Octavo Gramatica

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STRUCTURE AND
WRITTEN
EXPRESSION
T h e s e c o n d se c tio n o f th e T O E FL te st is th e S tru ctu re a n d W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c tio n .

T h is se c tio n c o n sists o f forty q u e stio n s (so m e tests m ay b e lo n g e r ). You have twenty-five
m in u te s to c o m p le te th e forty q u e s tio n s in th is se c tio n .
T h e r e are tw o types o f q u e stio n s in th e S tru ctu re a n d W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c tio n o f
th e T O E F L test:
1. S tru ctu re (q u e s tio n s 1 -1 5 ) c o n sists o f fifte e n s e n te n c e s in w h ic h part o f th e s e n
te n c e h a s b e e n r e p la c e d w ith a blan k. E ach s e n te n c e is fo llo w e d by fo u r answ er
c h o ic e s . You m u st c h o o s e th e answ er th a t c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e in a gram m ati
cally c o r r e c t way.
2. W ritten E x p r e ssio n (q u e stio n s 1 6 -4 0 ) c o n sists o f tw enty-five s e n te n c e s in w h ich
fo u r w ord s o r g r o u p s o f w ords have b e e n u n d e r lin e d . You m u st c h o o s e th e u n d e r
lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f w ords th a t is not co rr ec t.
GENERAL STRATEGIES
1. Be familiar with the directions. The directions on everyTOEFL test are the same, so it is
not necessary to spend time reading the directions carefully when you take the test.You
should be completely familiar with the directions before the day of the test.
2. Begin with questions I through 15. Anticipate that questions I through S will be the
easiest. Anticipate that questions I I through 15 will be the most difficult. D o not spend too
much time on questions I I through 15. There will be easier questions that come later.
3. Continue with questions 16 through 40. Anticipate that questions 16 through 20 will be
the easiest. Anticipate that questions 36 through 40 will be the most difficult. Do not spend
too much time on questions 36 through 40.
4. If you have tim e, return to questions I I through 15. You should spend extra time on
questions I I through 15 only after you spend all the time that you want on the easier
questions.
5. Never leave any answers blank on your answer sh eet. Even if you are not sure of the
correct response, you should answer each question. There is no penalty for guessing.
128
STRUCTURE
T H E S TR U C TU R E Q U E S T IO N S
In th e T O E F L test, q u e s tio n s 1 th r o u g h 15 o f th e S tru ctu re a n d W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c

tio n test you r k n o w le d g e o f th e c o r r e c t str u c tu r e o f E n g lish se n te n c e s . T h e q u e s tio n s in
this se c tio n are m u ltip le -c h o ic e q u e s tio n s in w h ic h you m u st c h o o s e th e le tte r o f th e
answ er that b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
Exam ple
is taking a trip to N ew York.

(A) They
(B) When
(C) The woman
(D) Her
In th is e x a m p le , y o u sh o u ld n o tic e im m e d ia te ly th a t th e s e n te n c e h a s a verb (is ta k in g ),

a n d th a t th e verb n e e d s a su b ject. A n sw ers (B ) a n d (D ) are in c o r r e c t b e c a u se w hen a n d
her are n o t su b jects. In an sw er (A ), they is a su b je ct, b u t they is p lu ral a n d th e v e rb is ta k in g
is sin gu lar. T h e c o r r e c t an sw er is a n sw e r ( C ) ; the w o m a n is a sin g u la r su b je ct. You sh o u ld
th e r e fo r e c h o o s e a n sw er ( C ) .
____________________ STRATEGIES FOR THE STRUCTURE QUESTIONS___________________
1. First study th e sen ten ce. Your purpose is to determine what is needed to complete the
sentence correctly.
2. Then study each answer based on how well it co m p letes th e sen ten ce. Eliminate
answers that do not complete the sentence correctly.
3. Do not try to elim inate incorrect answers by looking only at the an sw ers. The
incorrect answers are generally correct by themselves.The incorrect answers are generally
incorrect only when used to complete the sentence.
4. N ever leave any answers blank. Be sure to answer each question even if you are unsure
of the correct response.
5. Do not spend to o much tim e on th e Structure questions. Be sure to leave adequate

time for the Written Expression questions.
T h e fo llo w in g sk ills w ill h e lp y o u to im p le m e n t th e se str a teg ie s in th e S tr u c tu r e s e c tio n o f

th e T O E F L test.
STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
SENTENCES W IT H O N E CLAUSE___________________________
S o m e s e n te n c e s in E n g lish have ju s t o n e su b ject a n d verb , a n d it is v ery im p o r ta n t fo r you

to fin d th e su b je ct an d verb in th e se se n te n c e s . In so m e s e n te n c e s it is easy to fin d th e
su b je ct a n d verb . H ow ever, c e r ta in stru ctu res, su ch as o b je c ts o f p r e p o sitio n s, a p p o sitiv es,
a n d p a r ticip le s, can c a u se c o n fu s io n in lo c a tin g th e su b je ct a n d verb b e c a u s e e a c h o f
th e se str u c tu r es can lo o k lik e a su b je c t o r verb. T h e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o s itio n c a n b e m is
ta k en fo r a su b ject. ■
T h e r e fo r e , y o u sh o u ld b e a b le to d o th e fo llo w in g in s e n te n c e s w ith o n e su b je c t a n d
verb: (1 ) b e su re th e s e n te n c e h a s a su b ject a n d a verb , (2 ) b e c a refu l o f o b je c ts o f p r e p o
sitio n s a n d a p p o sitiv es w h e n y o u are lo o k in g for th e su b ject, a n d (3 ) b e c a r e fu l o f p r e se n t
p a r ticip le s an d p ast p a r ticip le s w h e n y o u are lo o k in g fo r th e verb .
S k ill I: BE SURE T H E SEN TE N C E H A S A SUBJECT A N D AVERB
You k n o w th at a s e n te n c e in E n g lish s h o u ld have a su b je ct an d a verb . T h e m o st c o m m o n

types o f p r o b le m s th at y o u will e n c o u n te r in th e S tru ctu re se c tio n o f th e T O E F L te st have
to d o w ith su b jects an d verbs: p e r h a p s th e s e n te n c e is m issin g e ith e r th e su b je ct o r th e
verb o r b o th , o r p e r h a p s th e s e n te n c e h a s an ex tra su b je ct o r verb .
Exam ple I
_ was backed up for miles on the freeway.
(A) Yesterday
(B) In the morning
(C) Traffic
(D) Cars
In th is e x a m p le y o u s h o u ld n o tic e im m e d ia te ly th at th e r e is a verb (w a s), b u t th e r e is n o

su b ject. A n sw er (C ) is th e b est answ er b e c a u se it is a sin g u la r su b je c t th a t a g ie e s w ith th e
sin g u la r verb was. A n sw er (A ) , yesterday, a n d an sw er ( B ) , in the m orning, are n o t su bjects,
so th e y are n o t c o rr ec t. A lth o u g h answ er ( D ), cars, c o u ld b e a su b ject, it is n o t c o r r e c t b e
cau se cars is p lu ral an d it d o e s n o t a g r ee w ith th e sin g u la r verb was.
Exam ple II
E ngineers_____ for work on the new space program.
(A) necessary
(B) are needed
(C) hopefully
(D) next month
In th is e x a m p le y o u s h o u ld n o t ic e im m ed ia te ly th a t th e s e n te n c e h as a su b je c t (engineers),
a n d th a t th e r e is n o verb . B e c a u se an sw er (B ), are needed, is a verb , it is th e b e st answer.
A n sw ers (A ), ( C ) , a n d (D ) are n o t verb s, so th e y are n o t co rr ec t.
STRUCTURE
E xam ple III

The b o y _____ going to the movies with a friend.
(A) he is
(B) he always was
(C) is relaxing
(D) will be
T h is s e n te n c e h a s a su b je c t (boy) a n d h as p a rt o f a verb (going) ; to b e c o r r e c t, s o m e fo rm

o f th e verb be is n e e d e d to m ak e th e s e n te n c e c o m p le te . A n sw ers (A) a n d (B ) are in c o r
rect b e c a u se th e s e n te n c e alread y h a s a su b je c t (boy) a n d d o e s n o t n e e d th e e x tra su b ject
he. A n sw er (C ) is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se relaxing is an ex tra verb part th a t is u n n e c e ss a r y b e
c a u se o f going. A n sw er (D ) is th e b e st answ er; w ill be to g e th e r w ith g o in g is a c o m p le te verb.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s w h at y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t su b je cts a n d verbs:
SUBJECTS ANDVERBS
A sentence in English must have at least one subject and one verb.
E X E R C ISE 1: U n d e r lin e th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verbs tw ice in e a c h o f th e fo llo w in g

se n te n c e s . T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
1 1 Last w eek went fishing for trout at the nearby m ountain lake.
C 9 A schedu le o f the day’s events can be obtained at the front desk.
3. A jo b o n the day shift or the night shift at the plant available.
4 T he new com puter program has provides a variety o f helpful applications.
5. T he b ox can be op en ed only with a special screwdriver.
6. T he assigned text for history class it contains m ore than twenty chapters.
7. T he papers in the wastebasket should be em ptied into the trash can outside.
8. Departure before dawn on a boat in the m iddle o f the harbor.
9. Yesterday found an interesting article on pollution.
10. T he new m achine is processes 50 percent m ore than the previous m achine.
S k ill 2: BE C A R EFU L OF OBJECTS OF P R EPO SITIO N S
A n o b je c t o f a p r e p o s itio n is a n o u n o r a p r o n o u n th a t c o m e s a fter a p r e p o s itio n , su c h as

in , at, of, to, by, behind, c n, a n d so o n , to fo r m a p r e p o sitio n a l p h ra se.
(/ fter his exams) Tom will take a trip (by boat).
T h is s e n t e n c e c o n ta in s tw o o b je c ts o f p r e p o sitio n s. E xa m s is th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o sitio n
after a n d boat is th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o s itio n by.
STRUCTUREANDWRITTEN EXPRESSION
A n o b je c t o f a p r e p o sitio n can c a u se c o n fu s io n in th e S tru ctu re se c tio n o f th e T O E F L

te st b e c a u se it can b e m ista k en fo r th e su b ject o f a s e n te n c e .
Exam ple
With his friend found the movie theater.
(A) has
(B) he
(C) later
(D) when
In th is e x a m p le y o u s h o u ld lo o k first for th e su b ject a n d th e verb. You sh o u ld n o tic e th e

verb fo u n d a n d sh o u ld also n o tic e th a t th e r e is n o su bject. D o n o t th in k th a t fr ie n d is th e
subject; frie n d is th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o sitio n with, a n d o n e n o u n c a n n o t b e b o th a su b je ct
a n d an o b je c t at th e sa m e tim e. B e ca u se a su b ject is n e e d e d in this se n te n c e , an sw er ( B ) ,
he, is th e b e st answer. A n sw ers (A ), (C ), a n d (D ) are n o t c o r r e c t b e c a u se th ey c a n n o t be
su bjects.
T h e fo llo w in g ch art o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t

o b je c ts o f p rep o sitio n s:
OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun that is called an object o f the preposition.
If a word is an object o f a preposition, it is not th e subject.
NOTE; A lengthy list of prepositions and practice in recognizing prepositions can be

found in Appendix D at the back of the text. You may want to complete these exercises
before continuing with Exercise 2.
E X ER C ISE 2: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e p r e p o sitio n a l

p h rases. U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verbs tw ice. C ircle th e p r e p o sitio n a l
p h ra ses th a t c o m e b e fo r e th e verb . T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in
c o r r e c t (I).
C 1. The interviews (by radio broadcasters) were carried live by the station.
^ 2. (in the last possible m om ent)(before takeoff) took his seat in the airplane.
_____ 3. At the neighb orh ood flower shop, flowers in quantities o f a dozen or a h a lf dozen
can be delivered for free.
_____ 4. The progressive reading m ethods at this school are given credit for the im proved
test scores.
_____ 5. For the last three years at various hospitals in the county has b een practicing
m edicine.
_____ 6. In the past a career in politics was n ot considered acceptable in som e circles.
_____ 7. Shopping in the downtown area o f the city it has improved a lot in recent years.
_____ 8. At the building site the carpenters with the m ost experience were given the m ost
intricate work.
STRUCTURE
-------- 9. For the fever and headache took two aspirin tablets.
-------- 10. T h e report with com plete docum entation was delivered at the conference.
S k i l l 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPO SITIVES
A p p o sitiv es c a n c a u se c o n fu s io n in th e S tru ctu re s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L te st b e c a u se an

a p p o sitiv e c a n b e m ista k e n fo r th e su b je ct o f a s e n te n c e . A n a p p o sitiv e is a n o u n th at
c o m e s b e fo r e o r a fte r a n o th e r n o u n a n d h as th e sa m e m e a n in g .
I I
Sally, the best student in the class, got an A on the exam.
In th is e x a m p le S ally is th e su b ject o f th e s e n te n c e a n d the best stu d e n t in the class c a n easily

b e r e c o g n iz e d as a n a p p o sitiv e p h ra se b e c a u se o f th e n o u n stu d e n t a n d b e c a u se o f th e
c o m m a s. T h e s e n t e n c e says th at Sally a n d the best stu d e n t in the class are th e sa m e p e r so n .
N o te th at i f y o u le a v e o u t th e a p p o sitiv e p h ra se, th e s e n t e n c e still m a k es se n s e (Sally got
a n A on the exam ).
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w an a p p o sitiv e c a n b e c o n fu s e d w ith th e su b je c t o f a
se n te n c e in th e S tr u c tu r e se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
Exam ple I
, George, is attending the lecture.
(A) Right now
(B) Happily
(C) Because of the time
(D) My friend
In this e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld r e c o g n iz e from th e c o m m a s that George is n o t th e su bject o f th e

se n te n c e . George is a n ap p ositive. B eca u se this s e n te n c e still n e e d s a su bject, th e b est answ er
is ( D ) , my frien d . A n sw ers (A ) , (B ) , a n d (C) are in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th ey are n o t subjects.
T h e n e x t e x a m p le sh ow s th at an a p p o sitiv e d o e s n o t always c o m e a fter th e su b ject; an
a p p o sitiv e c a n a lso c o m e at th e b e g in n in g o f th e s e n te n c e .
Exam ple II
, Sarah rarely misses her basketball shots.
(A) An excellent basketball player
(B) An excellent basketball player is
(C) Sarah is an excellent basketball player
(D) Her excellent basketball play
In th is e x a m p le y o u c a n te ll th a t Sarah is th e su b je ct a n d misses is th e verb b e c a u se th e r e is

n o c o m m a se p a r a tin g th e m . In th e sp a ce y o u s h o u ld p u t a n a p p o sitiv e fo r S arah, an d
Sarah is a n excellent basketball player, so an sw er (A) is th e b e st answ er. A n sw ers (B ) a n d (C)
are n o t c o r r e c t b e c a u s e th e y e a ch c o n ta in th e verb is, a n d a n a p p o sitiv e d o e s n o t n e e d a
verb . A n sw e r (D ) c o n ta in s a n o u n , play, th a t c o u ld p o ssib ly be an a p p o sitiv e, b u t play is
n o t th e sa m e as Sarah, so th is an sw er is n o t co rr ec t.
T h e fo llo w in g ch art o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t

a p p ositives:
APPOSITIVES
An ap Positive is a noun that comes before or after another noun and is generally set off from the
noun ivith commas. If a word is an appositive, it is not th e subjcct. The following appositive
struct jres are both possible in English:
S, APP. v
Tom, a really good mechanic. Is fixing the car.
APP, S V
A really good mechanic, Tom Is fixing the car.
E X E R C ISE 3: E a c h o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s an a p p ositive. U n d e r lin e th e su b

j e c t s o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e a p p o sitiv e p h rases. T h e n , in d ic a te if th e se n
te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t ( I ) .
C 1. (The son o f the previous owner,) the new owner is undertaking som e fairly broad
changes in m anagem ent policy.
I 2. Last semester, (a friend,) graduated cum laude from the university.

_____ 3. Valentine's Day, February 14, is a special holiday for sweethearts.
_____ 4. At long last, the ch ief executive officer, has decided to step down.
_____ 5. T onight’s supper, leftovers from last night, did not taste any better tonight than
last night.
_____ 6. T he only entrance to the closet, the door was kept locked at all times.
_____ 7. In the cold o f winter, a wall heating unit, would not turn on.
_____ 8. The new tile pattern, yellow flowers on a w hite background, really brightens up
the room.
_____ 9. The high-powered com puter the m ost powerful m achine o f its type, was finally
readied for use.
_____ 10. A longtim e friend and confident, the psychologist was often invited over for
Sunday dinner.
S kill 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES

A p r e s e n t p a r ticip le is th e -ing fo r m o f th e verb ( talkin g , p la yin g ). In th e S tru ctu re se c tio n
o f th e T O E F L te st a p r e se n t p a r ticip le can ca u se c o n fu s io n b e c a u se it can b e e ith e r a part
o f th e verb or an ad jective. It is p art o f th e verb w h e n it is p r e c e d e d by so m e form o f the
v e r b be.
T h e m an is talking to his friend.

- VERB
In th is s e n te n c e ta lk in g is part o f th e verb b e c a u se it is a c c o m p a n ie d by is.

STRUCTURE
A p r e s e n t p a r tic ip le is an a d jectiv e w h e n it is n o t a c c o m p a n ie d by s o m e fo r m o f th e
v e rb be.
T h e man talking to his friend has a beard.
ADJECTIVE
In th is s e n te n c e ta lk in g is an a d jectiv e a n d n o t p art o f th e verb b e c a u se it is n o t a c c o m p a

n ie d by s o m e fo r m o f be. T h e verb in th is s e n t e n c e is has.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w a p r e se n t p a r ticip le can b e c o n fu s e d w ith th e verb
in th e S tr u c tu r e s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
Exam ple
The child playing in the yard is my son.
(A) now
(B) is
(C) he
(D) was
In th is e x a m p le , i f y o u lo o k at o n ly th e first w ord s o f th e s e n te n c e , it a p p ea r s th a t child is

th e su b je c t an d p la y in g is p a rt o f th e verb . If y o u th in k th at p la y in g is p art o f th e verb , you
m ig h t c h o o s e a n sw er (B ), is, o r an sw er ( D ) , was, to c o m p le te th e verb . H ow ever, th e s e two
an sw ers are in c o r r e c t b e c a u se p la y in g is n o t p art o f th e verb . You s h o u ld r e c o g n iz e that
p la y in g is a p a r ticip ia l a d jectiv e ra th e r th a n a verb b e c a u se th e r e is a n o th e r verb in th e
s e n t e n c e (is). In th is s e n te n c e th e r e is a c o m p le te su b ject (child) a n d a c o m p le t e v e rb (is),
so th is s e n te n c e d o e s n o t n e e d a n o th e r su b je c t o r verb. T h e b e st an sw er h e r e is ( A ) .
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s w h a t y o u s h o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t p r e s e n t p a rticip les:
- ! " .. .'.
PRESENT PARTICIPLES
A present participle is the -ing form of the verb. T h e present particip le can be ( I) p art o f th e
verb o r (2 ) an adjective. It is part of the verb when it is accompanied by some form of the verb
be. It is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of the verb be.
.. • - . • . . . . . . . _. * *
1. The boy is standing in the comer.
2. The boy standing in the comer was naughty.
E X E R C ISE 4: E a c h o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e p r e s e n t p a r ticip le s.

U n d e r lin e th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e p r e s e n t p a r tic ip le s an d
la b e l th e m as a d je c tiv e s o r verb s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) or
in c o r r e c t (I ).
£ 1. The com panies (offering) the lowest prices will have the m ost customers.
ADJ.
I 2. Those travelers are (completing") their trip on Delta should report to Gate T hree.
VERB
_____ 3. T he artisans were dem onstrating various handicrafts at booths throughout the fair.
_____ 4. The fraternities are giving the wildest parties attract the m ost new pledges.
_____ 5. The first team winning four games is awarded the championship.
6. T he speaker was trying to make his point was often interrupted vociferously.
7. T he fruits were rotting because o f the m oisture in the crates carrying them to
market.
8. Any students desiring official transcripts should com plete the appropriate form.
9. The advertisem ents were an n ou n cin g the half-day sale received a lot o f attention.
10. T he spices flavoring the meal were quite distinctive.
S k i l l 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES

P ast p a r tic ip le s can cau se c o n fu s io n in th e S tru ctu re se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test b e c a u se
a p ast p a r tic ip le can b e e ith e r an ad jective or a p art o f a verb . T h e p a st p a rticip le is
th e fo r m o f th e verb th a t ap p ea rs w ith have o r be. It o fte n e n d s in -ed, b u t th e r e are also
m a n y irr eg u la r past p a r ticip le s in E n glish . (S e e A p p e n d ix F fo r a list o f irreg u la r past
p a r tic ip le s.)
The family has purchased a television.

VERB
The poem was written by Paul.
v e rb .
In th e first s e n te n c e th e p ast p a rticip le purchased is part o f th e verb b e c a u se it is a c co m p a

n ie d by has. In th e s e c o n d s e n te n c e th e past p a r ticip le w ritten is p art o f th e verb b e c a u se it
is a c c o m p a n ie d by was.
A p a st p a r tic ip le is an ad jective w h e n it is n o t a c c o m p a n ie d by so m e fo r m o f be o r have.
T he television purchased yesterday was expensive.

a d je c tiv e
The poem urritten by Paul appeared in the magazine.
a d je c tiv e
In th e first s e n t e n c e purchased is an ad jective ra th er than a verb b e c a u se it is n o t a c co m p a

n ie d by a fo r m o f be o r have (a n d th e r e is a verb , was, later in th e s e n te n c e ). In th e se c o n d
s e n t e n c e w ritten is an ad jective rath er th an a v erb b e c a u se it is n o t a c c o m p a n ie d by a form
o f be o r have, (a n d th e r e is a verb, appeared, later in th e s e n t e n c e ).
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w a past p a r ticip le c a n b e c o n fu s e d w ith th e verb in
th e S tr u c tu r e se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
Exam ple
The packages mailed at the post office will arrive Monday.

(A) have
(B) were
(C) them
(D) just
STRUCTURE
In th is e x a m p le , i f y o u lo o k o n ly a t th e first few w ord s o f th e s e n te n c e , it a p p ea r s th a t p ack

ages is th e su b je ct a n d m ailed is e ith e r a c o m p le te verb o r a past p a r tic ip le th a t n e e d s a
h e lp in g verb . B u t i f y o u lo o k fu r th e r in th e s e n te n c e , y o u w ill se e th a t th e verb is w ill ar
rive. You w ill th e n r e c o g n iz e th at m ailed is a p a rticip ia l ad jective a n d is th e r e fo r e n o t part
o f th e verb . A n sw ers (A ) a n d (B ) are in c o r r e c t b e c a u se m ailed is an a d jectiv e an d d o e s n o t
n e e d a h e lp in g verb su c h as have o r were. A n sw er (C ) is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th e r e is n o n e e d
fo r th e o b je c t them. A n sw e r (D ) is th e b e st an sw er to th is q u e s tio n .
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s w h a t y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t p ast p articip les:
PAST PARTICIPLES
A past participle often ends In -ed, but there are also many Irregular past participles. For many
verbs, including -ed verbs, the simple past and the past participle are the same and can be easily
confused. The -ed form o f the verb can be ( I) the sim ple past, (2 ) the past p articip le of a
verb, o r (3) an adjective.
1. She pain ted this picture.

2. She has painted this picture.
3. The picture pain ted by Karen is now in a museum.
E X E R C ISE 5: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e p ast p a r ticip le s. U n

d e r lin e th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e p ast p a r ticip le s a n d la b e l th e m as
a d jectiv es o r verb s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
— !— 1. T he m oney was (offered) by the client was not (accepted)

VERB VERB
— 2. T he car (jisteti) in the advertisem ent had already (stalled)

a d j. v erb
-------- 3. T he chapters were taught by the professor this m orning will be on next week's
exam.
-------- 4. The loaves o f bread were baked in a brick oven at a low temperature for many
hours.
-------- 5. T he ports were reached by the sailors were under the control o f a foreign
nation.
-------- 6. T hose suspected in the string o f robberies were arrested by the police.
-------- 7. T he pizza is served in this restaurant is the tastiest in the county.
-------- 8. The courses are listed on the second page o f the brochure have several
prerequisites.
-------- 9. All the tenants were invited to the In d epend en ce Day barbecue at the
apartm ent com plex.
-------- 10. Any bills paid by the first o f the m onth will be credited to your account by the
next day.
E X E R C IS E (S k ills 1 -5 ): U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e an d th e verbs tw ice in e a c h o f th e

fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C) o r in c o r r e c t (1).
_____ 1. For three weeks at the beginn in g o f the sem ester students with fewer than the
m axim um num ber o f units can add additional courses.
_____ 2. O n her lunch hour went to a nearby departm ent store to purchase a w edding
gift.
_____ 3. T h e fir trees were grown for the holiday season were harvested in November.
_____ 4. In the grove the overripe oranges were falling on the ground.
_____ 5. T h e papers being delivered at 4:00 will contain the announcem ent o f the
president’s resignation.
_____ 6. A specialty shop with various blends from around the world in the shopping
mall.
_____ 7. T h e portraits exhibited in the H ouston M useum last m onth are now o n display
in Dallas.
_____ 8. W ith a sudden jerk o f his hand threw the ball across the field to one o f the
other players.
_____ 9. Construction o f the housing developm ent it will be underway by the first o f the
m onth.
_____ 10. T hose applicants returning their com pleted forms at the earliest date have the
highest priority.
T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 1 -5 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t b est

c o m p le te s th e se n te n c e .
1. The North Platte River_ .from . tea plant are small and white.
Wyoming into Nebraska. (A) The
(A) it flowed (B) On the
(B) flows (C) Having flowers the
(C) flowing (D)' The flowers of the
(D) with flowing water
5. The tetracyclines. . antibiotics, are
. Biloxi received its name from a used to treat infections.
Sioux word meaning "first people.”
(A) are a family of
(A) The city of (B) being a family
(B) Located in (C) a family of
(C) It is in (D) their family is
(D) The tour included
6. Any possible academic assistance from
3. A pride of lions . _up to forty lions. taking stim ulants_____ marginal at best.
including one to three males, several
(A) it is
females, and cubs. there is
(B)
(A) can contain (C) is
(B) it contains (D) as
(C) contain
(D) containing
STRUCTURE I
7. Henry Adams, b om in B oston ,-------- 9. Still a novelty in the late nineteenth

famous as a historian and novelist. century,_____ limited to the rich.
(A) became (A) was

(B) and became (B) was photography
(C) he was (C) it was photography
(D) and he became (D) photography was
8. The major c a u se_____ the pull of the 10. A computerized map of the freeways using
Moon on the Earth. information gathered by sensors
embedded in the pavem ent--------on a
(A) the ocean tides are local cable channel during rush hours.
(B) of ocean tides is
(C) of the tides in the ocean (A) airs
(D) the oceans’ tides (B) airing
(C) air
(D) to air
SEN TEN CES W IT H M ULTIPLE CLAUSES-----------------------------------
M any se n te n c e s in E n g lish h a v e m o r e than o n e c la u se. (A c la u se is a g r o u p o f w ords c o n

ta in in g a su b je ct a n d a verb .) W h e n e v e r you fin d a s e n t e n c e o n th e T O E F L test w ith m o r e
th an o n e c la u se , y o u n e e d to m ak e su re that ev ery su b je ct h a s a verb a n d ev er y verb h a s a
su b ject. N e x t y o u n e e d to c h e c k th a t th e variou s cla u se s in th e se n te n c e are co rrectly
j o in e d . T h e r e are v ariou s ways to j o in cla u se s in E n g lish . C erta in p a tte rn s a p p ea r
fr eq u e n tly in E n g lish a n d o n th e T O E F L test. You sh o u ld b e very fa m ilia r w ith th e se
p a ttern s.
S kill 6: USE C O O R D IN A T E C O N N E C TO R S CORRECTLY
W h e n y o u h a v e tw o cla u se s in an E n g lish s e n te n c e , y o u m u st c o n n e c t th e tw o cla u se s c o r

rectly. O n e way to c o n n e c t tw o c la u ses is to u se and, but, or, so, or yet b e tw e e n th e cla u ses.
Tom is singing, and Paul is dancing.
Tom is tall, but Paul is short.
Tom must write the letter, or Paul will do it.
Tom told a jo k e, so Paul laughed.
Tom is tired, yet he is n ot going to sleep.
In e a c h o f th e se e x a m p le s , th e r e are two cla u se s th a t are c o rr ec tly j o i n e d w ith a c o o r d i

n a te c o n ju n c tio n a n d , but, or, so, o r yet, a n d a c o m m a ( ,) .
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th is s e n te n c e p a ttern c o u ld b e te ste d in th e Struc

ture se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
Exam ple
A power failure occurred, the lamps went out.
(A) then
(B) so
(C) later
(D) next
In th is e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld n o tic e q u ick ly th at th e r e are two c la u se s, a power fa ilu r e oc

curred a n d the lam ps w ent out. T h is s e n te n c e n e e d s a c o n n e c to r to j o in th e tw o clau ses.
Then, later, an d next are n o t c o n n e c to r s, so answ ers (A ), (C ), an d (D ) are n o t c o rr ec t. T h e
b e st an sw er is an sw er (B ) b e c a u se so can c o n n e c t two clau ses.
T h e fo llo w in g ch a rt lists th e c o o r d in a te c o n n e c to r s an d th e s e n te n c e p a tte r n u se d

w ith th em :
COORDINATE CONNECTORS
and but or . so yet
S V, (coordinate connector) S V
She laughed, but she w anted to cry.
E X E R C ISE 6: E ach o f t h e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th a n o n e c la u se . U n d e r lin e

th e su b jects o n c e an d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e se n
te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C 1. T he software should be used on an IBM computer, (and) this com puter is an

IBM. = ^ = ^ ==
T he rain clouds can be seen in the distance, (b u t)n o has fallen.
They are trying to sell their house, it has been on the market for two months.
So the quality o f the print was not good, I changed the toner cartridge.
T h e lifeguard will warn you about the riptides, or she may require you to get
out o f the water.
6. You should have finished the work yesterday, yet is not close to being finished
today.
7. The ph on e rang again and again, so the receptionist was n ot able to get much
work done.
8. T he missing wallet was found, but the cash and credit cards had been rem oved.
9. Or you can drive your car for another 2,000 miles, you can get it fixed.
10. T h e chem ist was awarded the N obel Prize, he flew to Europe to accept it.
STRUCTURE
S kill 7: USE ADVERB TIM E A N D CAUSE C O N N E C T O R S CO RRECTLY
S e n te n c e s w ith ad verb c la u se s h ave two b asic p a tte rn s in E n g lish . S tu d y th e c la u se s a n d

c o n n e c to r s in th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e s:
I will sign the check before you leave.
In ea ch o f th e se e x a m p le s , th e r e are two clau ses: y o u leave a n d I m i l sign the check, a n d th e

c la u se you leave is an ad verb tim e c la u se b e c a u se it is in tr o d u c e d w ith th e c o n n e c t o r before.
In th e first e x a m p le th e c o n n e c to r before c o m e s in th e m id d le o f th e s e n te n c e , a n d n o
c o m m a (,) is u sed . In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e c o n n e c to r before c o m e s at th e b e g in n in g o f
th e se n te n c e . In th is p a tte rn , w h e n th e c o n n e c to r c o m e s at th e b e g in n in g o f th e s e n
te n c e , a c o m m a (,) is r e q u ir e d in th e m id d le o f th e se n te n c e .
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th is s e n te n c e p a tte rn c o u ld b e te s te d in th e S tru c
tu re se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
E x am p le
--------was late, I missed the appointment.

(A) I
(B) Because
(C) The train
(D) Since he
In this e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld r e c o g n iz e ea sily th at th e r e is a verb , was, th a t n e e d s a su b ject.

T h e r e is a lso a n o th e r c la u se , I m issed the appointm ent. If y o u c h o o s e an sw er (A ) o r an sw er
(C ), y o u w ill h a v e a su b je c t for th e verb rvas, b u t y o u w ill n o t have a c o n n e c t o r to j o i n th e
two cla u ses. B e c a u se y o u n e e d a c o n n e c t o r to j o in two c la u se s, a n sw ers (A ) a n d (C ) are
in c o r r e c t. A n sw er (B ) is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th e r e is n o su b je ct fo r th e v e r b was. A n sw er
(D ) is th e b e st a n sw er b e c a u se th e r e is a su b ject, he, for th e verb was, a n d th e r e is a c o n
n ecto r, since, to j o i n th e tw o cla u ses.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists ad verb tim e a n d cause c o n n e c to r s a n d th e s e n te n c e p a tte r n s

u sed w ith them :
E X E R C ISE 7: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th an o n e c la u se . U n d e r lin e

th e su b jects o n c e an d th e verbs tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s. T h e n in d ic a te if th e se n
C 1. (Since) the bank closes in less than an hour, the deposits need to be tallied
immediately.
I 2. Their backgrounds are thoroughly investigated (before) are adm itted to the
organization.
_____ 3. The citizens are becom ing m ore and m ore incen sed about traffic accidents
whenever the accidents occur at that intersection.
_____ 4. T he ground had been prepared, the seedlings were carefully planted.
_____ 5. We can start the conference now that all the participants have arrived.
_____ 6. The building quite vulnerable to damage until the storm windows are installed.
____ 7. O nce the address label for the package is typed, can be sent to the mail room.
_____ 8. Because the recent change in work shifts was not posted, several workers missed
their shifts.
_____ 9. The m other is going to be quite upset with her son as long he misbehaves so much.
_____ 10. Inasmuch as all the votes have n ot yet been counted the outcom e o f the election
cannot be announced. »
S kill 8: USE OTH ER ADVERB C O N N E C T O R S CORRECTLY
A d verb c la u se s ca n e x p r ess th e id e a s o f tim e a n d c a u se , as y o u saw in Skill 7; adverb

c la u se s c a n also ex p r ess a n u m b e r o f o th e r id ea s, su ch as c o n tra st, c o n d itio n , m an n er,
a n d p la c e. B e ca u se th e se cla u ses are adverb c la u se s, th ey have th e sam e stru ctu re as th e
tim e a n d ca u se cla u ses in Skill 7. Study th e fo llo w in g ex a m p les:
I will leave at 7:00 i f I am ready.
Although I was late, I managed to catch the train.
In e a c h o f th e se e x a m p le s, th e r e are two cla u ses th a t are c o rr ec tly j o in e d w ith adverb c o n

n e c to rs. In th e first se n te n c e th e adverb c o n d itio n c o n n e c to r i f c o m e s in th e m id d le o f
th e se n te n c e . In th e s e c o n d s e n te n c e th e adverb c o n tr a st c o n n e c to r although c o m e s at th e
b e g in n in g o f th e se n te n c e , an d a c o m m a (,) is u s e d in th e m id d le o f th e s e n te n c e .
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s a way th at th is s e n te n c e p a tte rn can b e te sted in th e
S tru ctu re se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
E xam ple
You will get a good grade on the exam provided
(A) studying
(B) study
(C) to study
(D) you study
STRUCTURE
In th is e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld q u ick ly n o tic e th e adverb c o n d itio n c o n n e c to r provided. T h is

c o n n e c to r c o m e s in th e m id d le o f th e s e n te n c e ; b e c a u se it is a c o n n e c to r , it m u st be fo l
low ed by a su b je ct a n d a verb. T h e b e s t an sw er to th is q u e s tio n is an sw er ( D ) , w h ic h c o n
tains th e su b je c t a n d verb yo u study.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e a d v e r b c o n tr a st, c o n d it io n , m a n n er , a n d p la c e c o n n e c

tors a n d th e s e n t e n c e p a tte rn s u s e d w ith th em :
OTHER ADVERB CONNECTORS
CONDITION CONTRAST MANNER PLACE
If although as where
in case even though in that wherever
provided though
providing while
unless whereas
whether
S V (adverb connector) S V
Bob w e n t to school even th o u g h h e fe lt sick.
(adverb connector) S V, S V
Even th o u g h Bob fe lt sick, he w e n t to school.
NOTE: A comma is often used in the middle of the sentence with a contrast connector.
The Smith family arrived at 2:00, while the Jones family arrived an hour later.
E X ER C ISE 8: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th an o n e c la u se . U n d e r lin e

th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s . T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n
te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
__ 0— 1. It is im possible to enter that program (Tf)you lack experien ce as a teacher.
__ !__ 2. T he commandant left strict orders about the passes, several soldiers left the post anyway.
_____ 3. N o on e is adm itted to the academy unless he or she the education requirem ents.
_____ 4. W hile m ost students turned the assignm ent in on tíme, a few asked for an extension.
_____ 5. I will take you wherever n e e d to go to com plete the registration procedures.
_____ 6. I will wait here in the airport with you w hether the plane leaves on time or not.
_____ 7. Providing the envelope is postm arked by this Friday, your application still
acceptable.
_____ 8. As the nurse already explain ed all visitors m ust leave the hospital room now.
_____ 9. This exam will be m ore difficult than usual in that it covers two chapters instead
o f one.
_____ 10. T hough snow had b een falling all day long, everyone g o t to the church on time for
the wedding.
EX ER C ISE (S k ills 6 - 8 ) : U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verbs tw ice in e a c h o f th e

fo llo w in g se n te n c e s. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s . T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C )
or in c o r r e c t (I).
1. Until the registrar makes a decision about your status, you must stay in an
unclassified category.
2. Or the bills can be paid by mail by the first o f the month.
T he parents left a p h on e num ber with the baby-sitter in case a problem with the
children.
4. The furniture will be delivered as soon it is paid for.
5. W henever you want to hold the m eeting, we will schedule it.
6. T he governm ent was overthrown in a revolution, the king has not returned to his
hom eland.
7. Whereas m ost o f the docum ents are com plete, this form still needs to be notarized.
8. Trash will be collected in the m orning, so you should put the trash cans o u t tonight.
9. It is im possible for the airplane to take o ff while is snowing so hard.
10. We did not go out to dinner tonight eventhough I would have preferred n ot to cook.
T O E F L EXERCISE (S k ills 6 -8 ) : C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t b e st

c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1. The president of the U. S. appoints the . sucked groundwater from below,

cabinet m embers,_____ appointments are some parts of the city have begun to sink
subject to Senate approval. as much as ten inches annually.
(A) their (A) Pumps have
(B) with their (B) As pumps have
(C) because their (C) So pumps have
(D) but their (D) With pumps
2. The prisoners were prevented from 5. Case studies are the target o f much
speaking to reporters because_____ skepticism in the scientific community,
_____ used extensively by numerous
(A) not wanting the story in the papers, researchers.
(B) the story in the papers the
superintendent did not want (A) they are
(C) the public to hear the story (B) are
(D) the superintendent did not want the (C) yet they
story in the papers (D) yet they are
Like Thomas Bergers fictional character 6. According to the hypothesis in the study,
Little Big Man, Lauderdale managed to find the monarchs pick up the magnetic field of
himself w here_____ of important events th e _____ migrate by following magnetic
took place. fields.
(A) it was an extraordinary number (A) target monarchs
(B) there was an extraordinary number (B) target since monarchs
(C) an extraordinary number (C) target since monarchs are
(D) an extraordinary number existed (D) target
STRUCTURE
7. _____ show the relations among neurons, 9. If ultraviolet radiation enters the Earth's
they do not preclude the possibility that atm osphere,_____ generally blocked by the
other aspects are important. ozone concentrated in the atmosphere.
(A) Neural theories (A) it
(B) A neural theory (B) it is
(C) Although neural theories (C) so it is
(D) However neural theories (D) then it
8. _____or refinanced, the lender will 10. Among human chromosomes, the Y
generally require setting up an escrow chromosome is un usual_____ most of the
account to ensure the payment of property chromosome does not participate in m eiotic
taxes and homeowner’s insurance. recombination.
(A) A home is (A) in
(B) A home is bought (B) so
(C) When a home (C) and
(D) When a hom e is bought (D) in that
T O E F L R EV IEW E X E R C ISE (S k ills 1 -8 ): th e le tte r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f w ords

th a t b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1. The three basic chords i n _____ the tonic, 5. While in reality Alpha Centauri is a triple
the dominant, and the subdominant. star,--------to the naked eye to be a single
star.
(A) functional harmony
(B) functional harmony is (A) it appears
(C) functional harmony are (B) but it appears
(D) functional harmony they are (C) appears
(D) despite it
2. --------Hale Telescope, at the Palomar
Observatory in southern California, 6. The Sun’s gravity severely distorted the
scientists can photograph objects several path of the c o m et_____ entered its wildly
billion light years away. erratic orbit around Jupiter.
(A) The (A) it
(B) With the (B) when
(C) They use the (C) after the com et came into it
(D) It is the (D) once the comet
3. Without the proper card installed inside 7. Each object-------- Jupiter's magnetic field
the com puter,_____ impossible to run a is deluged with electrical charges.
graphical program.
(A) enters
(A) is definitely (B) it enters
(B) because o f (C) entering
(C) it is (D) enter
(D) is
8. As its name suggests, the Prairie Wetlands
4. The charter for the Louisiana lottery was Resource Center_____ the protection of
coming up for renew al,_____ spared no wetlands on the prairies o f the Dakotas,
expense in the fight to win renewal. Montana, Minnesota, and Nebraska.
(A) the lottery committee (A) it focuses
(B) so the lottery committee and (B) focuses on
(C) so the lottery committee (C) focusing
(D) the lottery committee made (D) to focus on
9. One of the largest and most powerful birds 10 . creation of such a community was a
of prey in the w orld,_____ a six-foot desirable step, the requisite political
wingspan and legs and talons roughly the upheaval had to be accepted.
size of a man’s arms and legs.
(A) Since the
(A) so the harpy has (B) The
(B) the harpy having (C) Later, the
(C) with the harpy having (D) It was the
(D) the harpy has
MORE SENTENCES W IT H M ULTIPLE CLAUSES-----------------------
A s w c saw in S k ills 6 th r o u g h 8 , m an y s e n te n c e s in E n g lish have m o r e th a n o n e c la u se . In

Sk ills 9 th r o u g h 12, w e w ill se e m o r e p a tte rn s for c o n n e c tin g th e cla u ses in s e n te n c e s with
m u ltip le cla u ses. B e ca u se th ese p attern s a p p ear fr eq u e n tly in E n g lish a n d o n th e T O EFL
test, y o u s h o u ld b e very fam iliar w ith th e m .
S k ill 9: USE N O U N CLAUSE C O N N E C T O R S CORRECTLY
A n o u n c la u se is a clau se th at fu n c tio n s as a n o u n ; b e c a u se th e n o u n c la u se is a n o u n , it is
u s e d in a s e n te n c e as e ith e r an o b je c t o f a verb , an o b je c t o f a p r e p o sitio n , or th e su b ject
o f th e se n te n c e .
I know when he will arrive.

NOU N CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF VERB
I am concerned about when he will arrive.

N O U N CLAUSE AS OBJECT O F PREPOSITION
When he will arrive is not important.
N OU N CLAUSE AS SUBJECT
In th e first e x a m p le th e r e are tw o cla u se s, I know an d he w ill arrive. T h e se two cla u ses are
j o in e d w ith th e c o n n e c to r when. W hen c h a n g e s th e c la u se he w ill arrive in to a n o u n clau se
th a t fu n c tio n s as th e o b je c t o f th e verb know.
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e tw o c la u se s I am concerned an d he w ill arrive are also j o in e d
by th e c o n n e c to r when. W hen c h a n g e s th e c la u se he w ill arrive in to a n o u n c la u se th a t fu n c
tio n s as th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o sitio n about.
T h e th ird e x a m p le is m o r e d ifficu lt. In th is e x a m p le th e r e are two clau ses, b u t they
are a little h a r d e r to r e c o g n iz e . H e w ill arrive is o n e o f th e cla u ses, a n d th e c o n n e c to r when
c h a n g e s it in to a n o u n clau se th at fu n c tio n s as th e su b je ct o f th e se n te n c e . T h e o th e r
c la u se h a s th e n o u n cla u se when he w ill arrive as its su b ject an d is as its verb.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th e se s e n te n c e p a tte rn s c o u ld b e te sted in th e
S tr u c tu r e se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
STRUCTURE
E x am p le
was late caused many problems.
(A) That he
(B) The driver
(C) There
(D) Because
In th is e x a m p le th e r e are tw o verb s ( was a n d caused) , a n d e a c h o f th e s e v e rb s n e e d s a su b

j e c t. A n sw er (B ) is w r o n g b e c a u se the driver is o n e su b ject, a n d tw o su b je cts are n e e d e d .
A n sw ers (C ) a n d (D ) are in c o r r e c t b e c a u se there a n d because a re n o t su b jects. T h e b e st an
sw er is an sw er (A ). I f y o u c h o o s e an sw er (A ), th e c o m p le te d s e n te n c e w o u ld be: T h a t he
was late caused m a n y problems. In th is s e n te n c e he is th e su b je c t o f th e verb was, a n d th e
n o u n c la u se that he was late is th e su b je ct o f th e verb caused.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e n o u n c la u se c o n n e c to r s a n d th e s e n te n c e p a tte r n s u se d
w ith them :
NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS
• what, when, where, why, how • whatever, whenever whether, if • that
N O U N CLAUSE AS OBJECT
S V (noun connector) S V
/ know what you did.
N O U N CLAUSE AS SUBJECT
(noun connector) S V V . •' / "
W h at you did was wrong.
EX E R C ISE 9: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th an o n e c la u se . U n d e r lin e

th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s . P u t b o x e s a r o u n d th e n o u n
cla u ses. T h e n in d ic a te i f t h e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C (W hen)the season starts is determ ined by the weather.
2. T he manual (how)the device should be built.
3. The schedule indicated if the teams would be playing in the final gam e.
4. He refused to en ter a plea could not be determ ined by the lawyer.
5. Talked about where we should go for lunch.
6. Why the condition o f the patient deteriorated so rapidly it was n ot explained.
7. W hether or n o t the new office w ould be built was to be determ ined at the m eeting.
8. That the professor has n o t yet decided when the paper is due.
9. T he contract will be awarded is the question to be answered at the m eeting.
10. H e always talked with w hom ever he pleased and did whatever he wanted.
S k il l 10: USE N O U N CLAUSE CO NNECTO R/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
In Sk ill 9 w e saw th a t n o u n c la u se c o n n e c to r s w ere u s e d to in tr o d u c e n o u n su b ject cla u ses

o r n o u n o b je c t clau ses. In Skill 10 w e will se e th a t in so m e c a se s a n o u n cla u se c o n n e c to r
is n o t ju s t a c o n n e c to r ; a n o u n clau se c o n n e c to r can also b e th e su b je ct o f th e cla u se at
th e sa m e tim e.
N OU N CLAUSE AS SUBJECT
In th e first e x a m p le th e r e are two clauses: I do not kn o w an d w hat is in the box. T h e se two

c la u se s are j o in e d by th e c o n n e c to r w hal. It is im p o r ta n t to u n d e r sta n d that in this se n
te n c e th e w o rd w hat se rv es two fu n c tio n s. It is b o th th e su b je ct o f th e verb is a n d th e c o n
n e c to r that j o in s th e two clau ses.
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e r e are two cla u ses. In th e first c la u se we is th e su b ject o f are.
In th e s e c o n d cla u se who is th e su b ject o f w ill do. W ho also se rv es as th e c o n n e c to r th a t
jo in s th e tw o clau ses. T h e n o u n c la u se who w ill do the work fu n c tio n s as th e o b je c t o f th e
p r e p o sitio n about.
In th e last e x a m p le th ere are also two clau ses: whoever is th e su b ject o f th e verb is com
ing, a n d th e n o u n cla u se whoever is com ing to the party is th e su b ject o f m ust bring. T h e w ord
whoever se rv es two fu n c tio n s in the se n te n c e : It is th e su b ject o f th e verb is coming, an d it is
th e c o n n e c t o r th at jo in s th e two clau ses.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w this s e n te n c e p a ttern c o u ld b e te sted in th e Struc
E xam ple
was on television made me angry.
(A) It
(B) The story
(C) What
(D) When
In th is e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld n o tic e im m e d ia te ly th at th e r e are two verb s, was a n d made,

a n d e a c h o f th o s e verb s n e e d s a su bject. A n sw ers (A) a n d (B) are in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it an d
the story c a n n o t b e th e su b ject fo r b o th was a n d m ade a t th e sa m e tim e. A n sw er (D ) is in
c o r r e c t b e c a u se w hen is n o t a su bject. In answ er (C ) w hal s e r v es as b o th th e su b ject o f th e
verb w as a n d th e c o n n e c to r th a t jo in s th e tw o c la u se s to g e th er ; th e n o u n cla u se w hat was
on television is th e su b ject o f th e verb made. A n sw er (C ) is th e r e fo r e th e b e st answer.
STRUCTURE
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e n o u n c la u se c o n n e c to r /s u b j e c ts a n d th e s e n te n c e pat

te rn s u sed w ith th em :
NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS
who what which

'■
whoever whatever whichever
............. . ■■ ■ ■
N O U N CLAUSE AS OBJECT
S V | (noun connector/subject) V
/ know w hat happened.
NO U N CLAUSE AS SUBJECT
| (noun connector/subject) V] V
W hat happened was great.
EX E R C ISE 10: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th a n o n e c la u se . U n d e r

lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s. P u t b o x e s a r o u n d th e
n o u n cla u ses. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
_____ 3. The em ployee was unhappy about what was added to his jo b description.
_____ 4. W hoever wants to take the desert tour during spring break signing up at the office.
_____ 5. The m otorist was unable to discover who he had struck his car.
_____ 6. The voters should elect w hichever o f the candidates seem s best to them .
_____ 7. It was difficult to distinguish what was on.sale and what was m erely o n display.
-------- 8. You sh ould buy whatever the cheapest and m ost durable.
_____ 9. What was written in the letter angered him beyond belief.
--------- 10. You can spend your time with whoever im portant to you.
S kill 11: USE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE C O N N E C TO R S CORRECTLY

A n a d jectiv e cla u se is a cla u se th a t d e sc r ib e s a n o u n . B e ca u se th e cla u se is a n a d jectiv e, it
is p o s itio n e d d irectly a fter th e n o u n th a t it d escrib es.
T he woman is filling the glass that sh e put on the table.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
r
T he glass that she put on the table contains milk.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
In th e first e x a m p le th e r e are tw o clau ses: w om an is th e su b je ct o f th e v e rb is fillin g , an d

she is th e su b ject o f th e verb pu t. T h a t is th e ad jective c la u se c o n n e c to r th a t j o in s th e se two
c la u se s, a n d th e a d jectiv e c la u se that she p u t on the table d e sc r ib e s th e n o u n glass.
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e r e are also two clauses: glass is th e su b je ct o f th e verb con
tains, a n d she is th e su b je ct o f th e verb p u t. In th is s e n te n c e a lso , th a t is th e a d jectiv e cla u se
c o n n e c to r th at j o in s th e se two c la u se s, a n d th e ad jective c la u se th a t she p u t on the table d e
scrib es th e n o u n glass.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th e se s e n te n c e p a tte rn s c o u ld b e te ste d in th e
S tru ctu re s e c d o n o f th e T O E F L test.
E xam ple
The g ift_____ selected for the bride was rather expensive.
(A) because
(B) was
(C) since
(D) which we
In th is e x a m p le y o u s h o u ld n o tic e q u ick ly th at th e r e are two c la u se s, g ift is th e su b je ct o f

th e verb was, a n d th e verb selected n e e d s a su b ject. B e ca u se th e r e are tw o c la u se s, a c o n
n e c to r is also n e e d e d . A nsw ers (A ) a n d (C ) have c o n n e c to r s, b u t th e r e are n o su b jects, so
th e se answ ers are n o t c o rr ec t. A n sw er (B ) c h a n g e s selected in to a passive verb; in th is case
th e s e n te n c e w o u ld have o n e su b je ct a n d two verbs, so answ er (B ) is n o t c o r r e c t. T h e b est
answ er to th is q u e s tio n is answ er ( D ) . T h e c o r r e c t s e n te n c e sh o u ld say: T he g ift w hich we se
lected fo r the bride was rather expensive. In th is se n te n c e g ift is th e su b ject o f th e verb was, we is
th e su b ject o f th e verb selected, a n d th e c o n n e c to r which j o in s th e s e two c la u se s.
T h e fo llo w in g ch a rt lists th e ad jective c la u se c o n n e c to r s a n d th e s e n te n c e p attern s

u se d w ith them :
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS
whom which that

(for people) (for things) (for people o r things)
S V |(agiective^ gggggg>T) S V
I liked the book which you recommended.
S |(adjective connector) S V |V
The book which you recommended wot Interesting.
NOTE: The adjective connectors can be omitted.This omission Is very common In spoken English or in casual
written English. It is not as common in formal English or in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
STRUCTURE
E X ER C ISE 11: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th an o n e c la u se . U n d e r

lin e th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s. P u t b o x e s a r o u n d th e
ad jective cla u se s. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
3. I ju st finished reading the novel whom the professor suggested for my book report.
4. T h e plane that h e was schedu led to take to Hawaii was delayed.
5. T h e movie which we watched on cable last nigh t it was really frightening.
6. I m ade an appointm ent with the doctor whom you recom m ended.
7. T he enthusiasm with which he greeted m e m ade me fe el welcom e.
8. T he story that you told m e about Bob.
9. T h e m en with w hom were having the discussion did n ot seem very friendly.
10. I’m not really sure about taking part in the plans that we m ade last night.
S k i l l 12: USE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
In Sk ill 11 w e saw th a t a d je c tiv e c la u se c o n n e c to r s w e re u sed to in tr o d u c e c la u se s th a t d e

scrib e n o u n s . In Sk ill 12 w e w ill se e th a t in s o m e c a ses a n a d jectiv e c la u se c o n n e c to r is n o t
ju s t a c o n n e c to r ; an ad je c tiv e c la u se c o n n e c t o r can a lso b e th e su b je c t o f th e c la u se a t th e
sa m e tim e.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
In th e first e x a m p le th e r e a re tw o clau ses: w om an is th e su b je c t o f th e verb is fillin g , a n d

that is th e su b je c t o f th e v e rb is. T h e s e tw o c la u se s are j o in e d w ith th e c o n n e c t o r that. N o
tice th a t in th is e x a m p le th e w o rd th a t se r v es tw o fu n c tio n s a t th e sa m e tim e: it is th e su b
j e c t o f th e verb is, a n d it is th e c o n n e c to r th a t j o in s th e two c la u se s. T h e a d je c tiv e c la u se
th a t is on the table d e sc r ib e s th e n o u n glass.
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e r e a re also tw o clau ses: glass is th e su b je c t o f th e verb con
tains, a n d th a t is th e su b je c t o f th e v e rb is. In th is e x a m p le th a t also se r v e s tw o fu n c tio n s : it
is th e su b je c t o f th e v e rb is, a n d it is th e c o n n e c to r th a t jo in s th e two c la u se s. B e c a u se th a t
is on the table is an a d je c tiv e c la u se d e sc r ib in g th e n o u n glass, it d irectly fo llo w s glass.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th e se s e n te n c e p a ttern s c o u ld b e te sted in th e

S tru ctu re s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
E xam ple
is on the table has four sections.
(A) The notebook
(B) The notebook which
(C) Because the notebook
(D) In the notebook
In th is e x a m p le you sh o u ld n o tic e im m e d ia te ly that th e s e n te n c e has two verbs, is an d has,

a n d e a c h o f th e m n e e d s a su b ject. (You k n ow th a t table is n o t a su b ject b e c a u se it follow s
th e p r e p o sitio n on; table is th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o sitio n .) T h e on ly answ er th a t has two
su b jects is an sw er (B ), so answ er (B ) is th e c o r r e c t answer. T h e c o r r e c t s e n te n c e sh o u ld
say: T he notebook which is on the table has fo u r sections. In this se n te n c e notebook is th e su b ject
o f th e verb has, a n d which is th e su b ject o f th e verb is. W hich is also th e c o n n e c to r that
jo in s th e two clau ses.
T h e fo llo w in g ch a rt lists th e a d jecu v e c la u se c o n n e c t o r /s u b je c ts an d th e s e n te n c e

p a tte rn s u se d w ith them :
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS
who which that

(for people) (for things) (for people or things)
S V |(adiective connector/subject) VI
She needs a secretary who types fast.
S |(adjective connector/subiect) V I V
A secretary who types fast is invaluable.
EX ER C ISE 12: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e than, o n e c la u se. U n d e r

lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verbs tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s. P u t b o x e s a r o u n d th e
ad je c u v e cla u ses. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C 1. The ice cream (that) is served in the restaurant has a sm ooth, creamy texture.
2. T he cars are trying to enter the freeway system are lined up for blocks.
3. I have great respect for everyone who on the D ean’s List.
4. It is going to be very difficult to work with the man which just began working here.
5. The door that leads to the vault it was tightly locked.
6. T he neighbors reported the man who was trying to break into the car to the police.
STRUCTURE
7. T hese plants can only survive in an environm ent is extrem ely hum id.
8. T he boss m eets with any production workers w ho they have surpassed their quotas.
9. The salesclerk ran after the woman w ho had left her credit card in the store.
10. T h e shoes which m atched the dress that was on sale.
EX ER C ISE (S k ills 9 - 1 2 ) : E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th a n o n e c la u se .

U n d e r lin e th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e c o n n e c to r s . P u t b o x e s a r o u n d
th e cla u ses. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
-------- 1. N o on e explained to m e w hether was com ing or not.
-------- 2. T he part o f the structure that has already b een built needs to be torn down.
-------- 3. T h e girl who she ju st jo in e d the softball team is a great shortstop.
-------- 4. I have no idea about when the m eeting is supposed to start.
-------- 5. We have b een told that we can leave w henever want.
-------- 6. T h e racquet with w hom I was playing was too big and too heavy for me.
-------- 7. I will never understand that he did.
-------- 8. H e was still sick was obvious to the entire m edical staff.
-------- 9. W'hat is m ost im portant in this situation it is to finish on time.
-------- 10. T h e newspapers that were piled up on the front porch were an indication that the
residents had not b een h om e in som e time.
T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 9—12): C h o o s e th e lette r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t

b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1. Dolphins form extremely complicated 3. The Apollo I I astronauts_____ of the

allegiances a n d -------- continually change. Earth’s inhabitants witnessed on the
,., ... , famous first moonwalk on July 20, 1969,
(A) enmities that .. „ .. ..
. ... were Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldnn.
(B) that are enm ities
(C) enmities that are (A) whom
(D) that enmities (B) whom millions
(C) were some
2. Scientists are now beginning to conduct (D) whom some were
experiments o n _____ trigger different
sorts of health risks. 4. At the end of the nineteenth century, Alfred
,., . .... Binet developed a test for measuring
(A) noise pollution can . . , . 6 r
in
(B)\ .u
that. noise
• pollution
li .• intelligence---------
, . served as the basis of
• m odem IQ tests.
(C ) how noise pollution
(D) how noise pollution can (A) has
(B) it has
(C) and
(D) which has
8. _____ will be carried in the next space

5 . _____ have at least four hours of hazardous
materials response training is mandated by shuttle payload has not yet been
announced to the public.
federal law.
(A) All police officers (A) It
(B) All police officers must (B) What
(C) That all police officers (C) When
(D) For all police officers (D) That
6. A clouds reservoir of negative charge 9. During free fa ll,_____ up to a full minute,

extends upward from the altitude a t -------- a skydiver will fall at a constant speed of
the freezing point. 120 m.p.h.
(A) temperatures hit (A) it is

(B) hit temperatures (B) which is
(C) which temperatures hit (C) being
(D) which hit temperatures (D) is
7. In a 1988 advanced officers' training 10. The fa ct_____ the most important ratings
program, Sampson developed a plan to period is about to begin has caused all
incorporate police in enforcing three networks to shore up their schedules.
environmental protection laws whenever is that
(A)
feasible. of
(B)
(A) it is (C) that
(B) is (D) what
(C) has
(D) it has
T O E F L REVIEW EX ER C ISE (S k ills 1 -1 2 ): C h o o se th e lette r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n t e n c e .
1 . _____ loom high above the north and 4. The benefit_____ the study is that it
northeastern boundaries of the expanding provides necessary information to anyone
city of Tucson. who needs it.
(A) The Santa Catalina mountains (A) of

(B) Because the Santa Catalina (B) which
mountains (C) that
(C) The Santa Catalina mountains are (D) because
(D) That the Santa Catalina mountains
5. The same symptoms that occu r--------
2. Radioactive_____ provides a powerful way occur with cocaine.
to measure geologic time. (A) amphetamines can
(A) it (B) with amphetamines can
(B) dates (C) so amphetamines
(C) dating (D) with amphetamines they
(D) can
6. Many companies across the country have
3. _____ contained in the chromosomes, and molded the concepts_____ describes into
they are thought of as the units of heredity. an integrated strategy for preventing stress.
(A) Genes which are (A) and Wolf

(B) Genes are (B) that Wolf
(C) When genes (C) what Wolf
(D) Because of genes (D) so Wolf
STRUCTURE
7. in the first draft of the budget will 9. A need for space law to include
not necessarily be in the final draft. commercial concerns has been recognized
inasm uch_____ been expanding
(A) Although it appears drastically in recent years.
(B) It appears
(C) What appears (A) the commercial launch industry
(D) Despite its appearance (B) the commercial launch industry has
(C) as has the commercial launch
8. If a food label indicates that a food is industry
mostly carbohydrate, it does not mean (D) as the commercial launch industry has
is a good food to eat.
10. The report on the nuclear power plant
(A) and it indicated that when the plant had gone on
(B) and line ___ _ unsafe.
(C) that it
(D) when (A) and it had been
(B) it had been
(C) had been
(D) that it had been
SENTENCES W IT H R ED U C ED CLAUSES.
It is p o ssib le in E n g lish fo r a c la u se to a p p e a r in a c o m p le te fo r m o r in a r e d u c e d form .
My friend sh ould be o n the train lafych ^ arriving at the station now.

Although w^s not realty difficult, the exam took a lot o f tirae.
T h e first s e n t e n c e sh o w s an a d je c tiv e c la u se in its c o m p le te fo r m , w hich is a rr iv in g at the

station now, a n d in its r e d u c e d fo r m , a r r iv in g a t the sta tio n now. T h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e sh ow s
an adverb c la u se in its c o m p le te fo r m , although it was n o t really difficu lt, a n d its r e d u c e d
fo r m , although n o t really difficu lt.
T h e two typ es o f c la u se s th a t c a n r e d u c e in E n g lish are: (1) a d je c tiv e c la u se s a n d (2)
adverb c la u se s. It is im p o r ta n t to b e c o m e fa m ilia r w ith th e se r e d u c e d c la u se s b e c a u s e
th ey a p p e a r fr e q u e n tly o n th e T O E F L test.
S k i l l 13: USE RED U C ED AD JEC TIVE CLAUSES CORRECTLY
A d jective c la u se s c a n a p p e a r in a r e d u c e d fo r m . In th e r e d u c e d fo r m , th e a d je c tiv e c la u se
c o n n e c to r a n d th e ¿«-verb th a t d ir e c d y fo llo w it are o m itte d .
T h e wom an ntyo if waving to us is the tour guide.

T h e letter whfch likis written last week arrived today.
T h e pitcher t\a t on the table is full o f iced tea.
E ach o f th e se s e n t e n c e s m ay b e u s e d in th e c o m p le te fo r m o r in th e r e d u c e d fo r m . In th e
r e d u c e d fo r m th e c o n n e c to r who, which, o r th a t is o m itte d a lo n g w ith th e ¿>e-verb is o r was.
If th e r e is n o be-\erb in th e a d je c tiv e c la u se , it is still p o ssib le to h ave a r e d u c e d fo r m .
W h en th e r e is n o ¿»e-verb in th e a d je c tiv e c la u se , th e c o n n e c to r is o m itte d a n d th e verb is
c h a n g e d in to th e -¿n gform .
appearing
I d o n ’t understand the article wftych apfcars in today’s paper.
In th is e x a m p le th e r e is n o fte-verb in th e ad jective c la u se which appears in today's paper,

so th e c o n n e c to r w hich is o m itte d a n d th e m ain verb appears is c h a n g e d to th e -in g form
appearing.
It sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t n o t all ad jective c la u se s can a p p ea r in a r e d u c e d fo r m . A n ad
je c tiv e c la u se ca n a p p ea r in a r e d u c e d form o n ly i f th e ad jective c la u se c o n n e c to r is fo l
lo w e d d irectly by a verb . In o th e r w ords, an ad jective cla u se c a n o n ly b e r e d u c e d if th e
c o n n e c to r is a lso a su b ject.
T he woman that I ju st met is the tour guide. (does not reduce)

T he letter which you sent me arrived yesterday. (does not reduce)
In th e s e two e x a m p le s th e ad jective cla u ses c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d b e c a u se th e adjective

c la u se c o n n e c to r s th a t a n d which are n o t d irectly fo llo w e d by verbs; th a t is directly fo l
lo w ed by th e su b ject I, a n d which is d irectly fo llo w e d by th e su b ject you.
A fin al p o in t to n o te is th at so m e ad jective cla u ses are set o f f from th e rest o f th e s e n
te n c e w ith c o m m a s, a n d th e se ad jective cla u ses can also b e r e d u c e d . In a d d itio n , w h en an
ad jective c la u se is se t o f f w ith c o m m a s, th e r e d u c e d ad jective cla u se can a p p ea r at th e
fr o n t o f th e s e n te n c e .
T he W hite H ouse, which is located in Washington, is the hom e o f the president.

T he W hite H ouse, heated in Washington, is the hom e o f the president.
Located in Washington, the W hite House is the hom e o f the president.
T he president, who is now preparing to give a speech, is m eeting with his advisors.
T he president, now preparing to give a speech, is m eeting with his advisors.
Now prefmring to give a speech, the president is m eeting with his advisors.
In th e s e two e x a m p le s , th e ad jective cla u ses are set o f f from th e rest o f th e s e n te n c e w ith

c o m m a s, so e a c h s e n te n c e can b e str u c tu r ed in th r e e d iffe r e n t ways: ( 1 ) w ith th e c o m
p le te c la u se , (2 ) w ith th e r ed u c e d c la u se fo llo w in g th e n o u n th at it d e sc r ib es, an d (3)
w ith th e r e d u c e d c la u se at th e b e g in n in g o f th e s e n te n c e .
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w r e d u c e d ad jective c la u se s c o u ld b e te sted in the
S tru ctu re se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
Exam ple
_____ on several different television programs, the witness gave
conflicting accounts of what had happened.
(A) He appeared
(B) Who appeared
(C) Appearing
(D) Appears
In th is e x a m p le , answ er (A) is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th ere are two clau ses, H e appeared. . . an d

the w itness g a v e . . . , a n d th ere is n o c o n n e c to r to jo in th e m . A nsw er (B) is in c o r r e c t b ecau se
STRUCTURE
an ad jective c la u se su c h as w ho appeared . . . c a n n o t a p p ea r at th e b e g in n in g o f a s e n te n c e
(u n le ss it is in a r e d u c e d fo r m ). A n sw er (C ) is th e c o r r e c t an sw er b e c a u se it is th e re
d u c e d fo r m o f th e c la u se w ho appeared, a n d th is r e d u c e d fo r m can a p p e a r at th e fr o n t o f
th e s e n te n c e . A n sw er (D ) is n o t th e r e d u c e d fo rm o f a verb; it is m e r e ly a verb in th e p r e
s e n t ten se; a verb su c h as appears n e e d s a su b je c t a n d a c o n n e c to r to b e c o r r e c t.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e str u c tu r e fo r r e d u c e d ad jective c la u se s a n d r u le s fo r h o w
a n d w h e n r e d u c e d fo r m s c a n be u sed :
REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
with a be-verb in the (ADJECTIvrtrONNECÎOR/SyBiEGT)— "

adjective clause __ __——fwfio which tfrat)~—
with no be-verb in the (AOJECTTvTtTONNtCIgR^yBJECT)---^'''^ ” (VERB + INC)

adjective clause -— (wfio which Vrai)'—
• To reduce an adjective clause, omit the adjective clause connector/subject and the be-verb.
• If there is no be-verb, omit the connector/subject and change the main verb to the -ing form.
• Only reduce an adjective clause if the connector/subject is directly followed by the verb.
• If an adjective clause is set off with commas, the reduced clause can be moved to the front of the
sentence.
E X E R C ISE 13: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a n a d je c tiv e c la u se , in a c o m

p le te o r r e d u c e d fo r m . U n d e r lin e th e ad jective cla u se s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s
are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
__ —_ 1. We will have to return the m erchandise purchased yesterday at the Broadway.
__ L___ 2. T he children sat in the fancy restaurant found it difficult to behave.
_____ 3. Serving a term o f four years, the mayor o f the town will face reelection n ext year.
_____ 4. T h e brand new Cadillac, purchasing less than two weeks ago, was destroyed in the
accident.
_____ 5. T he fans who supporting their team always com e out to the gam es in large num bers.
___ 6. T he suspect can be seen in the photographs were just released by the police.
_____ 7. T h e food placing on the picnic table attracted a large num ber o f flies.
_____ 8. Impressed with everything she had heard about the course, Marie sign ed her
children up for it.
_____ 9. T h e passengers in the airport waiting room , heard the an n ou n cem en t o f the
canceled flight, groaned audibly.
_____ 10. Dissatisfied with the service at the restaurant, the meal really war not enjoyable.
S kill 14: USE REDUCED ADVERB CLAUSES CORRECTLY
A d verb c la u se s can also ap p ea r in a r e d u c e d fo r m . In th e r e d u c e d fo r m , th e adverb c o n

n e c to r rem a in s, b u t th e su b ject a n d ¿e-verb are o m itte d .
Although hp k rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
W'hen \\m ready, you can begin your speech.
T h e s e tw o e x a m p le s m ay b e u sed in e ith e r th e c o m p le te o r r e d u c e d fo r m . In th e r ed u c ed
fo r m , th e ad verb c o n n e c to r s although a n d when rem ain ; th e su b jects he a n d you as w ell as
th e ¿e-verbs is a n d are are o m itted .
I f th e r e is n o ¿e-verb in th e adverb c la u se , it is still p o s sib le to h ave a r e d u c e d form .
W h e n th e r e is n o ¿e-verb in th e adverb c la u se, th e su b je ct is o m itte d a n d th e m a in verb is
c h a n g e d in to th e -¡r e fo r m .
feeling
Although \e fetys rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
giving
When yhu gfyeyour speech, you should speak loudly and distinctly.
In th e first e x a m p le th e adverb c la u se although he feels rather sick d o e s n o t in c lu d e a ¿everb;

to r e d u c e th is c la u se , th e su b ject he is o m itte d a n d th e m a in verb feels is c h a n g e d to feeling.
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e adverb c la u se w hen you give y o u r speech also d o e s n o t in c lu d e a
¿e-verb; to r e d u c e th is c la u se , th e su b ject you is o m itte d a n d th e m a in verb give is c h a n g e d
to g iving.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h ow this s e n te n c e p a tte r n c o u ld b e te sted in th e Struc
tu re s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
E xam ple
W hen_____ , you are free to leave.
(A) the finished report
(B) finished with the report
(C) the report
(D) is the report finished
In th is e x a m p le you sh o u ld n o tic e th e adverb c o n n e c to r when, a n d y o u sh o u ld k n ow th at

th is tim e w ord c o u ld b e fo llo w e d by e ith e r a c o m p le te cla u se o r a r e d u c e d c la u se. A n
sw ers (A ) a n d (C ) c o n ta in th e su b jects the fin ish e d report an d the report a n d n o verb, so
th e se an sw ers are in c o r r e c t. In answ er (D ) th e su b je ct a n d verb are in v e rte d , a n d this is
n o t a q u e s tio n , so an sw er (D ) is in c o r r e c t. T h e c o r r e c t answ er is answ er (B ); th is answ er
is th e r e d u c e d fo r m o f th e cla u se when you are fin ish e d w ith the report.
It sh o u ld b e n o te d th at n o t all adverb c la u se s can a p p ea r in a r e d u c e d fo r m , an d a
n u m b e r o f ad verb c la u se s can o n ly b e r e d u c e d i f th e verb is in th e passive form .
Once you submit your thesis, you will graduate. Once ^ submitted., your thesis will be reviewed,
(active — does not reduce) (passive — does reduce)
In th e first e x a m p le , th e adverb clau se once you subm it y o u r thesis d o e s n o t r e d u c e b e c a u se

c la u se s in tr o d u c e d by once o n ly r e d u c e i f th e verb is passive, a n d th e verb subm it is active.
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e adverb cla u se once it is subm itted d o e s r e d u c e to once subm itted
b e c a u se th e c la u se is in tr o d u c e d by once an d th e verb is subm itted is passive.
STRUCTURE
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e str u c tu r es for r e d u c e d adverb c la u se s a n d w h ic h adverb

c la u se c o n n e c to r s c a n b e u s e d in a r e d u c e d form :
- R E D U C E D A D V ER B C lA U S E S
w ith a be-verb in (a d verb c o n n ecto r) X

the ad verb clause
w ith no be-verb in (ADVERB CONNECTOR) (VERB + ING)

the adverb clause
T im e C o n d itio n C o n tra s t Place M a n n er
reduces in a c t iv e after although

before unless though
since whether
while
when
reduces in pa ssiv e once if although where as

until unless though wherever
when whether
whenever
• To red u ce an ad verb clause, o m it th e subject and the be-verb fro m the ad verb clause.
• If th e re is no be-verb, then o m it th e subject and change the ve rb to the -ing form .
E X ER C ISE 14: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a r e d u c e d ad verb c la u se . C ircle

th e ad verb c o n n e c to r s . U n d e r lin e th e r e d u c e d c la u se s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are
c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
—— 1 . (if) not com pletely satisfied, you can return the product to the manufacturer.
— !— 2. Steve has had to learn how to cook and clean (since) left hom e.
-------- 3. T h e ointm ent can be applied where needed.
-------- 4. Tom began to look for a job after com pleting his master’s degree in engineering.
-------- 5. A lthough n e t selectin g for the team, he attends all o f the gam es as a fan.
-------- 6. W hen purchased at this store, the buyer gets a guarantee on all items.
-------- 7. T h e m edicine is not effective unless taken as directed.
-------- 8. You should negotiate a lot before buy a new car.
-------- 9. O n ce purchased, the swimsuits cannot be returned.
-------- 10. T h ou gh located near the coast, the town does not get m uch o f an ocean breeze.
EX ER C ISE (Sk ills 1 3 -1 4 ): E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a r e d u c e d c la u se.

U n d e r lin e th e r e d u c e d c la u se s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r
r e c t (I).
-------- 1. T hough was surprised at the results, she was pleased with what she had don e.
_ — 2. Wearing only a light sweater, she stepped out into the pouring rain.
-------- 3. T he family stopped to visit m any relatives while driving across the country.
_____ 4. T he com pany president, n eed ed a vacation, boarded a plane for the Bahamas.
_____ 5. When applying for the jo b , you should bring your letters o f reference.
_____ 6. She looked up into the dreary sky was filled with dark thunderclouds.
____ _ 7. Feeling weak after a long illness, Sally wanted to try to get back to work.
_____ 8. Before decided to have surgery, you should get a second opinion.
_____ 9. T he construction material, a rather grainy type o f wood, gave the room a rustic
feeling.
_____ 10. The application will at least be reviewed if submitted by the fifteenth o f the m onth.
T O E F L EXER CISE (S k ills 1 3 -1 4 ): C h o o s e th e le tte r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th at

1. W hen_____ nests during spring nesting 4. --------- benind government secrecy for
season, Canadian geese are fiercely nearly half a century, the Hanford plant in
territorial. central Washington produced plutonium
for the nuclear weapons of the Cold War.
(A) building
(B) are building (A) It is hidden
(C) built (B) Hidden
(D) are built (C) Which is hidden
(D) The plant is hiding
2. In 1870, Calvin, along with Adirondack
hunter Alvah Dunning, made the first 5. U n til--------incorrect, astronomers had
known ascent of Seward M ountain,_____ assumed that the insides of white dwarfs
far from roads or trails. were uniform.
(A) a remote peak (A) they
(B) it is a remote peak (B) their proof
(C) a remote peak is (C) the astronomers recently proven
(D) which a remote peak (D) recently proven
3. Kokanee salmon begin to deteriorate and 6. --------- artifacts from the early Chinese
die so o n _____ at the age o f four. dynasties, numerous archeologists have
explored the southern Silk Road.
(A) they spawn
(B) after spawning (A) They were searching for
(C) spawn (B) It was a search for
(D) spawned the salmon (C) Searched for
(D) Searching for
STRUCTURE
7. In Hailey, th e best-know n lectu rer was 9. in N orth Am erican w aterw ays less
w om en’s rights activist Abigail Scott th an a decade ago, zebra m ussels have
Duniway o f P ortland, Oregon, w ho could already earned a nasty rep u tatio n for th eir
usually be persu ad ed to sp e a k _____ tow n expensive h abit of clogging w ater pipes in
visiting h e r son. the Great Lakes area.
(A) she w as in (A) The first sighting
(B) while in (B) Although first sighted
(C) why le she was (C) Zebra m ussels w ere first sighted
(D) was in (D) First sighting
8. The N ational R e sta u ra n t_____ 10. Sm all com panies m ay take th eir goods
W ashington, says th a t federal efforts to abroad for trad e show s w ithout paying
regulate w orkplace sm oking w ould lim it foreign value-added taxes by acquiring
re stau ra n ts’ ability to respond to the an ATA carnet.
desires of th e ir patrons.
(A) a docum ent calls
(A) Association in (B) a docum ent called
(B) Association is in (C) calls a docum ent
(C) A ssociation w hich is in (D) called a docum ent
(D) Association, based in
T O E F L R EV IEW E X E R C ISE (S k ills 1 -1 4 ): C h o o se th e lette r o f th e w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t b e st c o m p le t e s th e s e n te n c e .
1. In the United S tates_____ approximately 5. --------a cheese shop has since grown into a
four million miles of roads/streets, and small conglomerate consisting of a
highways. catering business and two retail stores.
(A )there (A) In the beginning of
(B) is (B) It began as
(C) they (C) Its beginning which was
(D) there are (D) What began as
2 . _____ twelve million immigrants entered 6. Primarily a government contractor,_____

the United States via Ellis Island. preferential treatment from government
agencies as both a minority-group member
(A )More than
and a woman.
(B) There were more than
(C) Of more than (A) receives Weber
(D) The report of (B) Weber receives
(C) the reception o f Weber
3. The television,_____ so long been a part o f (D) according to Weber's reception
our culture, has an enormous influence.
7. Because the project depends o n _____ at
(A )has
the federal level, the city and county may
(B) it has
have to wait until the budget cutting ends.
(C) which
(D) which has (A) it happens
(B) which happening
4. Psychologists have traditionally (C) what happens
maintained that infants cannot formulate (D) that it happens
long-term m emories u n til_____ the age of
eight or nine months.
(A )they
(B) they reach
(C) to reach
(D) reach
8. definitive study of a w estern h a rd 10. _ early approaches for coping with

rock m ining com m unity cem etery appears w orkplace stress dealt w ith the problem
to have been done is in Silver City, Nevada. only after its sym ptom s had appeared.
(A) Most (A) Although well intending

(B) The m ost (B) Although it is a good intention
(C) W here m ost (C) Although a good intention
(D) W here the m ost (D) Although well intended
One of the areas of m ultim edia th a t is

growing quickly is sound.
(A) yet is easily overlooked
(B) is easily overlooked
(C) it is easily overlooked
(D) th at is easily overlooked
SENTENCES W IT H INVERTED SUBJECTS A N D VERBS-----------
S u b jects a n d verb s are in v e rte d in a variety o f situ a tio n s in E n g lish . In v erted su b jects an d
verb s o c c u r m o st o fte n in th e fo r m a tio n o f a q u e s tio n . T o fo r m a q u e s tio n w ith a h e lp in g
verb (be, have, can, could, will, would, e t c .) , th e su b ject a n d h e lp in g v erb are in verted .
H e can go to th e movies.
C an h e go to th e movies?
You w ould tell m e the tru th .

W ould you tell m e th e tru th ?
She was sick yesterday.

Was she sick yesterday?
To fo r m a q u e s tio n w h e n th e r e is n o h e lp in g verb in th e se n te n c e , th e h e lp in g verb do is

u sed .
H e goes to the movies.

D oes h e go to th e movies?
You to ld m e th e tru th .
D id you tell m e th e tru th ?
T h e r e are m a n y o th e r situ a tio n s in E n g lish w h e n su b je cts a n d verb s are in v e rte d , b u t if

y o u j u s t r e m e m b e r th is m e th o d o f in v e rtin g su b jects a n d verb s, y o u w ill b e a b le to h a n d le
th e o th e r situ a tio n s. T h e m o st c o m m o n p r o b le m s w ith in v e rte d su b jects an d verb s o n th e
T O E F L te st o c c u r in th e fo llo w in g situ ation s: (1 ) w ith q u e s tio n w ord s su ch as what, when,
where, why, a n d how; (2) a fter so m e p la c e e x p r essio n s; (3) a fter n e g a tiv e ex p ressio n s; (4)
in s o m e c o n d itio n a ls; an d (5 ) after s o m e c o m p a r iso n s.
STRUCTURE
S k ill 15: IN V E R T T H E SUBJECT A N D V E R B W IT H Q U E S T IO N W O R D S
T h e r e is s o m e c o n fu s io n a b o u t w h e n to in v e rt th e su b ject a n d verb a fter q u e s tio n w ord s

su c h as what, when, where, why, a n d how. T h e se w ords can have two v e ry d if fe r e n t fu n c tio n s
in a s e n te n c e . First, th e y c a n in tr o d u c e a q u e s tio n , a n d in th is case th e su b je c t a n d verb
th a t fo llo w a r e in v e rte d .
What is the hom ew ork?
When can I leave?
Where a re you g o in g ?
A lso, th e se w o rd s c a n j o in to g e th e r tw o cla u ses, a n d in th is c a se th e su b je c t a n d verb th a t

fo llo w are n o t in v e rte d .
I d o n o t know what the hom ew ork is.
When I can leave, I will take th e first train.
D o you know where you. a re g o in g ?
In e a c h o f th e s e e x a m p le s th e r e are tw o cla u ses j o in e d by a q u e s tio n w ord . N o t ic e th a t th e

su b jects a n d verb s th a t fo llo w th e q u e s tio n w ord s w hat, when, a n d where are n o t in v e r te d in
th is case.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w this s e n te n c e p a tte rn c o u ld b e te s te d in th e S tru c
E x am p le
The law yer asked the client why it.
(A) did he do
(B) did he *
(C) he did
(D) did
In th is e x a m p le th e q u e s tio n w o rd why is u s e d to c o n n e c t th e two c la u se s, so a su b je c t a n d

verb are n e e d e d a fter th is c o n n e c to r ; this is n o t a q u e s tio n , so th e su b je c t a n d verb s h o u ld
n o t b e in v e r te d . T h e b e st an sw er is th e r e fo r e answ er (C ).
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e q u e s tio n w ord s a n d th e ir s e n t e n c e p a ttern s:
INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH QUESTION WORDS
when
— ---------- T T - r r : — • :
When the questii introduces a question, the subject and verb are invei
mestion woi
W hen the questii :onnects tw o clauses, the subject and verb that follow are not ii
question won
I know
.. -
E X E R C IS E 15: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a q u e s tio n w ord. C ircle th e q u es

tio n w ord s. U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. T h e n In d ic a te i f th e se n
1. The p h on e company is n ot certain (When) will the new directories be ready.
C 2. The professor does not understand (why) so many students did poorly on the exam.
3. How new students can get inform ation about parking?
4. W here is it cheapest Ld get typeset copies printed?
5. Only the pilot can tell you how far can the plane go on one tank o f fuel.
6. What type o f security does he prefer for his investments?
7. N ot even the bank president knows when the vault will be opened.
8. H ow lon g it has been since you arrived in the U nited States?
9. T he jury doubts what the witness said under cross-examination.
10. Do you know why he wants to take an extended leave o f absence?
S k ill 16: INVERT TH E SUBJECT A N D VERB W IT H PLACE EXPRESSIONS
A fte r id e a s e x p r e s sin g p la c e , th e su b ject a n d th e verb so m e tim e s in v ert in E n g lish . T h is

ca n h a p p e n w ith sin g le w ord s e x p r e s sin g p la c e, su ch as here, there, o r nowhere.
Here is the book that you lent me.

There are the keys that I thought I lost.
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.
In th e fir s t e x a m p le th e p la c e w ord here c a u ses th e su b ject book to c o m e a fter th e verb is.

In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e p la c e w ord there c a u ses th e su b je ct keys to c o m e after th e verb
are. In th e last e x a m p le th e p la c e w ord nowhere ca u se s th e su b ject I to c o m e after th e verb
have.
T h e su b je c t a n d verb can a lso b e in v erted a fter p r e p o sitio n a l p h ra ses e x p r e ssin g
p la c e.
In the closet are the cloth es that you want.

Around the comer is Sam’s house.
Beyond the mountains lies the town where you will live.
In th e first e x a m p le th e p r e p o sitio n a l p h ra se o f p la c e in the closet c a u se s th e su b je ct clothes

to c o m e a fter th e verb are. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e p r e p o sitio n a l p h ra se o f p lace
a ro u n d the com er c a u se s th e su b ject house to c o m e after th e verb is. In th e la st e x a m p le th e
p r e p o sitio n a l p h r a se o f p la c e beyond the m o u n ta in s ca u se s th e su b je c t tow n to c o m e after
th e verb lies.
STRUCTURE
It is im p o r ta n t (a n d a b it d iffic u lt) to u n d e r sta n d th a t th e su b je ct a n d verb w ill in vert

a fter p la c e e x p r e s s io n s at th e b e g in n in g o f a s e n te n c e o n ly w h e n th e p la c e e x p r e s s io n is
necessary to c o m p le te th e s e n te n c e . S tu d y th e fo llo w in g ex a m p les:
In the forest are many exotic birds.

In the forest I walked for many hours.
In th e first e x a m p le th e su b je c t birds a n d verb are are in v e rte d b e c a u se th e p la c e e x p r e s

s io n in the forest is n e e d e d to c o m p le te th e id e a m a n y exotic birds are. . . . In th e s e c o n d e x
a m p le th e su b je ct / a n d th e verb w alked a r e n o t in v e r te d b e c a u se th e id e a I w alked f o r m any
hours is c o m p le t e w ith o u t th e p la c e e x p r e s sio n in the forest; th e p la c e e x p r e s sio n is th e r e
fo r e n o t n e e d e d to c o m p le te th e s e n te n c e .
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th is s e n te n c e p a tte r n c o u ld b e te ste d in th e S tru c
Exam ple
On the second level of the parking lot
(A) is empty
(B) are empty
(C) som e empty stalls are
(D) are some empty stalls
T h is e x a m p le b e g in s w ith th e p la c e e x p r e s sio n on the second level o f the p a rk in g lot, w h ich

c o n sists o f two p r e p o sitio n a l p h ra ses, on the second level a n d o f the p a rk in g lot. T h is s e n te n c e
n e e d s a su b je ct a n d a v e rb to b e c o m p le te , a n d th e two answ ers th a t c o n ta in b o th a su b
j e c t , stalls, a n d verb , are, are an sw ers (C ) a n d (D ). T h e su b ject a n d verb sh o u ld b e in
v e rte d b e c a u s e th e p la c e e x p r e s sio n is n e c e s sa r y to c o m p le te th e id e a some empty stalls
are. . . . T h e b e st an sw er is th e r e fo r e an sw er (D ).
T h e fo llo w in g ch art lists th e s e n t e n c e p a tte rn s u s e d w ith p la c e e x p r essio n s:
INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH PLACE EXPRESSIONS
W h e n a place exp ression at th e fro n t o f the sentence is necessary to co m p lete

th e sentence, th e subject and v e rb that fo llo w are inverted.
( PLACE (n e c e s s a ry )) V S
In the classroom were some old desks.
W h e n a place expression at th e fro n t o f th e sen ten ce contains extra inform ation th a t is not
needed to co m p le te th e sen ten ce, the subject and ve rb that fo llo w are not inverted.
( PLACE (extra) ) S V
In the classroom,I studied very hard.

E X E R C ISE 16: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s an e x p r e s sio n o f p la c e at th e b e

g in n in g o f th e se n te n c e . C ircle th e e x p r e s sio n s o f p la c e. L o o k at th e cla u ses th a t im m e d i
a tely fo llo w th e p la c e e x p r e ssio n s a n d u n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice.
T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
c 1 . (In front o f the house) were som e giant trees.
1 2. (There) a big house is on the corner.
3. In the cave was a vast treasure o f gem s and jewels.
4. To the north the stream is that the settlers will have to cross.
fi. Around the corner are the offices that you are trying to Find.
6. At the Italian restaurant was the food too spicy for my taste.
V. Now here in the world farmers can grow such delicious food.
8. In the backyard the two trees are that need to be pruned.
9. Around the recreation hall and down the path are the tents where we will be staying
this week.
j.___ 10. In the apartment next to m ine, a family was that had a lot o f pets.
S k ill 17: IN VER T T H E SUBJECT A N D VERB W IT H NEGATIVES
T h e su b je c t a n d verb can also b e in v e rte d a fter c er ta in n e g a tiv es a n d r ela ted ex p r essio n s.

W h e n n e g a tiv e e x p r e ssio n s, su ch as no, not, o r never, c o m e at th e b e g in n in g o f a se n te n c e ,
th e su b je ct a n d verb are in v erted .
Not once did I miss a question.

Never has Mr. Jones taken a vacation.
A t no time can the woman talk on the telephone.
In th e first e x a m p le th e n e g a tiv e e x p r e ssio n not once c a u se s th e su b ject I to c o m e after the

h e lp in g verb did. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e n e g a tiv e w ord never ca u se s th e su b ject Mr.
Jones to c o m e after th e h e lp in g verb has. In th e last e x a m p le th e n e g a tiv e e x p r e ssio n at no
tim e ca u se s th e su b je ct w om an to c o m e after th e h e lp in g verb can.
C erta in w ord s in E n g lish , su ch as hardly, barely, scarcely, a n d only, act lik e n egatives.
I f o n e o f th e s e w o rd s c o m e s at th e b e g in n in g o f a s e n te n c e , th e su b je ct a n d verb are also
in v e rte d .
Hardly ever does he take tim e off.

(This means that he almost never takes time off.)
Only once did the manager issue overtim e paychecks.

(This means that the manager almost net;«-issued overtime paychecks.)
STRUCTURE
I n th e first e x a m p le th e “a lm o st n e g a tiv e ” e x p r e s sio n hardly ever c a u se s th e su b je c t he to

c o m e a fter th e h e lp in g verb does. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e “a lm o st n e g a tiv e ” e x p r e s sio n
only once c a u se s th e su b je ct m anager to c o m e after th e h e lp in g verb did.
W h e n a n e g a tiv e e x p r e s sio n a p p ea r s in fr o n t o f a su b je ct a n d verb in t h e m id d le o f a
s e n t e n c e , th e su b je c t an d verb are also in v e rte d . T h is h a p p e n s o fte n w ith th e n e g a tiv e
w o rd s neither a n d nor.
I do n o t want to go, and neither does Tom .

T he secretary is n ot attending the m eeting, nor is her boss.
In th e first e x a m p le th e n e g a tiv e neither ca u se s th e su b je ct Tom to c o m e a fte r th e h e lp in g

v e rb does. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e n e g a tiv e nor c a u se s th e su b ject boss to c o m e a fter th e
v erb is.
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th is s e n te n c e p a tte rn c o u ld b e te ste d in th e S tru c
Exam ple
Only in extremely dangerous situations stopped.
(A) will be the printing presses
(B) the printing presses will be
(C) that the printing presses will be
(D) will the printing presses be
In th is e x a m p le y o u s h o u ld n o tic e th a t th e s e n t e n c e b e g in s w ith th e n e g a tiv e only, so an

in v e r te d su b je c t a n d verb are n e e d e d . A n sw er (D ) c o n ta in s a c o r r e c tly in v e r te d su b je c t
a n d verb, w ith th e h e lp in g verb w ill, th e su b ject p r in tin g presses, a n d th e m a in v e rb be, so
an sw er (D ) is th e b e st answ er.
T h e f o llo w in g c h a r t lists th e n e g a tiv e e x p r e s sio n s a n d th e s e n te n c e p a tte r n u s e d w ith

th em :
IN V ER T ED S U B JE C T S A N D V E R B S W IT H N EG A T IVES
no not never neither nor

barely hardly only rarely scarcely seldom
■ '______ •______;_____ ■■ ____________;______ . ■. ._____ ■ - _____ -____________
W hen a negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb (at the
beginning of a sentence or in the middle of a sentence), the subject and verb
ore inverted.
(negative expression) _ V S
Rarely were they so happy.

. ' ' ' • ■ • • . . _____ . - • . - ' . ■ - ■’ •
E X E R C ISE 17: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a n e g a tiv e o r “a lm o st negative"

e x p r e s s io n . C ircle th e n e g a tiv e e x p r essio n s. L o o k at th e c la u se s th a t fo llo w a n d u n d e r lin e
th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s a r e c o r r e c t (C) o r in
c o r r e c t (I).
— !— 1. (N ever) the boy wrote to his sisters.
— ——2. (O n no occasion) did they say that to me.
-------- 3. Steve did not win the prize, nor did he expect to do so.
-------- 4. Only once in my life gone I have to New York City.
_____ 5. Did he go out o f the house at no time.
_____ 6. Seldom their secretary has made such mistakes.
-------- 7. N o sooner had she hung up the ph one than it rang again.
-------- 8. Sheila did not arrive late for work, nor she left early.
_____ 9. Barely had he finished the exam when the graduate assistant collected the papers.
-------- 10. T he police did not arrive in time to save the girl, and neither did the paramedics.
S k ill 18: IN V E R T T H E SUBJECT A N D VERB W IT H C O N D IT IO N A L S
In c e r ta in c o n d itio n a l stru ctu res, th e su b ject a n d verb m ay a lso be in v e rte d . T h is can o c

cu r w h e n th e h e lp in g verb in th e c o n d itio n a l c la u se is had, should, o r were, an d th e c o n d i
tio n a l c o n n e c t o r i f is o m itte d .
I f he had taken more time, the results would have been better.
Had he taken more tim e, the results would have been better.
I would help you i f I were in a position to help.

I would help you were 1 in a position to help.
I f you should arrive before 6:00, just give me a call.

Should you arrive before 6:00, just give m e a call.
In e a c h o f th e s e e x a m p le s y o u can s e e th at w h e n i f is in c lu d e d , th e su b ject a n d verb are

in t h e r eg u la r o r d e r ( i f he h a d taken, i f I were, i f you should arrive). It is also p o ssib le to o m it
if, in this c a se , th e su b ject a n d verb are in v erted ( h a d he taken, were I, should y o u a rrive).
STRUCTURE
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh o w s h o w th is s e n te n c e p a ttern c o u ld b e te ste d in th e S tr u c

ture se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
Exam ple
The report would have been accepted in checking its accuracy.
(A) if more care
(B) more care had been taken
(C) had taken more care
(D) had more care been taken
In th is e x a m p le a c o n n e c to r ( if) a n d a su b je ct a n d verb are n e e d e d , b u t ¡ /c o u ld b e o m it

ted a n d th e su b je ct a n d verb in v e r te d . A n sw er (A) is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it c o n ta in s th e
c o n n e c to r i /a n d th e su b je ct care b u t n o verb. A n sw er (B ) js in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it c o n ta in s
th e su b je ct care a n d th e verb had. been taken b u t d o e s n o t have a c o n n e c to r . In an sw ers (C )
an d (D ), i f h as b e e n o m itte d . B e c a u se it is c o r r e c t to in vert th e su b ject more care a n d th e
h e lp in g verb had, a n sw er (D ) is c o r r e c t.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e c o n d itio n a l verb s th a t m ay in vert a n d th e s e n te n c e p at

tern s u se d w ith them :
INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH CONDITIONALS
had should were
When the verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, it is possible
to omit if and invert the subject and verb.
(omitted if) V S
W ere he here, he would help.
It is also possible to keep if! Then the subject and verb are not inverted.
if S V
If he were here, he would help.
EX ER C ISE 18: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a c o n d itio n a l (w ith a sta te d o r

im p lie d i f ) . C ircle th e c o n d itio n a ls , o r p u t an asterisk (*) w h er e ¡ / h a s b e e n o m itte d .
L ook at th e c la u se s th a t fo llo w an d u n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. T h e n
in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
— ^L_ 1. *Were our neighbors a bit m ore friendly, it would be somewhat easier to get to know
them .
— !— 2. There are plenty o f blankets in the closet if should you get cold during the night.
-------- 3. Has he en ou gh vacation days left this year, he will take two full weeks o f f in
December.
4. Had we b een inform ed o f the decision, we m ight have had som ething to say about it.
5. I would like to know could you help m e pack these boxes.
6. H e would have b een in big trouble had n ot he rem em bered the assignm ent at the
last m inute.
7. If your friends com e to visit, will they stay in a hotel or at your house?
8. H e m ight be a little m ore successful today was he a little m ore willing to do som e
hard work.
9. Should you ever visit this town again, I would be delighted to show you around.
10. D o you think that she would give the speech were she asked to do so?
S k ill 19: IN VER T T H E SUBJECT A N D VERB W IT H COMPARISONS
A n in v e r te d su b je c t a n d verb m ay o c c u r also a fter a c o m p a r iso n . T h e in v e rsio n o f a su b

j e c t a n d verb a fter a c o m p a r is o n is o p tio n a l, ra th er th an r e q u ir e d , an d it is a ra th er for
m al str u c tu r e. T h e r e h ave b e e n a n u m b e r o f in v e rte d c o m p a r iso n s o n r e c e n t T O E FL
tests, so y o u s h o u ld b e fa m ilia r w ith th is stru ctu re.
My sister spends more hours in the office <AanJohn.

My sister spends more hours in the office </mreJohn d o e s.
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.
A ll th r e e o f th e se e x a m p le s c o n ta in th e c o m p a r iso n more . . . th a n , an d all th r e e are cor

r ec t in E n g lish . It is p o ssib le to h ave th e n o u n J o h n a lo n e , as in th e first e x a m p le; it is p os
sib le th a t th e c o m p a r is o n is fo llo w e d by th e su b je ct a n d verb J o h n does, as in th e se c o n d
e x a m p le ; it is a lso p o s sib le th at th e c o m p a r iso n is fo llo w e d by th e in v e rte d su b je ct an d
verb does Jo h n , as in th e th ird e x a m p le .
T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th is s e n te n c e p a tte rn c o u ld b e te sted in th e Struc

tu re s e c tio n o f t h e T O E F L test.
Exam ple
The results of the current experiment appear to be more consistent
than_____ the results of any previous tests.
(A) them
(B) were
(C) they were
(D) were they
In th is e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld n o tic e th e c o m p a r iso n more consistent than, a n d y o u sh o u ld

also u n d e r s ta n d th a t the results o jth e current experiment is b e in g c o m p a r e d w ith the results o f
an y p revious tests. B e ca u se the results o f any previous tests is th e su b ject, o n ly a verb is n e e d e d ;
th e b e st an sw ei to th is q u e s tio n is th e r e fo r e answ er ( B ) . W e k n ow that it is p o ssib le for a
su b je ct a n d a v e rb to b e in v e rte d after a c o m p a r iso n , a n d in this case th e su b ject the results
o f any previous tests c o m e s after th e verb were.
STRUCTURE
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e s e n te n c e p a tte rn s u s e d w ith c o m p a r iso n s:
INVERTED SUBJECTS ANDVERBS WITH COMPARISONS
The subject and verb may Invert after a comparison.The following structures are
both possible.
S V (comparison) S V
We were more prepared than th e v th e r perform ers were.
S V (comparison)
>----- 1------ —' V S
We were m ore prepared than were the other perform ers.
NOTE: A subject-verb inversion after a comparison sounds rather formal.
EX E R C ISE 19: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a c o m p a r is o n . C ir cle th e c o m

p a riso n s. L o o k at th e c la u se s th at fo llo w a n d u n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s
tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C 1. This candidate has received (m ore votes than) has any other candidate in previous
years.
I 2. Obviously we were much (m ore impressed with the perform ance than) did the other
m em bers o f the audience.
3. T h e film that we saw last night at the festival was far better than any o f the other
films.
4. T h e vegetables at the market this m orning were far fresher than were those at the
market yesterday.
5. I am afraid that is the condition o f these tires as bad as the condition o f the others.
6. We firmly believed that our team could achieve a m uch faster tim e than any o f the
others.
7. This apple pie is not as good as the last one that you made.
8. O n the fishing trip, Bobby caught twice as many fish as anyone else did.
9. T h e final speaker gave us m ore details than had any o f the previous speakers.
10. D o you know why does he n eed to sleep so many more hours than do the others?
EXERCISE (Skills 15-19): E ach o f th e se s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a stru ctu re th a t c o u ld req u ire

a n in v e rte d su b je c t a n d verb . C ircle th e stru ctu res th a t m ay r eq u ire in v e rte d su b jects an d
verb s. U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verbs tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are
c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
_____ 1. The town council is n ot sure why have the land developers changed their plans.
_____ 2. Never in the world I believed that this would happen.
_____ 3. The day m ight have b een a little m ore enjoyable had the sun been out a little more.
_____ 4. Only on ce did the judge take the defense lawyer’s suggestion.
_____ 5. Down the hall to the left the offices are that need to be painted.
_____ 6. Did the scientist explain what h e put in the beaker?
_____ 7. Hardly ever it snows in this section o f the country.
8. Elijah scored m ore points in yesterday’s basketball final than had any other player in
history.
9. In the state o f California, earthquakes occur regularly.
10. H e should ever call again, please tell him that I am not at hom e.
TOEFL EXERCISE (Skills 1 5 -1 9 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f w ord s that

1. Rarely located near city lights or at 3. W ere_____ millions of dollars each year
ower e evations. replenishing eroding beaches, the coastline
(A) observatories are would be changing even more rapidly.
(B) are
(A) the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers not
(C) in the observatories
spending
(D) are observatories
(B) the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers not
2 . There aregeographic, economic, and (c) t h e S Army Corps of Engineers

cultural reasons w h y--------around the doe$ no( spend
WOr ' (D) not spending the U.S. Army Corps of
(A) diets differ Engineers
(B) do diets differ
(C) are diets different 4 - N ow here---------more skewed than in the
(D) to differ a diet auto industry.
(A) that retail trade figures
(B) retail trade figures
(C) are retail trade figures
(D) retail trade figures
STRUCTURE
5. New York City’s Central Park is nearly 8. _____ test positive for antibiotics w hen
twice as large_____ second smallest tanker trucks arrive a t a m ilk processing
country, Monaco. plant, according to federal law, the entire
truckload m ust be discarded.
(A) as
(B) is the (A) Should milk
(C) as is (B) If m ilk
(D) as is the (C) If m ilk is
(D) Milk should
6. Potassium has a valence of positive one
because it usually loses one electron when 9. Located b e h in d _____ the tw o lacrim al
with other elements. glands.
(A) does it combine (A) each eyelid
(B) it combines (B) is each eyelid
(C) in combining (C) each eyelid are
(D) combination (D) each eyelid w hich is
7. The econom ic background of labor 10. Only for a short period of tim e ______ru n
legislation will not be mentioned in this at top speed.
course,_____ bp treated.
(A) cheetahs
(A) trade unionism will not (B) do cheetahs
(B) nor trade unionism will (C) that a cheetah can
(C) nor will trade unionism (D) can
(D) neither trade unionism will
TOEFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1—19): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
----- variety of flowers in the show, from . that Er lily Dickinson wrote, 24 were
simple carnations to the most exquisite given titles and 7 were published during
roses. her lifetiire.
(A) A wide (A) Of the 1,800 poems
(B) There was a wide (B) There were 1,800 poems
(C) Was there (C) Because the 1,800 poem s
(D) Many (D) The 1,800 poems
2. The w ed ges. . dartboard are worth Since an immediate change was needed on
from one to twenty points each. an emergency b asis,_____ by the governor
(A) they are on a to curtail railway expenditure.
(B) are on a (A) so it was proposed
(C) are they on a (B) was proposed
(D) on a (C) because of the proposal
(D) it was proposed
3. producing many new movies for
release after the new season begins. In the Morgan Library in New York City
(A) His company is --------o f medieval and renaissance
manuscripts.
(B) His companies
(C) The company (A) a collection is
(D) Why the company is (B) in a collection
(C) is a collection
(D) which is a collection
174 STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
7. Some fishing fleets might not have been so 9. Individual differences in brain-wave
inefficient in limiting their catch to target activity may shed light on why some
sp ecies_____ more strict in enforcing people are more prone to emotional
penalties. stress disorders--------
(A) the government had been (A) that others are

(B) if the government had (B) and others are
(C) had the government been (C) others are
(D) if the government (D) than are others
8. The Dewey decimal system, currently used 10 . _____ squeezed, the orange juice in a one-
in libraries throughout the w orld,--------all cup serving provides twice the minimum
written works into ten classes according to daily requirement for vitamin C.
subject. (A) It is freshly
(A) dividing (B) If freshly
(B) divides (C) You freshly
(C) it would divide (D) If it freshly
(D) was divided
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T H E W R IT T E N EXPRESSION Q U E S T IO N S
Q u e stio n s 16 th r o u g h 4 0 in th e S tr u c tu r e a n d W ritten E x p r e ssio n s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L

test e x a m in e you r k n o w le d g e o f th e c o r r e c t way to e x p r ess y o u r se lf in E n g lish w ritin g.
E ach q u e s tio n in th is s e c tio n c o n sists o f o n e s e n te n c e in w h ic h fou r w ord s o r g r o u p s o f
w o rd s have b e e n u n d e r lin e d . You m u st c h o o s e th e le tte r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f w o r d s
th at is not c o rr ec t.
Exam ple I
The final delivery of the day is the im portantest.

~A~ B C ' D
If y o u lo o k at th e u n d e r lin e d w ord s in th is e x a m p le , y o u sh o u ld n o tic e im m e d ia te ly th a t

im portantest is n o t c o r r e c t. T h e c o r r e c t su p erlative fo r m o f im portant is the m ost im p o rta n t.
T h e r e fo r e , y o u s h o u ld c h o o s e an sw er (D ) b e c a u se (D ) is n o t c o rr ec t.
Exam ple II
The books th at I read w as interesting.

~ ~B C D
I f y o u lo o k at th e u n d e r lin e d w ord s in th is e x a m p le , e a c h w o rd by it s e lf a p p e a r s to b e c o r
rect. H ow ever, th e sin g u la r v e rb w as is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it d o e s n o t a g r e e w ith th e p lu ral
su b ject books; th e verb s h o u ld b e were in ste a d . T h e r e fo r e , y o u sh o u ld c h o o s e an sw er (C )
b e c a u se (C ) is n o t c o r r e c t.
STRATEGIES FOR THE WRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS
1. First look at th e underlined word or groups o f words. You want to see if you can spot
which of the four answer choices is not correct.
2. If you have been unable to find the error by looking only at the four underlined
expressions, then read th e co m p lete sen ten ce. Often an underlined expression is
incorrect because of something in another part of the sentence.
3. N ever leave any answers blank. Be sure to answer each question even if you are unsure
of the correct response.
T h e fo llo w in g sk ills w ill h e lp y o u to im p le m e n t th e se str a teg ie s in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n

q u estio n s.
PROBLEMS W IT H SUBJECT/VERB A GREEM ENT----------------------
S u b je c t/v e r b a g r e e m e n t is sim p le: i f th e su b je ct o f a s e n te n c e is singu lar, th e n th e verb

m u st b e sin g u la r, i f th e su b ject o f th e s e n te n c e is p lu ral, th e n th e verb m u st b e plu ral. An
s o n a verb u su a lly in d ic a te s th a t a verb is singu lar, w h ile an s o n a n o u n u su ally in d ic a tes
that th e n o u n is p lu ral. (D o n o t fo r g e t irreg u la r p lu rals o f n o u n s , su ch as women, children,
an d people.)
The boy walks to school.

The boys walk to school.
In th e first e x a m p le th e sin g u la r su b ject boy r eq u ire s a sin g u la r verb, walks. In th e se c o n d

e x a m p le th e p lu ra l su b je ct boys r eq u ire s a p lu ral verb , walk.
A lth o u g h th is m ig h t se e m q u ite sim p le , th e r e are a few situ a tio n s o n th e T O E F L test
w h e n s u b je c t/v e r b a g r e e m e n t can b e a little tricky. You sh o u ld b e c a refu l o f su b je c t/v e r b
a g r e e m e n t in th e fo llo w in g situ a tio n s: ( 1 ) a fter p r e p o sitio n a l p h rases, (2 ) a fter e x p r e s
sio n s o f q u antity, (3) a fter in v e r te d verb s, an d (4 ) a fter certa in w ords, su ch as anybody,
everything, no one, som ething, each, a n d every.
S k i l l 20: MAKE VERBS AGREE AFTER P R E P O S ITIO N A L PHRASES
S o m e tim e s p r e p o sitio n a l p h ra ses can c o m e b e tw e e n th e su b ject a n d th e verb. If th e o b

j e c t o f th e p r e p o sitio n is sin g u la r a n d th e su b je ct is p lu ral, o r i f th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o si
tio n is plu ral a n d th e su b ject is sin gu lar, th e r e can b e c o n fu s io n in m a k in g th e su b ject an d
verb a g r e e .
T he key (to the doors) are* in the drawer.

SINGULAR PLURAL
The keys (to the door) is* in the drawer.

PLURAL SINGULAR
(* indicates an error)
In th e first e x a m p le y o u m ig h t th in k th a t doors is th e su b je ct b e c a u se it c o m e s d irectly in

fr o n t o f th e v e rb are. H ow ever, doors is n o t th e su b ject b e c a u se it is th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o
sition to. T h e su b je ct o f th e s e n t e n c e is key, so th e verb sh o u ld b e is. In th e se c o n d e x a m
p le y o u m ig h t th in k th a t door is th e su b je ct b e c a u se it c o m e s d ir ec d y in fr o n t o f th e verb
is. You sh o u ld r e c o g n iz e in th is e x a m p le that door is n o t th e su b je ct b e c a u se it is th e o b je c t
o f th e p r e p o sitio n to. B e ca u se th e su b je ct o f th e s e n t e n c e is keys, th e verb sh o u ld b e are.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e k ey in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u s h o u ld u n d e rsta n d a b o u t
su b je c t/v e r b a g r e e m e n t w ith p r e p o sitio n a l ph rases:
SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT WITH PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
(prepositional phrase)
When a prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb, be sure that the verb
agrees with the subject.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
EXERCISE 20: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s has o n e o r m o r e p r e p o sitio n a l p h ra ses b e

tw een th e su b je ct a n d verb. C ircle th e p r e p o sitio n a l p h rases. U n d e r lin e th e su b je cts o n c e
a n d th e verbs tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C
1. T he clim bers (on the sheer face)(of the m ountain) need to be rescued.
2- T he interrogation, conducted (by three police officer^) have lasted for severalhours.
3. T he tenants in the apartm ent next to m ine is giving a party this evening.
4. T he president, surrounded by Secret Service agents, is trying to m ake his way to the
podium .
5. T he buildings destroyed during the fire are being rebuilt at the taxpayers’ expense.
6. Because o f the seriousness o f the com pany’s financial problem s, the board o f
directors have called an em ergency m eeting.
7. M anufacture o f the item s that you requested have been discontinued because o f lack
o f profit o n those items.
8. Further develop m en t o f any new ideas for future products has to be approved in
advance.
9. T h e scheduled departure time o f the trams, posted on panels throughout the

term inal buildings, are goin g to be updated.
10. Any houses built in that developm ent before 1970 have to be upgraded to m eet
current standards.
S k i l l 2 1: MAKE VERBS AGREE AFTER EXPRESSIONS OF Q U A N T IT Y
A p a rticu la r a g r e e m e n t p r o b le m o c c u r s w h en th e su b ject is an e x p r e s sio n o f qu antity,

su ch as all, most, o r some, fo llo w e d by th e p r e p o sitio n of. In th is situ a tio n , th e su b je c t [all,
most, o r some) c a n b e sin g u la r o r p lu ra l, d e p e n d in g o n w h at fo llo w s th e p r e p o s itio n of.
All (o f the book) was interesting.

SINCULAR
All (o f the books) were interesting.

PLURAL
All (o f the information) was interesting.

UNCOUNTABLE
In th e first e x a m p le th e su b je ct a ll r efe rs to th e sin g u la r n o u n book, so th e c o r r e c t verb is

th e r e fo r e th e sin g u la r verb was. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e su b je c t a ll r efe rs to th e p lu ral
n o u n books, so th e c o r r e c t v erb is th e p lu ral verb were. In th e th ird e x a m p le th e su b je c t all
r efe rs to th e u n c o u n ta b le n o u n inform ation, so th e c o r r e c t verb is th e r e fo r e th e sin g id a r
verb was.
T h e fa llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t you sh o u ld u n d e r sta n d a b o u t

su b je c t/v e r b a g r e e m e n t after e x p r e s sio n s o f quantity:
SU BJEC T /V ER B A G R EEM EN T A FT ER E X P R E S S IO N S O F Q U A N T IT Y
■ oil
most OF THE (OBJECT) V
some
half
------------------------------------------------------------ -
W h e n an expression c f quantity is the subject, the ve rb agrees w ith th e object.
EXERCISE 21: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s h as a q u an tity e x p r e s sio n as th e subject.

U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice. C ircle th e o b je c ts th a t th e verb s agree
w ith. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C ] T h e witnesses saw that m ost o f the (fire) in the hills was e xlni^uis) u‘d .
I 2. Som e o f the (animals) from the zoo was released into the animal preserve.
_____ 3 . All o f the students in the class taught by Professor Roberts is required to turn in
their term papers next Monday.
_____ 4. H alf o f the food that we are serving to the guests are still in the refrigerator.
_____ 5. We believe that som e o f the time o f the em ployees is going to be devoted to quality
control.
_____ 6. All o f the witnesses in the jury trial, which lasted m ore than two weeks, have
indicated that they believed that the defendant was guilty.
_____ 7. She did not know where m ost o f the p eople in the room was from.
_____ 8. In spite o f what was decid ed at the m eeting, h alf o f die procedures was n ot changed.
_____ 9. I was sure that all o f the questions on the test were correct.
_____ 10. M ost o f the trouble that the em ployees discussed at the series o f m eetings was
resolved within a few weeks.
S k i l l 22: MAKE IN VER TED VERBS AGREE
W e h a v e s e e n th a t so m e tim e s in E n g lish th e su b je c t c o m e s a fter th e verb . T h is ca n o c cu r

after q u e s tio n w ord s (Skill 1 5 ), after p la c e e x p r e s sio n s (Skill 1 6 ), after n e g a tiv e ex p r es
sio n s (Sk ill 1 7 ), after o m itte d c o n d itio n a ls (Sk ill 1 8 ), a n d after so m e c o m p a r iso n s (Skill
1 9 ). W h e n th e su b ject an d verb are in v e rte d , it c a n b e d iffic u lt to lo c a te th em , a n d it can
th e r e fo r e b e a p r o b le m to m ak e th e m a gree.
(Behind the house) was* the bicycles I wanted.

(Behind the houses) were* the bicycle I wanted.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
In th e first e x a m p le it is easy to th in k th a t house is th e su b ject, b e c a u se it c o m e s d ir ec tly in

fro n t o f th e verb was. H ouse is n o t th e su b ject, h ow ever, b e c a u se it is th e o b je c t o f th e
p r e p o sitio n behind. T h e su b ject o f th e s e n te n c e is bicycles, an d th e su b je ct bicycles c o m e s af
ter th e verb b e c a u se o f th e p la c e e x p r e s sio n behind the house. B e c a u se th e su b je c t bicycles is
plu ral, th e verb sh o u ld b e c h a n g e d to th e p lu ral were. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e su b ject
bicycle c o m e s after th e v e rb were b e c a u se o f th e p la c e e x p r e s sio n behind the houses. B e ca u se
th e su b je ct bicycle is sin gu lar, th e verb s h o u ld b e c h a n g e d to th e sin g u la r was.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u sh o u ld u n d e r s ta n d a b o u t

s u b je c t/v e r b a g r e e m e n t a fter in v e r te d verbs:
SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT AFTER INVERTEDVERBS
question
negative “I
place s
condition (no if)
comparison
After question words, negative expressions, place expressions, conditions without if, and
comparisons, the verb agrees with the subject, which may be after the verb.
EXERCISE 22: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in s an in v e rte d su b je c t a n d verb .

C ircle th e w ord o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th at c a u se s th e su b je ct a n d verb to in v ert. F in d th e su b
j e c t a n d verb th a t fo llo w th e se w ords. U n d e r lin e th e su b ject o n c e a n d th e v e rb tw ice.
T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C 1. (O nly once) this m orning were the letters delivered by the cam pus mail service.
2. (A round the corn er and to the right) is the room s that have been assigned to that
program.
3. What in the world is the children trying to do?
4. John would be studying the chapters were he able to g et h old o f the book.
5. This chapter has many more exercises than do the next one.
6. T he com puter program m er was unaware that there was so many m istakes in the
program he had written.
7. Seldom in the history o f television has two new com ed ies been so successful in one
season.
8. How many huge mistakes have the teacher actually found in the research paper?
9. T h e new p h one system is able to hold far m ore messages than was the p h on e system
that had previously b een used.
10. In the parking lot south o f the stadium was the cars that were about to be towed.
S k i l l 23: MAKE VERBS AGREE AFTER CERTAIN W O R D S
C ertain w ord s in E n g lish are always gra m m a tica lly singu lar, e v e n th o u g h th ey m ig h t have
p lu ral m e a n in g s.
Everybody are go in g * to the theater.
E ven th o u g h w e u n d e r s ta n d fr o m this e x a m p le th at a lo t o f p e o p le are g o in g to th e th e

ater, everybody is sin g u la r an d r eq u ire s a sin g u la r verb. T h e p lu ral verb are g oing sh o u ld be
c h a n g e d to th e sin g u la r verb is going.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e g ram m atically sin g u la r w ord s th at have p lu ral m ea n in g s:
SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT AFTER CERTAIN WORDS
These words or expressions are grammatically singular, so they take singular verbs:
anybody everybody nobody somebody each (+ noun)

anyone everyone no one someone every (+ noun)
anything everything nothing something
EXERCISE 23: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o f th e w ord s that are gram

m a tically sin g u la r b u t h ave p lu ral m e a n in g s. U n d e r lin e th e se w ord s o n c e a n d u n d e r lin e
th e v e rb s tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
__ !__ 1. It is im possible to believe that som ebody actually admire that man.
—-_ 2. Each o f the doctors in the building needs to have a separate reception area.
-------- 3. T h e president felt that no o n e were better suited for the position o f ch ief staff
advisor.
_____ 4. Everybody participating in the fund-raiser are to turn in the tickets by 8:00.
-------- 5. Because o f the low num ber o f orders, nothing has to be don e now.
-------- 6. Every time som eone take unnecessary breaks, precious m om ents o f production time
are lost.
-------- 7. Anybody who goes to the top o f the Empire State Building is im pressed with the
view.
-------- 8. Every man, woman, and child in this line are required to sign the forms in order to
com plete the registration process.
-------- 9. It is nice to believe that anything is possible if a person tries hard enough.
— .— 10. T h e com pany reiterated to reporters that nobody have been dismissed because o f
the incident.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
EXERCISE (Skills 2 0 -2 3 ): U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e a n d th e verb s tw ice in e a c h o f th e

fo llo w in g se n te n c e s . T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
-------- 1. The contracts signed by the com pany has been voided because som e stipulations
were not met.
-------- 2. Ten m iles beyond the river was the farmlands that they had purchased with their life
savings.
-------- 3. Each package that is n o t properly wrapped have to be returned to the sender.
-------- 4. She would not have to enter the house through the bedroom w indow were the keys
w here they were supposed to be.
-------- 5. T he proposal brought so m uch new work to the partnership that there was not
en ou gh hours to com plete all o f it.
-------- 6. The box o f cartridges for the printer have been misplaced.
-------- 7. It is disconcerting to believe that every possible candidate has been rejected for on e
reason or another.
-------- 8. Only on ce have there b een m ore excitem ent in this city about a sporting event.
-------- 9. Bobby has a bigger bicycle than does the other children in the neighborhood.
-------- 10. If nobody have bought that car from the dealer, then you should return and make
another offer.
TOEFL EXERCISE (Skills 20—23): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f w o r d s th a t

1. Among b e e s--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- a highly elaborate form 2. _________ h

of communication. collectors on the roofs to trap sunlight.
(A) occur (A) A home is
(B) occurs (B) Homes are
(C) it occurs (C) A home
(D) they occur (D) Homes
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
-------- 3. Each number in a binary system are formed from only two symbols.
A B C D
--------4. Scientists at the medical center is trying to determine if there is a relationship

A B ~C
between saccharine and cancer.
D
-------- 5. On the rim of the Kilauea volcano in the Hawaiian Islands are a hotel called the
A B C~ D
Volcano Hotel.
6. The great digital advances of the electronic age, such as integrated circuitry and a
------- A B
microcomputer, has been planted in tiny chips.
7. There are many frequently mentioned reasons why one out of four arrests involve a
A B C D
juvenile.
8. Kepler’s Laws, principles outlining planetary movement, was formulated based on

A B C
observations made without a telescope.
9 Only with atwo-thirds vote by both houses arethe U.S. Congress able to override a
A B C
presidential veto.
D
_10. Of all the evidence that has piled up since Webster's paper was published,there isno
----- A----- B
new ideas to contradict his original theory.
D
TO EFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1-23): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f

w o rd s th at b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
. several unsuccessful attempts, 4. _____ of economic cycles been helpful in

Robert Peary reached the North Pole on predicting turning points in cycles, they
April 6, 1909. would have been used more consistently.
(A) After (A) Psychological theories

(B) He made (B) Psychological theories have
(C) When (C) Had psychological theories
(D) His (D) Psychologists have theories
2. The musical instrum ent_____ is six feet 5. Hospital com m ittees--------spent weeks
long. agonizing over which artificial kidney
candidate would receive the treatments
(A) is called the bass now find that the decision is out of their
(B) it is called the bass hands.
(C) called the bass
(D) calls the bass (A) once
(B) that once
3. One problem with all languages--------they (C) have
are full of irregularities. (D) once had
(A) when
(B) so
(C) is that
(D) in case
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
6. More than half of the children in the 1,356-member district qualifies for
A B C
reduced-price or free lunches.
D
7. Five miles beyond the hills were a fire with its flames reaching up to the sky.
A B~ C D
8. Kettledrums, what were first played on horseback, were incorporated into the
~ A ~ B C D
orchestra in the eighteenth century.
. 9. When is a flag hung upside down, it is an internationally recognized symbol of distress.

Â B~ ~C~ D
.10. The Museum of the Confederation in Richmond hosts an exhibition which

A
documenting the origins and history of the banner that most Americans think of as
B C D
the Confederate flag.
PROBLEMS W IT H PARALLEL S TR U C TU R E___________________
In g o o d E n g lish an a tte m p t sh o u ld b e m a d e to m a k e th e la n g u a g e as e v e n a n d b a la n c e d
as p o s sib le . T h is b a la n c e is c a lle d “p a ra llel str u c tu r e .” You c a n a c h ie v e p a r a lle l str u c tu r e
by m a k in g th e fo r m s o f w ord s as sim ilar as p o ssib le . T h e fo llo w in g is a n e x a m p le o f a s e n
te n c e th a t is n o t parallel:
I like to sing and dancing.*
T h e p r o b le m in th is s e n t e n c e is n o t th e e x p r e s sio n to sing, a n d th e p r o b le m is n o t th e
w ord dancing. T h e e x p r e s sio n to sin g is c o r r e c t by itse lf, a n d th e w o rd d a n c in g is c o r r e c t by
itself. B o th o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s are correct:
I like to sing.
I like dancing.
T h e p r o b le m in th e in c o r r e c t e x a m p le is th a t to s in g a n d d a n c in g are j o i n e d to g e th e r in
o n e s e n te n c e w ith a n d . T h e y a re d iffe r e n t fo r m s w h er e it is p o s sib le to h ave sim ila r form s;
th e r e fo r e th e e x a m p le is n o t p a ra llel. It can b e c o r r e c te d in tw o d iff e r e n t ways: w e c a n
m ak e th e first e x p r e s sio n lik e th e s e c o n d , o r w e can m a k e th e s e c o n d e x p r e s s io n lik e th e
first.
I like to sing and to d an ce.

I like singing and dancing.
T h e r e are several situ a tio n s in w h ic h y o u s h o u ld b e p articu larly c a re fu l o f p a r a lle l stru c

tu re. P a ra llel str u c tu r es are r eq u ire d in th e fo llo w in g situ a tio n s: (1) w ith c o o r d in a te c o n
ju n c tio n s , su c h as a n d , but, or; ( 2 ) w ith p aired c o n ju n c tio n s , su ch as both . . . a n d , e ith e r. . .
or, n e ith e r. . . nor, not only . . . but also; a n d (3) w ith c o m p a r iso n s.
S kill 24: USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE W IT H C O O R D IN A TE

C O N J U N C T IO N S
T h e j o b o f th e c o o r d in a te c o n ju n c tio n s (a n d , but, or) is to j o in to g e th e r e q u a l ex p r es

sio n s. In o t h e r w ord s, w h at is o n o n e sid e o f th e se w o rd s m u st b e p a ra llel to w h a t is o n th e
o th e r sid e . T h e s e c o n ju n c tio n s can j o i n n o u n s , o r verb s, o r a d jectives, o r p h rases, or su b
o r d in a te c la u se s, o r m a in clau ses; th e y ju s t m u st j o in to g e th e r tw o o f th e sa m e th in g . H er e
are e x a m p le s o f tw o n o u n s j o in e d by a c o o r d in a te c o n ju n c tio n :
I need to talk to the manager or the assistant manager.

She is not a teacher but a lawyer.
You can choose from activities such as hiking and kayaking.
H e r e are e x a m p le s o f two verb s j o in e d by a c o o r d in a te c o n ju n c tio n :
H e eats and sleeps only when he takes a vacation.

She invites us to her h om e but never talks with us.
You can stay hom e or go to the movies with us.
H e r e are e x a m p le s o f two ad jectives j o in e d by a c o o r d in a te c o n ju n c tio n :
My boss is sincere and nice.

The exam that he gave was short but difficult.
Class can be interesting or boring.
H e r e are e x a m p le s o f two p h ra ses j o in e d by a c o o r d in a te c o n ju n c tio n :
There are students in the classroom and in front o f the building.

The papers are on my desk or in the drawer.
The checks will be ready not at n oon but at 1:00.
H e r e are e x a m p le s o f two c la u se s j o in e d by a c o o r d in a te c o n ju n c tio n :
They are not interested in what you say or what you do.
I am here because I have to be and because I want to be.
Mr. Brown likes to go hom e early, but his wife prefers to stay late.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e u se o f p arallel str u c tu r es w ith c o o r d in a te c o n ju n ctio n s:
™3----------------------------------------------------------------------------------—-----—-----------------— -----
¡y PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
and
(same structure) but (same structure)
or
.
and
(same structure), (same structure), but (same structure)
or
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
EXERCISE 24: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in s w ords o r g r o u p s o f w o r d s th a t

sh o u ld b e p arallel. C ircle th e w o rd th a t in d ic a te s that th e s e n te n c e s h o u ld h ave p a r a lle l
parts. U n d e r lin e th e p a rts that sh o u ld b e p arallel. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r
r ec t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (1).
1 1. She h eld jo b s as a typist, a housekeeper, (and) in a restaurant.
C_ i> T he report you are looking for could be in the file (or) on the desk.
- 3. She works very hard but usually gets below-average grades.
4. T he speaker introduced him self, told several interesting anecdotes, and finishing
with an em otional plea.
5. You should know w hen the program starts and how many units you must com plete.
. 6. T he term paper he wrote was rather short but very impressive.
7. She suggested taking the plane this evening or that we go by train tomorrow.
8 . T he dean or the assistant dean will inform you o f when and where you should apply
for your diplom a.
9. T here are papers to file, reports to type, and those letters should be answered.
10. T he m anager n eed ed a quick but thorough response.
S kill 2 5 : USE PARALLEL STR U C TU R E W IT H PAIRED C O N J U N C T IO N S
T h e p a ir e d c o n ju n c tio n s both . . . a nd, e ith e r. . . or, n e ith e r . . . nor, a n d n ot only . . . but also
req u ire p a ra llel stru ctu res.
I know both where you went and what you did.

Either Mark orSue has the book.
T h e tickets are neither ir^my pocket nor in my purse.
H e is not only an excellen t student but also an outstanding athlete.
T h e fo llo w in g is n o t p a r a lle l a n d m u st b e c o rr ec ted :
H e wants either to go by train or by plane*.
It is n o t c o r r e c t b e c a u se to go by train is n o t p a ra llel to by plane. It can b e c o r r e c te d in sev

eral ways.
H e wants either to g o by train or to g o by plane.

H e wants to go eitherby train or by plane.
H e wants to go by either train or plane.
W h en y o u are u s in g th e s e p a ir e d c o n ju n c tio n s , b e su re that th e c o r r e c t parts are u se d to

g eth er. T h e fo llo w in g a re in c o rr ec t:
I want both this book or* that one.

F.itherSam nor* Sue is taking the course.
T h e se s e n te n c e s are in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th e w r o n g parts o f th e p a ir ed c o n ju n c tio n s are

u sed to g e th er . In th e first e x a m p le , a n d sh o u ld b e u se d w ith both. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le ,
or sh o u ld b e u s e d w ith either. •
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e u se o f p a r a lle l stru ctu re w ith p a ir e d c o n ju n ctio n s:
PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS
’ . :' and
both
either or (same structure)
(same structure)
neither nor
• - . • .-. .; • . .....
.: " ••• : not only • " r but also
v.. . . . .
EX E R C ISE 25: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s w ord s o r g r o u p s o f w ords that

sh o u ld b e p arallel. C ircle t h e w ord o r w ord s th a t in d ic a te th a t th e s e n te n c e sh o u ld have
p arallel parts. U n d e r lin e th e parts th a t sh o u ld b e p a ra llel. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s
__ l _ 1. According to the syllabus, you can (either) write a paper (or)you can take an exam .
c 2. It would be (jaoth) noticed (and) appreciated if you could finish the work before you
leave.
3. She would like neither to see a movie or to go bowling.
4. Either the manager or her assistant can help you with your refund.
5. She wants not only to take a trip to Europe but she also would like to travel to Asia.
6. H e could correct neither what you said nor you wrote.
7. Both the tailor or the laundress could fix the dam age to the dress.
8. H e not only called the police departm ent but also called the fire departm ent.
_____ 9. You can graduate either at the end o f the fall sem ester or you can graduate at the
end o f the spring semester.
10. T he m ovie was neither am using nor was it interesting.
S k il l 2 6 : USE PARALLEL S TR U C TU R E W IT H COM PARISONS
W h e n y o u m a k e a c o m p a r is o n , y o u p o in t o u t th e sim ila r itie s o r d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e e n two

th in g s , a n d th o s e sim ila r itie s o r d iffe r e n c e s m u st b e in p a ra llel fo r m . You c a n r e c o g n iz e a
c o m p a r is o n sh o w in g h o w tw o th in g s are d iffe r e n t fro m th e - e r . . . th a n or th e more . . .
than.
My school is farther than your sch ool.

To be rich is better than to be poor.
W hat is written is more easily understood than what is spoken.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
A c o m p a r iso n sh o w in g h o w tw o th in g s are th e sam e m ig h t c o n ta in as . . . as o r e x p r e s

sio n s su c h as the sam e as o r sim ila r to.
T heir car is as big as a small house.

Renting those apartments costs about the same as leasing them.
T he work that I did is similar to the work that you did.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e u se o f p a ra llel str u c tu r es w ith c o m p a r iso n s:
PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COMPARISONS
■v : - V- - V: more ... than

.■ .■ -: '• .' ' ' . ' -er... than ■ : -■ . - -- - ; ■:
(same structure) less ... than (same structure)
; ' - -•V- ‘ 'v. ! -, b as ...as
the same... as
similar ...to ■d --
EXERCISE 26: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in s w ord s o r g r o u p s o f w o r d s th a t

sh o u ld b e p a r a lle l. C ircle th e w o rd o r w ord s th a t in d ic a te th a t th e s e n t e n c e s h o u ld h ave
p a r a lle l parts. U n d e r lin e th e parts th a t s h o u ld b e p arallel. T h sn in d ic a te i f e a c h s e n t e n c e
is c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
__ 0— 1. His research for the thesis was (more useful than) hers.
__ !__ 2. D inin g in a restaurant is (m ore fun than) to eat at hom e.
_____ 3. I want a new secretary who is as efficient as the previous one.
_____ 4. What you do today sh ould be the same as did yesterday.
_____ 5. This lesson is m ore difficult than we had before.
_____ 6. You have less hom ework than they do.
_____ 7. What you do has more effect than what you say.
_____ 8. Music in your country is quite similar to my country.
_____ 9. T h e collection o f foreign journals in the university library is m ore extensive than the
high school library.
_____ 10. How to buy a used car can be as difficult as buying a new car.
EXERCISE (Skills 2 4 -2 6 ): Circle the word or words that indicate that the sentence should
have parallel parts. Underline the parts that should be parallel. Then indicate if the sen
tences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).
_____ 1. After retirem ent he plans on traveling to exotic locations, dine in the finest
restaurants, and playing a lo t o f golf.
_____ 2. She was both surprised by and pleased with the seminar.
_____ 3. What cam e after the break was even m ore boring than had com e before.
_____ 4. H e would find the missing keys neither under the bed or b ehind the sofa.
_____ 5. D epend in g on the perspective o f the viewer, the film was considered laudable,
mediocrity, or horrendous.
_____ 6. H e exercised not only in the m orning, but he also exercised every afternoon.
_____ 7. Working four days per w eek is much m ore relaxing than working five days per week.
_____ 8. Sam is always good-natured, generous, and helps you.
_____ 9. Either you have to finish the project, or the contract will be canceled.
_____ 10. T he courses that you are required to take are m ore im portant than the courses that
you choose.
T OEFL EXERCISE (Skills 24 -2 6 ): Choose the letter of the word or group of words that
best completes the sentence.
1. Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood is neither 3. A baby’s development is influenced by both
journalistically accurate heredity and
(A) a piece of fiction (A) by environmental factors
(B) nor a fictitious work (B) environmentally
(C) or written in a fictitious way (C) the influence of the environment
(D) nor completely fictitious (D) environment
2. Vitamin C is necessary for the prevention 4. Because bone loss occurs earlier in women
a n d _____ of scurvy. th a n _____ , the effects of osteoporosis are
more apparent in women.
(A) it cures
(B) cures (A) men do
(C) cure (B) in men
(D) for curing (C) as men
(D) similar to men
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
5. Fire extinguishers can contain liquefied gas, dry chemicals, or watery.

A B C- - D
6. The U.S. Congress consists of both the Senate as well as the House o f Representatives
A B C D
7. The prison population in this state, now at an all time high, is higher than anv state.
A B C D
8. A well-com posed baroque opera achieves a delicate balance by focusing alternately

A B C
on the aural, visual, emotional, and philosophy elements.
D
9. Manufacturers may use food additives for preserving, to color, to flavor, or to fortifv
A B —C ~
foods.
-10. A bankruptcy may be either voluntary nor involuntary.

A B C W
TOEFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1—26): C h o o se th e lette r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th at b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1. The growth of hair_____ cyclical process, 4. The legal systems of m ost countries can Ipe
with phases of activity and inactivity. classified--------com m on law or civil law.
(A) it is (A) as either
(B) is a (B) either as
(C) which is (C) either to
(D) a regular (D) to either
2. The fire. . to have started in the 5. One difference between mathematics and
furnace under the house. language is that mathematics is precise
(A) is believed
(B) that is believed (A) language is not
(C) they believe (B) while language is not
(D) that they believe (C) but language not
(D) while is language
3. In Roman numerals, . symbols for
numeric values. 6. Your criticism of the three short stories
(A) are letters of the alphabet should not be less than 2,000*words, nor
(B) letters of the alphabet are more than 3,000.
(C) which uses letters of the alphabet (A) should it be
(D) in which letters of the alphabet are (B) it should be
(C) it is
(D) should be it
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th a t is n o t co rr ec t.
7. In 1870, the attorney general was made head of the Department of Justice, given an
A
enlarged staff, and endow with clear-cut law-enforcement functions.
B C D
8. The General Sherman Tree, the largest of all the giant sequoias, are reputed to be the
------ Â B C
worlds largest living thing.
D
_ 9. The skeleton of a shark is made of cartilage rather than having bone.

~fiT B C D
_10 At least one sample of each of the brands contains measurable amounts of aflatoxin,
A B
and there is three which exceed the maximum.
PROBLEMS W IT H COMPARATIVES A N D SUPERLATIVES.
S e n te n c e s w ith in c o r r e c t co m p a ra tiv es a n d su p erla tiv es c a n a p p ea r o n th e T O E F L test. It

is th e r e fo r e im p o r ta n t fo r y ou to k n ow h o w to d o th e fo llo w in g : ( 1 ) fo rm th e c om p arative
a n d su p erla tiv e correctly; (2) u s e th e c o m p a r a tiv e an d su p erla tiv e correctly; a n d (3 ) u se
th e irr eg u la r -er, -er stru ctu re th a t h as b e e n a p p e a r in g fr e q u e n tly o n th e T O E F L test.
S k i l l 27: FORM COM PARATIVES A N D SUPERLATIVES CORRECTLY
T h e p r o b le m w ith so m e o f th e c o m p a r a tiv e a n d su p e rla tiv e s e n te n c e s o n th e T O E F L test

is th a t th e c o m p a r a tiv e o r su p erlative is fo r m e d in co rrectly . You sh o u ld th e r e fo r e u n d e r
sta n d h o w to fo r m th e c o m p a r a tiv e a n d su p erla tiv e to an sw er su c h q u e s tio n s correctly.
T h e co m p a r a tiv e is fo r m e d w ith e it h e r -er o r more a n d than. In th e co m p a r a tiv e , -er is
u s e d w ith sh o r t a d jectiv es su ch as tall, an d more is u s e d w ith lo n g e r a d jectiv es su ch as
beautiful.
Bob is taller than Ron.

Sally is more beautiful than Sharon.
T h e su p e rla tiv e is fo r m e d w ith the, e ith e r -est or most, a n d so m e tim e s in, of, o r a that-c la u se.
In th e su p e rla tiv e, -est is u se d w ith sh o rt ad jectives su ch as tall, a n d most is u s e d w ith lo n g e r
a d jectiv es su ch as beautiful. ,
Bob is the tall erf man in the room.

Sally is the most beautiful o f all the w om en at the party.
T he spider over there is (Aelargesi on e that I have ever seen.
The fastest runner wins the race, (no in, of, or that)
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e p o s sib le fo r m s o f co m p a ra tiv es a n d su p erlatives:
THE FORM OF COMPARATIVESAND SUPERLATIVES
COMWWATIVE more (long adjective) •

than
(short adjective) + er
r -,
•
SUPERLATIVE
' • . '
, most (long adjective)
[ (short adjective) + est J .
, . , .
maybe ,n. o f thot
EXERCISE 27: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a c o m p a r a tiv e o r su p e rla tiv e.

C ircle th e co m p a r a tiv e o r su p e rla tiv e. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) or
in c o r r e c t (I ).
I 1. O xygen is (abundanter than )nitrogen.
2. T he directions to the exercise say to choose (the m ost appropriate) response.
3. The lesson you are studying now is the most im portantest lesson that you will have.
4. Fashions this year are shorter and more colorful than they were last year.
5. T he professor indicated that A nthony’s research paper was m ore lon g than the
other students’ papers.
6. Alaska is the cold est than all the states in the U nited States.
7. T h e workers on the day shift are m ore rested than the workers on the nigh t shift.
8. She was m ore happier this m orning than she had been yesterday.
9. T he quarterback on this year’s football team is more versatile than the quarterback
on last year’s team.
10. She always tries to do the best and m ost efficien tjob that she can do.
S k i l l 28: USE CO M PARATIVES A N D SUPERLATIVES CORRECTLY
A n o th e r p r o b le m w ith th e c o m p a r a tiv e a n d su p erlative o n th e T O E F L te st is th a t th e y can

b e u s e d in co rrectly . T h e c o m p a r a tiv e a n d su p erla tiv e have d iffe r e n t u ses, a n d y o u s h o u ld
u n d e r s ta n d th e se d iffe r e n t u ses to answ er su c h q u e s tio n s correctly. T h e c o m p a r a tiv e is
u s e d to c o m p a r e tw o e q u a l th in gs.
T h e history class is larger than the math class.

Mary is more intelligent than Sue.
In th e first e x a m p le the history class is b e in g c o m p a r e d w ith the m ath class. In th e s e c o n d

e x a m p le M a ry is b e in g c o m p a r e d w ith Sue.
T h e su p erla tiv e is u s e d w h e n th e r e are m o r e th an two item s to c o m p a r e an d y o u w an t

to sh ow th e o n e th a t is th e b est, th e b ig g e st, or in so m e way th e m o st o u tsta n d in g .
T he history class is the largest in the school.

Mary is the most intelligent o f all the students in the class.
In th e first e x a m p le the history class is c o m p a r e d w ith all th e o th e r cla sses in th e s c h o o l,

a n d th e h isto r y class is la rg er th a n e a c h o f th e o th e r classes. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , M a ry
is c o m p a r e d w ith all th e o th e r stu d e n ts in th e class, a n d M ary is m o r e in te llig e n t th an
e a c h o f th e o th e r stu d en ts.
T h e fo llo w in g ch art o u tlin e s th e u ses o f co m p a ra tiv es a n d su perlatives:
THE USES OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
The c o m p a r a t iv e Is used to compare two equal things.
The s u p e r l a t iv e is used to show which one of many is in some way the most outstanding.
EXERCISE 28: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a co m p a ra tiv e o r su p erla tiv e.

C ircle th e com p arative o r su p erla tiv e. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) or
in c o r r e c t (I).
__ ~
r_ 1. Harvard is probably (the m ost prestigious) university in the U nited States.
__ !__ 2. Rhonda is (more hard working) o f the class.

_____ 3. The engineers hired this year have more experience than those hired last year.
-------- 4. The graduate assistant inform ed us that the first exam is the most difficult o f the
two.
_____ 5. He bought the more powerful stereo speakers that he could find.
_____ 6. T he afternoon seminar was m uch more interesting than the m orning lecture.
-------- 7. The food in this restaurant is the best o f the restaurant we visited last week.
-------- 8. The plants that have been sitting in the sunny window are far healthier than the
other plants.
_____ 9. The photocopies are the darkest that they have ever been.
-------- 10. The first journal article is the longest o f the second article.
S k il l 29: USE T H E IRREGULAR -ER, -ER STRUCTURE CORRECTLY
A n irr eg u la r c o m p a r a tiv e stru ctu re th a t has b e e n a p p ea r in g fr e q u e n tly o n th e T O E FL

te st co n sists o f tw o p a ra llel c o m p a r a tiv e s in tr o d u c e d by the.
The harder he tried, the further he fell behind.

The older the children are, the more their parents expect from them.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T h e firs t e x a m p le c o n t a in s th e tw o p a r a lle l c o m p a r a tiv e s the harder a n d the further. T h e sec

o n d e x a m p le c o n t a in s t h e tw o p a r a lle l c o m p a r a tiv e s the older a n d the more.
I n th is ty p e o f s e n te n c e , the a n d th e c o m p a r is o n c a n b e f o llo w e d b y a n u m b e r o f d if
f e r e n t s tru c tu re s .
The more children you have, the bigger the house you need.
The harder you work, the more you accom plish.
The greater the experien ce, the higher the salary.
I n th e firs t e x a m p le , the more is f o llo w e d by th e n o u n children a n d t h e s u b je c t a n d v e r b you

have, w h ile the bigger is f o llo w e d b y th e n o u n the house a n d th e s u b je c t a n d v e r b you need. In
th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , the harder is f o llo w e d b y th e s u b je c t a n d v e rb you work, w h ile the more
is fo llo w e d b y th e s u b je c t a n d v e r b you accomplish. I n th e t h ir d e x a m p le , the greater is fo l
lo w e d o n ly b y th e n o u n the experience, w h ile the higher is f o llo w e d o n ly b y t h e n o u n the
salary. \fou s h o u ld n o te t h a t th is la s t e x a m p le d o e s n o t e v e n c o n t a in a v e r b , y e t it is a c o r
r e c t s t r u c t u r e in E n g lis h .
T h e f o llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th is ir r e g u la r -er, -er s tru c tu re :
THE-ER-ER STRUCTURE
-er ■ ....... .. .. • - . • . -er

THE more (same structure), the more (same structure)
This type of sentence may o r may not include a verb.
E X E R C I S E 29: E a c h o f t h e f o llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n t a in s t h e i r r e g u la r -er, -er s tru c t u r e .

C ir c le th e tw o c o m p a r is o n s w ith the. U n d e r l in e th e p a rts th a t s h o u ld b e p a r a lle l. T h e n in
d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s a re c o r r e c t ( C ) o r i n c o r r e c t (I).
^ 1. (The hotter) the food is,(h ard ei) it is to eat.
C 2. (T he warmer) the weather, (the greater) the attendance at the ou td oor concert.
_____ 3. The m ore you say, the worst the situation will be.
_____ 4. T he m ore time they have to play, the happier the children are.
_____ 5. The thicker the walls, the noise that com es through is less.
_____ 6.If you run faster, the m ore quickly you’ll arrive.
_____ 7. T he m ore you use the p h on e, the higher the bill will be.
_____ 8. T he harder you serve, the easier it is to win the point.
_____ 9. T h e earliest you send in your tax forms, the sooner you will receive your refund.
_____ 10. The m ore p eople there are at the party, you ’ll have a good time.
EXERCISE (Skills 27-2 9 ): C ircle th e com p a ra tiv es a n d su p erla tiv es in th e fo llo w in g se n

te n c e s. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
_____ 1. The coffee is m ore stronger today than it was yesterday.
_____ 2. The tree that was struck by lightning had b een the tallest o f the two trees we had in
the yard.
_____ 3. H e will buy the m ost fuel-efficient car that h e can afford.
_____ 4. The closest it gets to summer, the longer the days are.
_____ 5. The business departm ent is bigger o f the departm ents in the university.
_____ 6. 1 really do not want to live in the Southeast because it is on e o f the m ost hot areas in
the U n ited States.
_____ 7. It is preferable to use the m ost efficient and m ost effective m eth od that you can.
_____ 8. T onight’s dinner was m ore filling than last nigh t’s.
_____ 9. The soon er the exam is scheduled, the less tim e you have to prepare.
_____ 10. The hou se is now the cleanest that it has ever been.
TOEFL EXERCISE (Skills 2 7 -2 9 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s that

1. The speed of light i s _____ the speed of 3. _____ in Stevenson’s landscapes, the more
sound. vitality and character the paintings seem to
possess.
(A) faster
(B) much faster than (A) The brushwork is loose
(C) the fastest (B) The looser brushwork
(D) as fast (C) The loose brushwork is
(D) The looser the brushwork is
2. The use of detail i s _____ method of
developing a controlling idea, and almost
all students employ this method.
(A) more common
(B) common
(C) m ost common
(D) the most common
C h o o se t h e lette r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th at is n o t c o rr ec t.
_____ 4. Certain types of snakes have been known to survive fasts more as a year long.
A B ~C~ If
_____ 5. The grizzly bear, which can grow up to eight feet tall, has been called a more
A B C D
dangerous animal of North America.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
_ 6. Climate, soil type, and availability o f water are the m ost criticalfactors than
A TT ~C~
selecting the best type of grass for a lawn.
D
_ 7. Peter Abelard, a logician and theologian, was the controversialest teacher o f his age.
A ~B C D
_ 8. Protein m olecules are the m ost complex than the molecules o f carbohydrates.
A B ~C~ D
_ 9. The leek, a member of the lily family, has a mildest taste than the onion.
A B ~TT D
_10. The widely used natural fiber of all is cotton.

A B~ ~TT D
TOEFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1—29): C h o o se th e lette r o f th e w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t b e st c o m p le te s th e se n te n c e .
1 . ____ , a liberal arts college specifically for 3. While the discovery that many migratory
deaf people, is located in Washington, D.C songbirds can thrive in deforested
wintering sp ots-------- , the fact remains
(A) Gallaudet College
that these birds are dying at unusual rates.
(B) Gallaudet College is
(C) About Gallaudet College (A) it is heartening
(D) Because o f Gallaudet College (B) hearten
(C) heartening
2. --------varieties o f dogs at the show, (D) is heartening
including spaniels, poodles, and collies.
(A) The several
(B) Those
(C) Several
(D) There were several
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o t w ord s u ia t is n o t c o r r e c t.
--------4. The coyote is somewhat smaller in size that a timber wolf.

A B ~C D
--------5. The weather reports all showed that there were a tremendous storm front m oving in.
A B ~C~ D
--------6. Seldom cactus plants are found outside o f North America.

A ~B C ~D
--------7. In a basketball game a player what is fouled receives one or two free throws.
~A BCD
-------- 8. Until recently, California was largest producer of oranges in the United States.
A B C D
9. An understanding of engineering theories and problems are impossible until basic

A B
arithmetic is fully mastered.
C D
.10. The earliest the CVS (chorionic villus sampling) procedure in the pregnancy, the
A B ■c
greater the risk to the baby.
D
PROBLEMS W IT H T H E FO R K OF T H E VERB
It is c o m m o n in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n p art o f th e T O E F L test fo r th e verb s to b e fo r m e d
in correctly. T h e r e fo r e , you s h o u ld c h e c k th e fo r m o f th e verb carefully. You sh o u ld b e fa
m iliar w ith th e fo llo w in g verb form s: th e b ase fo r m , th e p r e se n t te n se , th e p r e se n t p a rtici
p le , a n d th e p a st p a r ticip le . T h e fo llo w in g are e x a m p le s o f e a c h o f th e se verb fo r m s as
they are u sed in this text:
BASE PRESENT PAST

FORM* PRESENT PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
walk walk(s) walking walked walked

hear hear(s) hearing heard heard
cook cook(s) cooking cooked cooked
sing sing(s) singing sang sung
come come(s) coming came come
begin begin(s) beginning began begun
You sh o u ld b e particu larly aw are o f th e fo llo w in g th r e e p r o b le m a tic situ a tio n s w ith verb s
b e c a u se th ey a re th e m o st c o m m o n a n d th e e a sie st to co rrect: ( 1 ) c h e c k w h at c o m e s a fter
have; (2) c h e c k w hat c o m e s a fter be; a n d (3 ) c h e c k w h at c o m e s a fter will, w ould, a n d o th e r
m od als.
NOTE: A more complete list of verb forms and an exercise to practice their use are
included at the back of the text in Appendix F. You may want to complete this exercise
before you continue with skills 30 through 32.
S k i l l 30: AFTER HAVE, U S E T H E PAST PARTICIPLE
W h e n e v e r you s e e th e verb h a v e in any o f its fo r m s (have, has, having, h a d ), b e su re th a t

th e verb that fo llo w s it is in th e p ast p a r tic ip le form .
They had walk* to school. (should be had walked)

We have see* the show. (should be have seen)
H e has took* the test. (should be has taken)
H a v in g a t^ , he went to school. (should be H aving eaten)
She should have did* the work. (should be should have done)
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
In a d d itio n , y o u sh o u ld b e su re th a t i f y o u h ave a su b ject a n d a p ast p a r tic ip le , y o u a lso

have th e verb have. T h is p r o b le m is p articu larly c o m m o n w ith th o s e v e rb s (su c h as sing,
sang, su n g ) th a t c h a n g e fr o m p r e se n t to p ast to p a st p a r ticip le by c h a n g in g o n ly th e vow el.
My friend sung* in the choir. (should be sang or has sung)

H e become* angry at his friend. (should be became o r has become)
T he boat sunk* in the ocean. (should be sank or has sunk)
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e u se o f verb fo r m s a fter have:
VERB FORMS AFTER HAVE________________________

_____________________ __
HAVE past participle
. ________
E X E R C ISE 30: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a v e rb in th e p a st o r a p ast p ar

tic ip le . U n d e r lin e th e verb s o r p ast p a r ticip le s tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are
' 1. T h e young girl drunk a glass o f milk.
C 2. Before she left, she had asked her m other for perm ission.
_____ 3. H aving finished the term paper, he began studying for the exam .
_____ 4. T h e secretary has broke her typewriter.
_____ 5. T he installer should have com pletes the task m ore quickly.
_____ 6. H e has often becom e angry during meetings.
_____ 7. She has rarely rode her horse in the park.
_____ 8. Having saw the film, he was quite disappointed.
_____ 9. Tom has thought about taking that job.
_____ 10. You m ight have respond m ore effectively.
S k i l l 31: AFTER BE, USE T H E PRESENT PARTICIPLE O R T H E

PAST PARTICIPLE
T h e verb be in an y o f its fo r m s (a m , is, are, was, were, be, been, being) can b e fo llo w e d by a n
o th e r verb . T h is verb s h o u ld b e in th e p r e se n t p a r ticip le or th e p ast p a r tic ip le fo r m .
We are dai* our hom ework. (should be are doing)
T he hom ework was do* early. (should be was done)
Tom is take* the book. (should be is taking)
T he book was take* by Tom. (should be was taken)
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e u se o f verb fo r m s a fter be:
VERB FORMS AFTER BE
BE + (1) present participle

■ ■. , ' .. : ■
(2) past parti cple
E X ER C ISE 31: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a verb fo r m e d w ith be. U n d e r lin e

th e verbs tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
I 1. At 12:00 Sam is eat his lunch.
C 2. We are m eeting them later today.
3. The message was took by the receptionist.
4. Being heard was extrem ely im portant to him.
5. The Smiths are build their house on som e property that they own in the desert.
6. It had been noticed that som e staff m embers were late.
7. The report should have been subm it by noon-.
8. Are the two com panies m erge into one?
9. He could be taking four courses this semester.
10. The score inform ation has been duplicates on the back-up disk.
S k i l l 32: AFTER W ILL.W O ULD , O R O TH ER M ODALS, USE T H E BASE

FORM OF T H E VERB
W h e n e v e r y o u s e e a m o d a l, su c h as will, w ould, shall, should, can, could, may, m ight, o r must,

y o u sh o u ld b e su re th at th e verb th a t fo llo w s it is in its base form .
T he boat will leaving* at 3:00. (should be will leave)

T he doctor may arrivess* soon. (should be may arrive)
T he students must taken* the exam . (should be must take)
T h e fo llo w in g ch a rt o u d in e s th e u se o f verb fo r m s after m odals:
VERBS FORMS AFTER MODALS
MODAJ. + main form o f th e verb
EXER CISE 32: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a verb fo r m e d w ith a m o d a l. U n

d e r lin e th e verbs tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
—-— 1. The salesclerk m ight lower the price.
— !— 2. T he television movie will finishes in a few minutes.
3. Should everyone arrive by 8:00?
4. T he m ethod for organizing files can be improved.

WRITTEN EXPRESSION
_____ 5. The m achine may clicks o ff if it is overused.
_____ 6. Every m orning the plants must be watered.
_____ 7. The houses with ocean views could sell for considerably m ore.
_____ 8. Would anyone liked to see that movie?
_____ 9. I do n ot know w hen it will depart.
_____ 10. She will work on the project only if she can has a full-time secretary.
EX ER C ISE (S k ills 3 0 - 3 2 ) : U n d e r lin e th e verb s tw ice in th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e s . T h e n in

d ica te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
_____ 1. I have gave you all the m oney that I have.
_____ 2. The articles were put in the newspaper before he was able to stop production.
_____ 3. All the tickets for the concert m ight already be sold.
_____ 4. H e was so thirsty that he drunk several large glasses o f water.
_____ 5. The deposit will has to be paid before the apartm ent can be rented.
_____ 6. H e objects to being held without bail.
____ _ 7. Having com pleted the first chapter o f the manuscript, she decid ed to take a break.
_____ 8. If Steve had really wanted to pass his exam , he would has studied m uch m ore.
_____ 9. H e thought that he sh ould have be invited to attend the conference.
_____ 10. Before the speaker finished, many guests had rose from their seats and started for
the door.
T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 3 0 -3 2 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f t h e u n d e r lin e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w ords th a t is n o t c o rr ec t.
_____ 1. Alice in Wonderland, first published in 1865, has since being translated into thirty
A B C D
languages.
_____ 2. The Peace Corps was establish on March 1, 1961, by then President John F. Kennedy.
A B C D
_____ 3 . The advisor told himself, while listening to the speech, that a dozen other reporters
~A~ B
would has already asked that question.
C D
. 4. At the start of the American Revolution, lanterns were hung in the Old North Church
~A~ B C
as a signal that the British were came.
D
. 5. Before he died, Linus Pauling had wins two Nobel Prizes: the 1954 Nobel Prize
~A B C
in Chemistry and the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize.
D
. 6. On the huge Ferris wheel constructed for a world exhibition in Chicago in 1893,
~A~ B
each of the thirty-six cabs could held sixty people.
C HET
.7 . To overcome rejection of a skin graft, a system for matching donor and recipient
A B C
tissues has be developed.
TT
_ 8. Nails are commonly makeof steel butalso can contain substances such as aluminum
~A~ B “C D
or brass.
.9 . A patient suffering from amnesia may had partial or total loss of memory.
~B C~ "D-
_10. Theidea o f using pure nicotine to help smokers stop was first tries in the mid-1980s
~A~ B — ~D ~
with the nicotine-laced chewing gum Nicotette.
TO EFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1-32): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f

. separates Manhattan’s Upper East 4. W hen. _on July 4, 1789, the federal
Side from the Upper West Side. tariff, intended by the Founding Fathers to
be the government’s primary source of
(A) Central Park
revenue, was remarkably evenhanded.
(B) Where Central Park
(C) Where is Central Park (A) was first enacted
(D) Central Park which (B) first enacted
(C) was enacted first
2. Bioluminescent anim als_____ the water or (D) it first
on land.
. inclined to push for such a
(A) live
reduction, it would probably not be
(B) are living either
successful.
(C) they are found in
(D) can be found in (A) The Office of Management
(B) The Office of Management was
3. The purpose of a labor union is to improve (C) In the Office of Management
the working conditions,_____ , and pay of (D) Were the Office of Management
its members.
(A) jobs are secure
(B) to be secure
(C) job security
(D) the job's security
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o f w ords th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
-------- 6. Helium has the most low boiling point of all substances.
~A~ B " C D
--------7. There is twenty-six bones in the human foot, fourteen of them in the toes.
A B ~C~ D
-------- 8. Extension of the countdown hold to fourteen hours was order to give crews
~A~ B
more time to repair wiring and clear away equipment.
C D
--------9. The study demonstrates that neither experience or awareness will improve chances
A B ~C D
of success.
--------10. Som e of the eye movements used in reading is actually unnecessary.

~A~ B C D
PROBLEMS W IT H T H E USE O F T H E VERB___________________
M any d iffe r e n t p r o b le m s in u s in g th e c o r r e c t verb te n se are p o ssib le in E n g lish . H ow ever,

fo u r sp e c ific p r o b le m s o c c u r fr eq u e n tly o n th e T O E F L test, so y o u n e e d to pay c a r e fu l at
te n tio n to th e s e four: ( 1 ) k n o w in g w h e n to u se th e past w ith th e p r e se n t, ( 2 ) u s in g h a d
a n d have correctly, (3 ) u s in g th e c o r r e c t te n se w ith tim e e x p r e s sio n s, a n d (4 ) u s in g th e
c o r r e c t te n s e w ith w ill a n d would.
S kill 33: K N O W W H E N T O USE T H E PAST W IT H T H E PRESENT
O n e verb te n s e p r o b le m th a t is c o m m o n b o th in stu d e n t w ritin g a n d o n th e T O E F L te st is

th e sw itch fro m th e p ast te n s e to th e p r e se n t te n se fo r n o p articu lar r e a s o n . O fte n w h e n a
s e n te n c e h as b o th a p ast te n s e a n d a p r e se n t te n se , th e s e n te n c e is in c o r r e c t.
H e took the m oney w hen he wants* it.
T h is s e n te n c e says th at he took the money (in th e past) when he w a n ts it (in th e p r e s e n t). T h is

m e a n in g d o e s n o t m a k e an y se n se; it is im p o ssib le to d o s o m e th in g in th e p a st as a r esu lt
o f s o m e th in g y o u w a n t in th e p r e se n t. T h is s e n te n c e can b e c o r r e c te d in sev era l ways, d e
p e n d in g o n th e d e s ir e d m e a n in g .
H e took the m oney when he wanted it.

H e takes the m oney when he wants it.
T h e first e x a m p le m e a n s th a t he took the money (in th e past) when he w an ted it (in th e p a st).
T h is m e a n in g is lo g ic a l, a n d th e s e n t e n c e is co rr ec t. T h e s e c o n d e x a m p le m e a n s th a t he
takes the money (h a b itu a lly ) w hen he w ants it (h ab itu ally). T h is m e a n in g is a lso lo g ic a l, a n d
th e s e c o n d e x a m p le is also c o rr ec t.
It is n e c e s sa r y to p o in t o u t, how ever, th a t it is p o ssib le fo r a lo g ic a l s e n te n c e in E n glish

to have b o th th e p a st a n d th e p r e s e n t te n se .
1 know that he took the m oney yesterday.
T h e m e a n in g o f th is s e n te n c e is lo g ica l: 1 know (r ig h t now , in th e p r e se n t) th a t he took the

money (yesterday, in th e p a st). You can se e from th is e x a m p le that it is p o s sib le fo r an E n g
lish s e n t e n c e to h ave b o th th e p ast a n d th e p r e se n t ten se. T h e err o r y o u n e e d to avoid is
th e sw itch from th e p ast to th e p r e se n t fo r n o p articu lar rea so n . T h e r e fo r e , w h en y o u see
a s e n te n c e o n th e T O E F L test w ith b o th th e p ast a n d th e p r e se n t te n se , y o u m u st c h e c k
th e m e a n in g o f th e s e n t e n c e ca refu lly to se e if it is lo g ic a l in E n glish .
T h e fo llo w in g ch a rt o u tlin e s th e u se o f th e p ast ten se w ith th e p r e se n t te n se in E nglish:
USING THE PASTWITH THE PRESENT
1. If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in the present, the sentence is
probably incorrect.
2. However, it is possible for a correct sentence to have both past and present together.
3. If you see the post and present together, you must check the meaning to determine whether
or not the sentence is correct.
E X E R C ISE 33: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s h a s at lea st o n e verb in th e p ast a n d o n e

verb in th e p r e se n t. U n d e r lin e th e verb s tw ice a n d d e c id e if th e m e a n in g s are lo g ica l.
1 1. I tell him the truth when he asked m e the question.
C 2. 1 understand that you were angry.
3. W hen he was a child, he always goes to the circus.
4. Last sem ester h e reads seven books and wrote five papers.
5. Steve wakes up early every m orning because he went to work early.

fi Mark studied at the American University when he is in W ashington, D.C.
7. H e is telling the teacher why he did not have time to finish his homework.
8. H e put som e m oney in his account when h e goes to the bank.
9. Tom keeps studying hard because he intended to go to dental school.
10 She is where she is today because she worked hard when she was a student.
S kill 3 4 : USE HAVE A N D HAD CORRECTLY
T w o te n se s th a t are o fte n c o n fu s e d are th e p r e se n t p e r fe c t (have + past p a r tic ip le ) and

th e past p e r fe c t (had + p ast p a r tic ip le ). T h e s e tw o te n se s have c o m p le te ly d iffe r e n t uses,
a n d you s h o u ld u n d e r sta n d h o w to d iffe r e n tia te th e m .
WRITTEN EXPRESSION 203
T h e p r e se n t p e r fe c t ( have + p a st p a r ticip le ) refers to th e p e r io d o f tim e from the p ast

u n til the present.
Sue has lived in Los A ngeles for ten years.
T h is s e n te n c e m e a n s th a t S u e h as liv ed in L os A n g e le s for th e te n years u p to now . A c

c o r d in g to this s e n te n c e , S u e is still liv in g in L os A n g e le s.
B e ca u se th e p r e se n t p e r fe c t r efe rs to a p e r io d o f tim e from th e p ast u n til th e p r e se n t,

it is n o t c o r r e c t in a s e n t e n c e th a t in d ic a te s p ast only.
A t the start o f the nineteenth century, Thomas Jefferson has become* president o f the U nited States.
Every tim e Jim worked on his car, he has improved* it.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e p h ra se at the start o f the nineteenth century in d ic a te s th a t th e a c tio n

o f th e verb was in th e p ast only, b u t th e verb in d ic a te s th e p e r io d o f tim e fr o m th e p ast u n
til th e p r e se n t. S in c e th is is n o t lo g ic a l, th e s e n te n c e is n o t c o r r e c t. T h e verb in th e first
e x a m p le sh o u ld b e became. T h e s e c o n d e x a m p le in d ic a te s th a tjim worked o n h is ca r in th e
past, b u t h e im p r o v e d it in th e p e r io d fr o m th e p ast u n til th e p r e se n t. T h is id e a a lso is n o t
lo g ic a l. T h e verb in th e s e c o n d e x a m p le s h o u ld b e th e sim p le p a st improved.
T h e p ast p e r fe c t ( had + past p a r tic ip le ) refers to a p e r io d o f tim e that started in the past
and ended in the past, before something else happened in the past.
Sue had lived in Los A ngeles for ten years when she moved to San D iego.
T h is s e n t e n c e m e a n s th a t S u e liv e d in L os A n g e le s fo r ten years in th e p ast b e fo r e sh e

m o v e d to San D ie g o in th e past. S h e n o lo n g e r lives in L os A n g e le s.
B e c a u se th e p ast p e r fe c t b e g in s in th e past a n d e n d s in th e past, it is g e n e r a lly n o t c o r

rect in th e sa m e s e n t e n c e w ith th e p r e se n t te n se .
Tom had finished the exam when the teacher collects* the papers.
T h is s e n t e n c e in d ic a te s th a t Tom finished the exam (in th e past) a n d th a t a c tio n e n d e d when

the teacher collects the papers (in th e p r e se n t). T h is is n o t lo g ic a l, so th e s e n t e n c e is n o t c o r
rect. T o m fin is h e d th e e x a m (in th e p a st), a n d th e a c tio n o f fin is h in g th e e x a m e n d e d
w h en th e te a c h e r c o lle c te d th e p a p ers. T h e r e fo r e , th e s e c o n d verb in th is e x a m p le
s h o u ld b e in th e p ast te n se , collected.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e u ses o f th e p r e se n t p e r fe c t a n d th e p a st p e r fec t:
USING (HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE) AND (HAD + PAST PARTICIPLE)

TENSE FORM MEANING USE
present perfect hove + past participle past up to now not with a past tense**
* ' ' ■
past perfect had + past participle before past up to past not with a present tense
**Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence (see Skill 35).
E X E R C ISE 34: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s had o r have. U n d e r lin e th e verb s

tw ice a n d d e c id e i f th e m e a n in g s are lo g ica l. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t
(C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
C i I have always liked the designs that are on the cover.
I 2. Because her proposal had been rejected, she is depressed.
_____ 3 . T h e students have registered for classes before the sem ester started.
_____ 4. W hen she had purchased the car, she contacted the insurance agent.
_____ 5. H e said that he had finished the typing w hen you finish the reports.
_____ 6. She has enjoyed herself every time that she has gone to the zoo.
_____ 7. H e drove to the post office after he had finished preparing the package.
_____ 8. After the votes were counted, it had been determ ined that Steve was the winner.
_____ 9. Last night all the waiters and waitresses have worked overtime.
_____ 10. H e had fastened his seat belt before the airplane took off.
S k i l l 35: USE T H E CORRECT TENSE W IT H TIM E EXPRESSIONS
O fte n in s e n te n c e s in th e W ritten E x p ressio n se c tio n o f th e T O E F L te st th e r e is a tim e e x

p r e ssio n th at clearly in d ic a te s w h at verb te n se is n e e d e d in th e se n te n c e .
We m oved to New York in 1970.

We had left there by 1980.
We have lived in San Francisco since 1982.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e tim e e x p r e ssio n in 1 9 7 0 in d ic a te s th a t th e verb s h o u ld b e in th e

s im p le p ast (m oved). In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e rim e e x p r e s sio n by 1 9 8 0 in d ic a te s th at
th e v e rb s h o u ld b e in th e past p e r fe c t (h a d left). In th e th ird e x a m p le , th e tim e e x p r e ssio n
since 1982 in d ic a te s th a t th e verb sh o u ld be in th e p r e se n t p e r f e c t (h a v e lived).
S o m e a d d itio n a l tim e e x p r e ssio n s that clearly in d ic a te th e c o r r e c t te n se are ago, last,

a n d lately.
She got a job two years ago.

She started working last week.
She has worked very hard lately.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e tim e e x p r e s sio n two years ago in d ic a te s th a t th e verb s h o u ld b e in

th e sim p le p a st (got). In th e se c o n d e x a m p le , th e tim e e x p r e s sio n last week in d ic a te s th at
th e verb sh o u ld b e in th e sim p le past (started). In th e third e x a m p le , th e tim e e x p r e ssio n
lately in d ic a te s th a t th e verb sh o u ld b e in th e p r e se n t p e r fe c t (h a s w orked).
WRITTEN EXPRESSION 20S
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists tim e e x p r e s sio n s th a t in d ic a te th e c o r r e c t v e r b ten se:
USING CORRECT TENSES WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT
by (1920) (two years) ago since (1920)

: last (year)
' ' .r . ■" . .. - ... . - - ■•••.........;• V .•••• .•
in (1920)
EXERCISE 35: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a tim e e x p r e s s io n . C ircle th e

tim e e x p r e s s io n s a n d u n d e r lin e th e verb s tw ice. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r
rect (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
C 1. T he p h one rang incessantly (last night.)
__ I__ 2. They have finished contacting everyone(by 4:00 yesterday)
_____ 3. T h e Pilgrims have arrived in the New World in 1612.
_____ 4. Since the new law was passed, it has been difficult to estim ate taxes.
-------- 5. T he cashier put the m oney into the account two hours ago.
_____ 6. All the votes have been counted last week.
_____ 7. T h e students are writing many com positions lately.
----- -- 8. T h e Senate votes on the law to ban cigarette sm oking in public in 1990.
_____ 9. By the time the m ain course was served, all the guests had arrived and b een seated.
_____ 10. I had not d on e m uch m ore work since I talked to you on Wednesday.
S k il l 36: USE T H E C O R R EC T TENSE W IT H W ILL A N D W O U LD
C ertain c o m b in a tio n s o f v erb s are very c o m m o n in E n g lish . O n e is th e c o m b in a tio n o f

th e sim p le p r e se n t a n d will.
I know that they will arrive soon.

It is certain that he will graduate.
A n o th e r c o m b in a tio n th a t is q u ite c o m m o n is th e c o m b in a tio n o f th e s im p le p ast a n d

would.
I knew that h e would arrive.

It was certain that h e would graduate.
It is im p o r ta n t to stress th a t in th e c o m b in a tio n d isc u s se d h e r e , th e p r e s e n t s h o u ld b e

u sed w ith w ill a n d th e p ast s h o u ld b e u s e d w ith w ould; th e y g e n e r a lly s h o u ld n o t b e m ix e d .
T h e c o m m o n e rr o rs th a t m u st g e n e ra lly b e a v o id e d a re th e c o m b in a tio n o f th e p ast w ith

will a n d th e c o m b in a tio n o f th e p r e se n t w ith uiould.
I know that he would* arrive soon.
It was certain that h e m il* graduate.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e p r e se n t, know, is illo g ic a l w ith w ould. It can b e c o r r e c te d in tw o

d iffe r e n t ways.
I knew that he would arrive soon.
I know that he will arrive soon.
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e p ast, was, is illo g ic a l w ith wilL It c a n also b e c o r r e c te d in two

d iffe r e n t ways.
It was certain that he would graduate.
It is certain that he will graduate.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u d in e s th e u se o f te n se s w ith w ill a n d would:
USING CORRECT TENSES WITH W1U.AND W OULD
VERB MEANING USE
will after the present do not use with past
would after the past do not use with present
NOTE: There is a different modal would that Is used to make polite requests.This type of would is
often used with the present tense.
1 would like to know if you hare a pencil that 1 could borrow.
E X E R C ISE 36: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s w ill o r w ould. U n d e r lin e th e

verb s tw ice a n d d e c id e i f th e m e a n in g s are lo g ic a l. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are co r
r ec t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
I 1. H e knew that he will be able to pass the exam.
C 2. I think that I will leave tomorrow.
_____ 3. Paula did not say when she will finish the project.
_____ 4. Jake doubts that h e would have time to finish the project.
_____ 5. I know that I will go if I can afford i t
_____ 6. T h e police officer indicated that he would write a ticket if he has the time.
_____ 7. Students will often study in the library before they go to classes or before they go
hom e.
_____ 8. H e told m e that he thought h e will get the jo b in spite o f his lack o f education.
_____ 9. T h e executive vice president em phasizes at the conferences that the board would
not change its position.
_____ 10. Students will register for classes according to w ho has the highest num ber o f units.
EXERCISE (Skills 3 3 -3 6 ): U n d e r lin e th e verb s tw ice in e a c h o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s .

-------- 1. W hen he receives the m oney from the insurance com pany two days ago, he had
already rebuilt the house.
--------. 2. T h e position on the city council will be filled n ext week w hen the electorate votes.
-------- 3. T h e dentist fills the cavities every tim e the X-rays show that it was necessary.
-------- 4. W hen the bell rang, the students have left the class.
--------5. T h e space shuttle would be launched next m onth if the weather is good.
-------- 6. T h e special delivery package has arrived by n oon yesterday.
-------- 7. It is probable that the students who were tested yesterday were quite successful.
-------- 8. After forty-five students had signed up for the class, the class was closed.
-------- 9. T h e parking at the arena was inadequate for the trem endous n u m ber o f drivers who
will want to park there.
-------- 10. They have not returned to Rhode Island since they left in 1970.
TOEFL EXERCISE (Skills 3 3 -3 6 ): C h o o se th e lette r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
-------- 1■ In several of his paintings, Edward Hicks depicted the Quaker farm in Pennsylvania
A
where he spends his youth.
B C ET
-------- 2. Florida has become the twenty-seventh state in the United States on March 3, 1845.
A B C D
-------- 3. After last week's meeting, the advertising department quickly realized that the
A B
product will need a new slogan.
"C D~
-------- 4. John F. Kennedy's grandfather, John F. Fitzgerald, serves two terms as the mayor of
A B C
Boston in the beginning of the twentieth century.
D
--------5. Fort Ticonderoga, a strategically important fortification during the Revolution, had
“ A~
since been reconstructed and turned into a museum.
B C D
-------- 6. In making their calculations. Institute researchers assume that the least costly form
A B
o f energy would be used.
C ~D ~
7. A twentv-one-vear-old man became the second casualty yesterday when he loses

A— B C
control of his truck.
8. Most people had written with quill pens until pens with metal points becom e popular
“A B C D
in the middle of the nineteenth century.
9. In a determined drive to pare its debt, Time Warner is launching a stock offering
A B C
plan that would potentially raise $2.8 billion.
D
_10 The formula used in the study calls for either peroxide or metaldehyde, but
~JT B C
metaldehyde was not always available.
TT
TOEFL REMEW EXERCISE (Skills 1-36): C h o o se th e lette r o f th e word o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t b e s t c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1 . _____ in the United States declined from 3. Bats avoid running into objects b y .
twenty million in 1910 to nine million in high-frequency sounds and listening for
the 1970s. echoes.
(A) For a number of horses (A) the emission

(B) The number of horses (B) emitted
(C) When the number of horses (C) emitting
(D) That the number of horses (D) they emit
2. Because of his reservations about the 4. It has been estimated that if we intend to
issu e ,_____ refused to vote for it. stay above the starvation level,--------the
food supply.
(A) who
(B) and (A) so we will have to double
(C) which the senator (B) and it m ust double
(D) the senator' (C) which it must be doubled
(D) w e must double
Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct.
5 To determine an object’s force, the mass and speed of the object must be measure.
-------- A-------- B -C- D
6. The most common time for tornados to occur are in the afternoon or evening on a
A B C
hot, humid spring day.
D
7. Automakers Nissan and Ford and several aerospace research facilities in Great
A
Britain are working lately to apply active noise cancellation to entire cars and planes.
------- B------- C D
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
When a country in an early stage of development, investments in fixed capital

A B ~C~
are vital.
_ 9. John Chapman became famous in American folklore as "Johnny Appleseed” after he

A
plants apple trees throughout the northeastern part of the United States.
B C D
_10. Inasmuch he kept mostly to himself, the author of The Treasure o f the Sierra Madre
A B C
was known as “the mysterious B. Treuen.”
TT
PROBLEMS W IT H PASSIVE VERBS___________________________
S e n te n c e s in w h ic h th e err o r is an in c o r r e c t passive a re c o m m o n in th e W ritten E x p r e s

sio n se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test. You th e r e fo r e n e e d to b e a b le to r e c o g n iz e th e c o r r e c t
form o f th e passive a n d to b e a b le to d e te r m in e w h en a passive verb r a th e r th a n an active
verb is n e e d e d in a s e n te n c e .
T h e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n a n active a n d a passive verb is th a t th e su b je c t in a n active s e n
te n c e does th e a c tio n o f th e verb , a n d th e su b je ct in a passive s e n te n c e receives th e a c tio n o f
th e verb. T o c o n v e r t a s e n te n c e fr o m active to passive, two c h a n g e s m u s t b e m a d e . (1 )
T h e su b ject o f th e active s e n t e n c e b e c o m e s th e o b je c t o f th e passive s e n t e n c e , w h ile th e
o b je c t o f th e active s e n te n c e b e c o m e s th e su b je ct o f th e passive s e n te n c e . (2 ) T h e verb in
th e passive s e n te n c e is fo r m e d by p u ttin g th e h e lp in g v e rb bein th e sa m e fo r m as th e v e fb
in th e active s e n te n c e a n d th e n a d d in g th e p a st p a r tic ip le o f th is verb.
SUBJECT OBJECT
T h e first e x a m p le is an active s e n te n c e . T o c o n v e r t th is active s e n te n c e to a p assive s e n

te n c e , y o u m u st first m ak e th e su b je ct o f th e active s e n te n c e , Margaret, th e o b je c t o f th e
passive s e n te n c e w ith by. T h e o b je c t o f th e active s e n te n c e , letter, b e c o m e s t h e su b je c t o f
th e passive s e n te n c e . N e x t, th e passive verb c a n b e fo r m e d . B e c a u se wrote is in th e p a st
te n se in th e active s e n te n c e , th e p a st te n se o f be (was) is u s e d in th e p assive s e n te n c e .
T h e n th e verb xvrote in th e active s e n te n c e is c h a n g e d to th e p ast p a r tic ip le written in th e
passive s e n te n c e .
It s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t in a passive s e n te n c e , by + object d o e s n o t n e e d to b e in c lu d e d
to h a v e a c o m p le te s e n te n c e . T h e fo llo w in g are b o th e x a m p le s o f c o r r e c t s e n te n c e s .
T he letter was written yesterday by Margaret.

T he letter was written yesterday.
N o tic e th a t th e s e passive s e n te n c e s a r e c o r r e c t i f by Margaret is in c lu d e d (as in th e first e x

a m p le ) o r i f by Margaret is o m itte d (as in th e s e c o n d e x a m p le ) .
NOTE: Exercises to practice active and passive forms can be found in Appendix G at the
back of the text. You may want to complete these exercises before you begin Skill 37.
S k i l l 37: USE T H E CORRECT FORM OF T H E PASSIVE
O n e way th a t th e passive can b e te sted o n th e T O E F L te st is sim p ly w ith an in c o r r e c t fo rm

o f th e p assive. T h e fo llo w in g are e x a m p le s o f passive e rro rs th a t m ig h t a p p e a r o n th e
T O E F L test:
T he portrait was p a in tin g by a fam ous artist.
The project will fin is h e d by Tim.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e passive is fo r m e d in c o rr ec tly b e c a u se th e p ast p a r tic ip le p a in ted

sh o u ld b e u s e d rath er than th e p r e se n t p a rticip le p a in tin g . In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e
verb be h as n o t b e e n in c lu d e d , a n d so m e fo rm o f be is n e c essa ry for a passive verb . T h e
verb in th e s e c o n d s e n te n c e sh o u ld b e w ill be fin ish ed .
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e way to fo r m th e p assive correcd y:
THE FORM OFTHE PASSIVE
BE + past participic (BY + object)
E X E R C ISE 37: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s has a passive m e a n in g . U n d e r lin e tw ice

th e verb s th a t sh o u ld b e passive. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in cor-
r ect (I).
1 1. T h e boy had never be stung by a bee.
C 2. T h e suits were hung in the closet when they were returned from the cleaners.
3. M oney is len ding by the credit union to those w ho want to buy hom es.
4. T h e record had been chose by dancers near the jukebox.
fi T h e topic for your research paper should have been approved by your advisor.
_____ 6. T hat song has been playing over and over again by Steve.
7. T heir utility bills have been increased again and again.
8. T he patients who are too sick to sit up are being assisted by the orderlies.
9. T he offices were thoroughly clean last evening by the n igh t crew.
. .. 10. T h e car that was struck in the intersection yesterday is b ein g repaired today.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
S k i l l 38: R E C O G N IZ E A C T IV E A N D PASSIVE M EA N IN G S
W h e n t h e r e is n o o b je c t (w it h o r w it h o u t by) a fte r a v e rb , y o u m u s t l o o k a t t h e m e a n in g o f
th e s e n te n c e to d e t e r m in e i f t h e v e r b s h o u ld b e a c tiv e o r passive. S e n t e n c e s w it h a n in
c o r r e c t p a ssive v e r b a n d n o by + object to te ll y o u th a t th e v e r b s h o u ld b e p a ssive a r e th e
m o st d if f ic u lt p a ssive e r r o r s to re c o g n iz e o n th e T O E F L test. S t u d y th e e x a m p le s :
We m ailed the package at the post office.

T h e letter was m ailed by us today before noon.
T h e letter was mailed today before noon.
T h e letter m ailed* today before noon.
T h e f ir s t th re e e x a m p le s a b o v e a r e c o r r e c t . T h e firs t e x a m p le h a s th e a c tiv e v e r b m ailed

u sed w ith th e o b je c t package, t h e s e c o n d e x a m p le h as th e passive v e r b w as m ailed u s e d w ith
by usr, t h e t h ir d s e n t e n c e h a s th e p a ssive v e r b was m ailed u s e d w it h o u t a n o b je c t.
T h e f o u r th e x a m p le is th e ty p e o f passive e r r o r th a t a p p e a rs m o s t o f te n o n th e
T O E F L test. T h is ty p e o f s e n t e n c e h as th e fo llo w in g c h a ra c te ris tic s : (1 ) a n i n c o r r e c t p a s
sive v e r b th a t lo o k s lik e a c o r r e c t a c tiv e v e rb , a n d (2 ) n o by + object to te ll y o u t h a t a p a ssive
is n e e d e d . T o c o r r e c t t h e f o u r t h e x a m p le , th e a c tiv e v e rb n e e d s to b e c h a n g e d to th e p as
sive was m ailed.
T o d e t e r m in e th a t s u c h a s e n t e n c e is in c o r r e c t , y o u m u s t s tu d y t h e m e a n in g o f th e
su b je ct a n d th e v e rb . Y o u m u s t a sk y o u r s e lf i f th e s u b je c t does t h e a c t io n o f th e v e r b (s o a n
a ctive v e r b is n e e d e d ) o r i f t h e s u b je c t receives th e a c t io n o f th e v e r b (s o a p a ssiv e v e rb is
n e e d e d ). I n th e i n c o r r e c t e x a m p le , y o u s h o u ld stu d y th e m e a n in g o f th e s u b je c t a n d v e rb ,
the letter m ailed. Y o u s h o u ld ask y o u r s e lf i f a letter m ails its e lf (t h e le t t e r does t h e a c t i o n ) o r i f
s o m e o n e m ails a letter ( t h e le t t e r receives th e a c t io n o f b e in g m a ile d ). S i n c e a le t t e r d o e s
n o t m a il itse lf, t h e p a ssive is r e q u ir e d in th is s e n te n c e .
T h e f o llo w in g c h a r t o u d in e s th e d if f e r e n c e in m e a n in g b e tw e e n a c t iv e a n d p a ssive
verbs:
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE MEANINGS

ACTIVE The subject does the action of the verb.
PASSIVE The subject receives the action of the verb.
E X E R C I S E 38: E a c h o f t h e f o llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n t a in s a t le a st o n e a c t iv e v e r b ; h o w e v e r,
so m e o f th e v e rb s s h o u ld b e p a ssive. U n d e r l in e th e v e rb s tw ice. T h e n in d ic a t e i f t h e se n
te n ce s a r e c o r r e c t ( C ) o r i n c o r r e c t ( I ) .
— !— 1. T h e car parked in a no-parking zone.
—_ 2. T he physics exam began just a few m inutes ago.
-------- 3. Everything to organize the picnic has already don e.
-------- 4. T he police investigated him because o f his unusual actions.
5. T he package containing the necessary sam ples has just sent.

6. The vacation to Europe will plan carefully before the scheduled departure date.
7. The coffee turned bitter w hen it left on the stove for so long.
8. The soccer gam e won in the closing m inutes.
9. The clothes m ade to rival the latest fashions o f the season.
10. W hen the roads are icy, the buses do not drive.
E X E R C I S E (S k ills 3 7 - 3 8 ): U n d e r l in e th e v e rb s tw ic e in th e f o llo w in g s e n te n c e s . T h e n in
d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s a re c o r r e c t ( C ) o r i n c o r r e c t ( I ) .
_____ 1. After the old radiator had be replaced, the travelers continued their cross-country
trip.
_____ 2. During the lightning storm, he struck in the head by a falling tree.
_____ 3. W hile I am on vacation, the pets should be feeds every m orning and evening.
_____ 4. A book being written now by a team o f writers will be published in the fall.
_____ 5. I found out that the real estate agent had already been leased the condom inium .
_____ 6. The hou se that Mrs. Martin has always wanted to buy has just placed on the market.
_____ 7. The foundation should have been finishing by the construction workers before they
left the construction site.
_____ 8. We m ust leave that m oney in the checking account because the bills pay o n the first
o f the m onth.
_____ 9. The horses can ’t be taken out now because they have been rode for the past few
hours.
_____ 10. It is being announced by a presidential aide that a lawyer from Virginia has b een
nam ed attorney general.
T O E F L E X E R C I S E (S k ills 3 7 - 3 8 ): C h o o s e th e le t t e r o f th e w o r d o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th a t
b e s t c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
_discussed by the board of directors 3. The X-ray tre a tm e n ts---up to the

when it was proposed again by the th at he w as dism issed from the hospital,
supervisors. (A) gavedaiIy
(A) The problem had already (B) were given daily
(B) The problem is already (C) basically have given
(C) The problem had already been (D) daily had been given
(D) The problem has already
2. M uch of the carnage of elephants, giraffes,

and big c a ts _____ uncaring hunters.
(A) m ust com m it by
(B) m ust be com m itted
(C) m ust have com m itted
(D) m ust have been com m itted by
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
C h o o s e th e le t t e r o f t h e u n d e r lin e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f w o rd s t h a t is n o t c o r r e c t .
4. Particular issues that concern teenagers were covering in the half-hour program.
A B C D
5. Electrical impulses may also picked up by the optic nerve.

A B C D
6. Workers training for a specific job have a strong possibility of being replace by a
A B C D
machine.
7. On June 30, 1992, international timekeepers in Paris were added an extra second to
~A” B C
the da
D- ^
8. The report could not be turned in on time because all the needed work lost.
A B C D
. 9. In English these questions have be formed by changing the word order of a

A B C
statement, whereas in som e languages the word order remains the same.
D
.10. He was not able to define the process by which the body had protected by the
A B C D
immunologic system.
T O E F L R E V IE W E X E R C IS E (S k ills 1-3 8): C h o o s e th e le t t e r o f t h e w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w o rd s th a t b e s t c o m p le te s t h e s e n te n c e .
1. _____ Big Dipper, a seven-star 3. impressive chapter in the book was

constellation in the shape of a cup, is part the chapter on Stuart’s scientific theories.
of Ursa Major.
(A) It was the most
(A) The (B) The most
(B) It is the (C) Most
(C) With the (D) Most of the
(D) That the
2. The Military Academy at West P oint--------

on the west bank o f the Hudson River,
north of New York City.
(A) located
(B) is located
(C) which is located
(D) whose location is
C h o o s e th e le t t e r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
--------4. The first fish have appeared on the earth approximately 500 million years ago.
A B C D
-------- 5. Only rarely sound waves are of a single frequency encountered in practice.
A B C D
--------6. Cameos can be carved not only from onyx and sardonyx or from agate.
A B ~C~ TF
-------- 7. Although most of the wild horses in the western range have already been rounded
A B
up, t h e r :O St r e m o t e t h e a r e a , t h e g r e a t e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w i l d h o r s e s c a n s t i l l b e
C D
found.
8. During this period, $206 was spend annually on food by families in the lower third
~~A B£ D
income bracket.
_ 9. The dangers of noise are, unfortunately, not as clear-cut than are those from
A ~B C
most other health hazards.
D
_10. In a recent survey of Americans, more than 75 percent expressed the view that the
A B
government it should take a more active role in health care.
PROBLEMS W IT H N O U N S .
T h e sa m e types o f p ro b le m s w ith n o u n s a p p e a r o fte n in th e W r it t e n E x p re s s io n s e c tio n o f

th e T O E F L test. Y o u s h o u ld b e f a m ilia r w ith th e s e p r o b le m s so th a t y o u w ill re c o g n iz e
th e m easily. Y o u s h o u ld b e a b le to d o th e f o llo w in g : (1 ) use th e c o r r e c t s in g u la r o r p lu r a l
n o u n , ( 2 ) d is tin g u is h c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n t a b le n o u n s , (3 ) re c o g n iz e i r r e g u la r s in g u la r
a n d p lu r a l n o u n s , a n d (4 ) d is tin g u is h th e p e rs o n fro m th e th in g .
S k ill 39: USE T H E CORRECT S IN G U LA R O R PLURAL N O U N
A p r o b le m th a t is c o m m o n in th e W r it t e n E x p re s s io n s e c tio n o f t h e T O E F L test is a sin

g u la r n o u n u s e d w h e r e 'a p lu r a l n o u n is n e e d e d , o r a p lu r a l n o u n u se d w h e r e a s in g u la r
n o u n is n e e d e d .
On the table there were many dish*.

- The lab assistant finished every tots*.
I n th e f ir s t e x a m p le , m any in d ic a te s th a t th e p lu r a l dishes is n e e d e d . I n t h e s e c o n d e x a m
p le , every in d ic a t e s th a t t h e s in g u la r lest is n e e d e d .
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
I n t h e W r i t t e n E x p r e s s io n s e c tio n o f t h e T O E F L test, y o u s h o u ld w a tc h v e r y c a r e f u lly

f o r k e y w o rd s , s u c h as each, every, a, one, a n d single, th a t i n d ic a t e t h a t a n o u n s h o u ld b e sin
g u la r. Y o u s h o u ld a lso w a tc h c a r e f u lly f o r s u c h k e y w o rd s a s m any, several, both, vario u s, a n d
two ( o r a n y o t h e r n u m b e r e x c e p t one) th a t in d ic a t e th a t a n o u n s h o u ld b e p lu r a l.
T h e f o llo w in g c h a r t lists th e k e y w o rd s th a t in d ic a t e to y o u w h e t h e r a n o u n s h o u ld b e
s in g u la r o r p lu r a l:
KEYWORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS
For Singular Nouns each every single one a
For Plural Nouns both two many several various
E X E R C I S E 39: E a c h o f t h e f o llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n t a in s a t lea st o n e k e y w o r d to te ll y o u

i f a n o u n s h o u ld b e s in g u la r o r p lu r a l. C ir c le th e k e y w o rd s . D r a w a rro w s to t h e n o u n s
th e y d e s c rib e . T h e n in d ic a t e i f th e s e n te n c e s a re c o r r e c t ( C ) o r in c o r r e c t ( I ) .
i y i y
I 1. T h e autom otive shop stocked (man)) part for the (various) types o f H ondas.
2. (Every) receipt must be rem oved from the cashier’s drawer and tallied.
3. T h e salesclerk dem onstrated various additional way that the m achine could be used.
4. T h e woman fou n d it difficult to believe that both o f the piece o f jew elry had
disappeared.
5. T he unhappy man becam e m ore and m ore discouraged with each passing days.
6. An exten d ed cruise w ould be a nice way to spend a vacation on e days. ,
7. T he m anager was surprised that not a single worker was available on Tuesday.
8. T h e h ou sekeep er cleaned the room and took two o f the occupant's dress to the
laundry.
9. W hen the first bill was defeated, the Senate im m ediately began work on a different
bills.
10. T here were several b oxes in the cupboard, and each box contained a dozen glasses.
S k il l 40: D IS T IN G U IS H C O U N T A B L E A N D U N C O U N T A B L E NOUNS
I n E n g lis h n o u n s a re c la s s ifie d as c o u n ta b le o r u n c o u n t a b le . F o r c e r t a in q u e s tio n s o n th e

T O E F L test, it is n e c e s s a r y to d is tin g u is h c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n t a b le n o u n s in o r d e r to
u se th e c o r r e c t m o d if ie r s w ith th e m .
As th e n a m e im p lie s, c o u n ta b le n o u n s are n o u n s th at c a n b e c o u n te d . C o u n ta b le
n o u n s can c o m e in q u a n titie s o f o n e , o r two, o r a h u n d r e d , e tc . T h e n o u n book is c o u n t
ab le b e c a u se y o u can have o n e b o o k o r several book s.
U n c o u n ta b le n o u n s , o n th e o th e r h a n d , are n o u n s th a t c a n n o t b e c o u n te d b e c a u se
th ey c o m e in so m e in d e te r m in a te q u an tity o r m ass. A n o u n su c h as m ilk o r happiness ca n
n o t b e c o u n te d ; you c a n n o t have o n e m ilk o r tw o m ilk s, a n d y o u c a n n o t fin d o n e h a p p i
n e ss o r two h a p p in e ss e s . U n c o u n ta b le n o u n s are o fte n liq u id item s, su c h as water, oil, o r
sham poo. U n c o u n ta b le n o u n s can also refer to abstract id ea s, su c h as security, frien d sh ip , o r
hope.
It is im p o r ta n t fo r you to r e c o g n iz e th e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n t
a b le n o u n s w h e n y o u c o m e across su ch key w ord s as m u ch a n d many.
H e has seen much* foreign films.

H e d id n ’t have many* f u n at the movies.
In th e first e x a m p le , m uch is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se film s is c o u n ta b le . T h is s e n te n c e s h o u ld say

m any foreig n film s . In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , m any is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se f u n is u n c o u n ta b le .
T h is s e n t e n c e sh o u ld say m uch fu n .
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e key w ord s th a t in d ic a te to y o u w h e th e r a n o u n sh o u ld b e

c o u n ta b le o r u n c o u n ta b le :
KEYWORDS FOR COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
For Countable Nouns many number few fewer
For Uncountable Nouns much amount little less
E X E R C ISE 40: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at lea st o n e k ey w ord to tell y o u

i f a n o u n sh o u ld b e c o u n ta b le o r u n c o u n ta b le . C ircle th e key w ords. D raw arrow s to th e
n o u n s th e y d e sc r ib e . T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
r . .
— x—1. H e received (little) notice that the bill would have to be paid in full.
2. T he police had (few) opportunities to catch the thief who had com m itted a large
(am ount) o f crimes.
-------- 3. You will have fewer problem s with your incom e taxes if you get professional help.
-------- 4. After the strike, the company dismissed many em ployees.
-------- 5. Because the bottom corner o f the pocket was torn, m uch coins fell out.
-------- 6. Since he bought the new adapter, he has had less trouble with the m achine.
--------7. T here are much new items to purchase before leaving, and there is such a short
am ount o f time.
8. The less time you take on the assignm ent, the less pages you will com plete.
9. A few soldiers w ho had been in heavy com bat were brought back for a little rest.
10. It is better to go sh opp in g in the late evening because there are less p eo p le in the
market, and you can accom plish a num ber o f tasks in a short period o f time.
S k il l 4 1: R E C O G N IZ E IRREGULAR PLURALS OF N O U N S
M any n o u n s in E n g lish h ave irreg u la r p lu rals, an d th e se irreg u la r fo r m s c a n c a u se c o n fu

sio n in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L test. T h e irr eg u la r fo r m s th a t are
th e m o st p r o b le m a tic are p lu ral fo r m s th a t d o n o t e n d in 5.
D ifferent criteria was* used to evaluate the performers.
In this e x a m p le th e plu ral n o u n criteria lo o k s sin g u la r b e c a u se it d o e s n o t e n d in s; you

m ig h t in c o r r e c tly a ssu m e th a t it is sin g u la r b e c a u se th e r e is n o fin al 5. H ow ever, criteria is a
plu ral n o u n , so th e sin g u la r verb w as used is in c o r r e c t. T h e verb sh o u ld b e th e p lu ra l fo r m
were used.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e irr eg u la r plu rals th at y o u sh o u ld b e c o m e fa m ilia r with:
IRREGULAR PLURALS
Vowel change man / men foot 1feet goose / geese

woman / women tooth 1teeth mouse / mice
Add -en child / children ox / oxen
Same as singular deer / deer salmon / salmon trout / trout

fish / fish sheep / sheep
-is ---- »--ES analysis / analyses diagnosis / diagnoses synthesis / syntheses

axis / axes hypothesis / hypotheses thesis / theses
crisis / crises parenthesis 1parentheses
Ends in -A bacterium / bacteria datum / data criterion / criteria
curriculum 1curricula phenomenon / phenomena
-US —► -/ alumnus / alumni fungus / fungi stimulus / stimuli
bacillus / bacilli nucleus / nuclei syllabus / syllabi
cactus 1cacti radius / radii
NOTE: Additional exercises to practice these irregular plurals of nouns appear in

Appendix H at the back of the text. You may want to complete these exercises before you
begin Exercise 4 1.
E X E R C ISE 41: Each o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at lea st o n e n o u n w ith an ir r e g u

lar plu ral. C ircle th e n o u n s w ith irreg u la r plurals. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r
r ec t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (1).
1. (Parentheses)is n eed ed around that expression.
< 2. He wants to go on a fishing trip this weekend because he has heard that the (fish) are
running.
3. The syllabi for the courses is included in the packet o f materials.
4. T he diagnosis that h e heard today were not very positive.
5. T he crisis is not going to be resolved until som e o f the pressure is relieved.
6. All o f the alumni are attending the reception at the president’s house.
7. A flock o f geese were seen heading south for the winter.
8. T he teeth in the back o f his m outh needs to be capped.
9. The fungi has spread throughout the garden.
10. T he sheepdog is chasing after the sheep which are heading over the hill.
S k i l l 42: D IS T IN G U IS H TH E PERSON FROM T H E T H IN G
N o u n s in E n g lish can r efe r to p e r so n s or th in g s. S o m e tim e s in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n

s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L test th e p e r so n is u s e d in p la c e o f th e th in g , o r th e th in g is u s e d in
p la c e o f th e p e r so n .
Ralph Nader is an authorization* in the field o f consum er affairs.

T here are many jo b opportunities in accountant*.
In th e first e x a m p le , authorization is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se authorization is a th in g an d R alph

N a d e r is a p e r so n . T h e p e r so n authority sh o u ld b e u s e d in th is s e n t e n c e . In th e s e c o n d e x
a m p le , acco u n ta n t is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se accountant is a p e r so n a n d th e fie ld in w h ic h an ac
c o u n ta n t w orks is accounting. T h e th in g accounting sh o u ld b e u se d in th is s e n te n c e .
T h e fo llo w in g ch a rt o u tlin e s w h a t you sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t th e p e r s o n o r thing:
PERSON OR THING
1. It is common to confuse a person with s thing in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL
test.
2. This type of question generally appears near the end of the Written Expression section.
♦
WRITTEN EXPRESSION 2 19
E X E R C ISE 42: S o m e o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in in c o rr ec tly u s e d persons o r things.

C ircle th e in c o r r e c tly u s e d w ord s. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r
rect (I ).
1. In the evening he relaxes in front o f the fire and writes lo n g (p o e ts)
2. Service in the restaurant was slow because o n e cook had called in sick.
3. T h e sculpture worked from sunrise until sunset o n his new project.
4. She has received several awards for her research in engineer.
5. T he econom ist's radical views were printed in a colum n in the Sunday newspaper.
6. You must have remarkable looks to work as a m odel for Vogue.
7. H e had several critics to offer about the new play.
8. T h e gardener worked feverishly after the frost to save as many plants as possible.
9. T h e com pany hired a statistic to prepare marketing studies for the new product.
10. T h e fam ous acting has appeared in m ore than fifty Broadway plays.
E X E R C ISE (S k ills 3 9 - 4 2 ) : S tu d y th e n o u n s in th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . T h e n in d ic a te i f

th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
-------- 1. T h e professor d oes not give many exam in chem istry class, but the on es sh e gives are
difficult.
-------- 2. His thesis includes an analyses o f the hypotheses.
-------- 3. It was his dream to be a musical in the New York Philharm onic.
-------- 4. For the reception, the caterers prepared a large amc unt o f food to serve a large
num ber o f people.
-------- 5. Many job opportunities exist in the field o f nurse if you will accept a low-paying
position.
-------- 6. For each business trip you make, you can choose from many d ifferen t airlines.
-------- 7. T h e stim ulus for his career change is his acknow ledgm ent that he is in a d ead-end
job .
-------- 8. She wants to undergo a series o f treatments, but she thinks it costs a little too m uch
money.
-------- 9. T he television producer that was shown last nigh t on the CBS network from 9:00 to
11:00 was o n e o f the best shows o f the season.
_____ 10. Various sight-seeing excursion were available from the tourist agency.
T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 3 9 - 4 2 ) : C h o o se th e lette r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t is n o t c o rr ec t.
_____ 1. As a compilation of useful details, a weekly magazine commends itself in several

-------- A-------- B C
respect.
D
_____ 2. Through aauaculture, or fish farming, more than 500 million tons of fish
A B
are produced each years.
C ~ET"
_____ 3 The legal system has much safeguards to protect the right o f a defendant to an
A B C
impartial jury.
D
_____ 4. The mystery bookstore was largely a phenomena of the last decade.
~A~ B C D
_____ 5 . The Song o f Hiawatha, by Longfellow, tells the story o f the Indian heroism who
A B C
married Minehaha.
. 6. Uranus is the seventh planets from the Sun.

a ! c d
. 7. The sycamore has broad leaves with a large amount of pointed teeth.
A B C D
8. The first of two such investigation requires the students to read continuously over a
A B
period of four hours.
C D
_ 9. A quantitative analysis, using both the computer and quantitative techniques,

A B
are used to optimize financial decisions.
C D
_10. To enter the FBI National Academy, an application must be between the ages of
A B C D
twenty-three and thirty-four.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T O E F L REV IEW E X E R C ISE (S k ills 1 -4 2 ): C h o o se th e lette r o f th e w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t b e st c o m p le te s th e se n te n c e .
. The population of the earth is increasing at

1. Presidential____held every four years on
a tremendous rate a n d ------------------out of
the first Tuesday after the first Monday in
control.
November.
(A) they have become
(A) electing
(B) are soon going to be
(B) elections are
(C) soon will be
(C) is elected
(D) why it will be
(D) elected and
2. Studies of carcinogenesis in animals can Starting in 1811, traders and

manufacturers were more easily able to
provide data o n --------in human
send goods upriver in ______ provided the
susceptibility.
necessary power to counteract the flow of
(A) differences are the waters.
(B) that differences are
(C) differences have (A) steamboats
(D) differences (B) which
(C) that
3. Those who favor the new law say that the (D) that steamboats
present law does not set spending limits on
lobbyists' gifts to politicians, n o r --------
statewide funds.
(A) it limits
(B) limits it
(C) does it limit
(D) does it
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th at is n o t c o r r e c t.
_____ 6. Temperature indicates on a bimetallic thermometer by the amount that the

A B C D
bimetallic strip bends.
_____ 7. Many of the food consumed by penguins consists of fish obtained from the ocean.
A B C D
_____ 8. Before the newspaper became widespread, a town crier has walked throughout a
A "B C"
village or town singing out the news.
D
_____ 9. All of NASA's manned spacecraft project are headquartered at the Lyndon B.
A B C D
Johnson Space Center in Houston.
.10. Fungi cause more serious plant diseased than do other parasites.
A B C D
PROBLEMS W IT H P R O N O U N S __________________ ____________
P r o n o u n s are w ord s, su ch as he, she, o r it, that take th e p la c e o f n o u n s. W h e n y o u s e e a

p r o n o u n in th e W ritten E x p ressio n se c tio n o f th e T O E FL test, y o u n e e d to c h e ck th a t it
serv es th e c o r r e c t fu n c tio n in th e s e n te n c e (as a su b ject o r o b ject, fo r e x a m p le ) a n d that
it a g r ee s w ith th e n o u n it is rep la cin g . T h e fo llo w in g p r o n o u n p r o b le m s are th e m o st
c o m m o n o n th e T O E FL test: (1) d istin g u ish in g su b ject a n d o b je c t p r o n o u n s , (2) d istin
g u ish in g p o sse ssiv e p r o n o u n s an d possessive adjectives, a n d (3 ) c h e c k in g p r o n o u n refer
e n c e fo r a g r e e m e n t.
S k ill 43: D IS T IN G U IS H SUBJECT A N D OBJECT PR O N O U N S
S u b ject a n d o b je c t p r o n o u n s can b e c o n fu se d o n th e T O E FL test, so y o u sh o u ld b e able

to r e c o g n iz e th e se tw o types o f p ro n o u n s:
SUBJECT OBJECT
/ me
you you
he him
she her
it it
we us
they them
A su b je ct p r o n o u n is u sed as th e su b ject o f a verb. A n o b je c t p r o n o u n can b e u sed as the

o b je c t o f a verb o r th e o b je c t o f a p r e p o sitio n . C o m p a re th e fo llo w in g two se n te n c e s .
Sally gave the book to John.

\ s'S
She gave it to him.
In th e s e c o n d s e n te n c e th e su b ject p r o n o u n she is r e p la c in g th e n o u n Sally. T h e o b je c t o f

th e verb it is r ep la c in g th e n o u n book, a n d th e o b je c t o f th e p r e p o sitio n h im is r ep la c in g
th e n o u n Jo h n . *•
T h e fo llo w in g are e x a m p le s o f th e types o f su b ject o r o b je c t p r o n o u n erro rs th a t you
m ig h t se e o n th e T O E FL test.
Him* and the girl are going shopping.

T he gift was intended for you and I*.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e o b je c t p r o n o u n him is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th is p r o n o u n serv es as

th e su b ject o f th e se n te n c e . T h e o b ject p r o n o u n him sh o u ld b e c h a n g e d to th e su b ject
p r o n o u n he. It ca n b e d ifficu lt to r e c o g n iz e that him is th e su b ject b e c a u se th e verb are has
a d o u b le su b ject, h im a n d girl. In th e se c o n d e x a m p le , th e su b ject p r o n o u n I is in c o r r e c t
b e c a u se th is p r o n o u n serv es as th e o b ject o f th e p r e p o sitio n for. T h e su b je ct p r o n o u n I
sh o u ld b e c h a n g e d to th e o b je c t p r o n o u n me. It ca n b e d ifficu lt to r e c o g n iz e th a t / is th e
o b je c t o f th e p r e p o sitio n f o r b e c a u se th e p r e p o sitio n fo r h a s two objects: th e c o r r e c t o b
j e c t you a n d th e in c o r r e c t o b je c t I.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
EX E R C ISE 43: E a ch o f t h e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at least o n e su b je c t o r o b je c t p r o

n o u n . C ir cle th e p r o n o u n s . T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t
(I).
— 1. T he worst problem with (it) is that (he) cannot afford (it)
— !— 2. (They) saw Steve and (T) at the m ovies last night after class.
-------- 3. Perhaps you would like to g o to the seminar with they and their friends.
-------- 4. T he m other took her son to the doctor’s office because h e was feelin g sick.
-------- 5. I did not know that you and her were working together on the project.
-------- 6. She did not buy the sweater because it had a small hole in it.
7. T he man lead in g the sem inar gave me all the inform ation I n eed ed to make a
decision.
8. T h e cards connectin g the com puter to its printer need to be replaced before them
wear down.
9. H e is goin g to the party with you and me if you do not m ind.
10. You and her ou gh t to return the books to the library because they are already
overdue.
S k ill 44: D IS T IN G U IS H POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES A N D P R O N O U N S

P ossessive a d jectiv es a n d p r o n o u n s b o th sh ow w h o o r w h at “o w n s ” a n o u n . H o w ev er, p o s
sessive a d jectiv es a n d p o sse ssiv e p r o n o u n s d o n o t have th e sa m e fu n c t io n , a n d t h e s e tw o
k in d s o f p o sse ssiv e s can b e c o n fu s e d o n th e T O E F L test. A p o sse ssiv e a d je c tiv e d e sc r ib e s a
n o u n : it m u st b e a c c o m p a n ie d by a n o u n . A p ossessive p r o n o u n takes th e p la c e o f a n o u n :
it c a n n p t b e a c c o m p a n ie d by a n o u n .
1 t
T hey lent m e their book.
ADJECTIVE
T hey lent m e theirs.

PRO N O U N
N o tic e th a t in th e first e x a m p le th e p o ssessiv e ad jective their is a c c o m p a n ie d by th e n o u n

book. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le th e p o sse ssiv e p r o n o u n iheirs is n o t a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n o u n .
T h e s e e x a m p le s sh o w th e typ es o f e rro rs th a t are p o s sib le w ith p o sse ssiv e a d je c tiv e s
a n d p o sse ssiv e p r o n o u n s o n th e T O E F L test.
Each m orning they read theirs* newspapers.

C ould you give m e your*}
In th e first e x a m p le , th e p ossessive p r o n o u n theirs is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it is a c c o m p a n ie d

by th e n o u n newspapers, an d a p o ssessiv e p r o n o u n c a n n o t b e a c c o m p a n ie d by a n o u n . T h e
p o ssessiv e a d jectiv e their is n e e d e d in th e first e x a m p le . In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e p o s
sessive a d jectiv e y o u r is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it is n o t a c c o m p a n ie d by a n o u n , a n d a p o sses
sive a d jectiv e m u st b e a c c o m p a n ie d by a n o u n . T h e p o sse ssiv e p r o n o u n yours is n e e d e d in
th e s e c o n d e x a m p le .
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e p o sse ssiv e s an d th e ir uses:
POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE
ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
my mine
your yours
his his
her hers
its
our ours
their theirs
must be accompanied by a noun cannot be accompanied by a noun
E X E R C ISE 44: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at le a s t o n e p o ssessiv e p r o n o u n

or ad jective. C ircle th e p ossessives in th e se se n te n c e s . T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are
I 1. If she borrows(ycmr) coat, then you should be able to borrow (her)
C 2. Each pot and pan in (hëî) kitchen has (its) own place on the shelf.
_____ 3. Mary and Mark invited theirs parents to see their new apartment.
_____ 4. W hen my room mate paid her half o f the rent, I paid m ine.
_____ 5. All students need to bring theirs own pencils and answer sheets to the exam.
_____ 6. All her secretaries are working late tonight to finish her report.
_____ 7. T he horse trotting around the track won its race a few m inutes ago.
_____ 8. Before the report is finalized, the inform ation in their notes and our m ust be
proofed.
_____ 9. She worked all day cooking food and making decorations for her son ’s birthday
party.
_____ 10. T he weather in the m ountains this w eekend will be extrem ely cold, so please take
yours heavy jackets.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
S k ill 45: C H E C K P R O N O U N REFERENCE FOR AG R EEM EN T
A fter y o u have c h e c k e d th a t th e su b je ct a n d o b je c t p r o n o u n s a n d th e p o sse ssiv e s are u sed

correctly, y o u sh o u ld a lso c h e c k e a c h o f th e se p r o n o u n s a n d p o sse ssiv e s fo r a g r e e m e n t.
T h e fo llo w in g are e x a m p le s o f e rro rs o f th is type th at y o u m ig h t fin d o n th e T O E F L test:
T h e boys will cause trouble if you let him*.

Everyone m ust give their* nam e.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e sin g u la r p r o n o u n h im is in c o r r e c t b e c a u s e it r e fe r s to th e plu ral

n o u n boys. T h is p r o n o u n s h o u ld b e r e p la c e d w ith th e p lu ra l n o u n them. In th e s e c o n d e x
a m p le , th e p lu ra l p o ssessiv e a d jectiv e their is in c o r r e c t b e c a u s e it r efe rs to th e sin gu lar
everyone. T h is a d jectiv e s h o u ld b e r e p la c e d w ith th e sin g u la r his o r his or her.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s w h at y o u s h o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t c h e c k in g p r o n o u n
r e fe r e n c e :
PRONOUN AGREEMENT
1. Be sure that every proncun and possessive agrees with the
th< noun it refers to.
A r,[l:
2. You generally check back in the sentence for agreement.
E X E R C ISE 45: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at le a s t o n e p r o n o u n o r p o sses

sive. C ir cle th e p r o n o u n s a n d p o ssessiv es. D raw arrow s to th e n o u n s th e y r efe r to. T h e n
in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
— !— 1■ If a person really wants to succeed, (they) must always work hard.
C 2. If you see the students from the math class, could you return (their) exam papers to
(them?)
3. Som e friends and I w ent to see a movie, and afterwards we wrote a critique about
them.
4. If you have a problem , you are welcom e to discuss it with m e before you u y to
resolve them.
5. I know you had a terrible time last week, but you m ust try to forget about it.
6. At the start o f the program , each student n eeds to see his advisor about his schedule.
7. In spite o f its small size, these video recorders produce excellen t tapes.
8. W hatever the situation, you should reflect profoundly abou t them before com ing to
a decision.
9. T he p eop le 1 admire m ost are those who m anage to solve their own problems.
10. If anyone stops by w hile I am at the m eeting, please take a m essage from them.
E X ER C ISE (Sk ills 4 3 - 4 5 ) : C ircle th e p r o n o u n s a n d p ossessives in th e fo llo w in g se n

te n c e s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t ( I ) .
_____ 1. H elicopters are being used m ote and m ore in em ergency situadons because o f its
ability to reach out-of-the-way places.
_____ 2. The worker was fired by the chem ical com pany because his refused to work with
certain dangerous chemicals.
_____ 3. If you have car trouble while driving on the freeway, you should pull your car over to
the side o f the freeway and wait for help.
_____ 4. The administration will n o t install the new security system because they cost so
much.
_____ 5. Some parents prefer to send their children to private schools because they believe
the children will be better educated.
_____ 6. The air traffic controller was not blam ed for the accident because he had strictly
follow ed the correct procedures.
_____ 7. The new student has b een assigned to work on the project with you and I.
_____ 8. Many different kinds o f aspirin are on the market, but theirs effectiveness seem s to
be equal.
_____ 9. You must bring a tent and a sleep in g bag for your trip to the Sierras.
_____ 10. Each o f the team m em bers had their new uniform.
T O E F L E X ER C ISE (S k ills 4 3 - 4 5 ) : C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord or g r o u p o f

w ord s th at is n o t co rr ec t.
_____ 1. Superman made their com ic debut in 1938 in Action Comics.

A B- C D
_____ 2 Commercial letters of credit are often used to finance export trade, but them can
A B C
have other uses.
D
_____ 3 When children experience too much frustration, its behavior ceases to be integrated.
A B C D
_____ 4 On March 30, 1981, President Reagan was shot as his was leaving a Washington hotel.
A B C D
_____ 5. Although the destruction that it causes is often terrible, cyclones benefit a
-----X----- B
much wider belt than they devastate.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
6. President Andrew Jackson had an official cabinet, but him preferred the advice o f
A ~B C
his informal advisors, the Kitchen Cabinet.
D
7. After Clarence Day’s book Life w ith Father was rewritten as a play, they ran for
A B ~C~
six years on Broadway.
D
8. Almost half of the Pilgrims did not survive theirs first winter in the New World.
A B ~C D-
9. There was no indication from the Senate that he would agree with the decision made
A B ~C ~D ~
in the House.
_10. A baby learns the meanings of words as they are spoken by others and later uses him
~A~ B ~C~ ~D~
in sentences.
T O E F L REVIEW E X E R C ISE (S k ills 1 - 4 5 ) : C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n t e n c e .
1. ____worst phase of the Depression, more 3- Speech consists not m erely o f sounds but
than thirteen million Americans had no -------- that follow various structural
jobs. patterns.
(A) It was in the (A) o f organized sound patterns
(B) During the (B) organized sound patterns
(C) While the (C) that sound patterns are organized
(D) The (D) *n organizing sound patterns
2. When reading a book, you must keep your

point of view separate from the point o f
view i n _____ you are studying.
(A) that
(B) the material and
(C) the materials that
(D) the materials that are
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o f w o rd s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
_____ 4. The latest medical report indicated that the patient's temperature was near normal
A B
and their lungs were partially cleared.
~C~ D-
5. Most oxygen atom s have eight neutrons, but a small amount have nine or ten .
A ~B ~ C D
6. When Paine expressed his belief in independence, he praised by the public.

_A~ B C 5
____ 7. A vast quantity of radioactive material is made when does a hydrogen bomb explode.
A B C D
_____ 8. Genes have several alternative form , or alleles, which are produced by mutations.
A B C D
_____ 9. A star that has used up its energy and has lost its heat became a black dwarf.
~A~ IT C D
_____ 10. Each lines of poetry written in blank verse has ten syllables, which are alternately
A- B C D
stressed and unstressed.
PROBLEMS W IT H ADJECTIVES A N D ADVERBS______________
M any d iffe r e n t p r o b le m s w ith a d jectiv es a n d adverbs are p o ssib le in th e W ritten E xp res

sio n se c tio n o f d ie T O E F L test. To id e n tify th e s e p r o b le m s, y o u m u st first b e a b le to r e c
o g n iz e adjectives an d adverbs.
O fte n adverbs are fo r m e d by a d d in g -ly to ad jectives, a n d th e se -ly adverbs are very
easy to r e c o g n iz e . T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le s sh o w ad verb s that are fo r m e d by a d d in g -ly to
adjectives:
ADJECTIVE ADVERB
recent recently
public publicly
evident evidently
H ow ever, th e r e are m a n y ad verb s in E n g lish th a t d o n o t e n d in -ly. T h e s e ad verb s ca n b e

r e c o g n iz e d fr o m th eir m e a n in g s. T h e y can d e sc r ib e w hen so m e th in g h a p p e n s (often, soon,
later), how s o m e th in g h a p p e n s (fa st, hard, well), or where s o m e th in g h a p p e n s (here, there,
nowhere).
T h e r e are th r e e sk ills in v o lv in g a d jectiv es a n d adverbs th a t w ill h e lp y o u o n th e W rit
te n E x p ressio n se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test: (1 ) k n o w in g w h e n to u se ad jectiv es an d ad
verbs, (2) u s in g a d jectives ra th er th a n ad verb s after lin k in g verb s, a n d (3) p o s itio n in g
ad jectives an d adverbs correctly.
S kill 46: USE BASIC ADJECTIVES A N D ADVERBS CORRECTLY
S o m e tim e s in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test, ad jectives a re u s e d in

p lace o f adverbs, o r adverbs are u s e d in p la c e o f adjectives. A d jectiv es a n d ad verb s h ave
very d iffe r e n t u ses. A d jectives h ave o n ly o n e jo b : they d e sc r ib e n o u n s o r p r o n o u n s .
She is a beautiful w om an.

ADJ. NOUN
She is beautiful.
PRO ADJ
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
In th e first e x a m p le , th e a d je c tiv e bea u tifu l d e sc r ib e s th e n o u n w om an. In th e s e c o n d e x

a m p le , th e a d je c tiv e b e a u tifu l d e sc r ib e s th e p r o n o u n she.
A d verb s d o th r e e d iffe r e n t th in g s. T h e y d e sc r ib e verb s, a d jectiv es, o r o th e r adverb s.
f 1 ,
She sings beautifully.
VERB ADV.
I \ I t
She is a beautifully dressed woman.
ADV. ADJ. N OU N
I } I ^ I ^
She is a truly beautifully dressed woman.
ADV. ADV. ADJ. NOUN
In th e first e x a m p le , th e ad verb beautifully d e sc r ib es th e verb sings. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le ,

th e adverb beautifully d e sc r ib e s th e a d jectiv e dressed (w h ic h d e sc r ib e s th e n o u n w om an). In
th e th ird e x a m p le , th e ad verb truly d e sc r ib e s th e adverb beautifully, w h ic h d e sc r ib e s th e
ad jective dressed (w h ic h d e sc r ib e s th e n o u n woman).
T h e fo llo w in g are e x a m p le s o f in c o r r e c t s e n te n c e s as th ey m ig h t a p p e a r o n th e
T O E F L test.
. I t
They were seated at a largely* table.
NOUN
j I
T h e child talked quick* to her mother.
VERB ADJ.
I t
We read an extreme* long story.
ADJ. ADJ.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e ad verb largely is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th e a d je c tiv e large is n e e d e d to

d e sc r ib e th e n o u n table. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e ad jective quick is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se
th e adverb quickly is n e e d e d to d e sc r ib e th e verb talked. In th e last e x a m p le , th e ad jective
extreme is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th e adverb extremely is n e e d e d to d e sc r ib e th e a d je c tiv e long.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e im p o r ta n t in fo r m a tio n th at y o u s h o u ld r e m e m b e r

a b o u t th e b a sic u se o f a d jectiv es a n d adverbs:
BA SIC U SE O F A D JEC T IV ES A N D A D VERBS
ADJECTIVES ' A d je ctive s describe nouns o r pronouns.
ACWER&S A d ve rb s d escribe verbs, adjectives, o r o th e r adverbs.

EX E R C ISE 46: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s h a s at le a s t o n e a d je c tiv e o r ad verb . C ircle

th e ad jectiv es a n d adverb s, a n d la b e l th e m . D raw arrow s to th e w o r d s th e y d e sc r ib e . T h e n
in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
1. T h e m other was(pleasan ¿¡(surprised) w hen her daughter cam e to visit.

ADJ. ADJ.
i ^
2. T he salespeople (frequently) visit the East Coast for trade shows.
ADV. VERB
3. H e was driving an expensively sports car.
4. T here is a special program on television this evening.
5. She was chosen for the leading part because she sings so well.
6. T he car was n o t com plete ready at 3:00.
7. It was difficult to believe that what we read in the newspaper was a truly story.
8. Points will be subtracted for each incorrect answered question.
9. T he production m anager quietly requested a com pletely report o f the terribly

incident.
10. The children finished their hom ework quickly so they could watch television.
S k ill 47: USE ADJECTIVES AFTER L IN K IN G VERBS
G en er a lly an ad verb r a th e r th an an ad jective w ill c o m e d ir ec d y after a verb b e c a u se th e

adverb is d e sc r ib in g th e verb.
f
She spoke nicely.
1
VERB ADV.
In th is e x a m p le , th e verb spoke is fo llo w e d by th e adverb nicely. T h is ad verb d e sc r ib e s th e

v erb spoke.
H ow ever, y o u m u st b e v e ry c a re fu l i f th e verb is a lin k in g verb . A lin k in g v erb is fo l
lo w ed by an ad jective r a th e r th a n an adverb.
t 1
She looks nice.
SUB. ADJ.
In th is e x a m p le , th e lin k in g verb looks is fo llo w e d by th e ad jective nice. T h is ad jective d e

scrib es th e su b je c t she.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
You sh o u ld b e su re to u se a n a d je c tiv e ra th er th an an adverb a fter a lin k in g verb . B e

c a re fu l, h ow ever, b e c a u se th e a d jectiv e th a t g o e s w ith th e lin k in g verb d o e s n o t always d i
rectly fo llo w th e lin k in g verb.
1 I tl
H e seem s unusually nice.
SUB. adv. ADJ.
In this e x a m p le , th e a d je c tiv e nice, w h ic h d e sc r ib e s th e su b je c t he, is its e lf d e s c r ib e d by th e

adverb u n u su a lly. F rom th is e x a m p le , y o u sh o u ld n o tic e th a t it is p o s sib le to h a v e an a d
verb d irectly a fter a lin k in g verb , b u t o n ly i f th e ad verb d e sc r ib e s a n a d je c tiv e th a t follow s.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists c o m m o n ly u s e d U n king verb s a n d o u tlin e s th e d iffe r e n t u ses

o f ad jectives a n d ad verb s a fter reg u la r v erb s a n d lin k in g verbs:
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS AFTER VERBS
f '
(subject) + (regular verb) + (adverb)
A regular verb is followed by an adverb. The adverb describes the verb.
f _ ' V
(subject) + (linking verb) + (adjective)
A linking verb is followed by an adjective. The adjective describes the subject.
f ' I t I
(subject) + (linking verb) + (adverb) + (adjective)
It is possible that a linking verb is followed by an adverb and an adjective. The adverb describes
the adjective and the adjective describes the subject.
UNKING VERBS: appear feel seem

be look smell
become prove taste
EX E R C ISE 47: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at lea st o n e a d je c tiv e o r adverb.

C ircle th e a d jectiv es a n d ad verb s, a n d la b e l th e m . D raw arrow s to th e w o r d s th ey d e sc r ib e.
f ^ 1 ___v
J__ 1. T he parents seem (angrily) about the child’s report card.
ADV.
c 2. T h e speaker talked (knowingly) about (prehistoric) fossils.

ADV. ADJ.
___ 3. After she drank the lem onade, the cake tasted too sweetly to her.
___ 4. T h ro u g h o u t d in n e r we w ere b o re d because h e spoke incessantly.
5. Sam felt terribly depressed after the accident.

STRUCTURE ANDW RITTEN EXPRESSION
6. T h e n eighb or appeared calm in spite o f the fact that his house was on fire.
7. H e looked quite unhappily at the thought o f leaving his job.
8. Marla ju m p ed up quick w hen she heard the gunshot.
9. Even though we were not really hungry, the food sm elled delicious.
10. T h e history course that I took last sem ester proved m ore difficultly than I had
expected.
S k il l 48: P O S IT IO N ADJECTIVES A N D ADVERBS CORRECTLY
A d jectiv es a n d a d v erb s can a p p ea r in in c o r r e c t p o s itio n s in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c

tio n o f th e T O E F L test. T h e r e are tw o c o m m o n errors o f th is type th a t y o u sh o u ld bew are
of: (1 ) th e p o s itio n o f a d jectives w ith th e n o u n s th ey d e sc r ib e , a n d (2 ) th e p o s itio n o f ad
verb s w ith o b je c ts.
In E n g lish it is c o r r e c t to p la c e a o n e-w o rd a d jectiv e in fr o n t o f th e n o u n it d escrib es.
O n th e T O E F L test, h ow ever, an in c o r r e c t s e n te n c e m ig h t have an a d jectiv e after th e
n o u n it d e sc r ib es.
T he inform ation important* is on the first page.

N OU N ADJ.
In th is e x a m p le , th e a d jectiv e im p o rta n t sh o u ld c o m e b e fo r e th e n o u n inform ation, b e

c a u se im p o rta n t d e sc r ib e s inform ation.
A s e c o n d p r o b le m you s h o u ld b e aware o f is th e p o s itio n o f ad verb s w ith o b jects o f
verb s. W h e n a verb h a s an o b je c t, an adverb d e sc r ib in g th e v erb sh o u ld n o t c o m e b etw een
th e verb a n d its o b je c t.
H e has taken recently* an English course.

ADV. OBJECT
T h is e x a m p le is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se th e adverb recently c o m e s b e tw e e n th e verb has taken

a n d its o b je c t a n E n g lish course. T h e r e are m a n y p o ssib le c o r r e c tio n s fo r th is s e n te n c e .
Recently he has taken an English course.

He has recently taken an English course
H e has taken an English course recentiy.
You ca n s e e fr o m th e s e e x a m p le s th a t th ere are m an y p o ssib le c o r r e c t p o s itio n s fo r th e

ad verb . W h a t is im p o r ta n t fo r you to r em e m b e r is th a t an adverb th a t d e sc r ib es a verb
c a n n o t c o m e b e tw e e n th e verb a n d its ob ject.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e key p o in ts th a t y o u s h o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t th e p o si

tio n o f a d jectiv es a n d adverbs: p
• : ,■ •
■
THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES
A one-word adjecVve comes before the noun it describes. It does not come
directly after.
ADVERBS
An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb and
its object.
E X E R C ISE R S: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at least o n e a d je c tiv e o r adverb.

C ircle th e a d jectiv es an d adverb s, a n d la b el th em . D raw arrow s to th e w ord s th ey d e sc r ib e .
T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
I f ~ I ^
-------- 1. The store op en ed with a sale (fantastic)
ADJ.
— 2. The pharm acist has (S l w ^ ) filled our order (quickly)

ADV. ADV.
-------- 3. The political candidates expressed their opposing views.
-------- 4. T he lawyer has selected carefully a new case.
-------- 5. Frequently the coffee has tasted bitter.
-------- 6. The w edding reception was held at a restaurant expensive.
-------- 7. The salesclerk has often traveled to New York.
-------- 8. Following the failure o f the first set o f plans, the manager has altered subsequently
9. The students had to study many hours daily during the program intensive.
-------- 10. The naval officer was asked to transfer to a foreign country.
EX ER C ISE (S k ills 4 6 - 4 8 ) : C ircle th e ad jectives a n d adverbs in th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s
hT cT rre«°(I) ^ W° rdS * * * d eSC db e' T h e n in d ic a te i f t h e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) or
They wer= unable to see where their friends were sitting in the theater because o f
the lights dim.
2. After the com prehensive exam , she looked exhaustedly by the experience.
3. The project was remarkable close to being finished.
4. Mark always d oes his hom ework careful.

_____ 5 . T h e p ro g ra m proved far m o re in te re stin g th a n I h a d im a g in ed it w ould be.
_____ 6 . T h e stu d e n t h a d a tte n d e d regularly all th e lectu res in the series.
_____ 7. T h e p a tie n t b e cam e h ealth y a fte r th e o p e ratio n .
_____ 8 . T h e g ra n d p a re n ts speak p roudly a b o u t all th e ir offspring.
_____ 9 , T h e m a n a g e r seem ed certainly th a t the p ro je c t w ould b e fin ish ed u n d e r budget.
_____ 10. T h e firefig h te rs w orked feverishly, a n d they p u t o u t im m ediately the fire.
T O E F L E X E R C IS E (S k ills 4 6 - 4 8 ) : C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord or g r o u p o f

w o r d s th a t is n o t c o rr ec t.
1 M odem a rt is on display at the Guggenhein M useum , a building w ith an unusually

A------- T “ C D
design.
2 Bv the beginning of the 1980s fifteen states had adopted already no-fault insurance
------- A------- B C D
laws.
3. H eart attacks are fatally in 75 percent of o ccu rren ces.

A B C D
4 In spite o f a trem endous am ount of electronic gadgetry, a ir traffic control still

A B C
depends heavy on people.
D
5 Only recently have Gooden’s industrially designers and engineers been able to
-------- A B
optim ize W atertred’s unusual tread patterns for m ass p ro d u c tio n .
C ' D
6 . A baboon’s arm s appear as lengthily as its legs.

A B C D
7 A serious problem is how to com m unicate reliable w ith a subm erged subm arine.
---------- A---------- B C D
8 A m ericans are destroying rapidly wetlands, faster th an a n acre every two m inutes.
------ A------- ------ B C D
- 9. The c entral banking system of the U nited States consists of twelve b a rk s d istric t.
A B C D
JO. Telegraph service across the Atlantic was successful established in 1866.
A B C D
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
TOEFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1 -4 8 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f t h e w o rd o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th at b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1. Patty Berg, the top tournament winner in

2. with about fifteen tim es its weight in
women's g o lf,-------- eighty-three golf
air does gasoline allow the carburetor to
tournaments from 1935 through 1964.
run smoothly.
(A) she won
(A) It is mixed
(B) winning
(B) To mix it
(C) won
(C) When mixed
(D) who won
(D) Only when mixed
C h o o se th e lette r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
3. The Colorado River reaches their maximum height during April and May.
A B C D
4. Plant proteins tend to have few amino acids than proteins from animal sources
A B C ----------¡5----------
5. The Viking spacecraft has landed on Mars in July of 1976.

A B C "D
6. Admiral Byrd commanded airplane expeditions over both the Arctic or the
A B ~ o'
Antarctic.
— 7. The advertising campaign will be based on the recent completed study.

A B C D
_ 8. Coronary occlusion results from a disease in which fatty substances with a large
A B
amount of cholesterol is deposited in the arteries.
C D
- 9. Her money gave back as soon as she threatened to take the matter to court.
A B C D
-10. Other sites o f fossil discoveries throughout Wyoming, ranging from the fiery
A B
Tyrannosaurus rex to the milder Triceratops, have proven equally e x cite.
c D
MORE PROBLEMS W IT H A D JEC TIVES -------------------------------------
T h e p reviou s se c tio n d e a lt w ith variou s p r o b le m s rela ted to b o th a d jectives a n d adverbs.

T h is se c tio n d e a ls w ith a few p r o b le m s th a t are r ela ted o n ly to adjectives: (1 ) -ly a d jectiv es,
(2) p r e d ica te ad jectives, an d (3 ) -« ¿ a n d - in g adjectives.
S kill 49: R EC O G N IZE -LY ADJECTIVES
G en erally w h en a w ord e n d s in -ly in E n g lish , it is an adverb. H ow ever, th e r e are a few

w ords e n d in g in -ly th at are ad jectives, a n d th e se -ly ad jectives c a n cau se c o n fu s io n in th e
W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
i *
T he manager turned in his weekly report.
ADJ. NOU N
T h is e x a m p le is co rr ec t, b u t it ap p ears to b e in correct; it ap p ears that th e r e is an -ly adverb

in fro n t o f th e n o u n report. H ow ever, weekly is an adjective th at d e sc r ib es th e n o u n report.
T h e fo llo w in g ch a rt lists c o m m o n -ly ad jectives th at can a p p ea r in E nglish :
-LY ADJECTIVES
costly likely daily quarterly northerly

early lively hourly weekly easterly^
friendly lonely monthly yearly southerly
kindly manly nightly lo v e ly ___________ westerly
E X ER C ISE 49: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at least o n e ad jective o f adverb

e n d in g in -ly. C ircle th e -ly w ords, a n d la b e l th e m as e ith e r ad jectives o r adverbs. D raw ar
rows to th e w ord s they d e sc r ib e. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r
rect ( I ) .
i y
C i. Federal taxes are (yearly) taxes which must be paid every April.
ADV.
3. Do you want to go to the early movie or the lately movie?
4. She offered m e som e friendly advice about how to deal with the terribly problem .
5 Xhe quarterly reports need to be turned in at the next weekly m eeting.
6. He did not have a manly reaction to the negatively com m ents.
7. T he likely outcom e o f the purchase o f the costly car is that he will not be able to pay
his m onthly bills.
--------8. The days she spent at the beach house were lonely and solitarily.
-------- 9. She takes her daily m edication on a regularly schedule.
-------- 10. T he kindly neighbor paid hourly visits to her unhealthily friend.
S k ill 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
C ertain a d jectiv es a p p e a r o n ly in th e p r e d ic a te o f th e s e n te n c e ; th a t is, th e y a p p e a r after a

lin k in g verb su c h as be, a n d th ey c a n n o t a p p ea r d ir ec tly in fr o n t o f th e n o u n s th at th e y d e
scrib e.
T h e snake on the rock was alive.

T he alive* snake was lying on the rock.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e p r e d ic a te a d jectiv e alive is u sed c o rr ec tly a fter th e lin k in g verb

was to d e sc r ib e th e su b je c t snake. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e p r e d ic a te a d je c tiv e a live is
u se d in c o r r e c tly in fr o n t o f th e n o u n snake. In th is p o s itio n , th e a d jc c tiv e live s h o u ld be
u sed .
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists s o m e c o m m o n p r e d ic a te a d jectiv es a n d th e c o r r e s p o n d in g

fo r m s th a t can b e u se d in fr o n t o f th e n o u n :
PREDICATE ADJECTIVES
PREDICATE ADJECTIVES FORMS USED IN FRONT OF NOUN
alike (ike, similar

alive live, living
alone lone
afraid frightened
asleep sleeping
A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in
front of the noun that it describes.
E X E R C ISE 50: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a p r e d ic a te a d je c tiv e o r its re

la ted fo r m . C ircle th e p r e d ic a te a d jectiv es o r r e la te d fo r m s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n
— 0— 1. T he two brothers do n ot look at all (alike)
— !— 2. My friend brought the (alive) lobster to my house and exp ected m e to cook it.
-------- 3. Are you g o in g to be lo n e in the house tonight?
-------- 4. T he afraid child cried for his mother.
-------- 5. Everyone else was asleep by the tim e I arrived hom e.

6. We com pleted our two projects in a like manner.
7. All o f the crash victims were alive when they were found.
8. She tried to walk quietly by the asleep dogs without waking them.
9. Were you feelin g afraid w hen you heard the noise?
10. A ccording to the report, the president was shot by an alone gunm an.
S k i l l 5 1: USE -ED A N D -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
Verb fo r m s e n d in g in -ed a n d -in g c a n b e u sed as ad jectives. For e x a m p le , th e verb al ad jec

tives cleaned a n d cleaning c o m e fr o m th e verb to clean.
T he woman cleans the car.

VERB
1 *
The cfeonmgwoman u car.
worked on the
ADJECTIVE
T he woman put the cleaned car back in the garage.

ADJECTIVE
In th e first e x a m p le , cleans is th e verb o f th e se n te n c e . In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , cleaning is a

verbal ad jective d e sc r ib in g w om an. In th e third e x a m p le , cleaned is a verb al ad jective d e
scrib in g car.
V erbal ad jectives e n d in g in -ed a n d -in g c a n b e c o n fu s e d in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c
tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
T he cleaning* car . . .
T he cleaned* woman . . .
T h e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n an -ed a n d an -in g a d jective is sim ilar to th e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n

th e active a n d th e passive (se e Skills 3 7 an d 3 8 ). A n - in g a d jective (lik e th e a ctiv e) m e a n s
th at th e n o u n it d e sc r ib e s is doing-the a c tio n . T h e ab ove e x a m p le a b o u t th e cleaning ca r is
n o t c o r r e c t b e c a u se a car c a n n o t d o th e a c tio n o f c le a n in g : you c a n n o t say th a t a car cleans
itself. A n -ed a d jective (lik e th e p assive) m e a n s th a t th e n o u n it d e sc r ib e s is receiving th e ac
tio n fr o m th e verb. T h e ab ove e x a m p le a b o u t the cleaned w om an is n o t c o r r e c t b e c a u se in
th is e x a m p le a w om an c a n n o t r e c e iv e th e a c tio n o f th e verb clean: th is s e n t e n c e d o e s n o t
m e a n th a t someone cleaned the w om an.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T h e f o llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s t h e k e y i n f o r m a t io n th a t y o u s h o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t -ed

a n d -ing a d je c tiv e s :
-ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES

TYPE MEANING USE EXAMPLE
-. -iNC
,—■. ■
active
... - •
It does the action of the verb. . . . the happily playing children . . .
■ ■ ■■■■; ' r a ■: (The children ploy.)
-£D passive It receives the action of the verb. .. . the frequently played record . . .
(Someone plays the record.)
E X E R C I S E 51: E a c h o f t h e f o llo w in g se n te n c e s c o n ta in s e it h e r a n -ed o r a n -ing v e r b a l a d

je c tiv e . C ir c l e t h e v e r b a l a d je c tiv e s . D r a w a rro w s to th e w o rd s th e y d e s c rib e . T h e n in d i
c a te i f th e s e n te n c e s a re c o r r e c t ( C ) o r i n c o r r e c t ( I ) .
I I ^
-------- 1. The teacher gave a quiz o n the ju st (com pleting) lesson.
C I
—x_ 2. T here is a (f'asci n atin g)m ovie at the theater tonight.
-------- 3. They thought that it had been a very satisfied dinner.
-------- 4. The em pty b otd es are to the left, and the filling bottles are to the right.
----- 5. F o r lu n c h at the restau ran t she o rd ere d a m ixed salad.
-------- 6. T h e students thought that it was an interesting assignm ent
-------- 7. T he shoppers were im pressed by the reducing prices.
-------- 8. He can ’t afford to take lon g vacations to exotic places because he is a worked man.
-------- 9. I recently received several annoying phone calls from the insurance agent.
-------- 10. Today the bookkeeper is working on the unpaying bills.
E X E R C I S E ( S k ills 4 9 - 5 1 ): C ir c l e th e a d je c tiv e s in e a c h o f th e f o llo w in g s e n te n c e s . D r a w

a rro w s to th e n o u n s o r p r o n o u n s th e y d e s c rib e . T h e n in d ic a t e i f t h e s e n te n c e s a r e c o r r e c t
(C ) o r in c o rre c t ( I ) .
-------- 1. H er kindly words o f thanks made m e feel appreciating.
-------- 2. After the earthquake, assistance was sent to the dam aging areas.
-------- 3. Your view has som e validity; however, we do not have alike opin ion s o n the matter.
-------- 4. It is likely that the early seminar will not be the m ost interested.
-------- 5. I prefer a live theater show to a movie.

_____ 6. The thesis o f your essay was not very well developed.
_____ 7. T he asleep children were wakened by the loud sound o f the crashing thunder.
_____ 8. During the nightly news show there was a lively and fascinating debate.
_____ 9. H is car was struck by an uninsured motorist.
_____ 10. The girl was all alone and feeling lonely in the darkened, frightened house.
T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 4 9 -5 1 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o f

w o rd s th a t is n o t c o rr ec t.
_____ 1 As the only major American river that flowed in a west direction, the Ohio was the
---- A---- B C
preferred route for settlers.
D
___ 2. During the annually salmon migration from the sea to fresh water, Alaska s McNeil
A B
River becomes a gathering place for brown bears waiting eagerly to catch their fill.
------C------ D
_____ 3 Edelman stresses the mounting evidence showing that greatly variation on a
; A B C
microscopic scale is likely.
D
_____ 4. Perhaps the most welcoming and friendly of the park's wild places is the live oak
A B C
forest that surrounds the district’s alone visitors’ center in Gulf Breeze.
D
_____ 5. Hailey’s com et, viewing through a telescope, was quite impressive.
A B C D
____ 6 The state of deep asleep is characterized by rapid eye movement, or REM, sleep.
~A B- C D
____ 7. Among the disputing sections of the Monteverdi opera are the sinfonía, the
A B C D
prologue, and the role of Ottone.
_____ 8. Most probably because of the likable rapport between anchors, the night newscast
A B C
on the local ABC affiliate has recently moved well beyond its competitors in the
D
ratings battle.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
_ 9. Signing at the outset of a business deal, a contract offers the participants a certain
A B C
degree of legal protection from costly mistakes.
D
_10. The story presented by Fischer is a headlong tale told so effectively that
Â B
its momentum carries the reader right through the live endnotes.
C T T
T O E F L R EV IEW E X E R C ISE (S k ills 1 -5 1 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o r d o r g r o u p o f

During the early nineteenth century, the 3. The daughters of Joseph LaFlesche were
S p a n i s h m i s s i o n s i n Alta, C a l i f o r n i a bom into the generation of Omaha forced
to be an integral part of the economy and to abandon tribal traditions, on the
productive capacity of the region. reservation, and to adapt to the white
man's ways.
(A) proved
(B) they proved (A) they matured
(C) they proved it (B) to mature
(D) proved it (C) maturing
(D) to maturity
2 . Still o t h e r h u r d l e s r e m a i n b e f o r e
suitable for private cars. 4. Among the most revealing aspects of
mining towns their paucity o f public
(A) fuel cells
open space.
(B) become
(C) fuel cells become (A) was
(D) that fuel cells become (B) were
(C) it was
(D) so
C h o o se th e lette r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
5. Factor analysis is used to discover how many abilities are involve in intelligence test
A B C D
performance. .
6. One of the early orders of marine mammals, manatees have evolved more than fifty
B
million years ago from land animals.
C
7. Dolphins and chimps are like in that they have been shown to have language skills.
T 1 C D
8. In the appendix at the end o f the chapter are the instructions to be used for the
“ TT C
completion correct of the form.
D
_____ 9. Used sound that varies not only in time but in space, whales at close range may
A “ IT C
communicate with sonarlike "pictures.”
D
_____ 10. The 1898 Trans-Mississippi International Exposition has the distinction of being the
~A~ B
last major fair which held during the Victorian period.
C D
PROBLEMS W IT H ARTICLES________________________________
A rticles are very d iffic u lt to lea r n b e c a u se th e r e are m any ru les, m a n y e x c e p tio n s , and
m a n y sp ecia l cases. It is p o s sib le , how ever, to learn a few ru les that w ill h e lp y o u to u se ar
ticles c o rrectly m u c h o f th e tim e.
N o u n s in E n g lish can b e e ith e r c o u n ta b le or u n c o u n ta b le . I f a n o u n is c o u n ta b le , it
m u st b e e ith e r sin g u la r o r p lu ral. In a d d itio n to th e s e g e n e ra l types o f n o u n s , th e r e are
two types o f articles: d e fin ite (sp e c ific ) and in d e fin ite (g e n e r a l).
COUNTABLE COUNTABLE
SINGULAR PLURAL UNCOUNTABLE
ARTICLES NOUNS NOUNS NOUNS
INDEFINITE o dollar ~ dollars mnnpy

(General) on apple
apf>leS ............... ,U'Ce
. —■ ■■
DEFINITE the dollar the dollars the money
(Specific) the apple the apples the juice
S k i l l 52: USE ARTICLES W IT H S IN G U LA R N O U N S
You can s e e fro m th e ch a rt th a t i f a n o u n is e ith e r c o u n ta b le plu ral o r u n c o u n ta b le , it is

p o ssib le to h ave e it h e r th e d e fin ite a rticle the o r n o a rticle ( in d e fin ite ). W ith all c o u n t
a b le sin g u la r n o u n s , h ow ever, y o u m u s t have an a r tic le (u n le ss y o u have a n o th e r d e te r
m in e r su ch as my o r each).
I have money. (uncountable — n o article needed)

I have books. (countable plural — no article needed)
I have a book. (countable singular — article needed)
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t ar

ticles w ith sin g u la r n o u n s:
ARTICLES WITH SINGULAR NOUNS

A singular noun m utt have an article (o, an, the) or some other determiner si'ch as my or
each. (A plural noun or an uncountable noun may or m ay not have an article.)
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
E X E R C I S E 52: T h e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in d iffe r e n t types o f n o u n s . C ir cle o n ly th e

c o u n ta b le sin g u la r n o u n s . M ark w h e r e a rticles (or d e te r m in e r s ) h a v e b e e n o m itte d .
T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
__ L _ 1. She is taking^ trip ) with friends.
C 2. In my (yard) there are flowers, trees, and grass.
_____ 3. T he m anager sent m em o to his em ployees.
_____ 4. T here is car in front o f the building.
_____ 5. T he child and his friends are having milk and cookies.
_____ 6. She is studying to be an actress in films.
_____ 7. My neighbor was arrested for throwing rocks through windows.
_____ 8. We have m achinery that prints ten pages each minute.
_____ 9. Teacher has many students during a semester.
_____ 10. Can you heat water for tea?
S k i l l 53: D IS T IN G U IS H A A N D AN
T h e b asic d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n a a n d a n is th a t a is u s e d in fr o n t o f c o n s o n a n ts a n d a n is
u sed in fr o n t o f vo w els (a, e, i, o, u ) :
a ¿»ook an orange
a man an illness
a /»age an autom obile
In reality, th e r u le is th a t a is u s e d in fr o n t o f a w ord th a t b e g in s w ith a c o n s o n a n t so u n d

a n d th a t a n is u s e d in fr o n t o f a w o rd th a t b e g in s w ith a vow el sound. P r o n o u n c e th e f o l
lo w in g e x a m p les:
a university a hand a one-way street a euphem ism a xerox m achine

an unhappy man an hour an om en an event an x-ray m achine
T h ese e x a m p les sh ow th at certain b e g in n in g letters can have e ith er a c o n so n a n t o r a vow el

sou n d . A w ord that b e g in s w ith u can b e g in with a c o n so n a n t y so u n d as in university or w ith a
vowel so u n d as in unhappy. A w ord that b e g in s with h can b e g in w ith a c o n so n a n t h so u n d as in
hand o r with a vow el s o u n d as in hour. A w ord that b eg in s with o can b e g in w ith a c o n so n a n t w
so u n d as in one o r w ith a vow el so u n d as in omen. A w ord that b e g in s w ith e can b e g in w ith ei
ther a c o n so n a n t y so u n d as in euphemism or with a vowel sou n d as in event. A w ord that b e g in s
with x can b e g in with e ith e r a c o n so n a n t z so u n d as in xerox or w ith a vow el so u n d as in x-ray.
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u d in e s th e k ey in fo r m a tio n a b o u t th e u se o f a a n d an:
. .. ...
A A N D AN
A A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant sound.
AN An is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound.
Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u. o, e, x, or h. Th-.y may begin with either a vowel
or a consonant sound.
E X E R C ISE 53: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s a o r an. C ircle e a c h a o r an. U n

d e r lin e th e b e g in n in g o f th e w ord th at directly follow s. P r o n o u n c e th e w ord . T h e n in d i
c a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
I 1. The dishwasher quit his jo b because he was making only four dollars © hour.
C 2. It was (an) unexpected disappointm ent to receive (a) rejection letter from the
university.
3. A signature is required wherever you see a X on the form.
4. He bought a half gallon o f milk and a box o f a hundred envelopes.
5. An objection was raised because it was such a unacceptable idea.
6. There are two trees in the yard, an elm tree and a eucalyptus tree.
7. The police officer was n ot wearing an uniform when she arrested the suspect.
8. If you do not give m e a hand, finishing the project on time will be an impossibility.
9. She was upset when a hon est mistake was made.
10. She opened a account at a local departm ent store during a one-day sale.
S k ill 54: MAKE ARTICLES AGREE W IT H N O U N S
T h e d e fin ite article (the) is u se d fo r b o th sin gu lar a n d p lu ral n o u n s , so a g r e e m e n t is n o t a

p r o b le m w ith th e d e fin ite article. H ow ever, b e c a u se th e u se o f th e in d e fin ite a r tic le is dif
f e r e n t for sin g u la r a n d p lu ral n o u n s , y o u m u st b e carefu l o f a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n th e in
d e fin ite a rticle a n d th e n o u n . O n e very c o m m o n a g r e e m e n t e rr o r is to u se th e sin g u la r
in d e fin ite article (a or an) w ith a plu ral n o u n .
H e saw a* new movies.

They traveled to a* nearby mountains.
D o you have another* books?
In th e se e x a m p le s , you sh o u ld n o t have a o r a n b e c a u se th e n o u n s are p lu ra l. T h e fo llo w

in g s e n te n c e s are p o ssib le c o r r e c tio n s o f th e s e n te n c e s above.
H e saw a new m ovie. (singular)

H e saw new movies. (plural)
They traveled to a nearby mountain. (singular)

They traveled to nearby m ountains. (plural)
D o you have another book? (singular)

D o you have other books? (plural)
T h e fo llo w in g ch art states th e key p o in t fo r y o u to r e m e m b e r a b o u t th e a g r e e m e n t o f

a rticles w ith n o u n s:
' • .. ■■’ ’ ' .

AGREEMENT OF ARTICLESWITH NOUNS
You should never use a or an with a plural noun. ' - •i
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
E X E R C ISE 54: E a ch o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in s a o r an. C ir c le e a c h a o r a n.

Draw an arrow to th e n o u n it d e sc r ib e s. T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n t e n c e s a r e c o r r e c t (C ) o r
r
— __
X
1. She w ent to school in (a) local community.
t
— !__ 2. T h e doctor used (an oth er pills.
-------- 3. It is necessary to have a farm or land o f your own.
-------- 4. H e must contact a m em bers o f the club.

-------- 5. You will n e e d a pen or a pencil.
-------- 6. H e is responsible for bringing a number o f items.
-------- 7. You must write a report on a subjects o f your choice.

-------- 8. They crossed through several forests and a stream.
-------- 9. T here will be another im portant lessons tomorrow.
-------- 10. H e could n ot give m e a good reasons for what he did.
S k ill 55: D IS T IN G U IS H SPECIFIC A N D G ENERAL IDEAS
W ith c o u n ta b le sin g u la r n o u n s it is p o ssib le to u se e ith e r th e d e fin ite o r th e in d e fin ite ar

ticle, b u t th ey have d iffe r e n t m e a n in g s. T h e d e fin ite article is u s e d to r e fe r to o n e sp e c ific
noun.
Tom will bring the book tomorrow.

(There is on e specific book that Tom will bring tomorrow.)
H e will arrive on ¿A« first Tuesday in July.

(There is only o n e first Tuesday in July.)
H e sailed on the Pacific Ocean.

(There is only o n e Pacific Ocean.)
T h e d e fin ite a r tic le is u s e d w h e n th e n o u n c o u ld b e o n e o f several d iffe r e n t n o u n s .
Tom will bring a book tomorrow.

(Tom will bring any o n e book.)
H e will arrive o n a Tuesday in July.

(H e will arrive o n on e o f four Tuesdays in July.)
H e sailed on an ocean.
(H e sailed on any o n e o f the w orld’s oceans.)
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u sh o u ld u n d e r sta n d a b o u t

s p e c ific a n d g e n e r a l ideas:
SPECIFICAND GENERAL IDEAS

a r t ic l e MEANING USES
A o r AN general idea Use when there are many, and you do not know which one it is.
’ -, ' - Use when there »re many, and you do not care which one it is.
THE specific idea Use when it is the only one.

. Use when there are many, and you know which one it is.
E X E R C I S E 55: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e a rticles. C ircle th e

articles. D raw arrow s to th e n o u n s th ey d e sc r ib e. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r
r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t ( I ) .
^ 1. H e took ¿ ”tnp on (&) Snake lLver.
C 2. I’ll m eet you at (the) library later.
_____ 3. T he ball hit a child on a head.

_____ 4. H e had a best grade in the class on the exam.
_____ 5. T h e peop le who cam e here yesterday were here again today.
_____ 6. She was a m ost beautiful girl in the room.

_____ 7. T h e trip that I took last year to the Bahamas was the only vacation I had all year.
_____ 8. I n eed a piece o f paper so that I can finish the report that I am working on.
_____ 9. A basketball player threw the ball to a center o f the court.

_____ 10. T h e sixth-grade class went on a field trip to visit a Lincoln Memorial.
E X E R C I S E ( S k ills 5 2 - 5 5 ): C ircle th e a rticles in th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s . T h e n in d ic a te if

th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
a
_____ 1. H e took a m oney from his wallet to pay for sweater.
_____ 2. T h e notebook that he left had an im portant assignm ent in it.
_____ 3. Because o f previous disagreem ents, they are trying to arrive at an understanding.
_____ 4. T h e appearance o f room could be improved by adding a green plants.

_____ 5. T he Senate passed law banning sm oking in public workplaces.
_____ 6. Each chem istry student should bring laboratory m anual to a n ext class.
_____ 7. She adm itted that she made mistake but said that she had m ade a h on est effort.
8. H is absence from the board m eeting was a strong indications o f his desire to leave
the company.
9. T he car n eed ed gas, so the driver stopped at a service station.
10. Anyone taking group tour to the Hawaiian Islands must pay fee before a first o f the
m onth.
T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 5 2 - 5 5 ) : C h o o se th e lette r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o rd o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th a t is n o t c o rr ec t.
_____ 1. On a trip down to the bottom of the Grand Canyon, the equipment will in all
~A~ B C
probability be carried by a burros.
D
_____ 2. Ford designed the first large-scale assembly line at plant in

' A B ~T~
Highland Park, Michigan.
D
_____ 3. In the human body, blood flows from a heart through the arteries, and it returns
A B C -
through the veins.
_____ 4. The scholarship that Wilson received to study history at Cambridge presented an
A B C ~D"
unique opportunity.
_____ 5. Observations from Earth indicate that at the solar surface, the outward magnetic
A B
field is a strongest at the polar regions.
Z ------- B-------
_____ 6. A radar images of Venus add details about a planet dominated by
A B C
volcanoes and lava.
--------- 5---------
_____ 7. In 1863 and 1864, the U.S. Congress passed the National Bank Acts , which set up a
A B
system of privately owned banks chartered by a federal government.
C D
_____ 8. An human ear responds to a wide range o f frequencies .

T ~B~ C D
_____ 9. Bacteria that live in soil and water play a vital role in recycling carbon, nitrogen,
A B
sulfur, and another chemical elements used by living things.
C D
_____ 10. During the U.S. Civil War, an American balloonist organized a balloon corps in Army.
A B U D
248 STRUCTURE AN D WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T O E F L R EV IEW E X E R C ISE (Sk ills 1 -5 5 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th at b e s t c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1. In econom ics, "diminishing returns"

3. R arely. _remove the entire root of a
d escribes_____ resource inputs and
dandelion because of its length and
production.
sturdiness.
(A) among
(A) can the casual gardener
(B) when it is
(B) the casual gardener
(C) among them
(C) the casual gardener will
(D) the relationship between
(D) does the casual gardener’s
2. When lava reaches the surface, its
temperature can be ten tim es_____ boiling
water.
(A) the temperature
(B) that of
(C) it is
(D) more
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t is n o t c o rr ec t.
4. Operascan be broadly classified as either com edies or they are tragedies.

a b r D
5. Tungsten has the highest melting point of all metals, and for this reason it is often
A
use in equipment that must withstand high temperatures.
TT C D
6. Whereas thereare forty-three ant species in GreatBritain, the same amount of ant
A "B~ C
species can be found in a single tree in Peru.
D
7. People voice theirs opinions first in small groups or among friends and acquaintances.
A B C ~D
8. Inside the Lincoln Memorial is a large statue of Lincoln make from white marble.
A B ~C ~ D
9. Detailed photometric data of the area just north o f Triton s equatorial region indicate
A — B
the existence o f a thin, transparent layers of frost.
C D
_10. U.S. census figures indicate that people with only an elementary education can earn
A B~
just half as much as college graduations.
£ D
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
PROBLEMS W IT H P R E P O S IT IO N S __________________________
P r e p o s itio n s can b e u s e d in tw o ways: in a literal way a n d in an id io m a tic way. In th e literal

u s e , th e p r e p o sitio n m e a n s e x a ctly w h at y o u e x p e c t.
T he boy ran up the hill.

She w ent in the house.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e p r e p o s itio n u p m e a n s th a t th e b o y w e n t in th e d ir e c tio n u p

rath er th an down. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e p r e p o sitio n in m e a n s th a t s h e w e n t into
rath er th an out o f th e h o u se .
In th e id io m a tic u se, w h ic h is w h a t a p p ea r s m o st o fte n o n th e T O E F L test, th e p r e p o
sitio n a p p ea r s in a n id io m a tic e x p r e ssio n ; th a t is, its m e a n in g in th is e x p r e s s io n h as n o th
in g to d o w ith th e lite ra l m e a n in g .
I call up my friend.
He su cceed ed in passing the course.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e w o r d up h a s n o th in g to d o w ith th e d ir e c tio n up. To call u p some

one m e a n s to telephone s o m e o n e . In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e w ord in h a s n o th in g to d o
w ith th e m e a n in g o f into o r inside; it is sim p ly id io m a tic th a t th e w o r d in is u s e d a fter th e
verb succeed.
It is im p o ss ib le to list all p o te n tia l id io m a tic e x p r e s sio n s w ith th e ir p r e p o s itio n s b e
cau se th e r e are so m a n y e x p r e s s io n s th a t c o u ld a p p ea r o n th e T O E F L test. H ow ever, in
th is se c tio n y o u ca n p r a c tic e r e c o g n iz in g p r o b le m s w ith p r e p o s itio n s in T O E FL -type
q u e stio n s. T h e n , w h e n y o u are w o r k in g in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n s e c tio n o f th e TO EFL
test, y o u sh o u ld b e aw are th a t id io m a tic e rro rs w ith p r e p o sitio n s are c o m m o n in th a t se c
tio n . T h e r e are tw o c o m m o n types o f p r o b le m s w ith p r e p o sitio n s th a t y o u s h o u ld e x p e c t:
(1) in c o r r e c t p r e p o s itio n s a n d (2) o m itte d p r e p o sitio n s.
S k ill 56: R E C O G N IZ E IN C O R R E C T PREPOSITIONS
S o m e tim e s an in c o r r e c t p r e p o s itio n is g iv en in a s e n te n c e in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c

tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
T he gam e was called on* because o f rain.

I knew I could count in* you to do a good job.
T h e first e x a m p le s h o u ld say th a t th e g a m e w as called o ff b e c a u se o f rain . T h e e x p r e s sio n

called o ff m e a n s canceled, a n d th a t is th e m e a n in g th a t m ak es se n s e in th is s e n t e n c e . To call
on someone is to v is it someone, a n d th is m e a n in g d o e s n o t m ak e se n s e in th is e x a m p le . In th e
se c o n d e x a m p le , it is n o t c o r r e c t in E n g lish to count in someone. T h e c o r r e c t e x p r e s s io n is
to count on someone.
E X E R C IS E 56: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s at le a s t o n e p r e p o sitio n . C ircle

th e p r e p o sitio n s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
— 0— 1. (Aftei) school many students participate (in) sports.
— !— 2. I know I can rely (in) you to be here (on) time.
-------- 3. If you need m ore light to read, turn on the lamp n ext to you.
-------- 4. Parents always try to bring at their children to be thoughtful.

-------- 5. I’ll have to consult to my attorney before making a decision.
_____ 6. Walt has lost his keys, so he must look for them.
-------- 7. I ju st d o n ’t approve at your cheating o n the exam.

-------- 8. Sm oking is forbidden, so you should put out your cigarette.
-------- 9. Failure to pass the test will result to the loss o f your license.
-------- 10. It is unlawful for parolees to associate with known felons.
S k ill 57: R E C O G N IZE W H E N PR EPO SITIO NS HAVE BEEN O M IT T E D
S o m e tim e s a n e c e ssa r y p r e p o sitio n h as b e e n o m itte d fro m a s e n te n c e in th e W ritten Ex

p r e ssio n s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L test.
Can you wail* me after the game?

I plan* attending the m eeting.
T h e first e x a m p le is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it is n e c essa ry to say w ail f o r me. T h e s e c o n d e x a m

p le is in c o r r e c t b e c a u se it is n e c e ssa r y to say p la n on attending.
EX E R C ISE 57: P r e p o s itio n s h ave b e e n o m itte d in so m e o f th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e s . Mark

w h er e p r e p o s itio n s have b e e n o m itte d . T h e n in d ic a te if th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C) or
— !— 1. If you take this job , it will be necessary to deal Vother departments.

C 2. Each child took o n e cookie from the plate.
3. In the discussion, Rob sided the rest
4. T h e board turned his suggestion for the project because it was too cosdy.
5. H e can always d epend his friends.
6. W hile Mrs. Sampson w ent shopping, a baby-sitter looked the children.

7. I know Steve believes what you told him.
8. Children should beware strangers.
9. It was difficult to make a decision about buying a house.
10. Tom blam ed his brother the d en t in the car.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
E X E R C I S E (S k ills 5 6 - 5 7 ): C ir c l e th e p re p o s itio n s in th e f o llo w in g s e n te n c e s . M a r k w h e r e

th e y h a v e b e e n o m itt e d . T h e n in d ic a t e i f t h e se n te n c e s a r e c o r r e c t ( C ) o r i n c o r r e c t ( I ) .
_____ 1. T he students m ust hand in their homework.
_____ 2. It will be difficult to forgive you o f breaking your promise.
_____ 3. Elizabeth excels math and science.
_____ 4. She insisted on goin g to work in spite o f her cold.

_____ 5. Bob rem inds m e to his father because he looks just like him.
_____ 6. If you are cold, you should put on your sweater.

_____ 7. Mr. Sanders is n o t here now, but he will call you when he returns.
_____ 8. I do not want to interfere your plans.
_____ 9. Alan waited Marie after school.
_____ 10. Bill laughs m e w henever he looks me.
T O E F L E X E R C I S E (S k ills 5 6 - 5 7 ): C h o o s e th e le t te r o f t h e u n d e r li n e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f
w o rd s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t . .
____ 1 Amelia Earhart, the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic, disappeared on June
A B C
1937 while attempting to fly around the world.
D
_____ 2. The occurrence edem a indicates the presence of a serious illness.

A B C D
_____ 3. Atomic nuclei are believed to be composed by protons and neutrons in_ equal
“A B C D
numbers for the lighter elements.
_____ 4. According legend, Betsy Ross designed and sewed the first American flag.
----------- A B C D
_____ 5. The middle ear is attached for the back of the throat by the Eustachian tube.
A TT TT D
_____ 6. Plants that sprout, grow, bloom, produce seeds, and die within one year are
A B C
classified for annuals.
TT
_____ 7. A marionette is controlled by means strings connected to wooden bars.

A B C D
_____ 8. In July of 1861, Pat Garrett killed Billy the Kid inji house close Fort Sum ner.
X "B C D
_____ 9. Manv comfort heating systems using steam as a working fluid operate at the
~K~ "B C D
convection principle.
_____ 10. Mars’ two small moons are irregularly shaped and covered for craters.
A B 5 "IT
T O E F L REV IEW E X E R C ISE (1 -5 7 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s that

b e st c o m p le te s th e se n te n c e .
1. In any matter, heat tends to flow _____ to 3. _____ Army camps near Washington, D.C.,
the cooler parts. in 1861, Julia Ward Howe wrote “The
Battle Hymn of the Republic.”
(A) hotter parts
(B) there are hotter parts (A) She visited
(C) from the hotter parts (B) After visiting
(D) toward the hotter parts (C) When visited
(D) When was she visiting
2. Certain authorities claim that the
costumes that people wear to parties___
into their personalities.
(A) give subtle insights
(B) they give subtle insights
(C) which give subtle insights
(D) subtle insights
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t is n o t c o r r e c t.
_____ 4. The body depends in food as its primary source of energy.

A "B T IT
_____ 5. Regular programming was interrupted to broadcast a special news bulletins.

“ A B C D
_____ 6. Sulfa drugs had been used to treat bacterial infection until penicillin becom es widely
~A~ B C D
available.
_____ 7. Plans for both the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank were drawn up
A IT C" D
at the Bretton Woods Conference.
_____ 8. Seldom Antarctic icebergs will move far enough north to disturb South Pacific
A B C
shipping lanes.
D
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
_ 9. In 1958, a largest recorded wave, with a height of 500 meters, occurred in Lituya
"A B C D
Bay, Alaska.
_10. Exercise in swim ming pools is particularly helpful because of the buoyant
A B C
effect water.
D
PROBLEMS W IT H USAGE.
In E n g lish cer ta in g r o u p s o f w ord s h ave sim ila r u ses, a n d th e se w ord s are s o m e tim e s c o n
fu se d in th e W ritten E x p r e ssio n s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L test. A lth o u g h v a rio u s u sa g e p r o b
le m s are p o s sib le o n th e T O E F L test, th e fo llo w in g p r o b le m s are th e m o s t c o m m o n :
(1) w h en to u se m ake a n d do; (2 ) w h e n to u se like, unlike, a n d alike; a n d (3 ) w h e n to u se
other, another, a n d others.
S k ill 58: D IS T IN G U IS H M AKE A N D DO
M ake an d do can b e c o n fu s e d in E n g lish b e c a u se th e ir m e a n in g s are so sim ilar. S in c e th e

d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n m ake a n d do is te ste d o n the T O E F L test, y o u s h o u ld le a r n to d istin
g u ish th em .
M ake o fte n h as th e id e a o f creating or constructing. T h e fo llo w in g e x p r e s s io n s sh o w
so m e o f th e p o s sib le u ses o f make:
She likes to make her own clothes.
Would you like to make a cake for dessert?
If you make a. mistake, you should correct it.
H e was unable to make a response to the threat.
Do o fte n h as th e id e a o f com pleting o r perform ing. T h e fo llo w in g e x p r e s s io n s sh o w s o m e o f

th e p o ssib le u se s o f do:
This m orning she did all the dishes.
T he students are doing the assignments.
T h e janitors did the work they were assigned.
You can do your laundry at the laundromat.
T h e se are o n ly s o m e o f th e u ses o f m ake a n d do. M any u s e s o f m ake a n d do are id io m a tic

a n d th e r e fo r e d iffic u lt to classify.
FXF.Rr.lSF. 58: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m ake or do. C ir cle m ake o r do.

D raw arrow s to th e n o u n s th a t c o m p le te th e e x p r e ssio n s. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n t e n c e s
J 1. T he biology stu dent (did) several mistakes in the lab report.
r ^ ♦
L2. I hop e that you will be able to (dg) m e a favor this afternoon.
STRUCTUREAND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
3. N o matter what jo b she has, she always makes her best.
4. The runner did a strong effort to increase her speed in the m ile race.
5. It is com forting to think that your work can make a difference.
6. His grade was not very good because he had not don e his homework.
7. In this jo b you will make m ore m oney than in your previous job.
8. H e was unable to do dinner because no o n e had d on e the lunch dishes.
9. It is a pleasure to work with som eone who always makes the right thing.
10. If you make a good im pression at your jo b interview, you will get the job .
S k i l l 59: D IS T IN G U IS H LIKE, ALIKE, UNLIKE, A N D D ISLIKE
Like, alike, unlike, a n d dislike are easily c o n fu s e d b e c a u se th e y lo o k so sim ila r a n d th e y have

m an y d iffe r e n t u ses. T h e r e are several stru ctu res w ith like, alike, unlike, a n d dislike th a t you
sh o u ld b e fa m ilia r w ith.
T h e first str u c tu r es y o u sh o u ld already be fam iliar w ith are th e ad jectives alike a n d like
(se e Skill 5 0 ). S tu d y th e u se o f alike an d like in th e fo llo w in g e x a m p les.
John and Tom are alike.
John and Tom worked in a like manner.
In b o th th e se e x a m p le s , alike a n d like are ad jectiv es th a t m e a n similar. In th e first e x a m p le ,
alike is a p r e d ic a te ad jective d e sc r ib in g J o h n a n d Tom. B e ca u se alike is a p r e d ic a te adjec
tive, it c a n o n ly b e u sed a fter a lin k in g verb su ch as are. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , like is th e
ad jective fo r m th a t is u s e d im m e d ia te ly b e fo r e th e n o u n manner.
T h e n e x t str u c tu r es y o u sh o u ld b e fam iliar w ith are th e p r e p o sitio n s like an d unlike,
w h ic h h ave o p p o s ite m e a n in g s. B e ca u se they are p r e p o sitio n s, th e y m u st b e fo llo w e d by
ob jects.
John is (likeTom).
John is (unlikeTom).
In th e first e x a m p le , th e p r e p o sitio n like is fo llo w e d by th e o b je c t Tom. It m e a n s th a t Tom
an d J o h n are sim ilar. In th e se c o n d e x a m p le , th e p r e p o sitio n u n lik e is fo llo w e d by th e o b
j e c t Tom. It m e a n s th at T o m an d J o h n are n o t sim ilar.
T h e p r e p o s itio n s like a n d u n lik e can also b e u s e d at th e b e g in n in g o f a se n te n c e .
(LikeTom ), John is tall.
(U nlikeTom), John is tall.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e p r e p o sitio n like is fo llo w e d by th e o b je c t Tom. It m e a n s th a t T om
is tall. In th e s e c o n d e x a m p le , th e p r e p o sitio n u n lik e is fo llo w e d by th e o b je c t Tom. It
m e a n s th a t T om is n o t tall.
T h e fin a l str u c tu r es th a t y o u sh o u ld b e fa m ilia r w ith are th e verb s like a n d dislike,
w h ic h h a v e o p p o s ite m e a n in g s. B e c a u se th ey are verb s, th ey are u s e d w ith su bjects.
John and Tom like the course.
John and Tom dislike the course.
In th e first e x a m p le , th e verb like fo llo w s th e su b ject John a n d Tom. It m e a n s th at b o th m en
th in k th a t th e c o u r se is en jo y a b le . In th e se c o n d e x a m p le , th e v e rb dislike fo llo w s th a t sub
j e c t J o h n a n d Tom. It m e a n s th at b o th m e n th in k th at th e c o u r se is n o t e n jo y a b le .
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s th e stru ctu res a n d m e a n in g s o f s e n te n c e s w ith like, alike,

unlike, a n d dislike:
LIKE, ALIKE, UNLIKE, AND DISLIKE
GRAMMAR MEANING USE
like adjective similar As an adjective, like is used before a noun.

alike adjective similar As an adjective, alike is used after a linking verb.
like preposition similar Both prepositions are followed by objects.They can both be used
unlike preposition different in many positions, including at the beginning of the sentence.
like verb enjoy Both verbs follow subjects.

dislike verb not enjoy
E X E R C ISE 59: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s like, alike, unlike, o r dislike. C ircle

th e ftfce w ords. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I ).
1 1. The iwo routes you have chosen for the trip are (like.)
C 2. T he scien ce books this sem ester are (like) the books used last sem ester.
3. Alike the restaurant where we usually eat, this new restaurant has early-bird specials.
4. U nlike the traditional red fire engines, the new fire engines are yellow.
5. T he two girls disliked the fact that they were wearing alike dresses.
6. The new piece that the pianist is preparing is unlike any she has ever played before.
7. Like the W ashington Zoo, the San D iego Zoo has several panda bears.
8. The insurance package offered by that company is exactly alike the package our
com pany offers.
9. Any further work done in a like fashion will be rejected.

10. It is unfortunate that the covers for this year’s and last year’s albums are so dislike.
S k ill 60: D IS T IN G U IS H OTHER, ANOTHER, A N D O THERS
Other, another, a n d others are very easy to c o n fu s e . T o d e c id e h o w to u se e a c h o f t h e m cor-

recdy, y o u m u st c o n s id e r th r e e th in gs: (1 ) i f it is sin g u la r o r p lu ral, (2 ) i f it is d e fin it e (the)
o r in d e fin ite (a ) , a n d (3) i f it is a n ad jective (it ap p ears w ith a n o u n ) o r i f it is a p r o n o u n
(it ap p ea rs by it s e lf ) .
SINGULAR PLURAL
INDEFINITE 1 have another book. 1 have other books.

1 have another. 1 have others.
DEFINITE 1 have the other book. 1 have the other books.

1 have the other. 1 have the others.
N o tic e th a t y o u u s e another o n ly to refer to an in d e fin ite , sin g u la r id ea . Others is u s e d o n ly

as a p lu ral p r o n o u n ( n o t a c c o m p a n ie d by a n o u n ). In all o th e r c a ses, other is c o r r e c t.
E X E R C ISE 60: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s other, another, o r others. C ircle

other, another, o r others. T h e n in d ic a te i f t h e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C ) o r in c o r r e c t (I).
^ 1. It is essential to com plete the first program before working on the (o th ers)
__ !__ 2. The waitress will bring you (th e another) bowl o f soup if you want.
_____ 3. You should pack another pair o f shoes in case that pair gets soaked.
_____ 4. It is difficult to find others workers who are w illing to work such lo n g hours.
_____ 5. Since the lamp you wanted is out o f stock, you m ust choose another.
____ _ 6. T he other desk clerk must have put that message in your mailbox.
_____ 7. If your identification card is lost or stolen, you cannot g et another.
_____ 8. Because they were n ot pleased with the hotel accom m odations last year, they have
decided to try a other hotel this year.
_____ 9. As som e students m oved into the registration area, others took their places in line.
_____ 10. The printer will not function unless it has another cartridges.
E X E R C ISE (S k ills 5 8 - 6 0 ) : C ircle th e w o r d s in th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s th a t are c o m m o n ly

c o n fu s e d o n th e T O E F L test. T h e n in d ic a te i f th e s e n te n c e s are c o r r e c t (C) o r in c o r r e c t
(I).
_____ 1. W hen the car’s odom eter reached 100,000, she decided that it was time to buy
another car.
_____ 2. Every time som eon e does an error in the program, several extra hours o f work are
created.
_____ 3. Like the fashions shown in this m agazine, the fashions in the other m agazine are
quite expensive.
_____ 4. Because the main highway is crowded at this hour, the driver should try to find
another routes to the stadium.
_____ 5. Although the two signatures are supposed to be exactly the same, they are n ot at
all like.
_____ 6. T h e decorators did the shopping for the material and m ade curtains for the
windows.
_____ 7. Before the administrator reads the stack o f papers on his desk, he should sign the
others that are on the file cabinet.
_____ 8. T he com m ittee is d oin g the arrangem ents for the Saturday evening banquet.
_____ 9. W hen he m ade several other big mistakes, he did his apologies to the others in
the office.
_____ 10. Perhaps the designer could select others styles if these are inappropriate.
T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 5 8 - 6 0 ) : C h o o s e th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w o r d o r g r o u p o f

w ord s th at is n o t c o rr ec t.
____ 1.The buffalo and the bison are like except for the size and shape of the head and
X B C TT
shoulders.
_____ 2. Other interesting aspect of tachistopic training in recent years has been the
—S B C
newfound use by professional teams.
TT
_____ 3. Only about 3 percent of oil wells actually do a profit.

A B C ~D
_____ 4. Dislike sumac with red berries, sumac with white berries is poisonous.
A C D
_____ 5. Pittsburgh has reduced its sm og by requiring more complete oxidation of fuel in
X B
cars, and others cities can do the same thing.
C TT
____ 6. Alike all other mammals, dolphins have lungs.

"A B C~ ~T5~
_____ 7. Up to World War II almost all important research in physics had been made in
~ A B
universities, with only university funds for support.
C D
_____ 8. Because the plan that was made yesterday is no longer feasible, the manager had to
A B C
choose another alternatives.
D~~ '
_____ 9. Particles w ith unlike charges attract each other, while particles with alike charges
A ~B~' ~~C~
repel each other.
_10. One another surprising method of forest conservation is controlled cutting o f trees.
X" B " "C D
T O E F L REV IEW E X ER C ISE (S k ills 1 -6 0 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o r d or g r o u p o f

w ord s th^ t b e st c o m p le te s th e s e n te n c e .
1. Wild Bill H ickok_____ for the Union Army 2. --------was unusable as farmland and
during the Civil War by posing as a difficult to traverse, the Badlands is an
Confederate officer. area in South Dakota.
(A) spied (A) So named because it
(B) spying (B) Because of
(C) a spy (C) It
(D) was spied (D) Naming it
C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e u n d e r lin e d w ord o r g r o u p o f w ord s th at is n o t co rr ec t.
_____ 3. Titania, photographed by Voyager 2 in 1986, has significantly fewer craters than
A “B “ C
another moons of Uranus.
4. The author Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald is better know as F. Scott Fitzgerald.
A B C- "D
5. The result of the failure to plan for the future is that a child from an urban area
A B
must be took to the country to see nature.
— D
6. This machine can print on a single pieces of paper, but only if the level is facing the
B C D
front of the machine.
_ 7. The development of permanent teeth, alike that of deciduous teeth, begins before
A B~ C
birth .
.8 . A crowd o f several hundred fan watched the ceremony from behind a fence.
A 13 C D
_ 9. Unlike other architects of the early modem movement, Alvar Aalto stressed
A B-
informality, personal expression, romantic, and regionality in his w ork.
C D
_10. Color blindness may exist at birth or may occur later in life as a result for disease or
A “ B~ C D
in ju ry .

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T h e s e c o n d se c tio n o f th e T O E FL te st is th e S tru ctu re a n d W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c tio n .

In th e T O E F L test, q u e s tio n s 1 th r o u g h 15 o f th e S tru ctu re a n d W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c ­

is taking a trip to N ew York.

In th is e x a m p le , y o u sh o u ld n o tic e im m e d ia te ly th a t th e s e n te n c e h a s a verb (is ta k in g ),

____________________ STRATEGIES FOR THE STRUCTURE QUESTIONS___________________

5. Do not spend to o much tim e on th e Structure questions. Be sure to leave adequate

T h e fo llo w in g sk ills w ill h e lp y o u to im p le m e n t th e se str a teg ie s in th e S tr u c tu r e s e c tio n o f

S o m e s e n te n c e s in E n g lish have ju s t o n e su b ject a n d verb , a n d it is v ery im p o r ta n t fo r you

S k ill I: BE SURE T H E SEN TE N C E H A S A SUBJECT A N D AVERB

You k n o w th at a s e n te n c e in E n g lish s h o u ld have a su b je ct an d a verb . T h e m o st c o m m o n

In th is e x a m p le y o u s h o u ld n o tic e im m e d ia te ly th at th e r e is a verb (w a s), b u t th e r e is n o

E xam ple III

T h is s e n te n c e h a s a su b je c t (boy) a n d h as p a rt o f a verb (going) ; to b e c o r r e c t, s o m e fo rm

T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s w h at y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t su b je cts a n d verbs:

E X E R C ISE 1: U n d e r lin e th e su b je cts o n c e a n d th e verbs tw ice in e a c h o f th e fo llo w in g

3. A jo b o n the day shift or the night shift at the plant available.

4 T he new com puter program has provides a variety o f helpful applications.

5. T he b ox can be op en ed only with a special screwdriver.

8. Departure before dawn on a boat in the m iddle o f the harbor.

9. Yesterday found an interesting article on pollution.

S k ill 2: BE C A R EFU L OF OBJECTS OF P R EPO SITIO N S

A n o b je c t o f a p r e p o s itio n is a n o u n o r a p r o n o u n th a t c o m e s a fter a p r e p o s itio n , su c h as

A n o b je c t o f a p r e p o sitio n can c a u se c o n fu s io n in th e S tru ctu re se c tio n o f th e T O E F L

In th is e x a m p le y o u s h o u ld lo o k first for th e su b ject a n d th e verb. You sh o u ld n o tic e th e

T h e fo llo w in g ch art o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t

NOTE; A lengthy list of prepositions and practice in recognizing prepositions can be

E X ER C ISE 2: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e p r e p o sitio n a l

S k i l l 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPO SITIVES

A p p o sitiv es c a n c a u se c o n fu s io n in th e S tru ctu re s e c tio n o f th e T O E F L te st b e c a u se an

In th is e x a m p le S ally is th e su b ject o f th e s e n te n c e a n d the best stu d e n t in the class c a n easily

In this e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld r e c o g n iz e from th e c o m m a s that George is n o t th e su bject o f th e

In th is e x a m p le y o u c a n te ll th a t Sarah is th e su b je ct a n d misses is th e verb b e c a u se th e r e is

T h e fo llo w in g ch art o u tlin e s th e key in fo r m a tio n th a t y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t

E X E R C ISE 3: E a c h o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s an a p p ositive. U n d e r lin e th e su b­

I 2. Last semester, (a friend,) graduated cum laude from the university.

S kill 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES

T h e m an is talking to his friend.

In th is s e n te n c e ta lk in g is part o f th e verb b e c a u se it is a c c o m p a n ie d by is.

In th is s e n te n c e ta lk in g is an a d jectiv e a n d n o t p art o f th e verb b e c a u se it is n o t a c c o m p a ­

In th is e x a m p le , i f y o u lo o k at o n ly th e first w ord s o f th e s e n te n c e , it a p p ea r s th a t child is

T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s w h a t y o u s h o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t p r e s e n t p a rticip les:

E X E R C ISE 4: E a c h o f th e fo llo w in g s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e p r e s e n t p a r ticip le s.

S k i l l 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES

The family has purchased a television.

In th e first s e n te n c e th e p ast p a rticip le purchased is part o f th e verb b e c a u se it is a c co m p a ­

T he television purchased yesterday was expensive.

In th e first s e n t e n c e purchased is an ad jective ra th er than a verb b e c a u se it is n o t a c co m p a ­

The packages mailed at the post office will arrive Monday.

In th is e x a m p le , i f y o u lo o k o n ly a t th e first few w ord s o f th e s e n te n c e , it a p p ea r s th a t p ack­

T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t o u tlin e s w h a t y o u sh o u ld r e m e m b e r a b o u t p ast p articip les:

1. She pain ted this picture.

E X E R C ISE 5: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e p ast p a r ticip le s. U n ­

— !— 1. T he m oney was (offered) by the client was not (accepted)

— 2. T he car (jisteti) in the advertisem ent had already (stalled)

-------- 7. T he pizza is served in this restaurant is the tastiest in the county.

E X E R C IS E (S k ills 1 -5 ): U n d e r lin e th e su b jects o n c e an d th e verbs tw ice in e a c h o f th e

T O E F L E X E R C ISE (S k ills 1 -5 ): C h o o se th e le tte r o f th e w o rd o r g r o u p o f w ord s th a t b est

7. Henry Adams, b om in B oston ,-------- 9. Still a novelty in the late nineteenth

(A) became (A) was

SEN TEN CES W IT H M ULTIPLE CLAUSES-----------------------------------

M any se n te n c e s in E n g lish h a v e m o r e than o n e c la u se. (A c la u se is a g r o u p o f w ords c o n ­

S kill 6: USE C O O R D IN A T E C O N N E C TO R S CORRECTLY

W h e n y o u h a v e tw o cla u se s in an E n g lish s e n te n c e , y o u m u st c o n n e c t th e tw o cla u se s c o r ­

In th e T O E F L test, q u e s tio n s 1 th r o u g h 15 o f th e S tru ctu re a n d W ritten E x p r e ssio n se c

__ STRATEGIES FOR THE STRUCTURE QUESTIONS_

E X E R C ISE 3: E a c h o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s an a p p ositive. U n d e r lin e th e su b

In th is s e n te n c e ta lk in g is an a d jectiv e a n d n o t p art o f th e verb b e c a u se it is n o t a c c o m p a

In th e first s e n te n c e th e p ast p a rticip le purchased is part o f th e verb b e c a u se it is a c co m p a

In th e first s e n t e n c e purchased is an ad jective ra th er than a verb b e c a u se it is n o t a c co m p a

In th is e x a m p le , i f y o u lo o k o n ly a t th e first few w ord s o f th e s e n te n c e , it a p p ea r s th a t p ack

E X E R C ISE 5: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s o n e o r m o r e p ast p a r ticip le s. U n

M any se n te n c e s in E n g lish h a v e m o r e than o n e c la u se. (A c la u se is a g r o u p o f w ords c o n

W h e n y o u h a v e tw o cla u se s in an E n g lish s e n te n c e , y o u m u st c o n n e c t th e tw o cla u se s c o r

In e a c h o f th e se e x a m p le s , th e r e are two cla u se s th a t are c o rr ec tly j o i n e d w ith a c o o r d i

T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le sh ow s h o w th is s e n te n c e p a ttern c o u ld b e te ste d in th e Struc

In th is e x a m p le y o u sh o u ld n o tic e q u ick ly th at th e r e are two c la u se s, a power fa ilu r e oc

In e a c h o f th e se e x a m p le s, th e r e are two cla u ses th a t are c o rr ec tly j o in e d w ith adverb c o n

T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e a d v e r b c o n tr a st, c o n d it io n , m a n n er , a n d p la c e c o n n e c

In th is e x a m p le th e r e are tw o verb s ( was a n d caused) , a n d e a c h o f th e s e v e rb s n e e d s a su b

T h e fo llo w in g c h a r t lists th e n o u n c la u se c o n n e c to r /s u b j e c ts a n d th e s e n te n c e pat

EX E R C ISE 10: E ach o f th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s c o n ta in s m o r e th a n o n e c la u se . U n d e r