Task-1 (a)

Characteristics, Safe Use and Handling of Jet Fuel Systems

Aviation fuel is a petroleum-based fuel or a mixture of petroleum and synthetic fuels used to
power aircraft. Specific energy (energy per unit mass) is an important criterion when choosing
aircraft fuel. They contain additives to improve or maintain properties important to fuel
performance or handling. A turbine system may obtain the right amount of clear vapor-free fuel
at the correct pressure to the fuel control unit under all operating conditions. This system include
tanks, boost pumps, lines, selector valves, strainers, engine-driven pumps, and pressure gauges.
Modern day aircrafts use two types of fuels for piston or reciprocating engines and for turbine
engines. The fuel temperature is kept high enough by the compressor's hot air flow through the
air-fuel heat exchanger to prevent the formation of ice crystals. The fuel controller is mounted on
the engine and contains pressure and temperature sensors as well as a flyweight type N2
regulator. The fuel shutoff lever and fuel control lever in the cockpit operate the fuel control
valves.1

Characteristics of Fuel Description

Volatility To burn or explode, fuel must vaporize and
combine with a certain amount of air. Fuel
volatility affects launch, range and safety.
Vapor-Lock The production of vapor bubbles in the feeding
system results in a vapor lock, which is a
partial or total cessation of the flow of a fluid
(such as gasoline in an internal combustion
engine).
Carburetor Icing Can develop ice when fuel vaporizes in the
carburetor because water in the fuel-air
combination can freeze and accumulate inside
the carburetor. In extreme circumstances, the
engine will not start.
Heat Energy Content Fuels used in aircraft engines must have the
maximum calorific value (thermal energy) per
unit weight and volume.
Viscosity Fuel viscosity and density can greatly affect
nozzle performance when varied over a wide
range. Fuel flow is affected by changes in fuel
density. 2
Reciprocating-Engine Fuel: Fuel for piston engines is also referred to as gasoline or AVGAS.
Aviation gasoline (AVGAS) is identified by an octane or performance number, which designates
the antiknock value of the fuel mixture in the engine cylinder. Small aircrafts use AVGAS 80,
AVGAS100, and AVGAS 100LL (‘LL’ means Low Lead content). These fuels are different from
the fuel refined for use in turbine-powered aircraft and is very volatile and extremely flammable,
with a low flash point.
Uses: Used by small piston-powered aircraft often use this. Especially used for tasks such as
plant pollination, private aircrafts used for flights, flying clubs and even flight training.
Turbine Engine Fuel: Kerosene-based airplane fuel is often classified into a number of different
categories with respect to their physical properties, below is a list of jet fuel types and their
physical properties.

Categories of Kerosene based Airplane Fuel

Jet-A
It is heavier than other types.
Has a flash point of 110℉ and
freezing point of -40℃.
This fuel has a low vapor
pressure.
Jet-A1
It is typically used by turbine-
powered aircrafts.
It has a flash point minimum
of 38 degrees C (100°F) and a
lower freeze point of -47
degrees C.
Vapor Pressure: 0.52 mm Hg
(10°C) 1.8 mm Hg (28°C)
Jet-B
It is also known as wide-cut
fuel because it is a mixture of
kerosene and gasoline.
It has a freezing point of about
-76℉.
It has a vapor pressure that
falls midway between
kerosene and gasoline.

Turbine Fuel Volatility: Its distillation range, vapor pressure, and flash point all affect volatility.
Highly volatile fuels improve ignitability and stability, but can also promote vapor lock. With a
vapor pressure of 2-3 psi, Jet B, which is a blend of Jet A and gasoline, is highly volatile.
 Figure: Types of fuels and its grades.
Types of aircraft or jet fuel additives:

 Tetra-ethyl lead- It is added to improve the anti-knock properties of Avgas. As a result,

the compression ratio of the engine can be significantly increased. Concerns about lead
emissions are putting pressure to phase out this additive, but there is currently no safe
alternative to use.

 Antioxidants (gum inhibitors) - They are used in AVGAS to extend the induction
period, prevent the free radical chain reactions involved in hydrocarbon oxidation, and
control the production of gums and other antioxidants. Antioxidants (gum inhibitors) can
also be used in jet fuel, but are believed to be more stable than Avgas.

 Metal Deactivator- Used to improve the thermal stability of fuels or reduces the
interaction between the metal surface and chemicals contained within the lubricant.
Designed to reduce the effects of dissolved trace metals, especially copper, that affect the
thermal stability of jet fuel.
  Corrosion inhibitors- Rust is a potential problem for military and commercial aircraft, so
corrosion inhibitors can be used to reduce fuel system degradation and improve the
lubricating properties of jet fuel.

 Fuel system icing inhibitors- These additives lower the freezing point of water that may
be in the fuel system and prevent the formation of ice crystals that can restrict fuel flow.
Mandatory on military jets, but not on commercial aircraft with fuel heaters. They can be
added to jet fuel or avgas while refueling light aircraft.

 Static dissipater additives- These additives minimize the dangerous effects of static
electricity that builds up during jet fuel travel. It is also sometimes used by avgas.

Safe Handling of Aircraft Fuel System: This aims to standardize fire safety and safety training
materials for employees of airport fuel suppliers who work with aircraft and ground handling
equipment. This emphasizes on:
1. Safe aircraft refueling and handling practices.
2. The most effective way to maintain a high level of life safety is to train your employees in
safety measures intended to protect everyone who works there.
3. Employees must use available safety equipment such as earplugs, gloves, shoes and
goggles.
4. To be aware of improper methods that might cause a spill or leak of fuel.
5. Any lightning storms in the vicinity of the airport should raise suspicions halting any
fueling operations.
 Task-1 (b)
Aircraft Fuel Systems and Operating Modes
A simple fuel system may consist of a gravity feed tank, a filter, a shut-off valve, and suitable
rigid and flexible pipes between these components and the engine. The simplest type of fuel
system is the gravity feed, which is still in use on many small, low-powered airplanes. Low-wing
airplanes have to use an engine-driven and/or electric pump to provide adequate fuel pressure.

Figure: Basic turbine engine fuel system.

Gravity Feed System: The gravity-feed system utilizes the force of gravity to transfer the fuel
from the tanks to the engine. Only found on high wing aircraft where a level of fuel is
maintained between the fuel tank and engine. As the level of fuel in the tank reduces the fuel
pressure will reduce, the system is designed to support a flow rate of at least 150% of the
maximum required during any stage of flight. The two major disadvantages of the system are:
1) Changes in attitude, particularly negative loading, reduces fuel flow.
2) Susceptible to vapor lock due to the low pressure in the system
 Figure: Gravity Feed Fuel System of Cessna 172S.

Pump Feed Systems: The engine-driven pump is in parallel with the electric pump, so both can
move fuel. Selector valves in these systems can typically select individual tanks or shut off all
flow to the engine. Electric pump also ensures fuel flow when switching from one tank to
another.

Figure: Pump Feed System.

Fuel pump systems {engine driven pump + electrical pump systems, working mechanism with
figure} added

A fuel system operating modes are.

• Refueling
• Defueling
 • Fuel Jettisoning System
• Venting
• Cross Feeding
The short description of these modes is given below:

Refueling: Typically, an aircraft's fuel tanks are located in its wings. The petrol truck driver
parked next to the fuel tank using the cabin lift system. The driver then starts refueling by
connecting the fuel hose. A typical refueling for a domestic flight takes 15-20 minutes and
involves injecting tens of thousands of gallons of gasoline into the aircraft. To make them as light
as possible, planes are often refueled for a single trip. For shorter flights, round trip fuel can be
pumped. An average refueling typically uses 10,000 gallons.

Figure: Fuel hose connected to wing’s fuel tank.

Defueling - The pressure fueler is used for vacuum refueling, without completely emptying the
fuel tank. The relief valve located in each of the upper main wheel wells is used for pumping.
The least amount of gasoline left in the tank after using this combination of suction and pump.
This can happen due to contamination, maintenance or inspection. Sometimes a change in flight
plan may require refueling.
Fuel Jettisoning System -For some instances with aircrafts, if the
maximum takeoff weight is more than the maximum landing
weight. It is an emergency system provided so that the flight crew
can quickly bring the weight of the airplane down to the maximum
landing weight by dumping fuel. Systems include drop or dump
pipes, tubes and valves; discharge chute, as well as the working
mechanism of the chutes. Depending on the system design, each
wing is equipped with a fixed nozzle or an expandable discharge
chute.

Venting: In an airplane, the fuel tank is made up of 95%

gasoline and 5% air. Air must be pumped into the tank to
replace the extracted gasoline to power the engine. This is the main function of the ventilation
system. Other uses include changing the air pressure as the aircraft ascends and descends into the
atmosphere and exhausts gases during refueling. Fuel will still be drawn in during flight if the
vents are closed, but the already existing air will have to expand to cover an increasingly larger
space. This leads to a decrease in pressure. The tank will eventually self-destruct or the fuel will
stop leaking. To avoid this, aircraft use gasoline ventilation systems.

Cross-feeding - Gasoline can go from a tank that has too much fuel to one that has insufficient
fuel through the cross-feed valve. It occurs from one side of an aircraft to another in a single-
engine aircraft. In most aircraft, the left and right wing-mounted fuel tanks make up the fuel
system. Typically, each tank fuels the engines on that wing. The two sides of the system are
momentarily connected using the cross-feed valve. Since the systems are kept separate and the
fuel is allowed to travel the shortest possible path, no system can be completely drained by a leak
on one side so the cross-feed valve is often maintained closed. Both of the wing tanks should
have roughly the same quantity of gasoline to keep the airplane balanced.

Figure: Cross-feeding system

Fuel Pressure Gauges: Fuel pressure gauges in fuel systems use an electrically actuated, engine-
powered elevator siphon to display the amount of fuel entering the fuel control unit. This is
necessary to determine if the fuel system is functioning properly. Fuel pressure is usually
signaled using the intake cylinder or the stomach using a small cylinder. Giant flying aircraft use
synchronous display type power meter. This type has an engine mounted transmitter that can
measure the fuel weight and provide an electrical signal to operate the marking device located in
the cab. Test system 28 volts from AC source or DC source.

Pressure Warning Lights - When low fuel pressure is detected, the weighted electric switch
closes its contact and completes the warning light circuit, alerting the steering of low fuel
pressure in the fuel system. Some aircraft also include proposed low weight lights in the support
siphon to demonstrate normal operation.

Figure: Pressure warning indicator lights.

Fuel Flow Indicators: The system consists of a transmitter and a pointer. The generator is
located on the fuel line, leaving the engine tank. The transmitter measures the speed of the fuel
flow and electrically connects it to a flow pointer located in the cockpit. The list shows the speed
of the fuel flow. Some flow markers incorporate a fuel pointer. The fuel cost marker is usually
reset before the flight begins. After the flight, the fuel used by the engine can be legally
consumed.

Figure: Fuel Flow Indicator

Fuel Quantity Gauges - The voltage across a variable resistor in the sensing system is measured
by fuel gauges to determine the level of fuel, which is then communicated to the driver via the
indicating system. The sensing system uses the float switch, a variable resistor, and a wiper,
among other parts, to determine how much fuel is in a tank. Although modern sensor systems can
also make use of microprocessors for quicker and more precise measurements, the sensor system
is rather straightforward in comparison to other sensors now being made.
Figure: Fuel Quantity Indicator
 Basic Fuel System Components

The components of basic fuel system are fuel tanks, fuel lines & fitting, fuel valves, fuel
pumps, fuel strainers and fuel ejector.

1. Fuel Tanks: There are three basic types of aircraft fuel tanks: Integral fuel tanks, rigid
removable tanks and bladder tanks.

Integral Fuel Tanks: Integrated tanks are enclosed spaces built into the aircraft structure
that can hold gasoline. Integral fuel tanks are created within the framework of the aircraft
by sealing areas such as the wing section.

Figure: Integral fuel tanks

Rigid fuel storage tanks added

Rigid Removable Fuel Tanks: Fixed, removable fuel tanks are a common feature of many
aircraft, especially older models. To stop leaks, they are made from materials such as stainless
steel or aluminum alloys and are riveted together, must be held in place with padded straps to
prevent shifting while in flight. Most frequently, they are located in the wings; some tanks are
designed to be a part of the wing's leading edge. The advantage of having a removable tank is that
it can be taken out and repaired or replaced if necessary. Near the top of the tank is space for a
fuel filler cap, vent tube, and fuel gauge. Found in light weight aircrafts.

Figure: Rigid Removable Fuel Tank.

Bladder Fuel Tanks: A bladder tank, bag tank, or fuel cell is made up of thermoplastic
membrane attached to a section of aircraft structure designed to hold fuel. The bladder is rolled
up and attached to the compartment through the tank filler neck or access door and secured inside
the compartment with snap fasteners or a cord and loop. Many high performance light aircraft,
helicopters and some small turboprop aircraft use bladder tanks.

Figure: Bladder type fuel tank

2. Fuel lines & fitting: The flexible fuel hose has a synthetic rubber inner surface woven with
reinforcing fibers. Only approved petrol hoses may be used. Gasoline hose and line diameters are
determined by fuel flow requirements. Flexible hoses are typically used where component
vibration occurs, like between the aircraft engine and frame.

Figure: Aircraft fuel lines.

3. Fuel Valves: The fuel systems of airplanes employ a variety of fuel valve types. Fuel valves
can be controlled manually, by solenoids, or by electric motors. Below is a brief summary of
these fuel valves:

Hand-Operated Valves - There are three basic types of hand-operated valves used in aircraft
fuel systems. They are:

i. Cone type valve: The inlet port, output port, handle, detent plate, valve housing, and
bored passageway make up this valve. In order for gasoline to travel through the valve
and go from the chosen source to the engine, the intake port and output port must be
 linked when the handle is turned. Here, a detent plate is utilized to maintain the valve`s on
position for a predetermined period of time.

Figure: Cone-type Valve

ii. Poppet Valves: Selector valves are sometimes called poppet valves. A cam controls the
flow of fuel in the poppet valve. The selector valve handle controls the cam. When the
valve handle is turned, a cam on the corresponding shaft lifts the poppet from its seat in
the corresponding port. Non-selected ports are simultaneously closed by spring-loaded
cones. This is mainly due to the oval shape of the knock.

Figure: Poppet Valve

iii. Hand-Operated Gate Valve: Manual gate valves can be used in situations where
electricity is not required to stop fuel flow. Gate valves are therefore used especially as
 fire valves. A valve is usually located in the fuel supply line of each engine. As the handle
is turned, the valve operating arm lowers the spool into the fuel passageway between the
seals. As the gate valve blades move into the fuel flow path, they block it.

Figure: Hand-operated Gate Valve

Solenoid-Operated Valves: It consists of an inlet, an outlet, a spring, an opening/closing

magnet, and an opening/closing magnet. When the magnetic attraction force required to actuate
the port solenoid is generated, the valve is locked in the open position, allowing gasoline to flow
through the orifice left by the poppet after it has been removed by the spring. The close solenoid
activates to close the poppet and stop fuel flow.

Figure: Solenoid Valve working.

Motor-Operated Gate Valves: With fuel system components removed from the cockpit, large
aircraft now use electric motors to actuate the fuel system valves. A reversible geared electric
motor rotates the gate valve operating arm that moves the tank slide in and out of the fuel
passage. Large aircraft fuel systems use this type of valve to allow or stop fuel flow.
 Figure: Motor-operated gate valves

4. Fuel Pumps: Helps to assist in starting the engine and providing positive pressure at the inlet
of the engine-driven fuel pump. Provides drive current to agitate the fuel and prevent water build-
up and transfer of fuel from one tank to another. For small aircraft with only gravity-fed fuel, a
hand pump should be enough rather anything electric.)

Hand-Operated Fuel Pumps: Some older reciprocating or piston aircraft were equipped
with a manual fuel pump. When the handle is moved down from the position shown, the
impeller on the left side of the pump will go up and the impeller on the right side of the
pump will go down. When the left propeller lifts, it sucks fuel into compartment A. Since
compartments A and D are connected through a bore in the middle, fuel is also sucked
into compartment D. At the same time, the right propeller pushes fuel out of chamber B,
through the boring passage in the center of the pump, into chamber C and out of the fuel
outlet through the check valve at the outlet of chamber C. When the handle is raised, the
agitator impeller the left side moves down, pushing fuel out of chambers A and D because
the check valve at chamber A inlet prevents fuel from flowing back through the fuel inlet.
The right stirrer simultaneously lifts and draws fuel into compartments B and C. 
 Figure: Hand-operated wobble pump.

Centrifugal Boost Pumps: These are variable volume pumps. It takes fuel from the
center of the wheel and pushes it out as the wheel spins. An outlet check valve prevents
fuel from flowing back through the pump. A fuel supply line is connected to the pump
outlet. A bypass valve may be installed in the fuel system to allow the engine-driven
pump to draw fuel from the tank if the power steering pump fails. Centrifugal booster
pumps are used to power an engine-powered fuel pump, assist in the engine-powered fuel
pump, and transfer fuel from one tank to another if the aircraft is so designed.

Figure: Centrifugal boost pump

5. Fuel Strainer: These are coarse and deterrent nets preventing only the larger particles entering
the fuel system. Other, filter or fine mesh filter provided in the carburetor fuel inlet or inlet of the
engine fuel pump.
 Figure: A typical micronic fuel filter with changeable cellulose filter element.

6. Fuel Ejector System: Regardless of the aircraft's altitude, the fuel ejection system uses
the Venturi principle to transfer more fuel into the tank. Fuel is delivered to the respective
engines from each tank via a submersible engine-powered boost pumps. Then part of the
output from the booster pump is sent to the fuel ejectors as they operate.
 Task-1 of C
Electro-mechanical Engine Control System

EEC or Electronic Engine Control Unit is a key component of the FADEC engine fuel control
system that controls the operation of the engine. A motor is considered EEC only when it runs
digitally and electronically but allows manual override. The EEC is usually located in an area
where the engine housing gets cold during engine operation. It attaches to the bottom left fan
housing using a mount. When alone, the EEC makes all the decisions until the pilot wants to
intervene. The EEC computer uses the data it receives from the many engine sensors and receives
feedback from that.

Figure: EEC Component

Types of Actuators
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system performed on an aircraft for a number of important functions like moving
doors and stairs and vice versa.3 Three types of actuators of any aircraft can be
1. Electro-hydraulic actuators
2. Electro hydrostatic actuators
3. Electromechanical actuators
1. Electro-hydraulic actuator systems require central hydraulic power supply with hydraulic
lines leading to each actuator. This type of electrohydraulic servo actuator system consists
of electrohydraulic servo valves and requires a centralized hydraulic network maintained
at a constant pressure by a hydraulic pump that continuously extracts power from the
engine (common operating pressures for aircraft hydraulic systems are 3,000 psi or 5,000
psi).

Figure: Electro-hydraulic actuator

2. Latest improvement in flying innovation have combined the electric and water powered
framework and arrived at tall execution Electro Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA) framework
Electro hydrostatic actuation systems change over electrical energy to hydraulic energy to
mechanical energy locally at the actuation location. The electronic command signals are
conveyed to the electro hydrostatic actuator over electrical cables. The self-contained unit
comprises of an electric engine which drives a pressure driven pump to pressurize liquid
for a hydraulic pressure powered actuator.

Figure: Electro-hydrostatic actuator

3. Electrical energy is transformed into mechanical energy by electromechanical actuators.
As these actuators don't use hydraulic fluid, there is no need for the hazardous and
combustible liquid, along with the pipes, power sources, and any leaks that go along with
it. A linear actuator is powered by an electric motor. It can seem like electromechanical
actuators are the best option for more-electric and all-electric systems aircrafts. It creates
the required direct movement through a component, either a belt or a screw, by translating
the rotational power of an electric rotary motor into a straight movement.

Figure: Electro mechanical actuator

 FADEC Engine Control System
Full authority digital engine refers to a system made up of a digital computer EEC, (FADEC).
Electronic outputs and electronic sensor inputs are used by FADEC to control the fuel flow. The
computer-based FADEC system only uses sensor inputs to the electronic engine control EEC to
meter the fuel flow. The FADEC system lacks a backup hydro-mechanical fuel control system.4

Figure: FADEC engine control system.

Operation and Function of EEC: The Electronic Engine Controller (EEC) is a component of
the aviation industry and has been used for approximately 50 years. The EEC's main job is to
control fuel flow and manage thrust to provide optimal flying performance at all times while
safeguarding the engine from dangers. EEC's construction and operation make up the majority of
the Full Authority Digital Engine Control system.
Advantages Disadvantages
Improved engine and aircraft systems Digital engine controls with complete authority
integration. don't have any kind of manual override,
allowing the computer full control over the
engine's operational settings.
Automated engine defense against operations The engine fails in the event of a complete
that are outside of tolerance. FADEC failure.
Offers automatic but semi-automatic engine Due to the intricacy, there is a high system
starting development and validation effort.
Better fuel efficiency Pilots are completely without manual controls
for the throttle, engine restart, or other features
 due to a FADEC failure.
Assured thrust settings and carefree engine Using redundant FADEC, the danger of single
operation point of failure can be reduced.

Hydro mechanical Fuel Control system: On many engines, hydromechanical fuel controls have
been employed and still are. The computation or metering of the fuel flow are not aided by an
electrical interface in a pure hydro mechanical fuel control. The fuel metering function of the
EFCU is provided by the hydro mechanical fuel control component.
Electromechanical Fuel Control System: When the engine is running normally, a remotely
installed electronic fuel control unit controls the thrust, governs the speed, limits acceleration and
deceleration, and does this by sending outputs to the fuel control assembly in response to inputs
from the power lever. When the EFCU fails, at the pilot's discretion, the fuel control assembly
operates in manual mode to provide engine performance at a lower power under control of the
controller's hydro-mechanical alone.
The entire engine fuel and control system, however, is made up of numerous parts, some which
are shown in task-1 of b, like vane fuel pump, filters bypass valves, servo operated bypass valves,
servo valve, torque motor, pneumatic servo, metering servo valves, pressurizing valve, fuel
shutoff solenoid valves, shutoff valves.
Pneumatic servo valve: By reducing the force of the P3 operating on the metering servo valve,
the pneumatic servo achieves Wf/P3 ratio modulation to control the gas generator speed. When
enrichment is necessary, the EFCU activates the valve. The manual method always de-energizes
it.
Shutoff valve- The power lever is attached to a rotating device called the shutdown valve. It
enables the pilot to manually direct fuel to the engine.
Pressure valve: The pressurizing valve also provides a positive leak-tight fuel shutoff to the
engine fuel nozzles when the manual valve is closed and it also acts as a discharge restrictor to
the hydro mechanical control.
Torque motor: A low power sensitive torque motor is part of the fuel control system and can be
used to change the fuel flow in automated mode. An electrical signal from the EFCU is
electromechanically converted by this torque motor.
Solenoid valve: Manually operated in automated mode, the solenoid valve is activated. The
automated mode limits how the mechanical speed governor can operate. It is limited to a single
setting for the over-speed governor over the electronically controlled speed range.
Vane fuel pump: The vane fuel pump assembly is a fixed displacement fuel pump that feeds the
engine fuel control system with high pressure fuel.
Filter bypass valve: The filter bypass valve in the fuel pump permits fuel to bypass the fuel filter
when the pressure drop across the fuel filter is significant. An inbuilt differential pressure
indicator clearly signals an excessive differential pressure condition before bypassing takes place
by extending a pin from the fuel filter bowl.
References:
1. https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/engine-fuel-system-requirements.html
2. https://sites.google.com/site/ncaaslecturenotes/gas-turbine-engine/unit-iv---fuel-systems/
types-of-jet-fuel-its-characteristics
3. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Actuator
4. https://www.slideshare.net/gbrj/fadec-full-authority-digital-engine-controlfinal