × Q0
0 0
Producers’ surplus.
Given a supply function P = g (Q). Assuming that all goods are sold, the total
amount of money received is then Q0 P0 , where P0 is the price at which the
producer is prepared to supply the last unit, which is the Q0 th good. For
quantities up to Q0 they would actually be willing to accept the lower price given
by the supply curve.
The producer’s surplus is the shaded area representing the benefit to the
producer of selling at the fixed price of P0 :
Z Q0 Z Q0
PS = P0 × Q0 − g (Q)dQ = P0 × Q0 − PdQ
0 0
Example 1. The demand equation for a product is q = 400 − p 2 and the

supply equation is p = q/60 + 5. Find the producers’ surplus and
consumers’ surplus under the market equilibrium.
Example 2. The supply equation for a product is given by the following

table, where p is the price per unit (in dollars) at which q units are
supplied to the market.
Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate the producers’ surplus if the selling
price is $80.
Continuous money flow
In an earlier chapter we looked at the concepts of present value and future value
when a lump sum of money is deposited in an account and allowed to accumulate
interest. In some situations, however, money flows into and out of an account
almost continuously over a period of time. Examples include income in a store,
bank receipts and payments, and highway tolls. Although the flow of money in
such cases is not exactly continuous, it can be treated as though it were
continuous, with useful results.
In this section, we introduce the following features:
Total money flow.
Present value of money flow.
Accumulated amount of money flow.
Total money flow
If I (t) is the income at time t then the total income/money flow over [0, T ] is
n=∞
X n=∞
X Z T Z T
[I (ti ) − I (ti−1 )] = I ′ (ti−1 )×∆t = I ′ (t)dt ≡ I (T ) − I (0) = f (t)dt
i=1 i=1 0 0
where f (t) represent the rate of flow of money per unit of time.
Notice that this “total money flow” does not take into account the interest the
money could earn after it is received. It is simply the total income.
Example. The income from a soda machine is growing exponentially. When the
machine was first installed, it was producing income at a rate of $1000 per year.
By the end of the 1st year, it was producing income at a rate of $1020.2 per year.
Find the total income produced during its first 3 years of operation.
Present value of money flow

If f (t) represent the rate of the continuous flow at a discount rate r compounded
continuously for T years, the present value of a continuous money flow is
n=∞
X n=∞
X Z T
′ −rti −rti
P0 = [I (ti )∆t] e = [f (ti )∆t] e = f (t) × e −rt dt
i=1 i=1 0
Example. A company expects its rate of annual income during the next three
years to be given by f (t) = 75, 000t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3. What is the present value of this
income over the 3-year period, assuming a discount rate of 8% compounded
continuously?
Accumulated amount of money flow

If f (t) is the rate of money flow at an annual rate r at time t, the
accumulated amount of money flow at time T is
Z T
A=e rT
f (t)e −rt dt.
0
This amount includes interest received on the money after it comes in.
Example
If money is flowing continuously at a constant rate of $2000 per year over
5 years at 6% interest compounded continuously. Find
a. The total money flow over the 5-year period.
b. The accumulated amount of money flow, compounded continuously,

at time T = 5.
Discounting. To calculate the present value, P0 , when a single future

value, P, is discounted at r % interest continuously for t years, we can use
the following formula: P0 = Pe −rt
If the fund is to provide a continuous revenue stream for n years at an

annual rate of P dollars per year, then the present value can be found by
Rn
evaluating the definite integral P0 = 0 Pe −rt dt
Example. Calculate the present value of a continuous revenue stream of $

1,000 a year for 5 years if the discount rate is 9%.
Chapter 6. Matrices

What is a matrix?
Basic matrix operations
Matrix inverse
Cramer’s rule
Chapter 6. Matrices 6.1. What is a matrix?
A rectangular table consisting of m rows and n columns

 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
A= . 
 .
.


am1 am2 . . . amn
is called a matrix of order m × n.
Rows of a matrix are horizontal, columns of a matrix are vertical.
Notation. Am×n = [aij ], i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n in which aij is called

the ij entry. The set of matrices of order m × n is denoted Mm×n .
Chapter 6. Matrices 6.1. What is a matrix?
In particular,
If m = 1 then A is also called row vector.
If n = 1 then A is called column vector.
If m = n then the matrix is said to be square and in this case, we call
A is the square matrix of order n.
Identity matrix of order n: aii = 1 for i = 1, . . . , n and aij = 0 for

i ̸= j, i, j = 1, . . . , n
 
1 0 ... 0
0 1 . . . 0
 
In =  ≡I
 ..
.


0 0 ... 1
Chapter 6. Matrices 6.2. Matrix Operations
Let A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] be two matrices of order m × n, i.e.,

A, B ∈ Mm×n .
Equality.
A = B ⇔ aij = bij
Addition/Subtraction.
A ± B = [aij ± bij ]
Scalar Multiplication. Let k be a real number.
k A = [k aij ]
Transposition. Let A = (aij ) be a matrix of order m × n. The transposition of A

denoted by AT is defined by symbolically AT = (aji ). This means that the first
row of AT is the first column of A, the second row of AT is the second column of
A, and so on. Thus A ∈ Mm×n , while AT ∈ Mn×m
Scalar/Dot/Inner product. Given a = (a1 a2 . . . an ) and

b = (b1 b2 . . . bn ). The scalar product of a and b is defined by
n
X
⟨a, b⟩ = ab T = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn = ai bi
i=1
Example
a = (1 3 5), b = (−1 0 4) ⇒ ab T = 1 × (−1) + 3 × 0 + 5 × 4 = 19
Recall that the product of 2 vectors perpendicular to each other is 0. For

instance
a = (1 0), b = (0 1) ⇒ ab T = 0
Matrix Multiplication. Let A be a matrix of order m × n and B be a

matrix of n × p. The product of A and B is
n
X
AB = [cij ] where cij = aik bkj
k=1
Note that we can only multiply two matrices when the number of columns
in the first matrix is equal to the number of rows in the second matrix.
" # " #
1 × 7 + 2 × 9 + 3 × 11 1 × 8 + 2 × 10 + 3 × 12 58 64
= =
4 × 7 + 5 × 9 + 6 × 11 4 × 8 + 5 × 10 + 6 × 12 139 154
Observe that
" #" # " #
1 0 a11 a12 a11 a12
=
0 1 a21 a22 a21 a22
and
" #" # " #
a11 a12 1 0 a11 a12
=
a21 a22 0 1 a21 a22
In general, we have that

AIn = A = In A
Tabulations are handy while storing the raw data as we will see in the
following examples.
Example
A firm orders 12, 30 and 25 items of goods G1, G2 and G3. The cost of
each item of G1, G2 and G3 is $8, $30 and $15, respectively.
(a) Write down suitable price and quantity vectors, and use matrix
multiplication to work out the total cost of the order.
(b) Write down the new price vector when the cost of G1 rises by 20%,
the cost of G2 falls by 10% and the cost of G3 is unaltered. Use
matrix multiplication to work out the new cost of the order and hence
find the overall percentage change in total cost.
Example
A chain of sports shops, A, B and C , sells T-shirts, trainers and tennis racquets.
The weekly sales and profit per item are shown in the tables below:
The 3 × 3 matrices formed from the sales and profit tables are denoted by S and
P, respectively.
(a) If A = SP T , find the element a11 and give a brief interpretation of this
number.
(b) If B = S T P, find the element b33 and give a brief interpretation of this
number.
Chapter 6. Matrices 6.3. Inverse Matrix
By multiplication matrix operation, we can easily see that

    
a11 a12 . . . a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n  x2   b2 
    
 . .= . 
 . .  . 
 . .  . 
am1 am2 . . . amn xn bm



 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1


a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn

= b2
⇔ ..



 .

+ am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn

a
m1 x1 = bm
This means that a system of linear equations can be written under a matrix
equation AX = B. We know that the ordinary equation ax = b has a solution
x = a−1 b if a ̸= 0, where a−1 = 1a . Now, being seeking solution of the matrix
equation above, we will define A−1 .
Let A be a matrix of order n × n. If there exists a matrix B such that
AB = In = BA
then A is said to be invertible and B is called the inverse matrix of A,

denoted by A−1 .
Example
# " " #
1 2 −2 1
Let a matrix A = . Verify that is the inverse of A.
3 4 3/2 −1/2
How to find an inverse matrix?

1. Write an augmented matrix consisting of A on the left side and the
identity matrix on the right side
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n | 1 0 . . . 0
a21 a22 . . . a2n | 0 1 . . . 0
 
 . 
 .
 .


an1 an2 . . . ann | 0 0 . . . 1
2. Then we attempt to transform the augmented matrix by row
equivalent operations called Gaussian elimination method to one of
the form  
1 0 . . . 0 | b11 b12 . . . b1n
0 1 . . . 0 | b21 b22 . . . b2n 
 
. 
.
.


0 0 ... 1 | bn1 bn2 . . . bnn
Gaussian elimination method
1. Interchange any two rows

 
3x + 4y = −5 x + 2y = 1
⇔
x + 2y = 1 3x + 4y = −5
2. Multiply each entry in a row by the same nonzero constant

 
x + 2y = 1 2x + 4y = 2
⇔
3x + 4y = −5 3x + 4y = −5
3. 
Add a nonzero multiple ofone row to another row.
x + 2y = 1 x + 2y = 1
⇔
3x + 4y = −5 0x − 2y = −8
Example. Solve the following system




x + 3y + 2z =9

x − y + 3z = 16


3x − 4y + 2z

= 28
(a) by the Gaussian elimination method,
(b) by the inverse matrix.
How to check a matrix invertible or not? one of the ways is finding its
determinant. If the determinant of a matrix is non-zero then the matrix is
invertible.
Matrix of order 2 × 2

a b
= ad − cb

c d
Matrix of 3 × 3:
a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23 =

a31 a32 a33

a
22 a23
a a23 a
21 a22

21
a11 - a12 + a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
Now the determinant of matrix of order n × n is defined inductively as

follows
For a square matrix A = [aij ]. The cofactor Aij of an element aij is
Aij = (−1)i+j Mij ,
where Mij is the determinant of the matrix formed by deleting the ith row
and the jth column of A.
The determinant of A of n × n is defined by

n
X
|A| = aij Aij ,
j=1
where i ∈ 1, n.
Steps to find determinant of a square matrix

For any square matrix A of order n × n (n > 1), we define the determinant
of A, denoted |A|, as follows:
1. Choose any row or column
2. Multiply each element in that row or column by its cofactor and add
the results
Note that
The determinant of a 1 × 1 matrix is simply the element of the matrix.
The value of a determinant will be the same no matter which row or column
is chosen.
Chapter 6. Matrices 6.4. Cramer’s rule
Solving systems of linear equations using determinants

Cramer’s rule for 2 × 2 systems
The solution of the system


a x + b y = c
1 1 1
a x + b y = c
2 2 2
Dx Dy
is given by x = ;y=
D D

a b1 c b a c
1 1 1 1 1
where D = ; Dx = Dy = ; and D ̸= 0
a2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2
Cramer’s rule for 3 × 3 systems
The solution of the system


 a x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
 1


a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2


a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3

Dx Dy Dz
is given by x = ;y= ;z=
D D D

a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1

where D = a2 b2 c2 ; Dx = d2 b2 c2 Dy = a2 d2 c2 ;

a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3

a1 b1 d1

Dz = a2 b2 d2 ; and D ̸= 0

a3 b3 d3
As for n × n systems, we do the same. Cramer’s rule in general case

gives
D1 D2 Dn
x1 = , x2 = , . . . , xn =
D D D
provided that D ̸= 0.
Example. Solve the following system




x + 3y + 2z =9

x − y + 3z = 16


3x − 4y + 2z

= 28
by the Cramer rule.
Chapter 6. Matrices 6.5. Some solvable methods for a system of linear equations
Some solvable methods a system of linear equations
(1) We can solve a general system of m linear equations and n variables by

Gaussian elimination method,
Reducing matrix using elementary row operations to row echelon form.

For example,
(2) For a system of n linear equations and n variables, we can possibly solve by
Using inverse matrix,
Using Cramer rule.
Example. A firm produces 3 products A, B, and C that require processing

of 3 machines M1, M2, and M3. The time in hours required for processing
one unit of each product by the three machines is given by the following
table:
M1 is available for 440 hours, M2 for 310 hours, and M3 for 560 hours.
Find how many units of each product should be produced to make use of
all available time on the machines.
Example. An investment company three types of pooled funds: Standard (S),

Deluxe (D), and Gold Star (G). Each unit of S contains 12 shares of stock A, 16
stocks B, and 8 of stock C. Each unit of D contains 20 shares of stock A, 12
stocks B, and 28 of stock C. Each unit of G contains 32 shares of stock A, 28
stocks B, and 36 of stock C.
Suppose an investor wishes to purchase exactly 220 shares of stock A, 176 shares
of stock B, and 264 shares of stock C by buying units of the three funds.
(a) Determine those combinations of units of S, D, and G that will meet the
investor’s requirement exactly.
(b) Suppose the investor pays $ 300 for each unit of S, $ 400 for each unit of D,
and $ 600 for each unit of G. Which of the combination from part (a) will
minimize the total cost to the investor?
Chapter 7. Linear Programming
Outline of the chapter: In this chapter, we will introduce basically linear

programmings and methods for solving them.
What is a linear programming
Standard form of a linear programming
Geometric method for solving a linear programming of 2 variables
Simplex method for solving a linear programming
Chapter 7. Linear Programming 7.1. What is a linear programming?
Let’s begin this chapter with an example in order to better understand what a
linear programming is?
Example. A manufacturer produces two models of racing bike, B and C, each of

which must be processed through two machine shops.
Machine shop 1 is available for 120 hours per month and machine shop 2 for 180
hours per month.
The manufacture of each bike of type B takes six hours in shop 1 and three hours
in shop 2. The corresponding times for C are 4 and 10 hours, respectively.
If the profit is $180 and $220 per bike of type B and C, respectively, how should
the manufacturer arrange production to maximize total profit?
Chapter 7. Linear Programming 7.2. Standard form of a linear programming
Standard form of a linear programming
A linear programming is a problem to maximize or minimize a linear

function Z = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn subject to the following conditions



 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn ≤ b1


a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn

≤ b2
..



 .

a x + a x + · · · + a x ≤ b

m1 1 m2 2 mn n m
where aij are constants, bi are non-negative constants, cj are constants for
all 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n, and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ≥ 0.
Chapter 7. Linear Programming 7.3. Geometric method
Geometric method for linear programming of 2 variables
One of the ways to conduct the optimization problem of 2 variables, for

instance, max Z = P(x, y ) = 180x + 220y subject to

6x + 4y

 ≤ 120

3x + 10y ≤ 180


x, y ≥ 0.

is to used the geometric method as follows.

S1. Sketch the constraint set on the xy plane.
S2. Compare the value of Z at corners of the constraint set: the biggest
value is the optimal value of the max problem and the smallest value
is the optimal value of the min problem.
Sketching linear inequalities
Graphing linear inequalities is nearly similar to doing with linear equation.

The difference is that the solution to the inequality is not the drawn line
but the area of the coordinate plane that satisfies the inequality. So you
need to do as follows:
draw a line of equation. This line divides the coordinate plane into
two halves and is called boundary line. One side of the boundary line
contains all solutions to the inequality.
choose a test point not lying on the boundary line. If coordinates of

the test point satisfy the inequality then the solution set of the
inequality is the part which consisting the point, otherwise choose
other part as the solution set. The boundary line is dashed for > and
< and solid for ≥ and ≤.
The area shaded darkly in the figure is the set of all points (x, y ) satisfying
the inequality y ≤ x + 2
Example. An Italian restaurant offers a choice of pasta or pizza meals. It

costs $3 to make a pasta dish, which it sells for $13. The corresponding
figures for pizzas are $2 and $10, respectively.
The maximum number of meals that can be cooked in a week is 1200 and
the restaurant has a weekly cost budget of $3000. How many pasta and
pizza dishes should be cooked each week to maximize profit?
Example. A small firm manufactures and sells litre cartons of non-alcoholic

cocktails, ‘The Caribbean’ and ‘Mr Fruity’, which sell for $1 and $1.25,
respectively. Each is made by mixing fresh orange, pineapple and apple juices in
different proportions.
The Caribbean consists of one part orange, six parts pineapple and one part apple.
Mr Fruity consists of two parts orange, three parts pineapple and one part apple.
The firm can buy up to 300 litres of orange juice, up to 1125 litres of pineapple
juice and up to 195 litres of apple juice each week at a cost of $0.72, $0.64 and
$0.48 per litre, respectively.
Find the number of cartons of ‘The Caribbean’ and ‘Mr Fruity’ that the firm
should produce to maximise profits. You may assume that non-alcoholic cocktails
are so popular that the firm can sell all that it produces.
Chapter 7. Linear Programming 7.4. Simplex method for max problem
However, while the geometric method is used only for a linear programming of 2
variables, it is just as important to study methods for linear programmings
involving more than 2 variables.
Example. A manufacturer produces three models of bicycles. The time (in

hours) required for assembling, painting, and packaging each model is as follows:
The total time available for assembling, painting, and packaging is 36 hours, 60
hours and 66 hours, respectively. The profit per unit for each model is $3 (Model
A), $4 (Model B), and $5 (Model C). How many of each type should be
produced to obtain a maximum profit?
Simplex method for max problem

Consider, for instance, the max problem of the function
Z = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + c3 x3 subject to



 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 ≤ b1


≤ b2

 a x + a22 x2 + a23 x3
 21 1


a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 ≤ b3


a41 x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3 ≤ b4





x1 , x2 , x3 ≥ 0.

Note that b1 , b2 , b3 and b4 are supposed to be non-negative constants.
In 1947, George B. Dantzig created a simplex algorithm to solve linear programmings for planning and decision-making in
large-scale enterprises. The algorithm’s success led to a vast array of specializations and generalizations that have dominated
practical operations research for half a century later.

The latter system can be written as Z − c1 x1 − c2 x2 − c3 x3 = 0 subject to




a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 +s1 = b1



a x + a x + a x
21 1 22 2 23 3 +s2 = b2


a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 +s3 = b3


a41 x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3

+s4 = b4 ,
where s1 , s2 , s3 and s4 are non-negative and called the slack variables. So
now we have a departing simplex table as follows.
Steps to find the optimal solution of the max problem:

S1. If all indicators are non-negative then STOP and Z has a maximum
with the current list of basic variables.
S2. If there is any negative indicator then choose a column w.r.t. the
biggest negative indicator as a pivot column.
S3. Divide each entry in R by the corresponding positive entry (Z and

negative entry are not included) in the pivot column and choose a
pivot row which has the smallest positive quotient.
S4. Create a new simplex table in which the common entry of the pivot
column and the pivot row above is transformed into 1 and other
entries in the pivot column zeros by using the elementary row
operations [executing with pivot row only!]
S5. Turn back to S1.

Chapter 8. Differential Equations [for your further reference] 8.1. Dynamics
So far, all of our models have been static. In practice, economic variables take
time to vary.
The incorporation of time into economic models is known as dynamics, and it

enables us to decide whether equilibrium values are actually achieved and, if so,
exactly how individual variables approach these values.
When t, is a discrete variable taking whole number values. This describes

the situation in which variables change only after fixed periods. For example,
the prices of certain agricultural products change from one season to the
next but are fixed throughout each season.
When time is a continuous variable taking all possible values in a certain

interval. This describes the situation in which variables change from one
moment to the next. For example, the prices of certain commodities, such as
oil, effectively change instantaneously and are not fixed on a seasonal basis.
Chapter 8. Differential Equations [for your further reference] 8.2. Differential equations
When time is a continuous variable, we express this time dependence using the
usual function notation, P(t). It is appropriate to model the rate of change of P
with respect to t using the derivative, P ′ (t). Equations that involve the
derivatives of an unknown function are called differential equations.
Example. A bank pays 3.6 % interest on its certificate of deposit accounts, but
charges a $10 annual fee. Write an equation for the rate of change of the balance.
If the balance P(t) has a unit of dollars, the rate of change of the balance is
P ′ (t) which has a unit of dollars per year. Since the amount of increase in the
balance is 0.036P(t) dollars/year and the fee is 10 dollars/year, we obtain that
P ′ (t) = 0.036P(t) − 10.
Ideal growth models
As we have studied so far, if the interest is compounded continuously, the

compound amount after t years is P = P0 e rt . This is the solution of the
differential equation:
P′ = r × P
under the initial condition P(t = 0) = P0 .
Example
A bank pays 3.6% interest each year, compounded continuously. If the
initial investment is 5, 000 dollars, the investment after t years can be
modeled by P ′ = 0.036P and therefore P = 5, 000e 0.036×t .
Logistic models
However, capital cannot increase at an equal rate endlessly, the more so if the
system is completely or partially closed. When growing in such a system, capital
exhausts the limited resources in its environment. In other words, it enters into
self – competition which diminishes its growth – the system gets ‘satiated’.
Therefore, the growth of capital will be described by the logistic function of

growth proposed by Pierre-François Verhulst in the 1840s:

P
P′ = P 1 − × lnr
Pm
where Pm is the maximum (marginal) capital value (potential capital).
Chapter 8. Differential Equations [for your further reference] 8.3. Solving differential equations
Separable equations
A separable equation is a first-order differential equation in which the expression

for dP
dt can be factored as a function of t times a function of P. That is,
dP g (t)
= .
dt h(P)
We can use the Chain rule and the Fundamental theorem of Calculus to derive
R R
that h(P)dP = g (t)dt.
Example
Solve the following equation
dP t2
a. dt = P2 .
b. Find the solution of this equation that satisfies the initial condition
P(0) = 2.
Chapter 8. Differential Equations [for your further reference] 8.3. Solving differential equations
To be continued ...

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Lecture notes on Mathematics for Business

Nguyen Thi Thu Van

International School of Business, UEH, Vietnam

September 21, 2022

Expressions with one or more variables

Equations, inequalities of one or more variables

Linear/nonlinear equations, inequalities

The set of real numbers

14th edition, Pearson (2022)

Mathematical expressions provide a precise way of representing calculations that

E = 0.9x when x is no more than 50 miles,

E = 15 + 0.6x when x exceeds 50 miles.

For example, 2x = 5, 2x = 3y are equations. Below are some equations/formulas

Assets = Liabilities + Shareholder’s Equity (accounting equation) [Business

For example, x < 2, x + 3y > 5.

Inequalities arise in business when, for instance, there is a budgetary

(b) If 12 employees attend courses, how many laptops could be bought?

A linear equation is of the form ax + by = c, where a, b, c are given, and x

Similar to linear equations, a linear inequality is of the form ax + by < c

The set of natural numbers is denoted IN = {1, 2, 3, . . . }

The set of integers Z = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }

n is odd then n = 2k + 1 with k ∈ ZZ.

I ∪ I, where I is the set of irrational numbers.

am × an = am+n ; (am )n = am×n

Zero and negative exponents. By convention, a0 = 1 if a ̸= 0. If a is any nonzero

x n − y n = (x − y ) x n−1 + x n−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1

When x = 1, y ̸= 1, Newton binomial becomes

n is the index of the radical.

if the index n is odd then b can be any.

Each variable plays a mathematical role equally in a polynomial. Therefore,

This chapter includes the following features:

Simple interest - Compound interest

A calculator is handy while studying this chapter.

An investment rises from $2,500 to $3,375. So

new value 3,375 3,375−2,500

At the beginning of a year, the population of a small village is 8,400.

How to compute overall percentage changes

To compute the overall percentage change over an entire period, we

After t days (t < 365), Peter receives

Thus, after 1 year, he receives

Recursively, after n years: Peter receives Pn = P0 (1 + r %)n

The compound amount is P0 (1 + r %)n

Notations: P0 is called the present value and P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn are called the

So the simple interest is 295.89 dollars.

This infers that the compound interest is 2, 155.06 dollars.

If the interest is compounded semiannually then the semiannual rate is

If the interest is compounded quarterly then then the quarterly rate is

More general, if the interest is compounded m times per year [called

Indeed, suppose we invest $10 in a bank account and earn a return of 12 %

This means that we actually earn 12.36 %.

In this case the interest is said to be compounded continuously.

Example. A principal of $2,000 is invested at 10% interest compounded

To summarize, if the investment earns a return of r % compounded

where rp = mr is the periodic interest rate and m is the frequency of

If interest is compounded continuously then after n years, P0 becomes

Recall that Newton binomial says that: when k ∈ IN and b be real

1 − b k = (1 − b)(1 + b + b 2 + · · · + b k−2 + b k−1 )

In this section we focus on two applications of geometric series into

[Loans] Determine the monthly repayments needed to repay a

Savings: Imagine simply one decides to invest regularly an equal amount

[Loans] A debtor is to amortize an $18,000 car loan by making equal

Pk is the future value of P0 after k periods.