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Transportation Research Procedia 36 (2018) 453–458

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Thirteenth International Conference on Organization and Traffic Safety Management in

Large Cities
Thirteenth International Conference (SPbOTSIC 2018)
on Organization and Traffic Safety Management in
Large Cities (SPbOTSIC 2018)
A study of air pollution by exhaust gases from cars in well
A study of air courtyards
pollution by
ofexhaust gases from cars in well
Saint Petersburg
courtyards
a
of Sainta,bPetersburg c
Vladimir Lozhkin , Olga Lozhkina *, Viktor Dobromirov
a
Vladimir Lozhkina, Olga Lozhkinaa,b*, Viktor Dobromirovc
Saint Petersburg University of State Fire Service of EMERCOM of Russia, 149Moskovski
149MoskovskiyProsp., Saint Petersburg, 196100, Russia
b
Solomenko
a Institute ofUniversity
Saint Petersburg TransportofProblems
State FireofService
the Russian
ofan Academy of
EMERCOM ofSciences, 13 Line 12of VasilyevskyIsland.,
Russia, 149Moskovski
149MoskovskiyProsp., Saint Petersburg,
Saint Petersburg, 199178,
199178
196100, Russia
b
Solomenko Institute of Transport Problems of the Russian
an Russia
Academy of Sciences, 13 Line 12of VasilyevskyIsland., Saint Petersburg, 199178,
199178
c
Saint Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering,
Russia 4 Vtoraja Krasnoarmejskaja St., Saint Petersburg, 190005, Russia
c
Saint Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, 4 Vtoraja Krasnoarmejskaja St., Saint Petersburg, 190005, Russia

Abstract
Abstract
Pollution of the environment by exhaust gases while parking in enclosed well courtyards of Saint Petersburg is studied. A method
for the assessment
Pollution of extremely
of the environment dangerous
by exhaust air while
gases pollution by CO,
parking CH, NOwell
in enclosed x, and PM pollutants
courtyards upon
of Saint engine start-up
Petersburg up andAwarm-up
is studied. warm
method
under
for theconditions
assessmentofoflimited
imited air exchange
extremely dangerous is air
developed.
pollutionExperiments
by CO, CH,involving
NOx, and13 PM petrol and 2 upon
pollutants dieselengine
passenger cars of Euro
up and
start-up warm0, 3,
warm-up
4, 5 emission
under conditionsstandards were
of limited
imited air conducted.
exchange isTo measure Experiments
developed. the concentration of pollutants,
involving the 2following
13 petrol and gas analyzers
diesel passenger cars ofwere
Euroused:
0, 3,
Testo-300
4, 5 emission XXL (Testo,were
standards Germany), PGA-200
conducted. To200 (ZAOthe
measure R&D EnterpriseofElektrostandart,
concentration Russia), DUSTTRAK
pollutants, the following gas analyzers 8530 (TSI
were used:
Incorporated,
Testo-300 XXL USA). Values
(Testo, of CO, CH,
Germany), NO200
PGA-200 x, PM emission
(ZAO R&Dfactors for passenger
Enterprise cars of Euro
Elektrostandart, 0 – Euro
Russia), 5 emission8530
DUSTTRAK standards
(TSI
were determined.
Incorporated, USA).It has beenofestablished
Values CO, CH, NO thatx,upon engin
engine warm-up
PM emission factors (infor passenger
passenger cars
cars of
of Euro
Euro 00 –– Euro
Euro 45 emission
emissionstandards)
standards
high
were air pollution Itwith
determined. has carbon monoxide,that
been established hydrocarbons
engineand
upon engin nitrogen
warm-up (inoxide is formed
passenger cars ofin Euro
enclosed and poorly
0 – Euro ventilated
4 emission well
standards)
courtyards
high in 5–10 with
air pollution minutes, theirmonoxide,
carbon concentration being 2–55 and
hydrocarbons times, 11.5–3
nitrogen 3 times
oxide and 1.5 times
is formed in higher thanand
enclosed thepoorly
permissible levelswell
ventilated for
the RussianinFederation,
courtyards respectively
5–10 minutes, (at the height
their concentration of 22–5
being m,5i.e. at the
times, breathing
11.5–3 level).
3 times and 1.5 times higher than the permissible levels for
the Russian Federation, respectively (at the height of 2 m, i.e. at the breathing level).
©2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2018
This The Authors.
is an accessPublished by Elsevier B.V.
©2018 Theopen
This is an Authors.
open
article under
accessPublished
the CC BY-NC-ND
by Elsevier
article under B.V.
the CC BY-NC-ND
license
cense (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review
This review
is an openunder responsibility
access article underof the
the CC scientific
BY-NC-ND committee
license
censeofof the Thirteenth International Conference on Organization and
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee the Thirteenth International Conference on Organization and
Traffic Safety
Peer-review Management in Large Cities (SPbOTSIC 2018)
2018).
Traffic Safety Management in Large Cities (SPbOTSIC 2018). the Thirteenth International Conference on Organization and
review under responsibility of the scientific committee of
Traffic Safety Management in Large Cities (SPbOTSIC 2018) 2018).
Keywords:courtyard territory; cars; exhaust gases; extremely dangerous air pollution
pollution.
Keywords:courtyard territory; cars; exhaust gases; extremely dangerous air pollution
pollution.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000

000-0000 .
* E-mail:olojkina@yandex.ru
Corresponding author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000
000-0000 .
E-mail:olojkina@yandex.ru
2352-1465© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open
2352-1465© access
2018 Thearticle under
Authors. the CC by
Published BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by
Elsevier B.V. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)Peer-review under
responsibility
This is an openofaccess
the scientific committee
article under the CCof the Thirteenth
BY-NC-ND International
license Management
Conference on Organization and Traffic Safety Mana
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)Peer-review
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by under in
Large Cities (SPbOTSIC
responsibility 2018).
of the scientific committee of the Thirteenth International Conference on Organization and Traffic Safety ManaManagement in
Large Cities (SPbOTSIC 2018).

2352-1465  2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Thirteenth International Conference on Organization and Traffic Safety
Management in Large Cities (SPbOTSIC 2018).
10.1016/j.trpro.2018.12.124
454 Vladimir Lozhkin et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 36 (2018) 453–458
2 Vladimir Lozhkin, Olga Lozhkina, Viktor Dobromirov/ Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

1. Introduction

In spite of toughening requirements to pollutant emissions from vehicles, the issue of dangerous air pollution with
CO, NOx, CH and PM from exhaust gases is especially relevant for megacities of the European Union, the USA and
Russia(Franco et al., 2016;Genikhovich and Sciermeier, 1995; Genikhovich et al., 2002;Jain and Tiwari,
2016;Khreis et al., 2018;Lozhkina and Lozhkin, 2015; Lozhkina et al., 2016;Ni et al., 2018;Ntziachristos et al.,
2009;Silva and Mendes, 2012;Singh et al., 2014; Taha, 2015;Yumino et al., 2015; Zachariadis and Kouvaritakis,
2003). 1.9 million passenger cars are used in Saint Petersburg, and about 95% of those are equipped with petrol
engines. Cities face an acute problem of parking in courtyard territories, which poses an environmental hazard to city
residents since pollutant emissions from engines upon their cold start and warm-up are several times greater than
pollutant emissions from warmed-up engines (Lozhkina and Lozhkin, 2015; Reiter and Kockelman, 2015;
Weilenmann et al., 2009).
A distinctive feature of territories in the historical center of Saint Petersburg and the adjacent areas is block
development with the construction of buildings along the perimeter. Buildings were erected in available territories,
narrow streets and well courtyards emerged, however, they failed to meet sanitation requirements and had
insufficient insolation and aeration.
It should be noted that air pollution by PM10 and PM2.5 on courtyard parking lots represents a particular threat to
the health of residents of surrounding buildings, since such particulate matters can adsorb toxic and carcinogenic
substances on their surface, and, due to small sizes (≤ 10 μm), they can penetrate the human blood system
increasing the risk of bronchopulmonary, cardiovascular and oncological diseases (Andersen et al.,
2011;Chaloulakou et al., 2002;Lin et al., 2016; Raaschou-Nielsen et al., 2010;Strickland et al., 2016).
Thus, under conditions of poor ventilation in well courtyards, the accumulated concentrations of pollutants can be
dangerous for human health. In this regard, it is important to study patterns of CO, NOx, CH and PM emissions from
passenger cars of Euro 0 – Euro 5 emission standards upon engine start-up and warm-up under actual operating
conditions.

2. Subjects of experimental studies and measuring tools

Specific emissions of carbon monoxide CO, nitrogen oxides NOx, hydrocarbons and suspended particulate
matters PM10 and PM2.5 released with exhaust gases upon engine start-up and warm-up were assessed by measuring
the concentrations of pollutants in the composition of exhaust gases. For this purpose, passenger cars of Euro 0 –
Euro 5 emission standards, mainly with petrol engines, of different age, fuel, transmissions, both equipped and not
equipped with an exhaust catalytic converter, were selected. A total of 15 cars of various manufacturers was tested:
Subaru Forester (2006), Chevrolet Lacetti (2009), Renault Logan (2009), Ford Mondeo (2008), Volkswagen Tiguan
(2009), Nissan Qashqai (2010), Subaru Forester (2011), Nissan Qashqai+ 2 (2012), Suzuki SX4 (2013), Mazda 3
(2014), Skoda Yeti (2012), BMW X3 (2013), Mercedes-Benz (2014), Volkswagen Touareg (2008), Mercedes-Benz
307D (1988).
Concentrations of CO and NOx were measured directly in the exhaust pipe using the Testo-300 XXL gas analyzer
(Testo, Germany). The gas analyzer uses the principle of electrochemical cells; thermocouples K (Ni-CrNi) are
installed to determine the temperature. This device can be used to measure concentrations of CO, O2, NO and NO2
in systems operating on any type of fuel (i.e. gas, diesel, solid fuels). Concentrations of CO and CH at a given
distance from the exhaust pipe were measured using the PGA-200 (ZAO R&D Enterprise Elektrostandart, Russia)
and Kolion-1A (Chromdet Analytical Instruments Ltd., Russia) gas analyzers.
To measure concentrations of particulate matters PM10 and PM2.5, two devices manufactured in the USA were
used (DUSTTRAK 8530 (TSI Incorporated, USA) using the laser nephelometry method with detection of scattered
light intensity). The use of two devices allowed measuring concentrations of both PM10 and PM2.5 online
simultaneously.
Concentrations of CO, NOx and CH were measured using the Testo-300 XXL and Koilon-1A gas analyzers
directly in the exhaust pipe. The sampling probes (with fluoroplastic tips) were fixed in the exhaust pipe using a
special heat-resistant clamp, and the registration module was placed in the trunk or passenger compartment. The
 Vladimir Lozhkin et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 36 (2018) 453–458 455
Vladimir Lozhkin, Olga Lozhkina, Viktor Dobromirov/ Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 3

sampling probe of the DUSTTRAK 8530 instrument designed to determine the mass concentration of solid aerosols
in the air was also placed in the exhaust pipe of the car tested.
The measurements were carried out in summer and in winter in cars with cold engines that had been standstill
before the tests for at least 6 hours, at an air temperature from -5 to +25°C. The measurements were repeated 3–5
times to obtain stable readings. At the same time, the engine's crankshaft speed was registered using a tachometer
which allowed assessing the exhaust gas discharge rate.

3. Results of experimental studies of CO, CH, NOx, PM emissions in exhaust gases of passenger cars

Table 1 presents average specific pollutant emissions for passenger cars not equipped with an exhaust catalytic
converter (Euro 0 conventional emission standard), as well as for cars of Euro 1 – Euro 2 emission standards (g/min)
upon engine warm-up at idle.

Table 1. Average specific pollutant emissions from cars of Euro 1 – Euro 2 emission standards upon engine warm-up at idle.
Pollutant CO, g/min CH, g/min NOx, g/min PM10, g/min
Outdoor air temperature < -5°C > 5°C < -5°C > 5°C < -5°C > 5°C < -5°C > 5°C
Passenger cars with petrol engines
Euro 0 6.3 3.2 0.49 0.31 0.045 0.026 - -
Euro 1 4.1 2.5 0.36 0.25 0.021 0.012 - -
Euro 2 2.4 1.3 0.21 0.12 0.015 0.009 - -
Passenger cars with diesel engines
Euro 1 0.21 0.19 0.12 0.08 0.17 0.11 0.006 0.004
Euro 2 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.07 0.004 0.003

Table 2 presents average specific pollutant emissions for passenger cars of Euro 3 – Euro 5 emission standards
(g/min) upon engine warm-up mode at idle.

Table 2. Average specific pollutant emissions for passenger cars of Euro 3 – Euro 5 emission standards upon engine warm-up mode at
idle.
Pollutant CO, g/min CH, g/min NOx, g/min PM10, g/min
Outdoor air temperature < -5°C > 5°C < -5°C > 5°C < -5°C > 5°C < -5°C > 5°C
Passenger cars with petrol engines
Euro 3 1.17 0.43 0.39 0.24 0.11 0.08
Euro 4 1.14 0.08 0.27 0.15 0.09 0.06
Euro 5 0.75 0.37 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.10
Passenger cars with diesel engines
Euro 3 0.23 0.17 0.13 0.09 0.15 0.12 0.004 0.003
Euro 4 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.002 0.001

The values of pollutant emission factors for CO, CH, NOx and PM suspended particles for passenger cars of Euro
0 – Euro 5 emission standards (Table 1, Table 2) were subsequently used as a basis for a method for assessing and
forecasting extreme air pollution upon engine start-up and warm-up in well courtyards.
456 Vladimir Lozhkin et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 36 (2018) 453–458
4 Vladimir Lozhkin, Olga Lozhkina, Viktor Dobromirov/ Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

4. A method for assessing and forecasting extreme air pollution upon engine start-up and warm-up in well
courtyards

Dangerous pollutant emissions in well courtyards are mainly caused by engine warm-up at idle and vehicle
movement when parking. We assume emissions from engines of cars entering outdoor parking lots to be minimum,
and, therefore, do not take those into account.

Eop   i 1 N ( Eics tics  Ecm tcm )

n
(1)

Eop — total pollutant emissions from all passenger cars upon engine start-up and warm-up during parking and
driving in the outdoor parking lot, g;
Еics — intensity of emissions regarding the i-th pollutant upon engine start-up and warm-up at idle (idle cold
start), g/s;
Ecm — intensity of emissions regarding the i-th pollutant upon engine warm-up during movement in the courtyard
territory (cold movement), g/s;
N — the number of cars simultaneously operating in the engine warm-up mode;
tcs — time of car operation in the warm-up mode at idle, s;
tcm — time of car operation in the warm-up mode during movement in the courtyard, s;
n — the number of pollutants considered.
Based on the developed methodical approach for the calculation and inventory of emissions in parking lots, with
account for the emission factors for priority pollutants and previously established pollutant emission factors for
moving vehicles (Lozhkina and Lozhkin, 2015), a numerical study of air pollution in typical well courtyards of Saint
Petersburg was performed.
Design scenarios were based on the following basic factors contributing to the extreme local pollution of the
surface air in outdoor parking lots:
1) Type of cars in a parking lot and traffic intensity (old cars, cars with a high run (> 100,000 km) and modern
cars with a faulty exhaust gas aftertreatment system, characterized by high values of pollutant emissions, pose the
greatest threat).
2) Geometric features of the adjacent buildings (e.g. in enclosed well courtyards, mass exchange is hindered,
windows of the first floors are located close to the ground, vehicles park in the immediate vicinity of windows of
residential apartments).
3) Unfavorable meteorological conditions: wind velocity lower than 1.5 m/s, temperature inversions preventing
natural dispersion of air pollutants.
To calculate the maximum concentrations CM of pollutants in well courtyards, a method allowing classifying cars
as unorganized sources of "cold" emissions into the atmosphere was used.

CM  ( AMFmn ) / H 7/3 (2)

where A is a coefficient depending on the temperature stratification of the atmosphere, A = 120 for the central part
of the Russian Federation, A = 160 for regions with medium turbulent exchange;
M is the intensity of emissions of a hazardous substance into the atmosphere per unit of time, g/s. In our case, it is
the mass of a substance emitted by a group of cars;
F is a dimensionless coefficient taking into account the speed of gravity sedimentation of PM solid particles in the
atmosphere on the geological substrate; when estimating the dispersion of soot in the atmosphere upon operation of
mobile vehicles, it is recommended to take the value of parameter F = 1;
m is a dimensionless coefficient equal to 0.9;
n is a dimensionless coefficient accounting for geometrical and temperature characteristics of the emission
source;
 Vladimir Lozhkin et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 36 (2018) 453–458 457
Vladimir Lozhkin, Olga Lozhkina, Viktor Dobromirov/ Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 5

 is a dimensionless coefficient taking into account the influence of geometric relief in courtyard buildings,  =
1;
Н is the height of the place above the level of the adjacent territories, m.
This approach is taken as a basis for software of Ecolog series developed by the Integral company (Saint
Petersburg).
According to the developed method, using the Ecolog-3 software, a numerical study of air pollution with carbon
monoxide and other dangerous components of exhaust gases from engines of six passenger cars of Euro 0 – Euro 4
emission standards in a well courtyard (14 Karavannaya Str., Saint Petersburg) was conducted.
The obtained data attested to the fact that in 5–10 minutes of simultaneous engine warm-up in six cars of Euro 0 –
Euro 4 emission standards, short-term high-level air pollution with carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxide forms in the enclosed space of a typical poorly ventilated well courtyard, exceeding the limit values
established in Russia by 2–5 times, 1.5–3 times and 1.5 times, respectively (at the height of 2 m). It is obvious that
residents of the first two floors are exposed to the greatest negative impact.

5. Conclusions

1. The concentration composition of exhaust gases from passenger cars (such priority pollutants as CO, CH, NOx
and PM) upon engine start-up and warm-up at positive and negative ambient temperatures was studied. In the course
of the experimental studies conducted, the following was established: passenger cars of Euro 3 – Euro 5 emission
standards equipped with petrol engines and three-component catalytic converters produce higher emissions of
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons upon engine start-up and warm-up than upon stable operation
of a warmed-up engine both in summer and in winter.
Based on the dependencies obtained, it can be concluded that in 1–1.5 minutes at positive ambient temperatures
and 2–3 minutes at negative ambient temperatures, the oxidative catalysis of CO and hydrocarbons, as well as the
reductive catalysis of NO in vehicles with petrol engines are inefficient, which results in short-term high-level
emissions of those pollutants.
Nitrogen oxide emissions are approximately 1.5–2 times higher at negative temperatures than at positive
temperatures, even upon stable engine operation at idle. Based on the field studies and calculations, it can be
expected that the time of engine warm-up and the time of movement with a "cold" engine and a "cold" catalytic
converter will increase at negative ambient temperatures, which will be accompanied by higher emissions of CO,
CH and NOX from cars of Euro 3 – Euro 5 emission standards.
2. It was established that upon a combination of unfavorable meteorological conditions (no wind), unfavorable
urban planning conditions (old low-rise and modern high-rise well courtyards), with simultaneous operation of
several engines in the mode of start-up and warm-up, episodes of high-level local air pollution with carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, exceeding the limit values established in Russia by up to 5 times at a
height of 1.0...2.0 m above the ground, were observed.
3. Based on the experimental data obtained, emission factors (values of average specific emissions) of dangerous
CO, CH, NOx and PM pollutants for passenger cars with of Euro 0 – Euro 5 emission standards were determined at
positive and negative ambient temperatures; an experimental method was developed for assessing and forecasting
extreme air pollution with highly toxic components of exhaust gases upon engine start-up and warm-up.
4. In the enclosed space of a typical poorly ventilated well courtyard, the simultaneous warm-up of engines of
Euro 0 – Euro 4 emission standards in 5–10 minutes results in short-term high-level air pollution with carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide, exceeding the limit values established in Russia by 2–5 times, 1.5–3
times and 1.5 times, respectively (at the height of 2 m).

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