9129, 1141 Seis Sigma - Wikipacia WIKIPEDIA ‘The Free Encyclopedia seis sigma Six Sigma ( 60 ) es un conjunto de técnicas y herramientas para la mejora de procesos. Fue presentado por el ingeniero estadounidense Bill Smith mientras trabajaba en Motorola en 1986. bite) Las estrategias Six Sigma buscan mejorar la calidad de fabricacién al identificar y eliminar las causas de los defectos y minimizar la variabilidad en los procesos comerciales y de fabricacién . Esto se hace mediante el uso de métodos de gestion de calidad empiricos y estadisticos y mediante la contratacién de personas que se desempefien como expertos en Six Sigma. Cada proyecto Six Sigma sigue una metodologfa definida y tiene objetivos de valor especificos, como reducir la contaminacién o aumentar la satisfaccién del cliente . El término Six Sigma se origina en el modelado estadistico de los procesos de fabricacién . La madurez de un proceso de fabricacién se puede describir mediante una calificacién sigma que indica su rendimiento o el porcentaje de productos libres de defectos que crea; especfficamente, dentro de cudntas desviaciones esténdar de una distribucién normal corresponde la fraccién de resultados libres de defectos. Historia Motorola fue pionera en Six Sigma, estableciendo un objetivo "six sigma" para su negocio de fabricaci6n. Registré Six Sigma como marca de servicio el 11 de junio de 1991 ( US Service Mark 1,647,704 (http: //tarr.uspto.gov/servlet/tarr?regser=serial&entry=1647704) ); el 28 de diciembre de 1993 registré Six Sigma como marca . En 2005, Motorola atribuyé mas de $17 mil millones en ahorros a Six Sigma. |31 Honeywell y General Electric también fueron los primeros en adoptar Six Sigma. Como director ejecutivo de GE, en 1995 Jack Welch lo convirtié en el centro de su estrategia empresarial. [4] En 1998, GE anuncié un ahorro de costes de 350 millones de délares gracias a Six Sigma, que fue un factor importante en la difusién de Six Sigma (esta cifra crecid mas tarde a mas de 1.000 millones de délares). [5] A fines de la década de 1990, aproximadamente dos tercios de las organizaciones Fortune 500 habfan comenzado iniciativas Six Sigma con el objetivo de reduc costos y mejorar la calidad. En los tiltimos afios , algunos profesionales han combinado ideas Six Sigma con manufactura esbelta para crear una metodologia llamada Lean Six Sigma . !7] La metodologia Lean Six Sigma considera la manufactura esbelta, que aborda los problemas de flujo y desperdicio de procesos, y Six Sigma, con su enfoque en la variacién y el disefio, como disciplinas complementarias destinadas a promover la "excelencia comercial y operativa”. '71 En 2011, la Organizacién Internacional de Normalizacién (ISO) publicé la primera norma "ISO 13053:2011" que define un proceso Six Sigma. [1 Otros estdndares han sido creados principalmente por universidades o empresas con programas de certificacién propios de Six Sigma. Etimologia hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma ans.9129, 1141 Seis Sigma - Wikipacia BL término SIX jason eesti ne 0g , Ft oes Sigma proviene signal, sassx10% de la estadistica fisoshit: 339% 1 cin: 3855 « 102 , “placion bajo Si especificamente —— del campo del | See ae control de calidad a ee estadistico , que evalia la eae te - y capacidad del ~e 5 ¥ = 2 1 6 T 2 a ne ex proceso ~ _Lagistribucién normal subyace en los supuestos estadisticos de Six Sigma, En 0, p (mu) oe marca la media , con el eje horizontal que muestra la distancia desde la media, indicada en Originalmente, n unidades de desviacion esténdar (representada como o o sigma). Cuanto mayor sea la se referia a la ° am). 7 capacidad de los pro de desviacién estandar, mayor sera la aispersién de valores; para la curva verde, u =O y o= 1 Los limites de especificacién superior e inferior (USL y LSL) estan a una distancia de 60 de pesos ta media. La distribucion normal significa que los valores muy alejados de la media son fabricacién para exicemadamente improbables: aproximadamente 1 en mil millones demasiado bajo y lo producir una rismo demasiado alt, Incliso sila media se moviera hacia la derecha o hacia la zquierda Proporcion MUY en 1,5 desviaciones estandar (también conocido como un cambio de 1,5 sigma, de color alta de rojo y azul), todavia hay un colchén de seguridad, productos dentro de especificaciones. Se supone que los procesos que operan con "calidad Six Sigma" a corto plazo producen niveles de defectos a largo plazo inferiores a 3,4 defectos por millén de oportunidades (DPMO). El 3,4 dpmo se basa en un "desplazamiento" de + 1,5 sigma explicado por Mikel Harry . Esta cifra se basa en la tolerancia en la altura de una pila de discos. [9] 401 En concreto, digamos que hay seis desviaciones estindar —representadas por la letra griega o ( sigma )— entre la media —representada por t (mu )—y el limite de especificacién mas cercano. A medida que aumenta la desviacién estandar del proceso, o la media del proceso se aleja del centro de la tolerancia, caben menos desviaciones estindar entre la media y el limite de especificacion mis cercano, lo que reduce el nimero sigma y aumenta la probabilidad de que los clementos queden fuera de la especificacién. De acuerdo con un método de calculo empleado en los estudios de capacidad del proceso, esto significa que practicamente ningin elemento dejara de cumplir con las especificaciones. !9 También se debe tener en cuenta que el célculo de los niveles sigma para los datos de un proceso es independiente de la distribucién normal de los datos. En una de las criticas a Six Sigma, los profesionales que usan este enfoque pasan mucho tiempo transformando datos de no normales a normales usando técnicas de transformacién. Debe decirse que los niveles sigma se pueden determinar para datos de proceso que tienen evidencia de no normalidad. !9! doctrina Six Sigma afirma que: = Los esfuerzos continuos para lograr resultados de procesos estables y O predecibles (p. ej., reduciendo la variacién de procesos ) son de vital importancia para el éxito empresarial simbolo de seis = Los procesos comerciales y de fabricacién tienen caracteristicas que sigma pueden definirse, medirse, analizarse, mejorarse y controlarse. = Lograr una mejora sostenida de la calidad requiere el compromiso de toda la organizacién, en particular de la alta direccién hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma ans9129, 1141 Seis Sigma - Wikipacia Las caracteristicas que distinguen a Six Sigma de las iniciativas anteriores de mejora de la calidad incluyen: = Centrarse en lograr rendimientos financieros medibles y cuantificables «= Enfasis en el liderazgo y apoyo a la gestion = Compromiso de tomar decisiones sobre la base de datos verificables y métodos estadisticos en lugar de suposiciones y conjeturas De hecho, la gestidn ajustada y Six Sigma comparten metodologias y herramientas similares, incluido el hecho de que ambos fueron influenciados por la cultura empresarial japonesa . Sin embargo, la gestién esbelta se enfoca principalmente en eliminar el desperdicio a través de herramientas que apuntan a la eficiencia organizacional mientras integran un sistema de mejora del desempefio, mientras que Six Sigma se enfoca en eliminar defectos y reducir la variacién. Ambos sistemas se basan en datos, aunque Six Sigma depende mucho més de datos precisos. E] objetivo implicito de Six Sigma es mejorar todos los procesos pero no necesariamente al nivel 3.4 DPMO. Las organizaciones necesitan determinar un nivel sigma apropiado para cada uno de sus procesos més importantes y esforzarse por lograrlo. Como resultado de este objetivo, corresponde a la direccién de la organizacién priorizar las areas de mejora. Metodologias Los proyectos Six Sigma siguen dos metodologias de proyecto, inspiradas en el ciclo Planificar- Hacer-Estudiar-Actuar de W. Edwards Deming , cada una con cinco fases. !61 = DMAIC ("duh-may-ick", /da.’mer1k/ ) se usa para proyectos destinados a mejorar un proceso comercial existente = DMADV ("duh-mad-vee", /da.’meed.vi/ ) se usa para proyectos destinados a crear nuevos disefios de productos o procesos DMaIc La metodologia del proyecto DMAIC tiene cinco fas PL KB = Define el sistema, la voz del cliente y sus requisites, y los objetivos del proyecto, en conereto. outst Am tne a = Medir aspectos clave del proceso actual y recopilar es-aince pasos ae datos relevantes; calcular la capacidad del proceso “tal cual” = Analice los datos para investigar y verificar causa y efecto. Determine cudles son las relaciones e intente asegurarse de que se hayan considerado todos los factores. Busque la causa raiz del defecto bajo investigacién. = Mejore u optimice el proceso actual en funcién del analisis de datos utilizando técnicas como el disefio de experimentos , poka yoke o prueba de errores, y trabajo estandar para crear un nuevo proceso de estado futuro. Configure ejecuciones piloto para establecer la capacidad del proceso = Controle el proceso de estado futuro para asegurarse de que cualquier desviacién del objetivo se corrija antes de que produzca defectos. Implemente sistemas de control como control estadistico de procesos , tableros de produccién, lugares de trabajo visuales y monitoree continuamente el proceso. Este proceso se repite hasta obtener el nivel de calidad deseado. hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma ans‘zr tt Seis Sigma - Wikipedia Algunas organizaciones agregan un paso de reconocimiento al principio, que consiste en reconocer el problema correcto en el que trabajar, lo que genera una metodologia RDMAIC . [4 DMADV También conocida como DFSS (" D esign F or S ix S 2 igma’), las cinco fases de la metodologia DMADV son: [61 I g SS © Ow = Defina objetivos de disefio que sean consistentes co peace de DMIADV con las demandas del cliente y la estrategia empresarial = Mide eidentifique CTQ (caracteristicas que son criticas para la calidad ), mida las capacidades del producto, la capacidad del proceso de produccién y mida los riesgos. = Un anilisis para desarrollar y disefar alternativas = Disefar una altemativa mejorada, mas adecuada segtin el andlisis del paso anterior = Verifique el disefio, establezca ejecuciones piloto, implemente el proceso de produccién y entrégueselo a los propietarios del proceso, Profesionaliza Una innovacién clave de Six Sigma implica la profesionalizacién de la gestién de la calidad. Antes de Six Sigma, la gestin de calidad se relegaba en gran medida a la planta de produccién ya los estadisticos en un departamento de calidad separado. Los programas formales de Six Sigma adoptan una terminologia de cl: istemas de artes marciales como el judo para definir una jerarqufa (y una trayectoria profesional) que abarca funciones y niveles comerciales. Six Sigma identifica varios roles para una implement = El Liderazgo Ejecutivo incluye al CEO y otros miembros de la alta direccién. Son responsables de establecer una vision para la implementacién de Six Sigma. También empoderan a otras partes interesadas con la libertad y los recursos para trascender las barreras departamentales y superar la resistencia al cambio. [131 = Los campeones asumen la responsabilidad de la implementacién de Six Sigma en toda la organizacién. El Liderazgo Ejecutivo los atrae de la alta direccién. Los campeones también acttian como mentores de los cinturones negros. = Los Master Black Belts , identificados por Champions, actuan como entrenadores internos en Six Sigma, Dedican todo su tiempo a Six Sigma, ayudando a los campeones y guiando a los cinturones negros y cinturones verdes. Ademés de las tareas estadisticas, aseguran que Six Sigma se aplique de manera uniforme en todos los departamentos y funciones laborales. = Los Black Belts operan bajo Master Black Belts para aplicar Six Sigma a proyectos especificos. También dedican todo su tiempo a Six Sigma. Se enfocan principalmente en la ejecucién de proyectos Six Sigma y liderazgo especial con tareas especiales, mientras que los Champions y Master Black Belts se enfocan en identificar proyectos/funciones para Six Sigma. = Green Belts son los empleados que asumen la implementacién de Six Sigma junto con sus otras responsabilidades laborales, operando bajo la guia de Black Belts Segiin los proponentes, se necesita una capacitacién especial para todos estos profesionales para garantizar que sigan la metodologia y utilicen correctamente el enfoque basado en datos. 41 Algunas organizaciones usan colores de cinturones adicionales, como "cinturones amarillos", para los empleados que tienen capacitacién basica en las herramientas Six Sigma y generalmente participan en proyectos, y "cinturones blancos" para aquellos capacitados localmente en los hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma ans9129, 1141 Seis Sigma - Wikipacia conceptos pero que no participan en el equipo del proyecto. . También se mencionan los "cinturones naranjas" para casos especiales. [15] Certificacion General Electric y Motorola desarrollaron programas de certificacién como parte de su implementacién Six Sigma. Siguiendo este enfoque, muchas organizaciones en la década de 1990 comenzaron a ofrecer certificaciones Six Sigma a sus empleados. Mas tarde, en 2008, la Universidad de Motorola co-desarrollé con Vative y la Sociedad de Profesionales Lean Six Sigma un conjunto de estandares de certificacién comparables para la Certificacién Lean. [61.46] Los criterios para la certificacién Green Belt y Black Belt varian; algunas empresas simplemente requieren la participacién en un curso y un proyecto Six Sigma. |“! No existe un organismo de certificacién estandar, y varias asociaciones de calidad ofrecen diferentes certificaciones a cambio de una tarifa. 71 8], aSociedad Estadounidense para la Calidad, por ejemplo, requiere que los solicitantes de Black Belt aprueben un examen escrito y proporcionen unadeclaracién juradaque indique que han completado dos proyectos 0 un proyecto combinado con tres afios de experiencia practica en el cuerpo de conocimiento. [61:9] Herramientas y métodos Dentro de las fases individuales de un proyecto DMAIC 0 DMADV, Six Sigma utiliza muchas herramientas de gestién de calidad establecidas que también se utilizan fuera de Six Sigma. La siguiente tabla muestra una descripcién general de los principales métodos utilizados. = 5 porqués = Herramientas estadisticas y de ajuste » Analisis de variacién + Modelo linear general » ANOVA Medidor R&R « Analisis de regresion * Correlacién » Diagrama de dispersin » Prueba de chi-cuadrado = disefio axiomatic = Mapeo de Procesos de Negocio / Hoja de Verificacién = Diagrama de causa y efectos (también conocido como diagrama de espina de pescado o diagrama de Ishikawa ) = Grafico de control /Plan de control (también conocido como mapa de carriles)/Graficos de carrera = Analisis coste-beneficio = arbol CTQ = Disefio de experimentos / Estratificacion = Histogramas / Analisis de Pareto / Diagrama de Pareto = Grafico de seleccién / Capacidad de proceso / Rendimiento de rendimiento rodado = Despliegue de la funcién de calidad (QFD) = Investigacin de marketing cuantitativa mediante el uso de sistemas Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM) = Analisis de raiz de la causa = Analisis SIPOC ( Proveedores , Entradas , Proceso , Salidas , Clientes ) hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma 5115tang, tt Seis Sigma - Wkpecia = Andlisis COPIS (versién/perspectiva centrada en el cliente de SIPOC) = Métodos de Taguchi / Funcién de pérdida de Taguchi = Mapeo de flujo de valor Software Papel del cambio sigma 1.5 La experiencia ha demostrado que los procesos no suelen funcionar tan bien a largo plazo como a corto plazo. !9] Como resultado, el némero de sigmas que caben entre la media del proceso y el Iimite de especificacién més cercano puede disminuir con el tiempo, en comparacién con un estudio inicial a corto plazo. !9! para tener en cuenta este aumento de la vida real en la variacién del proceso a lo largo del tiempo, se introduce en el cAlculo un cambio de 1,5 sigma basado empiricamente. !91 20] Mikel Harry, el creador de Six Sigma, bas6 el cambio de 1,5 sigma en la altura de una pila de discos. Llamé a esto "Benderizar". Afirmé que, segin su pila, todos los process cambian 1,5 sigma cada 50 muestras. De acuerdo con esta idea, un proceso que ajusta 6 sigma entre la media del proceso y el limite de especificacién més cercano en un estudio a corto plazo, a largo plazo solo ajustar4 4,5 sigma, ya sea porque la media del proceso se moverd con el tiempo o porque la longitud -La desviacién estandar a corto plazo del proceso sera mayor que la observada a corto plazo, o ambas. [91 Por Io tanto, la definicién ampliamente aceptada de un proceso Six Sigma es un proceso que produce 3,4 partes defectuosas por millén de oportunidades (DPMO). Esto se basa en el hecho de que un proceso que se distribuye normalmente tendra 3,4 partes por millén fuera de los limites, cuando los limites son seis sigma de la media "original" de cero y la media del proceso se desplaza 1,5 sigma (y por lo tanto , los limites de seis sigma ya no son simétricos con respecto a la media). [9] La distribucién Six Sigma anterior, cuando esta bajo el efecto del cambio sigma 1,5, se conoce cominmente como un proceso sigma 4,5. La tasa de fallas de una distribucién seis sigma con la media desplazada 1,5 sigma no es equivalente a la tasa de fallas de un proceso 4,5 sigma con la media centrada en cero.!®! Esto tiene en cuenta el hecho de que causas especiales pueden provocar un deterioro en el rendimiento del proceso con el tiempo y est4 disefiado para evitar la subestimacién de los niveles de defectos que probablemente se encuentren en la operacién de la vida real. !9) El papel del cambio sigma es principalmente académico. El propésito de Six Sigma es generar mejoras en el desempefio organizacional. Depende de la organizacién determinar, en funcién de Tas expectativas del cliente, cual es el nivel sigma apropiado de un proceso. El propésito del valor sigma es como una figura comparativa para determinar si un proceso esta mejorando, deteriorandose, estancado 0 no competitivo con otros en el mismo negocio. Six Sigma (3.4 DPMO) no es el objetivo de todos los procesos. Niveles Sigma The table below gives long-term DPMO values corresponding to various short-term sigma Jevels,(21ll22] These figures assume that the process mean will shift by 1.5 sigma toward the side with the critical specification limit. In other words, they assume that after the initial study determining the short- term sigma level, the long-term C,,, value will turn out to be 0.5 less than the short-term C,, value. So, now for example, the DPMO figure given for 1 sigma assumes that the long-term process mean will be 0.5 sigma beyond the specification limit (Cpj. = -0.17), rather than 1 sigma within it, as it hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma ans‘zr tt was in the short-term study (C,, = 0.33). Note that the defect percentages indicate only defects exceeding the specification limit to which the process mean is nearest. Defects beyond the far specification limit are not included in the percentages. The formula used here to calculate the DPMO is thus Seis Sigma - Wikipacia ‘bar chart for quality characteristic XXX Tear @ 8 8 (erm 1000Hr2 —LL.=8010885 under bayont i ‘Sebev-toaeaoe Vel =009046 moe ols ‘Acontrol chart showing a process that experienced a 1.5 fe process mean toward the upper specification limit starting at midnight. Control charts help identify when a process should be investigated in order to ind and eliminate special-cause variation, DPMO = 1,000, 000 - (1 — (level — 1.5)) Sigma | Sigma (with 1.50 | poe Percent Percentage | Shortterm | Long-term level shift) defective Id Cox Cox 1 -05 691,462 | 69% 31% 0.33 0.17 2 05 308,538 | 31% 69% 0.67 017 3 15 66,807 | 6.7% 93.3% 4.00 05 4 25 6.210 0.62% 99.38% 1.33 0.83 5 35 233 0.023% 99.97% 1.67 447 6 45 34 0.00034% 99.99966% 2.00 15 7 55 0.019 0.0000019% | 99.9999981% 2.33 1.83 Six Sigma in practice Six Sigma mostly finds application in large organizations.'5] According to industry consultants like ‘Thomas Pyzdek and John Kullmann, companies with fewer than 500 employees are less suited to Six Sigma or need to adapt the standard approach to making it work for them.!5! six Sigma, however, contains a large number of tools and techniques that work well in small to mid-size organizations. The fact that an organization is not big enough to be able to afford black belts does hitpssfen.wikipedia.oriwiklSix_Sigma 7s‘zr tt Seis Sigma - Wikipedia not diminish its ability to make improvements using this set of tools and techniques. The infrastructure described as necessary to support Six Sigma is a result of the size of the organization rather than a requirement of Six Sigma itself.5! Manufacturing After its first application at Motorola in the late 1980s, other internationally recognized firms currently recorded high number of savings after applying Six Sigma. Examples include Johnson & Johnson, with $600 million of reported savings, Texas Instruments, which saved over $500 million as well as Telefonica, which reported €30 million in savings in the first 10 months; Sony and Boeing also reported successfully reducing waste.l23] Engineering and construction Although companies have considered common quality control and process improvement strategies, there's still a need for more reasonable and effective methods as all the desired standards and client satisfaction have not always been reached. There is still a need for an essential analysis that can control the factors affecting concrete cracks and slippage between concrete and steel. After conducting a case study on Tinjin Xianyi Construction Technology, it was found that construction time and construction waste were reduced by 26.2% and 67% accordingly after adopting Six Sigma. Similarly, Six Sigma implementation was studied at one of the largest engineering and construction companies in the world: Bechtel Corporation, where after an initial investment of $30 million in a Six Sigma program that included identifying and preventing rework and defects, over $200 million were saved. [23] Finance Six Sigma has played an important role by improving the accuracy of allocation of cash to reduce bank charges, automatic payments, improving the accuracy of reporting, reducing documentary credit defects, reducing check collection defects, and reducing variation in collector performance. For example, Bank of America announced in 2004 that Six Sigma had helped it increase customer satisfaction by 10.4% and decrease customer issues by 24%; similarly, American Express eliminated non-received renewal credit cards. Other financial institutions that have adopted Six Sigma include GE Capital and JPMorgan Chase, where customer satisfaction was the main objective.[23] Supply chain In the supply-chain field, it is important to ensure that products are delivered to clients at the right time while preserving high-quality standards. By changing the schematic diagram for the supply chain, Six Sigma can ensure quality control on products (defect-free) and guarantee delivery deadlines, the two main issues in the supply chain.[24) Healthcare This is a sector that has been highly matched with this doctrine for many years because of the nature of zero tolerance for mistakes and potential for reducing medical errors involved in healthcare.[251l26] The goal of Six Sigma in healthcare is broad and includes reducing the inventory of equipment that brings extra costs, altering the process of healthcare delivery in order to make it hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma ans‘zr tt Seis Sigma - Wikipedia more efficient and refining reimbursements. A study at the MD Anderson Cancer Center, which recorded an increase in examinations with no additional machines of 45% and a reduction in patients’ preparation time of 40 minutes; from 45 minutes to 5 minutes in multiple cases. 23! Lean Six Sigma was adopted in 2003 at Stanford hospitals and was introduced at Red Cross hospitals in 2002,(271 Criticism While there are many advocates for a Six Sigma approach for the reasons stated above, more than half of projects are unsuccessful: in 2010, the Wall Street Journal reported that more than 60% of projects fail.!28] 4 review of academic literature !29] found 34 common failure factors in 56 papers on Lean, Six Sigma, and LSS from 1995-2013. Among them are (summarize = Lack of top management attitude, commitment, and involvement; lack of leadership and vision = Lack of training and education; lack of resources (financial, technical, human, etc.) = Poor project selection and prioritization; weak link to strategic objectives of the organization = Resistance to culture change; Poor communication; Lack of consideration of the human factors = Lack of awareness of the benefits of Lean/Six Sigma; Lack of technical understanding of tools, techniques, and practices Others have provided other criticisms. Lack of originality Quality expert Joseph M. Juran described Six Sigma as "a basic version of quality improvement", stating that "there is nothing new there. It includes what we used to call facilitators. They've adopted more flamboyant terms, like belts with different colors. I think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be very helpful. Again, that's not a new idea. The American Society for Quality long ago established certificates, such as for reliability engincers."[3°] Inadequate for complex manufacturing Quality expert Philip B. Crosby pointed out that the Six Sigma standard does not go far enough— customers deserve defect-free products every time.!31! For example, under the Six Sigma standard, semiconductors, which require the flawless etching of millions of tiny circuits onto a single chip, are all defective./32 Role of consultants The use of "Black Belts” as itinerant change agents has fostered an industry of training and certification. Critics have argued there is overselling of Six Sigma by too great a number of consulting firms, many of which claim expertise in Six Sigma when they have only a rudimentary understanding of the tools and techniques involved or the markets or indus in which they are acting 33) Potential negative effects hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma ons‘zr tt Seis Sigma - Wikipedia A Fortune article stated that "of 58 large companies that have announced Six Sigma programs, 91% have trailed the S&P 500 since". The statement was attributed to "an analysis by Charles Holland of consulting firm Qualpro (which espouses a competing quality-improvement process)".4! The summary of the article is that Six Sigma is effective at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to fix an existing process” and does not help in "coming up with new products or disruptive technologies." [351[36] Over-reliance on statistics More direct criticism is the "rigid" nature of Six Sigma with its over-reliance on methods and tools. In most cases, more attention is paid to reducing variation and searching for any significant factors, and less attention is paid to developing robustness in the first place (which can altogether eliminate the need for reducing variation).37! The extensive reliance on significance testing and use of multiple regression techniques increase the risk of making commonly unknown types of statistical errors or mistakes. A possible consequence of Six Sigma's array of p-value misconceptions is the false belief that the probability of a conclusion being in error can be calculated from the data in a single experiment without reference to external evidence or the plausibility of the underlying mechanism.|38! One of the most serious but all-too-common misuses of inferential statistics is to take a model that was developed through exploratory model building and subject it to the same sorts of statistical tests that are used to validate a model that was specified in advance./391 Another comment refers to the oft-mentioned Transfer Function, which seems to be a flawed theory if looked at in detail.4°l since significance tests were first popularized many objections have been voiced by prominent and respected statisticians. The volume of criticism and rebuttal has filled books with language seldom used in the scholarly debate of a dry subject./41Il42/(43lL44] as already published more than 40 years ago (see Statistical hypoth In a 2006 issue USA Army Logistician an article critical of Six Sigma noted: "The dangers of a single paradigmatic orientation (in this case, that of technical rationality) can blind us to values associated with double-loop learning and the learning organization, organization adaptability, workforce creativity and development, humanizing the workplace, cultural awareness, and strategy making."[45] Nassim Nicholas Taleb considers risk managers little more than "blind users" of statistical tools and methods./45I He states that statistics is fundamentally incomplete as a field as it cannot predict the risk of rare events—something Six Sigma is especially concerned with. Furthermore, errors in prediction are likely to occur as a result of ignorance of or distinction between epistemic and other uncertainties. These errors are the biggest in time variant (reliability) related failures.47) 4.5 sigma shift The statistician Donald J. Wheeler has dismissed the 1.5 sigma shift as "goofy" because of its arbitrary nature./4®I Its universal applicability is seen as doubtful. ‘The 1.5 sigma shift has also become contentious because it results in stated "sigma levels" that reflect short-term rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-term defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma convention, described as a "six sigma process".91[491 The accepted Six Sigma scoring system thus cannot be equated to actual normal distribution probabilities for the stated number of standard deviations, and this has been a key bone of contention over how Six Sigma measures are defined.'49] The fact that it is rarely explained hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma 10stang, tt Seis Sigma - Wikipedia that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance rather than actual 6 sigma performance has led several commentators to express the opinion that Six Sigma is a confidence trick.!2! Stifling creativity in research According to John Dodge, editor in chief of Design News, the use of Six Sigma is inappropriate in a research environment. Dodge states!5°! "excessive metrics, steps, measurements and Six Sigma's intense focus on reducing variability water down the discovery process. Under Six Sigma, the free- wheeling nature of brainstorming and the serendipitous side of discovery is stifled.” He concludes "there's general agreement that freedom in basic or pure research is preferable while Six Sigma works best in incremental innovation when there's an expressed commercial goal." A BusinessWeek article says that James McNerney's introduction of Six Sigma at 3M had the effect of stifling creativity and reports its removal from the research function. It cites two Wharton School professors who say that Six Sigma leads to incremental innovation at the expense of blue skies research.!5!] This phenomenon is further explored in the book Going Lean, which describes a related approach known as lean dynamics and provides data to show that Ford's 6 Sigma program did little to change its fortunes.!52] Lack of documentation One criticism voiced by Yasar Jarrar and Andy Neely from the Cranfield School of Management's Centre for Business Performance is that whil igma is a powerful approach, it can also unduly dominate an organization's culture; and they add that much of the Six Sigma literature — in a remarkable way (six-sigma claims to be evidence, scientifically based) — lacks academic rigor: ix S One final criticism, probably more to the Six Sigma literature than concepts, relates to the evidence for Six Sigma’s success. So far, documented case studies using the Six Sigma methods are presented as the strongest evidence for its success. However, looking at these documented cases, and apart from a few that are detailed from the experience of leading organizations like GE and Motorola, most cases are not documented in a systemic or academic manner. In fact, the majority are case studies illustrated on websites, and are, at best, sketchy. They provide no mention of any specific Six Sigma methods that were used to resolve the problems. It has been argued that by relying on the Six Sigma criteria, management is lulled into the idea that something is being done about quality, whereas any resulting improvement is accidental (Latzko 1995). Thus, when looking at the evidence put forward for Six Sigma's success, mostly by consultants and people with vested interests, the question that begs to be asked is: are we making a true improvement with Six Sigma methods or just getting skilled at telling stories? Everyone seems to believe that we are making true improvements, but there is some way to go to document these empirically and clarify the causal relations. —ls7] See also = Design for Six Sigma - Approach to design supporting Six Sigma = DMAIC — Data-driven improvement cycle used for improving and optimizing business processes hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma amis‘zr tt Seis Sigma - Wikipedia = Kaizen — Japanese concept referring to continuous improvement — a philosophical focus on continuous improvement of processes = Lean Six Sigma — Methodology of systematically removing waste = Lean manufacturing — Lean methodology used to improve production time by reducing wastes = Management fad — Pejorative term for organizational practice = Quality management — Process to provide consistent fitness for use of product or service = Total productive maintenance — Maintenance management methodology = Total quality management — Approach to business improvement. W. Edwards Deming — American engineer and statistician (1900-1993) References 1. "The Inventors of Six Sigma" (https://web.archive.org/web/20051106025733/http:/Avww.motorol a.com/content/O,,3079,00.html). Archived from the original (https://www.motorola.com/content/ 0,,3079,00.htm!) on 2005-11-06. Retrieved 2006-01-29 2, Tennant, Geoff (2001). SIX SIGMA: SPC and TQM in Manufacturing and Services (https://book s.google.com/books?id=06276jidG3IC). Gower Publishing, Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 0-566-08374-4 3. "About Motorola University" (https:/web archive.org/web/20051222081924/http://www.motorol a.com/content/0, ,3071-5801,00.html). Archived from the original (https:/www.motorola.com/co ntent/0,,3071-5801,00.html) on 2005-12-22. Retrieved 2006-01-28 4, "Six Sigma: Where is it now?" (http://scm.ncsu.edu/public/facts/facs030624.html). 24 June 2003. Retrieved 2008-05-22 5, Dusharme, Dirk. 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Kwak, Young Hoon; Anbari, Frank T, (2006). "Benefits, obstacles, and future of six sigma approach". Technovation. 26 (5-6): 708-715. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2004, 10.003 (https://d oi.0rg/10.1016%2Fj technovation.2004.10.003) 24, Dasgupta, Tirthankar (2003-05-01), "Using the six-sigma metric to measure and improve the performance of a supply chain". Total Quality Management & Business Excellence. 14 (3): 355-366. doi: 10,1080/1478336032000046652 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1478336032000046 652). ISSN 1478-3363 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1478-3363). S2CID 34848457 (https://ap i.semanticscholar.org/Corpus!D:34848457) 25. Cascini, Egidio. Sei Sigma per Docenti in 14 Capitoli (http://www.gms|.itwp-contentJuploads/20 14/09/Esempi-Libro-Sei-Sigma-per-docenti-in-14-Capitoli pdf) (PDF). RCE Multimedia 26. Celegato, Alessandro (2017). "IN MEMORY OF EGIDIO CASCINI" (http://sa-ijas.stat.unipd it/si tes/sa-ijas. stat. unipd itfiles/IN%20MEMORY%200F %20E GIDIO%20CASCINI.pdf) (POF ). Statistica Applicata: Italian Journal of Applied Statistics. 29: 107—110 27. "Lean Six Sigma in Healthcare" (https://sixsigmadsi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Lean-Six -Sigma-In-Healthcare.pdf) (PDF). www.researchgate.net/publication/7034272. Journal for Healthcare Quality « March 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2020. 28. Chakravorty, Satya (January 25, 2010). "Where process-improvement projects go wrong” (http s:/huww.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142405274870329800457445747 1313938130). The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved May 23, 2021. 29. Albliwi, S.; Antony, J.; Halim Lim, S.A.; van der Wiele, T. (2014). "Critical failure factors of Lean Six Sigma: a systematic literature review". International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management. 31 (9): 10121030. doi:10.1108/IJQRM-09-2013-0147 (https://doi.org/10.1108% 2FIJQRM-09-2013-0147). 30. Paton, Scott M. (August 2002). "Juran: A Lifetime of Quality" (http://www. qualitydigest.com/aug O2/articles/01_article.shtml). Quality Digest. 22 (8): 19-23, Retrieved 2009-04-01 31. Crosby, Philip B. (1999). Quality and Me: Lessons from an Evolving Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. p. 159. OCLC 40444566 (https://www.worldcat.org/ocle/40444566). "Quality is measured by the price of nonconformance, not by indexes.” hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma 13189129, 1141 Seis Sigma - Wikipacia 32. Crosby, Philip B. (1996). Quality Is Still Free: Making Quality Certain in Uncertain Times. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. xiv. OCLC 32820340 (https:/Avww.worldcat, org/ocic/32820340). "The nonconformance situation semiconductor suppliers found recently emerged from embracing the standard of "Six Sigma." This permits 3.4 defects per million components. Why anyone would want to do that is beyond me. But they are now paying the price. When even ordinary chips contain a million or more components, such a standard means that they are all defective." 33. Lean Six Sigma: Cost Reduction Strategies, Ade Asefeso MCIPS MBA (2012) 34, Morris, Betsy (11 July 2006). “Tearing up the Jack Welch playbook" (https://money.cnn.com/20 06/07/10/magazines/fortune/rule4 fortune/index.htm). Fortune. Retrieved 2006-11-26. 35. Richardson, Karen (7 January 2007). "The 'Six Sigma’ Factor for Home Depot" (htips:/Avww.ws j.com/articles/SB116787666577566679). Wall Street Journal Online. Retrieved 2007-10-15 36. Ficalora, Joe; Costello, Joe. "Wall Street Journal SBTI Rebuttal" (https://web.archive.orghweb/2 0071025205122/http://www sbtionline.com/files/Wall_Street_Journal_SBTI_Rebuttal.pdf) (PDF). Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc. Archived from the original (http:/Avww. sbtiontin e.comffiles/Wall_Street_Journal_SBTI_Rebuttal.pdf) (PDF) on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2007-10-15. 37. "Six Sigma Friend or Foe" (http://www.som.cranfield.ac.uk/som/dinamic-content/research/ebp/ CBPupdate1-SixSigmaFriendOrFoe.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2012-02-10 38. "Twelve P-value misconceptions" (https://sixsigmadsi.com/wp-contentuploads/2020/10/A-Dirty -Dozen-Twelve-P-Value-Misconceptions.pdf) (POF) 39. “important” (http:/www jerrydallal.com/LHSP/important.htm) 40. "y-FX" (https://archive, today/20130620021121 /http://www.improvementandinnovation.com/feat ures/article/y-fx-really-transfer-function/). Archived from the original (http://www.improvementan dinnovation.com/features/article/y-fx-really-transfer-function/) on 2013-06-20. 41. Harlow, Lisa Lavoie; Stanley A. Mulaik; James H. Steiger, eds. (1997). What If There Were No Significance Tests?. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-2634-0 42. Mortison, Denton; Henkel, Ramon, eds. (2006) [1970]. The Significance Test Controversy. Aldine Transaction. ISBN 0-202-30879-0. 43. McCloskey, Deirdre N.; Ziliak, Stephen T. (2008). The Cult of Statistical Significance: How the Standard Error Costs Us Jobs, Justice, and Lives (https://archive.org/details/cultofstatistica000 Ounse). University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-05007-9. 44. Chow, Siu L, (1997). Statistical Significance: Rationale, Validity and Utility (https://archive.orgid etails/statisticalsigni0000chow). ISBN 0-7619-5205-5. 45. Paparone, Dr. Christopher R. "Army Logistician (A Values-Based Critique of Lean and Six Sigma as a Management Ideology)" (http://www.almc.army.mil/alog/issues/JanFeb08/critique_6 sig_ideology.html). Alme.army.mil. Retrieved 2012-02-10 46. The fourth quadrant: a map of the limits of statistics [9.15.08] Nassim Nicholas Taleb, An Edge Original Essay 47. "Special Workshop on Risk Acceptance and Risk Communication” (http://www.ripid.ethz.ch/Pa per/DerKiureghian_paper.pdf) (PDF). Stanford University. 26-27 March 2007, 48. Wheeler, Donald J, (2004). The Six Sigma Practitioner's Guide to Data Analysis. SPC Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-945320-62-3 49. *Pande, Peter S.; Neuman, Robert P.; Cavanagh, Roland R. (2001). The Six Sigma Way: How GE, Motorola, and Other Top Companies are Honing Their Performance (https://archive.org/de tails/sixsigmawayhowge0Opand). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 229 (https://archive.o rg/details/sixsigmawayhowge00pand/page/229). ISBN 0-07-135806-4. "key bones of contention amongst the statistical experts about how Six Sigma measures are defined.” 50. Dodge, John (10 December 2007). "3M Shelves Six Sigma in R&D" (https:/web.archive.orgiwe b/20100305215047/http://www.designnews.com/article/12089-3M_Shelves_Six_Sigma_in_R_ D.php). Design News. Archived from the original (http://www.designnews.com/article/12089-3M _Shelves_Six_Sigma_in_R_D.php) on 2010-03-05. Retrieved 2013-04-02 hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma vans9129, 1141 Seis Sigma - Wikipacia 51. Hindo, Brian (6 June 2007). "At 3M, a struggle between efficiency and creativity” (http://(www.bu sinessweek.com/magazine/content/07_24/b4038406,htm?chan=top+news_top+news+index_b esttoftbw). Business Week. Retrieved 2007-06-06. 52. Ruffa, Stephen A. (2008). Going Lean: How the Best Companies Apply Lean Manufacturing Principles to Shatter Uncertainty, Drive Innovation, and Maximize Profits (https://archive.orgidet ails/goingleanhowbest0000ruff). AMACOM (a division of American Management Association) ISBN 978-0-8144-1057-8 Further reading = Adams, Cary W.; Gupta, Praveen; Wilson, Charles E. (2003). Six Sigma Deployment (https://b ooks.google.com/books?id=0lY_bhMBzLwC&q=Adams+Gupta). Burlington, MA: Butterworth- Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-7523-3. OCLC 50693105 (hitps://www.worldcat.org/ocle/50693105) = Breyfogle, Forrest W. Ill (1999). Implementing Six Sigma: Smarter Solutions Using Statistical Methods (https:/books.google.com/books?id=leQvoUXM9LOC&q=Breyfogle+ Implementing). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-26572-1. OCLC 50606471 (https://www.worlde at.org/ocic/50606471) = De Feo, Joseph A.; Barnard, William (2005). JURAN Institute's Six Sigma Breakthrough and Beyond ~ Quality Performance Breakthrough Methods (https://books.google.com/books?id=0V HaTb6LJ4QC&q=%22sixtsigma%22). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07- 142227-7. OCLC 52937531 (https://ww.worldcat.org/oclc/52937531). = Hahn, G. J., Hill, W. J., Hoerl, R. W. and Zinkgraf, S. A. (1999) The Impact of Six Sigma Improvement-A Glimpse into the Future of Statistics, The American Statistician, Vol. 53, No. 3 pp. 208-215. = Keller, Paul A. (2001). Six Sigma Deployment: A Guide for Implementing Six Sigma in Your Organization (https://books. google.com/books ?id=izjUAAAACAAJ&q=Keller+Six+Sigma) Tucson, AZ: Quality Publishing. ISBN 0-930011-84-8. OCLC 47942384 (https://www.worldcat.o rgloctc/47942384) » Pande, Peter S,; Neuman, Robert P.; Cavanagh, Roland R. (2001). The Six Sigma Way: How GE, Motorola, and Other Top Companies are Honing Their Performance (https://archive.org/de tails/sixsigmawayhowge00pand). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-135806- 4, OCLC 647006794 (hitps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/647006794). "Pande Six Sigma Way.” = Pyzdek, Thomas & Paul A. Keller (2009). The Six Sigma Handbook, Third Edition (https://book s.google.com/books?id=5CCow4j2akgC&q=Pyzdek+Six+Sigma). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill ISBN 978-0-07-162338-4. OCLC 51194565 (https://www.worldcat.org/ocic/51194565). = Snee, Ronald D.; Hoerl, Roger W, (2002). Leading Six Sigma: A Step-by-Step Guide Based on Experience with GE and Other Six Sigma Companies (https://books.google.com/books?id=_B RYIS31iwUC&q=Snee+Hoer!). Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press. ISBN 0-13-008457-3 OCLC 51048423 (https://www worldcat org/oclc/51048423) = Taylor, Gerald (2008). Lean Six Sigma Service Excellence: A Guide to Green Belt Certification and Bottom Line Improvement (https://books. google .com/books?id=1VdYNWAACAAM). New York, NY: J. Ross Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60427-006-8. OCLC 271773742 (https:/Awww.worlde at.org/ocie/271773742). = Tennant, Geoff (2001). SIX SIGMA: SPC and TQM in Manufacturing and Services (https://book s.google.com/books?id=06276jidG3IC). Aldershot, UX: Gower Publishing, Lid. ISBN 0-566- 08374-4. OCLC 44391556 (https:/www.worldcat org/ocic/44391556) Retrieved from *https://en.wikipedia.orgiwlindex.phptitle=Six_Sigma8oldid=1136937152" hitpsiien wikipedia orgwklSix_Sigma 1518