1.

Basic Concepts of Vibrating System

Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or oscillation. The
swinging of a pendulum and the motion of a plucked string are typical examples of vibration. The
theory of vibration deals with the study of oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated
with them.
A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing potential energy (spring or
elasticity), a means for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia), and a means by which energy is
gradually lost (damper). The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to
kinetic energy and of kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately. If the system is damped, some
energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration and must be replaced by an external source if a state
of steady vibration is to be maintained. As an example, consider the vibration of the simple
pendulum shown in Fig. 1.10. Let the bob of mass m be released after being given an angular
displacement u. At position 1, the velocity of the bob and hence its kinetic energy is zero. But it
has a potential energy of magnitude mgl11 - cos u2 with respect to the datum position 2. Since the
gravitational force mg induces a torque mgl sin u about the point O, the bob starts swinging to the
left from position 1. This gives the bob certain angular acceleration in the clockwise direction, and
by the time it reaches position 2, all of its potential energy will be converted into kinetic energy.
Hence the bob will not stop in position 2 but will continue to swing to position 3. However, as it
passes the mean position 2, a counterclockwise torque due to gravity starts acting on the bob and
causes the bob to decelerate. The velocity of the bob reduces to zero at the left extreme position.
By this time, all the kinetic energy of the bob will be converted to potential energy. Again, due to
the gravity torque, the bob continues to attain a counterclockwise velocity. Hence the bob starts
swinging back with progressively increasing velocity and passes the mean position again. This
process keeps repeating, and the pendulum will have oscillatory motion. However, in practice, the
magnitude of oscillation 1u2 gradually decreases and the pendulum ultimately stops due to the
resistance (damping) offered by the
surrounding medium (air). This means that
some energy is dissipated in each cycle of
vibration due to damping by the air.
1.1. Equivalent Solution
The Equivalent Solution in vibration
engineering refers to a mathematical
technique that is used to simplify the analysis
of complex vibrating systems. This technique involves representing the system as a single
equivalent mass-spring-damper system, which can then be analyzed using simple harmonic motion
equations. This allows engineers to more easily understand the behavior of the system and to predict
its response to different stimuli. One of the key advantages of the equivalent solution method is
that it allows engineers to reduce the complexity of a system without losing important information
about its behavior. This can be particularly useful in the analysis of systems with many degrees of
freedom, such as multi-story buildings or large structures with multiple interconnected
components. By representing the system as an equivalent mass-spring-damper system, engineers
can more easily understand the overall behavior of the system and identify potential sources of
vibration or instability. In order to use the equivalent solution method, it is necessary to first identify
the natural frequencies of the system. These are the frequencies at which the system will vibrate
with the greatest amplitude when subjected to a periodic force. Once the natural frequencies have
been determined, the system can be represented as a single equivalent mass-spring-damper system
with the same natural frequencies. This allows the engineer to use simple harmonic motion
equations to analyze the behavior of the system and to predict its response to different stimuli.
1.2. Equivalent User
In vibration engineering, the concept of "equivalent user" is used to represent the effect
of dynamic loads on a structure or system, such as those caused by human or machine
operation. The equivalent user is a mathematical model that approximates the dynamic
loads generated by a real user or machine as a static load acting at a specific location on
the structure. This static load is determined based on the frequency content and intensity
of the dynamic loads and is used to calculate the structural response and design
requirements. By using the equivalent user approach, vibration engineers can simulate the
effect of realistic loads on a structure or system without the need for detailed and complex
dynamic analyses.

1.3. Equivalent Damping

The Equivalent Damping in vibration engineering refers to a mathematical technique that
is used to represent the damping behavior of a complex vibrating system as a single equivalent
damping coefficient. This coefficient is used in the equations of motion for simple harmonic
motion, which allow engineers to predict the behavior of the system and to design effective
damping strategies. The equivalent damping coefficient is calculated by considering the damping
behavior of each individual component of the system and combining them in a way that accurately
 represents the overall damping behavior of the system. This can be a complex process, especially
for systems with many interconnected components, but the resulting equivalent damping
coefficient provides a useful tool for understanding and analyzing the behavior of the system. One
of the key advantages of the equivalent damping method is that it allows engineers to more easily
analyze the behavior of a system under different operating conditions. By representing the damping
behavior of the system as a single equivalent coefficient, engineers can more easily understand the
overall damping behavior of the system and identify potential sources of instability or vibration.
This can be particularly useful in the design of systems that must operate in challenging
environments, such as high-speed machinery or structures subjected to dynamic loads.

2. FREE VIBRATION

We can classify vibration in several different ways. One of these classifications is "Free Vibration".
Free vibration is an elastic vibration in which a force is applied once and the structure or part is allowed to
vibrate at its natural frequency. It is considered free or natural vibration when no external force operates on
the body after it has experienced an initial displacement. The vibration is started by some input of energy
but the vibrations die away with time as the energy is dissipated. When the body is moved away from the
rest position, there is a natural force that tries to return it to its rest position. It only occurs when a mechanical
system is started in motion with an initial input and allowed to vibrate freely. In other words, free vibration
indicates that there is no external force affecting the motion. Here are some examples of free vibration;
oscillation of a simple pendulum, a plucked guitar string, pulling a child back on a swing and letting it go,
tapping a tuning fork and letting it ring and the vertical oscillatory motion felt by a bicyclist after hitting a
road bump.
2.1 – HARMONIC MOTION
Harmonic motion refers to the motion an oscillating mass experiences when the restoring force is
proportional to the displacement, but in opposite directions. Harmonic motion is periodic and can be
represented by a sine wave with constant frequency and amplitude. An example of this is a weight bouncing
on a spring.
Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the case of a simple pendulum, or it may display
considerable irregularity, as in the case of ground motion during an earthquake. If the motion is repeated
after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic motion. The simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic
motion. The motion imparted to the mass (m) due to the Scotch yoke mechanism. It is evident that the
acceleration and displacement are inversely related. Such a vibration, with a direction toward the and an
acceleration proportional to the displacement. Simple harmonic motion is defined as the mean position. The
proposal made by is another illustration of a basic harmonic motion.
The acceleration of a particle executing harmonic motion is given by a(t) = -ω2 x(t). Here, ω is the
angular velocity of the particle. Harmonic motion can be described as an oscillatory motion in which the
acceleration of the particle at any position is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean
position. It is a special case of oscillatory motion.
The study of Simple Harmonic Motion is very useful and forms an important tool in understanding
the characteristics of sound waves, light waves and alternating currents. Any oscillatory motion which is
not simple Harmonic can be expressed as a superposition of several harmonic motions of different
frequencies.
Simple Harmonic Motion or SHM
• It is a special case of oscillation along with a straight line between the two extreme points (the
path of SHM is a constraint).
• Path of the object needs to be a straight line.
• There will be a restoring force directed towards the equilibrium position (or) mean position.
• Mean position in Simple harmonic motion is a stable equilibrium. Conditions for SHM:
 Types of Simple Harmonic Motion
SHM or Simple Harmonic Motion can be classified into two types:
• Linear SHM
• Angular SHM
Linear Simple Harmonic Motion
When a particle moves to and fro about a fixed point (called equilibrium position) along with a
straight line then its motion is called linear Simple Harmonic Motion.
For Example spring-mass system Conditions for Linear SHM:
The restoring force or acceleration acting on the particle should always be proportional to the
displacement of the particle and directed towards the equilibrium position.

Angular Simple Harmonic Motion

When a system oscillates angular long with respect to a fixed axis, then its motion is called angular
simple harmonic motion.
Conditions to Execute Angular SHM:
The restoring torque (or) Angular acceleration acting on the particle should always be proportional
to the angular displacement of the particle and directed towards the equilibrium position.
Τ ∝ θ or α ∝ θ
Where,
• Τ – Torque
• α angular acceleration
• θ – angular displacement
 2.2 - VISCOUS DAMPING
Viscous damping refers to damping that is directly proportional to the system's velocity. In other
words, the damping force opposes the mass's motion more strongly the quicker it moves. Viscous drag
forces are produced by fluids like air and water.

Viscous Damping Equation

→ Damping Linear Motion , c = N-s/m

→ Damping Rotational Motion, c = N-m s/rad

 System at rest in the equilibrium position, damper produced no force (no velocity)

System at perturbed (unsettled) state (applying an initial displacement, an initial velocity, or both). The
system will tend to move back to its equilibrium position.
The process for finding the equation of motion of the system:

1. Sketch the system with a small positive perturbation (x or θ).

2. Draw the free body diagram of the perturbed system. Ensure that the spring force and the damper force
have directions opposing the perturbation.

3. Find the one equation of motion for the system in the perturbed coordinate using Newton's Second Law.
Keep the same positive direction for position, and assign positive acceleration in the same direction.

4. Move all terms of the equation to one side, and check that all terms are positive. If all terms are not
positive, there is an error in the direction of displacement, acceleration, and/or spring or damper force

2.3 - DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Design in vibration refers to adjusting the physical parameters of a device to cause its vibration
response to meet a specified shape or performance criteria. The shape of the response is somewhat
determined by the value of the damping ratio in the sense that the response is either overdamped,
underdamped, or critically damped (ζ 7 1, ζ 6 1, ζ = 1, respectively). The damping ratio, in turn, depends
on the values of m, c, and k. A designer may choose these values to produce the desired response. Stiffness
consideration is actually an introduction to design as well. The formulas given there for stiffness, in terms
of modulus and geometric dimensions, can be used to design a system that has a given natural frequency.
One of the important problems in design, that often the properties that we are interested in designing for is
frequency. Frequency changes a great deal as the airplane consumes fuel and it is very sensitive to operation.

Another important issue in design often focuses on using devices that are already available. Design
work in engineering often involves using available products to produce configurations (or designs) that suit
a particular application. In the case of spring stiffness, springs are usually mass produced, and hence
inexpensive, in only certain discrete values of stiffness. The formulas given for parallel and series
connections of springs are then used to produce the desired stiffness. If cost is not a restriction, then
formulas may be used to design a single spring that meets the stated stiffness requirements. Of course,
designing a spring–mass system to have a desired natural frequency may not produce a system with an
acceptable static deflection. Thus, the design process becomes complicated. Design is one of the most active
and exciting disciplines in engineering because it often involves compromise and choice with many
acceptable solutions.

Unfortunately, the values of m, c, and k have other constraints. The size and material of which the
device is made determine these parameters. Hence, the design procedure becomes a compromise. For
example, geometric limitations might cause the mass of a device to be between 2 and 3 kg, and for static
displacement conditions, the stiffness may be required to be greater than 200 N>m. In this case, the natural
frequency must be in the interval 8.16 rad/s<ω10rad/s. This severely limits the design of the vibration
response.

2.4 – STABILITY

Stability is one of the most important characteristics for any vibrating system. Although many
definitions can be given for the term stability depending on the kind of system or the point of view, we
consider our definition for linear and time-invariant systems (i.e., systems for which the parameters m, c,
and k do not change with time). A system is defined to be asymptotically stable (called stable in controls
literature) if its free-vibration response approaches zero as time approaches infinity. A system is considered
to be unstable if its free-vibration response grows without bound (approaches infinity) as time approaches
infinity. Finally, a system is said to be stable (called marginally stable in controls literature) if its free-
vibration response neither decays nor grows, but remains constant or oscillates as time approaches infinity.
It is evident that an unstable system whose free-vibration response grows without bounds can cause damage
to the system, adjacent property, or human life. Usually, dynamic systems are designed with limit stops to
prevent their responses from growing with no limit.

The total response of a vibrating system, subjected to external forces/excitations, is composed of

two parts—one the forced response and the other the free-vibration response. For such systems, the
definitions of asymptotically stable, unstable, and stable systems given above are still applicable. This
implies that, for stable systems, only the forced response remains as the free-vibration response approaches
zero as time approaches infinity.
 Stability can be interpreted in terms of the roots of the characteristic roots of the system. The roots
lying in the left half-plane (LHP) yield either pure exponential decay or damped sinusoidal free-vibration
responses. These responses decay to zero as time approaches infinity. Thus, systems whose characteristics
roots lie in the left half of the s-plane (with a negative real part) will be asymptotically stable. The roots
lying in the right half-plane yield either pure exponentially increasing or exponentially increasing sinusoidal
free-vibration responses. These free-vibration responses approach infinity as time approaches infinity.
Thus, systems whose characteristic roots lie in the right half of the s-plane (with positive real part) will be
unstable. Finally, the roots lying on the imaginary axis of the s-plane yield pure sinusoidal oscillations as
free-vibration response. These responses neither increase nor decrease in amplitude as time grows. Thus,
systems whose characteristic roots lie on the imaginary axis of the s-plane (with zero real part) will be
stable.

Notes:

1. If there is any number of negative terms or if any term in the polynomial in s is missing, then
one of the roots will be positive, which results in an unstable behavior of the system.

2. In an unstable system, the free-vibration response may grow without bound with no oscillations
or it may grow without bound with oscillations. The first behavior is called divergent instability and the
second is called flutter instability. These cases are also known as self-excited vibration.

3. If a linear model of a system is asymptotically stable, then it is not possible to find a set of initial
conditions for which the response approaches infinity. On the other hand, if the linear model of the system
is unstable, it is possible that certain initial conditions might make the response approach zero as time
increases.

4. Stability of a system can also be explained in terms of its energy. According to this scheme, a
system is considered to be asymptotically stable, stable, or unstable if its energy decreases, remains
constant, or increases, respectively, with time. This idea forms the basis for Lyapunov stability criterion.

5. Stability of a system can also be investigated based on how sensitive the response or motion is
to small perturbations (or variations) in the parameters (m, c, and k) and/or small perturbations in the initial
conditions.
 3.0 – HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATION
A mechanical or structural system is said to undergo forced vibration whenever external energy is
supplied to the system during vibration. External energy can be supplied through either an applied force or
an imposed displacement excitation. The applied force or displacement excitation may be harmonic,
nonharmonic but periodic, nonperiodic, or random in nature. The response of a system to a harmonic
excitation is called harmonic response. The nonperiodic excitation may have a long or short duration. The
response of a dynamic system to suddenly applied nonperiodic excitations is called transient response.

Under a harmonic excitation, the response of the system will also be harmonic. If the frequency of
excitation coincides with the natural frequency of the system, the response will be very large. This
condition, known as resonance, is to be avoided to prevent failure of the system. The vibration produced
by an unbalanced rotating machine, the oscillations of a tall chimney due to vortex shedding in a steady
wind, and the vertical motion of an automobile on a sinusoidal road surface are examples of harmonically
excited vibration. The applications of transfer-function, Laplace transform, and frequency-function
approaches in the solution of harmonically excited systems.

3.1 – EQUATION OF MOTION

If a force F(t) acts on a viscously damped spring-mass system, the equation of motion can be
obtained using Newton s second law:

Since this equation is nonhomogeneous, its general solution x(t) is given by the sum of the homogeneous
solution, xh(t), and the particular solution, xp(t) will be,
 The homogeneous solution, which is the solution of the homogeneous equation represents the free
vibration of the system. This free vibration dies out with time under each of the three possible conditions
of damping (underdamping, critical damping, and overdamping) and under all possible initial conditions.

3.2 – RESPONSE OF AN UNDAMPED SYSTEM

We consider an undamped system subjected to a harmonic force, for the sake of simplicity. If a

force acts on the mass m of an undamped system, the equation of motion:

The homogeneous solution of this equation is given by

where X is an constant that denotes the maximum amplitude of Xp (t). By substituting the
equations above and solving for X, we obtain
wherein it denotes the deflection of the mass under a force F and is sometimes called static deflection
because F is a constant (static) force. Thus the total solution becomes;

The complete motion can be expressed as the sum of two cosine curves of different frequencies. If the
forcing frequency is smaller than the natural frequency, then the total response is;
While, if the forcing frequency is greater than the natural frequency, then the total response is ;

3.3 – RESPONSE OF A DAMPED SYSTEM

If the forcing function is given by F(t) = Fcos(t), the equation of motion becomes;

The particular solution is also expected to be harmonic; we assume it in the form;

 Wherein it denotes the amplitude and phase angle of the response, respectively. By substituting the
equations above, we arrive at;

Equate the coefficients of cos and sin on both sides of the resulting equation, we obtain;

The complete solution is given by x(t) = xh(t) + xp(t) , wherein the damped system we have is;
4.1 VIBRATION UNDER GENERAL PERIODIC
CAUSE
The Fourier series and the concept of superposition may be used to obtain the answer if the
forcing function is periodic. A periodic function can be represented as a succession of sines and cosines,

according to the Fourier series.

The steady-state solution of this equation, according to the theory of superposition, is the sum of
the steady-state solutions of:
4.2 RESPONSE UNDER NON-PERIODIC CAUSE
• Irregular periodic forces, non-periodic forces, such as impact forces, and the Convolution integral.
• An innovative approach to estimating the reaction is necessary when the exciting force
F(t) is nonperiodic, such as when it results from an explosion's blast.
• The response of the system to arbitrary stimulation may be determined using a variety of techniques,
including:
o Using the Fourier integral to represent the excitation
o Using the convolution integral approach
o Using the Laplace transform technique
o Using an appropriate interpolation model to first approximate F(t), followed by a numerical
technique
o Integrating the motion equation numerically
5. Vibration Measurement
Vibration is a complex measurement containing many different parameters. Different
measurement technologies have advantages and disadvantages depending on the ultimate vibration
measurement goals. This Application Note addresses all of these areas.
Vibration Measurement
Vibration is a time-based (periodic/cyclic) displacement of an object around a center static
position. The following contributing factors have a complex relationship with the magnitude and rate of the
vibration:
• The object’s own natural frequencies and stiffness
• The amplitude and frequencies of any external energy source(s) inducing the vibration

Vibration measurement is complex because of its many components – displacement, velocity,

acceleration, and frequencies. Also, each of these components can be measured in different ways – peak-
to-peak, peak, average, RMS; each of which can be measured in the time domain (real-time, instantaneous
measurements with an oscilloscope or data acquisition system) or frequency domain (vibration magnitude

at different frequencies across a frequency spectrum), or just a single number for “total vibration.”
Vibration measurement is sometimes used as an indirect measurement of some other value. The
final measurement goal determines the approach to the measuring vibration. Often, condition monitoring–
predicting or monitoring wear, fatigue, and failure – requires vibration measurements meant to determine
the kinetic energy and forces acting upon an object . This is often called inertial vibration. Monitoring
machinery motors (especially the bearings) in critical applications is an example. In these cases, the
measurement of acceleration provides an easy conversion to units of force assuming the mass of the object
is known.
 Other applications are concerned with the displacement of the object of interest because unintended
displacements degrade performance of a system. Hard-disk drives and machine tools are examples of this
type of vibration measurement, sometimes referred to as positional vibration or relative vibration.
Impulse and Continuous Vibration Measurement
Two more scenarios for vibration are continuous and impulse vibration measurements. Continuous
vibration measurements are used for condition monitoring and operational testing. It directly measures what
happens to the object of interest under real operating conditions.
An impulse vibration measurement involves striking the object, often with a “calibrated hammer”
that measures impact force, and then measuring the resulting vibration of the object. This type of test reveals
resonances within the object to help predict its behavior in operating conditions. It often leads to design
considerations to either avoid or accentuate resonant frequencies depending on the application.
Vibration Measurement Equipment and Vibration Sensor Technology
Vibration is measured as an acceleration, velocity, or displacement. Each has advantages and
disadvantages and each vibration measurement unit can be converted to the others although with potentially
adverse consequences from the conversion. Acceleration and displacement are the most common methods
of vibration measurement.
Measuring Vibration with Accelerometers
Accelerometers are small devices that are installed directly on the surface of (or within) the
vibrating object. They contain a small mass which is suspended by flexible parts that operate like springs.
When the accelerometer is moved, the small mass will deflect proportionally to the rate of acceleration. A
variety of sensing techniques can be used to measure the amount of deflection of the mass. Because the
mass and spring forces are known, the amount of deflection is readily converted to an acceleration value.
Accelerometers can provide acceleration information in one or more axes.
Inertial vibration measurements in which the forces acting upon the object are the critical factor are
well served by accelerometers, but accelerometers are sensitive to frequency. Vibrations at higher
frequencies have greater accelerations than those at lower frequencies. For this reason, accelerometers
produce very low signal levels for low-frequency vibration and can have poor signal to noise ratios. Also,
using integration to derive velocity or double integration to derive displacement values reduces high-
frequency signals.
Attaching accelerometers to the object of interest changes the mass of the object which changes its
natural resonant frequencies. When the mass of the object is considerably larger than the mass of the
accelerometer, as is often the case, the effect is negligible. But it does limit the use of accelerometers on
smaller objects.
 Accelerometers are a great choice for larger objects, vibrating at higher frequencies, in which the
inertial forces acting upon the object is what needs to be measured.

Measuring Vibration with Noncontact Displacement Sensors

Noncontact displacement sensors mount with a small gap between the
sensor (probe) and a surface of the vibrating object. Capacitive and eddy-current
displacement sensors are best choices for high-resolution, high-speed
measurements. Because their outputs are displacement measurements, they are
perfect for relative vibration (positional vibration) measurements. These
measurements are made when the physical location of the surface of the vibrating
object at any moment in time is a critical factor. With frequency response over 10
kHz and as high as 80 kHz, and resolutions as low as nanometers, these sensors
indicate the precise instantaneous location of the object even when it is moving at
high speed.
Because the sensors are not mounted on the object, they do not change the
object’s mass or its resonant characteristics. These sensors have a flat frequency
response from DC to near their rated frequency response. Because the output is not affected by the
frequency of the vibration, measurements are more accurate across the frequency spectrum.
Displacement data from these sensors can be differentiated to provide velocity information and
differentiated a second time to obtain acceleration information. The differentiation process will limit low
frequency signals and emphasize higher frequency signals. This will result in lower signal-to-noise ratios
in the higher frequencies.

Instantaneous and Total Vibration

Displacement sensors produce outputs that can be observed in real-
time on an oscilloscope or with a data-acquisition system. This real-time,
instantaneous data provides precise vibration data which can be used to
determine a machine’s performance as a function of time or angular location
of a rotating part.
In other applications, a simple “total vibration” number is required.
To obtain such a number, the sensor output will need to be processed. If you
are using Elite Series capacitive displacement sensors, the MM190 Signal Processing and Meter module
can derive a total vibration measurement. The peak capture functions include a TIR (Total Indicator
Reading) option which displays the difference between the most negative and most positive measurements.
A Reset button clears those captured values so new values can be captured. This single peak-to-peak (peak-
to-valley) measurement is an indication of total vibration.
If the vibration value is expected to change over time, perhaps during
an adjustment to the mechanical system, the Tracking TIR option can be used.
Tracking TIR displays the peak-to peak value, but the peak values are
allowed to slowly decay toward zero. In this way, the indicator shows the
current TIR value after a few seconds, even if the value has decreased. This
function facilitates experimentation with the object’s environment to
determine what may reduce total vibration without the necessity of manual
resets of the peak values.
Displacement Sensor Probe Mounting
When measuring vibration, it is likely that the displacement sensors will also be exposed to a
vibration. To minimize the effects of vibration on the sensors themselves, they must be rigidly mounted.
Probes with threaded bodies tightened into a rigid mount should provide the rigidity needed to minimize
vibration effects.

Smooth, cylindrical probes which are clamp mounted require careful consideration as they are more
likely to be affected by a vibrating environment. There are different clamp mounting methods for cylindrical
style probes; some are better than others. When measuring at high resolutions, mounting design begins to
play an important role in measurement quality.
A common mounting method is a thru hole with a set screw to secure the probe. For measurements
in a stable, non-vibrating environment not measuring at the sub-micron levels, this method is often
sufficient. But this system only secures the probe at two points (the set screw and the point opposite the set
screw) which allows it some freedom of motion in at least one axis. For high-resolution measurements in a
vibrating environment, a better system is required.
 A “pinch clamp” mount in which a thru hole is tightened on the cylindrical probe is a better solution.
The full circumference clamp engages more of the surface of the probe and will provide a more stable
mount. However, any out-of-roundness of the probe or the thru-hole can begin to function like the two point
clamp of a set screw.
The most stable clamping method uses a pinch clamp that clamps the probe at three or four points
rather than the full circumference. This method remains stable in spite of roundness errors of the probe
body or the clamp’s thru-hole.
Additional Capacitive Displacement Sensor Mounting Considerations
Capacitive displacement sensors have a measurement “spot size” about 130% of the diameter of
the sensing area of the probe. If the measurement target area is smaller than this it will be susceptible to
errors and may require special calibration.
Multiple Capacitive Probes
When multiple capacitive probes are used with the same target, their drive electronics must be
synchronized. Lion Precision multi-channel capacitive sensor systems (Elite Series and CPL230) use
synchronized electronics. Capacitive sensors require no minimum distance between adjacent probes.
Environmental Considerations for Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors require a clean, dry environment. Any change in the material between the probe
and target will affect the measurement. All sensors have some sensitivity to temperature, but Lion Precision
capacitive sensor systems are compensated for temperature changes between 20°C and 35°C with a drift of
less than 0.04%F.S./°C.
Ordinary changes in humidity have no effect on capacitive displacement measurements. Humidities
into the 90% range can begin to affect the measurement; any condensation in the measurement area will
render the measurement invalid.
 6. Vibration analysis and control
Vibration analysis helps you monitor and detect issues using vibration data. Read about vibration
analysis methodology, tools and techniques, vibration analysis measurement methods, and more.

What Is Vibration Analysis?

Vibration analysis is defined as a process for measuring the vibration levels and frequencies of
machinery and then using that information to analyze how healthy the machines and their components are.
While the inner-workings and formulas used to calculate various forms of vibration can get complicated, it
all starts with using an accelerometer to measure vibration. Anytime a piece of machinery is running, it is
making vibrations. An accelerometer attached to the machine generates a voltage signal that corresponds
to the amount of vibration and the frequency of vibration the machine is producing, usually how many times
per second or minute the vibration occurs.
All data collected from the accelerometer goes directly into a data collector (software), which
records the signal as either amplitude vs. time (known as time waveform), amplitude vs. frequency (known
as fast Fourier transform), or both. All of this data is analyzed by computer program algorithms, which in
turn is analyzed by engineers or trained vibration analysts to determine the health of the machine and
identify possible impending problems like looseness, unbalance, misalignment, lubrication issues and more.
Vibration analysis can detect problems such as:
• Imbalance
• Bearing failures
• Mechanical looseness
• Misalignment
 • Resonance and natural frequencies
• Electrical motor faults
• Bent shafts
• Gearbox failures
• Empty space or bubbles (cavitation) in pumps
• Critical speed
Distributor and alignment and maintenance training provider VibrAlign uses the example of taking
an industrial fan, removing a fan blade and starting it up. As expected, the fan vibrates due to an unbalanced
fan wheel. This unbalanced force will occur one time per revolution of the fan. Another example would be
a damaged bearing track causing a bearing roller to generate vibration each time it contacts the spall (similar
to a pothole on a highway). If three bearing rollers hit the spall per revolution, you should see a vibration
signal of three times the fan's running speed.
Vibration Analysis Methodology
While accelerometers are still the most common tool used to collect vibration data, modern
technology and improved sensor technology have allowed for non-contact, high-speed laser sensors that
can detect issues accelerometers can't. This allows for a more accurate and more localized analysis, and
opens up vibration analysis to more methodology. Vibration analysis is generally broken down into four
principles, and each principle gives you specific information on the working conditions and features of the
vibrating parts.
1. Time domain: When a vibration signal is picked up from a transducer (device that converts a
physical quantity into an electrical signal) and displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope, it's called a
waveform. This signal is in the time domain. The time domain is amplitude plotted against time. While
most machine vibration issues are detected using spectrum analysis, some types are more easily seen in
waveform.
2. Frequency domain: When the waveform discussed earlier is subjected to spectrum analysis, the
end result is a picture of frequency vs. amplitude, known as a spectrum. The spectrum is in the frequency
domain like the vibration is in the time domain. Most in-depth analysis of machinery vibration is done in
the frequency domain or using spectrum analysis.
3. Joint domain: Because vibration signals vary with time, calculating more than one spectrum at
once can be useful. To do this, a joint time technique called Gabor-Wigner Wavelet can be utilized. This
technique is used to calculate variations of the fast Fourier transform (discussed below), including short-
time Fourier transform (STFT).
4. Modal analysis: Modal analysis takes measured frequency response functions of a piece of
machinery and puts them into a computer model. The computer model can be displayed with animations of
all the different vibration modes. The model can be adjusted by either adding to or taking away things like
mass or stiffness to see the effects.
Outside of these four basic principles lie numerous forms of analysis, calculations and algorithms
used to determine different aspects of vibration analysis. These include:
• Time waveform: A time waveform is acceleration vs. time displayed as tables and plots. Time
waveforms show a short time sample of raw vibration, revealing clues to the condition of machinery not
always clear in the frequency spectrum. A method of employing time waveform vibration signals as a
vibration analysis tool is by using FFT.

• Fast Fourier Transform (FFT): FFT is defined as an algorithm used to calculate a spectrum from a time
waveform. In other words, it's a calculation intended to break down a signal into all its frequencies. If you'll
recall time domain and frequency domain discussed above, FFT converts a signal from the time domain
into the frequency domain. Fast Fourier transform is most often used for detecting machine faults like
misalignment or unbalance.
• Phase measurement: When talking about vibration analysis, phase is a relative time difference between
two signals measured in units of angle as opposed to time. It only works if the two signals being compared
are of the same frequency. Phase measurement is used in tandem with FFT to decipher machine faults like
loose parts, misalignment and unbalance.
• Order analysis: Order analysis is a variation of FFT analysis and is mostly used to quantify vibrations of
machines with varying revolutions per minute (RPM). In other words, order analysis is frequency analysis
where the spectrum's frequency axis is shown in orders of RPM rather than hertz. The term "orders" refers
to a frequency that is a multiple of a reference rotational speed. For example, if a vibration signal is equal
to twice the frequency of the motor's rotation, the order is two.
• Power spectral density (PSD): Power spectral density is calculated by multiplying the amplitude from
the FFT by its different forms to normalize it with the frequency bin width (bin width refers to the grouped
x-axis values). Think of PSD as looking at "random" vibrations or motion at many different frequencies.
PSD accurately compares random vibration signals that have different signal lengths.
• Envelope analysis: Envelope analysis is a form of vibration analysis that can detect impacts with very
low energy often hidden by other vibration signals. It's a popular diagnostic tool for damaged gear teeth
and roller bearings.
• Orbit: The orbit is defined as a plot of a sleeve bearing journal's centerline. It's measured by placing two
probes in the bearing housing 90 degrees apart. Data from these probes can be displayed digitally and used
to detect shaft vibrations caused by oil whirl - oil whirling around inside, causing the journal to move.
• Resonance analysis: Resonance analysis identifies all the natural vibrations and frequencies in machines.
The presence of resonance means high vibration, which could reach damaging levels.
Categories of Vibration Measurement
• Overall level of vibration: You can think of checking the overall level of vibration like a "rough check"
on a machine. By feeling a machine with your hand, you can determine a general sense of whether it is
running roughly over a wide frequency band. This initial check is best on rotating machinery, in particular
high-speed machines. It's not usually applicable to reciprocating machines.
• Spectral analysis of vibration: Spectral analysis is the process of transforming a signal from the time
domain to the frequency domain. It's often done using FFT. The signal is analyzed to determine any
substantial frequencies coming from the machine's components. Where there is a peak in frequency signal,
that is the likely source of vibration. Common applications for spectral analysis include the rotational speed
of a shaft or how often tooth meshing occurs on a pair of gear wheels.
• Discrete frequency monitoring: If you need to monitor a specific component within a machine, discrete
frequency monitoring measures the vibration level being generated at a particular frequency which that
component would be expected to generate. For example, if you want to look into a certain shaft in a
machine, you would turn the monitoring to that machine's rotational speed. Discrete frequency is calculated
using the FFT algorithm.
• Shock pulse monitoring: Shock pulse monitoring is a predictive maintenance technique that monitors
rolling-element bearings with a hand-held instrument. The hand-held instrument gives off a natural
frequency that is excited by shocks or vibrations generated by rolling bearings. In other words, when two
pieces of metal touch each other while in motion, shock waves develop from the impact, which travels
through the metal. This shockwave is used in shock pulse monitoring.
• Kurtosis measurement: Kurtosis gives you a measure of the "spikedness" of a random signal. Signals
with a higher kurtosis value have more peaks that are greater than three times the signal's root mean square
(RMS) value. In vibration analysis, kurtosis is used to monitor fatigue development in rolling bearings with
a simple instrument.
• Signal averaging: Since signals change with time, signal averaging is important in spectrum analysis
because it determines the level of the signal at each frequency. It's particularly important for low-frequency
measurements because they need a longer averaging time to get a statically accurate estimate of the
spectrum. Signal averaging is often used in the monitoring of a gear in relation to its rotational speed. In
this example, signal averaging will show you the cyclic action of each tooth in the gear. If a tooth has a
large crack, it would be detected due to its increased flexibility.
• Cepstrum analysis: Originally invented to characterize seismic echoes produced by earthquakes and
bomb explosions, cepstrum is used to look at the repeated patterns in a spectrum. Repeated patterns in the
spectrum are sensed as one or two components in the cepstrum with multiple sets of sidebands, which can
be confusing. The cepstrum separates those sidebands like the way the spectrum separates repetitive time
patterns in the waveform. Cepstrum analysis is often utilized to look at interactions between the rotational
frequency of bladed rotors and the blade passing frequency. Another example is examining gear tooth
meshing frequencies and gear rotational speeds.
Vibration Analysis Measurement Parameters
All of these vibration analysis techniques help to identify three major parameters: acceleration,
velocity (RMS) and displacement. Each of these parameters emphasizes certain frequency ranges in their
own way and can be analyzed together to diagnose issues. Let's take a look at each parameter.
• Acceleration: Acceleration places greater importance on high frequencies. An acceleration signal is not
exclusive, however. The acceleration signal can be converted to velocity or displacement.
• Displacement: Just like acceleration places greater importance on high frequencies, displacement looks
at low frequencies. Displacement measurements are generally only used when examining the broad picture
of mechanical vibrations. You might use displacement to discover unbalance in a rotating part due to a
significant amount of displacement at the rotational frequencies of the machine's shaft.
• Velocity: Velocity is related to the destructive force of vibration, making it the most important parameter.
It places equal importance on both high and low frequencies. Usually, the RMS value of velocity (measured
in the range of 10 to 10,000 Hz) shows the best sign of vibration severity. RMS is calculated by multiplying
peak amplitude by 0.707.
Below is an example of what acceleration, displacement and velocity look like on the same signal. You can
see some peaks at the same frequencies, but each has different amplitudes. This is a good visual of how
each parameter assigns different importance to frequency ranges.

Vibration Analysis Tools and Technology

Advanced technology, particularly advances in wireless technology, has greatly improved how
vibration analysts collect, interpret and share data. Today, vibration analyzers are extremely portable,
communicate with smartphones and tablets in real time, and can generate FFT in extremely high resolution.
Many vibration instrument companies develop their own apps to communicate with each other.
Another form of advanced technology you'll see with vibration analysis interpretation instruments
is operating deflection shapes (ODS) 3D simulations of machinery vibrations. In a nutshell, this type of
software exaggerates vibration-induced movements in a 3D model so you can visualize the forces impacting
your machine while it's running. Some vibration analysis instrument companies offer databases with
thousands of bearing fault frequencies preloaded to help you identify certain fault frequencies for your
bearings.
Some software can continuously monitor the geometry of your rolling elements and warn you when
possible premature failures may occur.
As with most advanced technology, the majority of vibration analysis data is automatically
uploaded to the cloud and is available on your mobile device, computer or directly from your browser. This
is especially useful if you're performing vibration analysis as a third-party consultant, so you can freely
share spectra with your clients.
Benefits of Continuous Vibration Monitoring
The methods and tools discussed in this article not only are great for determining what's wrong
with a piece of equipment or machinery (reactive), but they also can be used to catch issues before they
cause significant downtime (proactive). Using vibration analysis and monitoring enables you to look
quantitatively into structural weakness or looseness, rotating component looseness and whether resonance
is present.
If implemented properly, continuous vibration monitoring helps you optimize machinery
performance. With the use of modern technology, you can take continuous vibration readings on various
equipment in real time and have the data sent directly to your smartphone, tablet or desktop via the cloud.
• Monitor critical equipment: Critical equipment is any piece of equipment or machine that could
cause you to take a big financial hit if a failure were to occur. Continuous vibration monitoring helps detect
discrepancies in the vibration spectrum, which can reveal lubrication issues and bearing defects well before
major issues appear.
• Monitor heavily used equipment: Many plants operate 24/7, only stopping monthly or quarterly
for routine maintenance. Stopping more than this can cost the plant a significant amount of money. Online
continuous vibration monitoring helps monitor the condition of heavily used machinery or troubled
machinery and sends alerts when that condition changes.
• Monitor difficult-to-access equipment: Performing maintenance on equipment located in hard-
to-reach places is difficult. Machines on rooftops, cooling towers and those operating in high-temperature
areas can be continuously monitored for vibration abnormalities, allowing maintenance to be done at a
convenient time. This prevents unplanned downtime and keeps maintenance staff from accessing these
locations unnecessarily.

References:
Inman, D. J. (2012). Engineering vibration (Vol. 4). Pearson Education.
Inman, D. J. (2012). Engineering vibration (Vol. 4). Pearson Education
https://www.lionprecision.com/vibration-measurement-and-sensors/
https://www.reliableplant.com/vibration-analysis-31569