MODULE TWO

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS: FAMILY, RELIGION AND

EDUCATION

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

1. understand selected core social institutions from mainstream and

Caribbean perspectives.

2. appreciate the development and dynamics of selected Caribbean social

institutions.

OBJECTIVE ONE

Explain the characteristics, functions and transformations of the family in the

Caribbean

DEFINITION OF A FAMILY-

‘A social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction.

It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual

relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults’

(Murdock, 1949).
 (a) FAMILY TYPES IN THE CARIBBEAN

NUCLEAR

Nuclear family is also known as the conjugal family or family of procreation. Nuclear

families are married partners and their offspring. This is common in industrial societies, but it

is not the most common type of family in the world, although the practice is spreading

through modern development. Some anthropologists identify a second type of nuclear family,

the non-conjugal family. In this type of nuclear family, there is one parent with dependent

children. Additionally, there is the polygamous family, which is comprised of multiple

spouses and dependent children (Lavenda and Schultz 2010; note that Lavenda and Schultz

refer to a polygynous family, not a polygymous family, but that term does not encompass a

married woman living with multiple husbands and dependent children). These are families

consisting of parents and children alone in one household. The parents are joined by a

conjugal (married or common law) relationship. This is ‘norm’ in Western countries and even

in the Caribbean there are ideologies which set it up as the ‘ideal’ family.

The functionalist perspective regards this family form as superior for the purposes of child

socialization, love and belonging.

SINGLE PARENT

A single parent (also lone parent and sole parent) is a parent who cares for one or more

children without the assistance of another parent in the home. Single parenthood may occur

for a variety of reasons. It could be chosen by the parent (as in divorce, adoption, artificial

insemination, surrogate motherhood, or extramarital pregnancy), or be the result of an

unforeseeable occurrence (such as death or abandonment by one parent). (Paul and Birks,

2006). A parent (usually the mother) and child or children who live in one household. This

may result from the death of a spouse, divorce, separation or choice e.g. the decision to adopt
or the parent may have never married. There are single parents who have a co-parenting

relationship with the other parent although they are not co-residential.

EXTENDED

The extended family in a classical sense is when three or more generations live together in

one household. The traditional make-up of this family type would be grandparents, parents

and children. This family type was popular in the past amongst working class individuals but

is now more dominant within East-Asian families. A family consisting of grandparents,

parents and children as well as aunts and uncles in one household. Many variants of this occur

in the Caribbean among African, East Indian and Amerindian families.

JOINT

This is an extended family arrangement found largely among Hindus in India and parts of the

diaspora, and refers to a multi-generational household. Usually as male members marry they

bring their wives into the household so all males are blood relatives. They may have different

rooms or apartments in a large house or occupy annexes in a compound. The household

consists of grandparents, their sons with their wives and children and unmarried daughters.

The joint family is also known as an undivided family or extended family. It normally consists

of members belonging to two-three generations: husband and wife, their married and

unmarried children and their married or unmarried grandchildren. The joint family system

constituted the basic social institution in many traditional societies particularly Asian societies

like Indian. The joint family is considered as bedrock on which Hindu values and attitudes are

built. The joint family is a mode of combining smaller families into larger family units

through the extension of three or more generations.

MATRIFOCAL

A matrifocal family structure is one where mothers head families and fathers play a less

important role in the home and in bringing up children. The concept of the matrifocal family

was introduced to the study of Caribbean societies by Raymond Smith in 1956. In this

household it is not necessary that the man is absent, just that the woman plays a more

dominant role and male role is more marginal. This kind of relationship is dominant in the

Caribbean and can be traced back to the plantation system. Men were used as breeders and

when they were sold by their masters their family ties were severed. According to M.G Smith

this did not allow the man to be responsible for his family.

RECONSTITUTED

A reconstituted family (also known as a blended family) is the sociological term for the

joining of two adults via marriage, cohabitation or civil partnership, who have had previous

relationships and children from them.

POLYGAMOUS

Polygyny- refers to a man having several wives.

Polyandry is where a woman has more than one husband. Which is extremely rare and can be

found in some parts of Africa and Asia and among tribal peoples over the world, polygyny is

common. Islam and other religions and sects allow polygyny, however in most western

countries polygamy of any kind is illegal and the law specifically states that a person can

marry legally to one person.

MONOGAMY

Monogamy is a form of dyadic relationship in which an individual has only one partner

during their lifetime, alternately, only one partner at any one time (serial monogamy), as
compared to non-monogamy (e.g., polygamy or polyamory).

FAMILY UNIONS

The word union describes the type of arrangement by which a couple unite to form a

family. Legal Union

A legal union is the legally or formally recognized union of two people as partners in a

personal relationship (historically and in some jurisdictions specifically a union between a

man and a woman). Legally recognized by the law. Or is a consensual and contractual

agreement by partners.

Common-law

In this family a man and woman have a stable relationship which is co-residential but they are

not married. This could also be considered a form of nuclear family. In some Caribbean

countries this family is recognized in law whereas in a visiting relationship it is not.

Consensual Unions

A form of cohabitation by a man and a woman who live together as married but whose

relationship is not formally ratified by the dominant laws and religion of the country. The

offspring of a consensual union are illegitimate in law. In some parts of the Third World,

customary marriages are not recognized by the state.

Visiting type

Visiting union One in which the couple is not married and do not share a common residence.
OBJECTIVE TWO

evaluate the main theoretical perspectives commonly used for the analysis of the

family
(b) Theoretical perspectives

Consensus

Murdock ( 1949)

George Peter Murdock – The four essential functions of the nuclear family

George Murdock was an American Anthropologist who looked at 200 different societies and

argued that the nuclear family was a universal feature of all human societies. In other words,

the nuclear family is in all societies!

Murdock suggested there were ‘four essential functions’ of the nuclear family:

1. Stable satisfaction of the sex drive – within monogamous relationships, which prevents

sexual jealousy. Sexual: ensures that adults’ sexual relationships are controlled and stable.

This helps to stabilise society as the sexual function is carried out within the family

preventing the disruptions that would occur to social order if the sexual activity were to

happen unchecked. Murdock (1949) indicated that this provided both ‘control and expression’

of the sexual drive which benefits society.

2. The biological reproduction of the next generation – without which society cannot

continue.

3. Socialisation of the young – teaching basic norms and values Educational ( by this

Murdock meant socialisation): children are taught the norms and values of society (also

known as primary socialisation). Without this function there would be no culture. Culture is

the basis upon which society functions as it is critical for the transmission of the consensus

values upon which functionality is built.

4. Meeting its members' economic needs – producing food and shelter for example.

Economic: the family provides an economic function to all its members by pooling resources

and ensuring all have what they need and ultimately the continuation of life. To achieve this,

roles must be assigned to family members (Division of labour) in which men function as the

breadwinner and women homemaker. In doing so Murdock (1949) believed that this would

“cement their union.”

Criticisms of Murdock

1. Feminist Sociologists argue that arguing that the family is essential is ideological

because traditional family structures typically disadvantage women.

2. It is feasible that other institutions could perform the functions above.

3. Anthropological research has shown that there are some cultures which don’t appear

to have ‘families’ – the Nayar for example.

4. Morgan (1975)- Murdock did not consider whether any other type of family could

facilitate these important functions. Murdock did not examine any alternatives to the

family. Murdock’s description of the family is unrealistic as he seems to indicate

that this is a perfect institution where everything and everyone works in harmony.

PARSONS (1965)

Talcott Parsons (1965) updated Murdock’s theory. He argued that in modern, Western

societies, the state provided education and could perform an economic function (through

welfare provisions) but that the family still had two irreducible functions:
Primary socialisation (socialisation within the family – first function of families)

Primary Socialisation – The nuclear family is still responsible for teaching children the norms

and values of society known as Primary Socialisation.

An important part of socialisation according to Functionalists is ‘gender role socialisation. If

primary socialisation is done correctly then boys learn to adopt the ‘instrumental role’ (also

known as the ‘breadwinner role) – they go on to go out to work and earn money. Girls learn

to adopt the ‘expressive role’ – doing all the ‘caring work’, housework and bringing up the

children.

Key concepts

1. Involves the internalisation of one’s culture and structuring of the personality.

2. Culture needs to be internalised for society to exist as values and norms are crucial to

social life. This means that the culture is not simply learned but becomes intrinsic to the

child.

3. In this way family plays the pivotal role because they are “factories” which produce human

personalities.”

Stabilisation of adult personalities (second basic function of families)

The stabilisation of adult personalities refers to the emotional security which is achieved
within a marital relationship between two adults. According to Parsons, working life in

Industrial society is stressful and the family is a place where the working man can return and

be ‘de-stressed’ by his wife, which reduces conflict in society. This is also known as the

‘warm bath theory.

Key Concepts

1. Marriage is critical to this function (advocating the perfect union as marriage) as it

provides emotional stability for the couple in light of the stresses and strains of life which

stabilises the adult personalities in the home.

2. Related it to Western society in that industrialisation isolated family units from the

extended family support.

3. Adult personalities are also stabilised when they are carrying out the socialisation

of children as they get to retreat into ‘childish’ behaviour which had to be abandoned

in adulthood.
TALCOTT PARSONS – FUNCTIONAL FIT THEORY

Parsons has a historical perspective on the evolution of the nuclear family. His functional fit

theory is that as society changes, the type of family that ‘fits’ that society, and the functions

it performs change. Over the last 200 years, society has moved from pre-industrial to

industrial – and the main family type has changed from the extended family to the nuclear

family. The nuclear family fits the more complex industrial society better, but it performs a

reduced number of functions.

The extended family consisted of parents, children, grandparents and aunts and uncles living

under one roof, or in a collection of houses very close to each other. Such a large family unit

‘fitted’ pre-industrial society as the family was entirely responsible for the education of

children, producing food and caring for the sick – basically it did everything for all its

members.

In contrast to pre-industrial society, in industrial society (from the 1800s in the UK) the

isolated “nuclear family” consisting of only parents and children becomes the norm. This

type of family ‘fits’ industrial societies because it required a mobile workforce. The extended

family was too difficult to move when families needed to move to find work to meet the

requirements of a rapidly changing and growing economy. Furthermore, there was also less
need for the extended family as more and more functions, such as health and education,

gradually came to be carried out by the state.

Criticisms of Parsons

1) Morgan (1975) says that Parsons fails to consider the impact that socio-economic

differences may have on his theory in terms of ethnicity, class, regional differences, family

structure etc. as he only based his analysis on American Middle Class families.

2) Giddens (1992) points out the importance of families and rigid family structures have

declined in light of increasing choice for individuals in the conduct of their own lives. The

theory therefore does not take into consideration change.

3) Haralambos ( 2013) supports Morgan ( 1975) view that Parson’s view of the family is too

optimistic and does not take into consideration the hardships and reality of society.

Criticisms of Parsons Theory of Functional Fit

● It’s too ‘neat’ – social change doesn’t happen in such an orderly manner: ● Laslett

found that church records show only 10% of households contained extended kin before

the industrial revolution. This suggests the family was already nuclear before

industrialisation.

● Young and Wilmott found that Extended Kin networks were still strong in East

London as late as the 1970s.

Interactionist
Interpretivist sociologists have only recently started to study the family. Their approach is

based on the attempt to show how people use the family to make sense of the social world

which they inhabit. They claim that reality is socially constructed, as what is real to us is

dependent on how we relate to things around us. They focus on how these functions work for

the individuals involved rather than the wider society. They are also concerned with how

members of a family work out the roles they have to play. They believe that roles are not fixed

but largely dependent on the particular circumstances of the family.

● Symbolic interactionism is a theory that analyzes patterns of communication, interpretation,

and adjustment between individuals in society. The theory is a framework for understanding

how individuals interact with each other and within society through the meanings of symbols.

● Role-taking is a key mechanism that permits an individual to appreciate another person’s

perspective and to understand what an action might mean to that person. Role-taking emerges

at an early age through activities such as playing house.

● Symbolic interactionists explore the changing meanings attached to family. Symbolic

interactionists argue that shared activities help to build emotional bonds, and that marriage

and family relationships are based on negotiated meanings.

● The Interactionist perspective emphasizes that families reinforce and rejuvenate bonds

through symbolic rituals such as family meals and holidays.

Conflict

The Marxist views on the family are based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles.

They believed that the family evolved through a series of changes, from primitive

communism, where there was little regulation of sexual behaviour, to capitalism, where

marriage was based on monogamy.

Engels (1884)
Key concepts

1. He looked at the evolution of the family to explain its functions.

2. Sexual promiscuity characterised early relationships. As increasing restrictions were placed

on sexual relationships as well as having children, these unions went through an evolutionary

process from polygyny to modern society’s emphasis on monogamy (marriage).

3. The impetus for the emergence of monogamy was private property (central to capitalism)

as well as the introduction of the state. The state’s role was introducing laws to protect private

property by enforcing laws on monogamous marriage.

4. This ensured that inheritances (private property) could only be passed to legitimate heirs,

that is, children born within marriage. This was the most efficient way of ensuring that the

heirs were those of the father.

Criticisms

1) Haralambos ( 2013) indicated that research has shown that many of the assumptions made

by Engels are not correct , for example, hunter/gatherer tribes show examples of monogamous

and nuclear types and unions of family which may give an insight into how these people lived

at the dawn of civilisation.

2) Gough (1972) counters these arguments by pointing out that most of Engels arguments are

reasonable in that while there are monogamous/nuclear groups within these tribes, they exist

as part of a larger kinship group which obligates them to take on responsibilities outside of

the smaller family unit. These groups therefore operate more like an extended rather than

nuclear family.

Zaretsky (1976)

Key Concepts
1. This view on family is influenced by industrialisation, which is expected as this is a

Marxist perspective on family.

2. Early forms of production of goods and services took place within the family home, thus

the economic function was not separate from the family as it happened in the same space.

3. All that changed with industrialisation in that capitalism attempted to perpetuate the

falsehood that the family was now truly separate from the work space.

4. This myth was perpetuated by the capitalist in order to maintain the falsehood that the

family was a sanctuary which Zaretsky ( 1976) believes was a myth because the family could

not provide for the personal and psychological needs of individuals in an increasingly ‘brutal

society’ ( Haralambos ( 2013).

4. The reasons for this is threefold: (a) The family experiences these intense pressures from

which isolation from the workspace cannot protect them because they are part of the system

no matter what and (b) The family carries the burden of producing the future generation of

workers and c) The family supports the capitalist system as they are consumers themselves

which allows the bourgeoisie to continue to produce surplus value thus perpetuating

capitalism.

5. Only socialism will end both the unnatural separation between family life and work space

as well as lead to personal fulfilment.

Criticisms

Sommerville ( 2000)

1) Zareksky exaggerated the role that family plays as a shelter from the stresses of capitalism.

2) He also underestimated the negative aspects of the family the can result in ‘cruelty,

violence, incest and neglect.’ Sommerville (2000)

3) In the early stages of capitalism it was in fact many women who had to take on a

breadwinner role and few actually stayed home as housewives.

Feminist

Both Marxists and radical feminists have been very critical of the family as they argue that it

plays a major role in promoting gender inequality in society. The feminist theory provides a

revolutionary view of the family. Feminists main concern is the negative effect of family life

on women feminism sees the family as contributing to the exploitation of women in society.

This exploitation can be seen as the women's subordinate position in the family or as a result

of the impact of the capitalist system

Marxists Feminists

Benston (1972)

Key Concepts

1. The unpaid labour that women provide to the family benefits capitalists primarily.

2. This she calls a ‘hidden tax’ on the wage earner because the employer gets two workers for

the price of one (breadwinner and his wife.)

3. This reality is used to keep the worker in check because he has to support his wife and

children, which keeps the woman in her unpaid position. This is why she says that “as an

economic unit, the nuclear family is a valuable stabilizing force in capitalist society”.

4. For this reason the woman carries on her role as housewife so the husband can be kept “in

good running order to perform his role as wage labourer”.

Ainsley (1972)

Key Concepts
1. The wife acts as a ‘safety valve’ to protect the husband against the frustrations of working

in the capitalist system.

2. She very famously describes this as the wives playing their role as ‘takers of shit’ to absorb

their husbands ‘legitimate anger at being powerless against the exploitation of the system.

3. This serves the capitalist class as she is the one who acts as a buffer preventing the husband

from potentially rising up against the oppression.

Cooper (1972)

Key concepts

1. Family is necessary for socialising children into attitudes necessary for the capitalist

system to thrive as the family is “an ideological conditioning device in an exploitative

society”.

2. Because children learn to conform to the values of capitalism, they make an “obedient and

submissive workforce required by capitalism” Haralambos (2013)

Criticisms

1. Morgan (1975) criticized the premise of feminists that all families conform to the

traditional model of married nuclear families in which there is a working husband and a wife

who stays home as false.

2. This means that the negative effects on women are exaggerated.

3. Marxists feminists ignore other effects of family such as racism.

4. Assume that women are passive and accept their role and do not fight back against this

role.

Liberal feminism
Sommerville (2000)

Liberal feminists focus on striving for legal equality between the sexes. The family has long

been a clear source of inequality. Marital rape was not formally recognised as a crime in the

UK until 1991 (because of the notion that marriage gave a man “conjugal rights” that could

not be withdrawn save through annulment or divorce). Divorce laws have been reformed on

many occasions to make them more equal, but it used to be much easier for a man to get a

divorce than a woman (see a later section), etc. Liberal feminists argue that most of those

battles for legal equality have been won, however there is clearly still inequality between the

sexes (for example, in relation to domestic work - see a later section). They put this down to

the need to also change cultural values in society. As such, while families currently play a part

in the oppression of women, they do not have to: it is possible to have family life and gender

equality.

Radical Feminists

Delphy and Leonard (1992)

Key Concepts

For Delphy and Leonard (1992) argue it is men rather than capitalism who benefit the most

from exploiting women and the family is central in maintaining this structure as:

1. families are structured; in this structure men dominate while women and children are

subordinate (very few families are matriarchal)

2. As man’s position in the family is the dominant one, he tends to make the final decision on

family issues

3. The type of work family members do is determined by gender and marital status.

4. When women have paid employment outside the home, they still have to undertake
household tasks – this is known as the dual burden.

5. While some women have paid employment outside the home while still remaining

responsible for the majority of household tasks and care for children – what Duncombe and

Marsden (1995) termed the triple-shift.

Criticisms

Functionalists and even the New Right would argue that feminists put too much emphasis on

the negative side of family life because it ignores the possibility that women enjoy running

the home, raising children and being married it ignores Wilmot and Young’s ideas on the

symmetrical family, and how there’s greater equalities in family life with shared conjugal

roles.

Discuss the Functionalism perspective as it relates to studies of the Caribbean

Family:

The research into the Caribbean family in the early 20 th century uncovers the role of

ethnocentric beliefs played in shaping what researchers saw as important. The family types

and living arrangements encountered by early researchers included some that were difficult to

classify because of their fluidity but others were variously described as single parent families,

extended families, visiting unions, common law unions, nuclear families, etc…

Researcher’s largely confined their attention to family in lower- income groups and to Afro

Caribbean people. Their main concern was to find explanations for these family forms and so

early theories about family in the Caribbean focused on the origins of family.

Herskovits and Frazier (1947);

1. Features that were common to black families in the new world included: maternal and
extended; largely common-law and for which most children were born outside of the bonds of

matrimony.

2. They did not see these characteristics in a positive light and sought to explain its existence

in a study on rural Toco, Trinidad in the 1940s and concluded: There was evidence that

African cultural traditions had survived slavery, albeit with some modifications. Conjugal

bonds were weak however the mother/child bond was very strong; family ties were important

to individuals in the community, the father played a peripheral role to the family. The

researchers interpreted these things as African retentions.

An example given by the researchers of the modification of African culture was the

replacement of polygyny by ‘progressive monogamy’ by both males and females. This

entailed common-law relationships that were dissolved and reformed with other partners with

regularity in which multiple offspring were produced.

Frazier (1939) had some departures from this view in that when he looked at family in the

US, he found that the institution of slavery and the plantation society built around it destroyed

any evidence of African culture. He based this on the process of seasoning the slave,

completely destroying native culture to the extent that it could not be recalled or retained.

This was due to the acculturation process in which ethnocentric culture was imposed in terms

of religion, language, economic practices and folkways.

This lead to the adoption of white culture in regards to religion, sex and marriage. This lead to

a move away from the promiscuous behaviour of the early days of slavery into more

culturally acceptable behaviour within American society. Families in this way became more

stable and permanent. It was post slavery, with the disruptions to society from the civil war

that caused mass migration into urban areas that you see the return to the sexually permissive

behaviour of their history in the US characterised by maternal family units and temporary

relationships in which many children were abandoned.

The western values of monogamy were only retained by those blacks who held regular

employment thus achieving social mobility that maintained stable and monogamous family

units based on marriage, patriarchy and women adopting a subordinate role. Ultimately the

characteristics of loose bonds between adults and matrilocality was not a function of African

retention but of social and economic conditions in the US.

Criticisms

● Mintz and Price (1976) felt that Frazier and Herkovits (1949) ignored historical

development and traditions and instead tried to tie practices observed among

Caribbean families and relate that to either origins in West Africa or in the new world.

● Mintz and Price (1976) argued against this Africa/New World origin theory and instead

advocated for an understanding of the creativity and synthesis brought to bear in the

New World to create creolised forms of culture.

● Lewis (1959) challenged Frazier and Herkovits (1949) theory of origins with his own

theory that economic factors and not cultural retention are responsible for shaping

family forms and relationships in the Caribbean. This theory is known as the ‘Culture

of Poverty’ theory.

Smith, R.T. (1956)

Key concepts

Seemed to agree with Frazier and Herkovits (1949) that family patterns in Guyana reflected

African cultural retentions. Concluded that family patterns among rural Afro Guyanese

closely resembled those of the Akan people of West Africa in terms of names, obeah, taboos,

birth rituals and kinship structure are matrilineal bonds. He theorised however that the

dislocation caused by slavery would have led to modifications in the West African cultural

patterns. Ifill (2003) later supported this supposition as it was found that the existence of
strong matrifocal relationships irrespective of a presence of a male figure among Afro-

Guyanese showed the survival of matrilineal families. Other retentions included the esusu

(West Africa) which are found in many Caribbean territories, including Trinidad and Tobago

(Sou Sou).

Conclusions

● Family unions were weak.

● Relationship between father and children was distant.

● Male authority was not respected as their economic contributions to the household were

minimal and were perceived by women as surplus to the family which diminished

their status.

● Marriage was accepted but was not considered necessary until the couple was ready.

Criticisms

Refer to Mintz and Price (1976)

Oscar Lewis (1959) – Culture of Poverty

Economic realities shaped family forms and relationships. The poor have their own culture

shaped by the fact that their lives are characterised by risk, instability and unpredictability. In

response to these factors, the poor develop specific traits and attitudes as coping mechanisms

which are passed on generationally. The following traits reflect this adaptation: instant

gratification ( living for the here and now); low aspirations (drop outs; underachievement and

illiteracy); matrifocality; marginalization of males ( do not play a large economic role);

families characterised by unwed mothers, teen pregnancies and common law bonds and

economic deprivation re lack of savings and investments. Matrifocality was a choice as it

allowed women freedom to respond quickly to economic circumstances (breaking off

relationships) which led to adaptations for males who took on traits exhibiting infidelity and

irresponsibility in family affairs.

Criticisms

Rigdon (1988)

Lewis only sampled persons who would exhibit the traits that he was looking for which

skewed the results in the direction that he wanted. Lewis assumed that the culture of poverty

was a ‘way of life’ handed down from generation to generation but conducted no longitudinal

studies to demonstrate this point but instead relied upon interviews with consecutive

generations of the same family.

Social Pathology (Simey 1946)

This theory, for who T.S. Simey, the spokesperson, views the ‘problems’ of society as being

able to be ‘fixed’ so that there can be a return to ‘normalcy’. The 1930’s disturbances in the

Caribbean involved a number of violent protests by the people of the region to highlight the

poor economic and social conditions that existed at that time. In the aftermath, the Colonial

Office in Great Britain sent a group of social welfare workers to investigate social conditions

in the region with a view to finding the cause of social ills, address issues of juvenile

delinquency and reconstruct Caribbean family life to fit the nuclear model. This decision

came from the findings of the West India Commission (Moyne Commission). Simey

criticized the arguments of Melville and Frances Herskovits while he agreed with Frazier that

the origins of the lower-class black family were to be found in the social and economic

conditions of society.

Findings of the Moyne Commission

 ● One of the major problems affecting the Caribbean was the disorganisation of family

life characterised by unstable and casual relationships, mainly transitory and

promiscuous conjugal ties, irregular contact between father and child with fathers not

fulfilling their economic function; illegitimacy of birth and drop outs, especially

among Jamaican youths who left school to join gangs.

● Lack of socialization into “Christian values” which led to a breakdown of proper

standards of behaviour.

● Poverty as a cause for the social issues facing the families including: juvenile

delinquency; gang warfare; petty crimes; domestic violence, among others. ● Concluded

that ‘the whole fabric of society’ was weak.

● Presented that the only solution was to adopt Western values and norms such as nuclear

families; marriage; children born within wedlock which would create stable unions

and a stable society. This resulted in the Mass Marriage Movement in Jamaica (1944-

45) – 1955 which failed primarily because this Western model was not popular among

the majority of the population and ignored the role of the elite in perpetuating

relationships with lower class women. These men were already in their nuclear family

forms.

Criticisms

The social workers pre-judged the outcome so they only had one solution in mind, the one

they came from Britain ready to impose. Because of this they did not truly investigate the

genesis of these family forms and the role that colonialism played in its development.

Ethnographic Studies - Structural Functionalism

Sociologists and anthropologists engaged in more systematic and rigorous studies than the
welfare officers and immersed themselves in the contexts they studied.

EDITH CLARKE ( 1957)

She first published her report in 1957 as ‘MY MOTHER WHO FATHERED ME : Study of

the family in three Selected Communities in Jamaica’. It examined internal families

2) ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES ( CLARKE 1957)

Edith Clarke 1957 examined internal families’ relationship and organization and linked it to

characteristics in a wider social context. So, Clarke emphasized the ‘structure’ and ‘system’

in families. There were three communities that displayed different economic conditions.

- Sugar town was dominated by a sugar company and was more prosperous than the other

two, but work was mostly seasonal and there was a high existence of migration and

marital stability. There was evidence of community values and cohesiveness among

the people.

Conclusions:

● Migrant Population

● Few Nuclear Families

● Little educated, values and cohesiveness

● Promiscuity

● They were tenuous (loose) family types with the cohesion only to family ties.
- Mocca was a poor community where the people were mainly small farmers and wage

labourers. Most of these families in these communities were ‘faithful concubinage’. They

were married but living together in stable committed unions with their children. In that time

patriarchy was little evident and most fathers had a close relationship with their children.

Conclusions:
 ● Faithful Concubinage

● Patriarchal – fathers had a close relationship with children

● Family types are strong- Strong bonds between couples and strong bonds between

parent and child.

● Values that were critical were kinship related and not particularly concerned with

western values

- Orange Grove was a relatively prosperous citrus growing community where income was

steady. The farmers tended to own large lands and work together with their families as

a team. Marriage was encouraged.

Conclusions:

● Economic Strong Family units at stationary population (owner of farms). ● Marriage is

an important aspect of family unions (Respectable) –Nuclear Families however social

sanctions encourage couples to marry especially when the men afford to maintain a

family and support their wife.

● Nuclear Families

● Patriarchal Families

● Family types are strong.

Overall conclusions:

➔ Men played an important role in Mocca and Orange Grove, even poor men weren’t

marginal to their family.

➔ Men were however marginal in Sugar Town which Clarke (1957) linked to the

economic considerations of the seasonality of their work.

R.T Smith ethnographic study related similarly to Edith Clarke’s as they both brought

functionalist perspective to their ethnographic study in three villages. Both studies focused on

the economic conditions that affect poor men.

His studies concluded that:

● Close bonds existed between mother and sibling and also between mother siblings for

support.

● A fairly distant relationships between the conjugal couple (married or not) and

between father and child.

Morton Klass (1961)

Morton Klass (1961) explained the presence of the extended family due to the East Indian

heritage. According to Morton Klass(1961) in his study of East Indians in Trinidad, women

tend to marry young and seldom engage in visiting relationships as did African women while

in their father’s home. Family tends to have a strong patriarchal influence. Morton Klass

attributed these patterns of behaviour largely to North Indian cultures and the fact that East

Indians have retained or recreated them in the Caribbean, especially in societies such as

Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname.

OBJECTIVE THREE

discuss the issues associated with the Caribbean family

(C) CHANGING CARIBBEAN KINSHIP PATTERNS (RATES OF

MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, MEN AND FATHERHOOD, FEMALE-

HEADED HOUSEHOLDS, SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLDS), THE IMPACT

OF SLAVERY, INDENTURESHIP, INDUSTRIALISATION, MIGRATION

AND CONTEMPORARY FACTORS.

Caribbean Kinship Patterns

Rates of marriage and divorce

Men and fatherhood

Female headed households

Single-parent households

St. Bernard (2003)

- The Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions reported the following on family structure:

Declines in mean household size from 3.9 in 1992 to 3.4 in 2001 in Jamaica (PIOJ and

STATIN 2002).

- Since 1975, it has been estimated that persons living alone have accounted for the

greatest proportion of all households in Jamaica and in 2001, the corresponding

proportion was 22.2 per cent.

- During the early 1990s, smaller Caribbean islands such as Antigua and Barbuda,

Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis and St. Vincent and the Grenadines exhibited

markedly higher proportions of households that were occupied by persons who lived

alone. The respective proportions were 28.6 per cent, 24.6 per cent, 22.7 per cent, 30.3

per cent and 22 per cent (St. Bernard, 2001).

- Moreover, there is evidence to suggest that the prevalence of single person households

increased during the 1980s. In the majority of Caribbean countries more than one fifth

of all single-person households contained elderly persons 65 years and over during the
 early 1990s (St. Bernard, 2001). Given projected increases in the concentration of

older persons in the respective populations, declining fertility, increases in longevity

and increasing prospects of union dissolution at older ages, the prevalence of single-

person households observed during the 1980s is likely to persist in the 1990s and

beyond.

- There is a higher prevalence of female-headed households in Caribbean countries than in

Central American countries. In the larger countries of the Caribbean and in Central

America, female-headed households are more prevalent in urban areas.

- Male-headed households continue to dominate in Central America, particularly with

regard to nuclear two-parent households. This residential differential persists

irrespective of household structure. In the case of nuclear one-parent families, there is

an overwhelming preponderance of female-headed households in Central American

countries and in the Dominican Republic suggesting that the majority are single

mother households.

- In the Central American countries, single-person households are predominantly male

entities with probable exceptions arising in the case of those found in urban areas of

Costa Rica and Guatemala. According to the Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions

2001, 44.7 percent of all households were estimated to be female-headed (PIOJ and

STATIN 2002).

- The survey also revealed that female-headed households have on average been larger

than those headed by men though the latter have been at least three times more likely

to have persons living alone.

- In addition, female-headed households were much less likely to have had a partner

presence and to have relatively more children when compared to male-headed

households.

- In St. In Lucia and in Haiti respectively, proportions of 42.8 percent and 42.7 per cent of
 all households were estimated to be female-headed in the early 2000s (Table 16).

Given observed patterns in the early 1990s, the prevalence of female headship in the

smaller islands of the Eastern Caribbean is likely to continue to exceed 40 per cent.

- However, lower levels of prevalence are likely to persist in Trinidad and Tobago, largely

due to the patriarchal character that is a dominant feature in East Indian households

(Chevannes 2002). During 1994, a National Survey of Family Life was conducted in

Trinidad and Tobago.

- In 1995, a Community Survey was conducted in Laventille, a working class,

marginalized urban district situated on the eastern fringe of Port of Spain. Both

surveys provided a basis for estimating the distribution of different family structures

within households. For the nation as a whole, the majority of households had nuclear

formations consisting at least of a husband and wife (40.3 per cent) (St. Bernard,

1997a).

- At least one fifth of all households were estimated to consist of extended family

formations while just over 10 per cent consisted of single mother units. In Laventille,

the majority of households (26.9 per cent) assumed the form of extended family

entities (St. Bernard, 1997b).

- In comparison to national estimates, this working-class community exhibited relatively

larger proportions of households in which persons lived alone (20.4 per cent as

opposed to 13.9 per cent) or as nuclear units consisting of at least two common-law 12

partners (19.4 per cent as opposed to 8.9 per cent). In nuclear households consisting of

spouses and children, children were more likely to be living with their biological

mother than their biological fathers, the respective proportions being 98.7 percent as

opposed to 96.9 per cent (St. Bernard, 1997a).

- In the context of nuclear households with common-law partners and children, the

corresponding proportions were observed to be 93.9 per cent as opposed to 73.7 per
 cent. The survey also revealed that there is a preponderance of nuclear households

(63.7 percent) in Trinidad and Tobago.

The impact of

SLAVERY

Higman 1973

- In the study of Caribbean family patterns, few scholars have argued for a genuine

continuity of African forms among the black population. Although similarities have

been observed between the matrifocality of modern Caribbean family structure and the

matrilineal systems of particular African groups, it is generally held that this

matrifocality can be explained adequately by the slave experience, without reference

to the African heritage (Rodman, 1971: 8). Fernando Henriques (1953), for example,

contends that the Akan, a matrilineal and polygmous people, were culturally

influential in Jamaica, but “the direct encouragement of promiscuity by the planters

was sufficient to establish a cultural pattern which has persisted to the present day”. -

On the other hand, MacDonald and MacDonald (1973) in their study of Trinidad

argue that “matrifocality is a truncated derivative of matrilineages and was a fitting

compromise between the African principles of lineage and the new environment,

whether or not Negroes passed through slavery”. Essentially, most sociologists and

historians have adopted a functionalist position, seeing within the period of slavery

economic and demographic conditions capable of explaining the family patterns

which emerged.

- These conditions relate particularly to the economic marginality of the male and the

consequently central role of women in the family.’ Family patterns were also affected

by the specific kinds of social and economic environments in which slaves lived in
 Trinidad. Those patterns observed include: The types of family structure which the

slaves could establish in Trinidad were determined by slave-holding size and by the

contrasting styles of life in town and country.

- The bigger the plantation the greater the existence of nuclear and extended families. An

example of this is the presence of nuclear families which accounted for more slaves

than mother-children units on all plantations of more than 50 slaves, and extended

families also became increasingly important beyond that threshold.

- The only plantation to report polygynous units was in fact the largest in the island

Paradise and Cane Farm Plantation, with 250 slaves. Large plantations were relatively

favorable to extended and polygynous family formation because they provided a

larger population from which to choose mates (without breaking rules of exogamy),

because they tended to be isolated (making cross-plantation mating more difficult),

and because the slaves tended to be less subject to separation through sale than on

small holdings.

- The proportion of slaves living in nuclear units was always much lower in the towns

than on the plantations, regardless of holding-size, and the proportion of mother-

children units was always much larger. Thus, the contrast between town and plantation

family structure was a real one, the towns permitting much more extensive mating

between slaves with different masters, and between slaves and whites. Whereas there

is strong evidence of kinship networks within the towns, these were the result of

common residence unlike on the large plantations.

- The towns also engendered occupational independence, and hence the economic

marginality of the male, to a much greater extent than did the plantations (where

women were concentrated into the field gangs and men monopolized the occupations

of skill and status).

- Mother-children families predominated overwhelmingly in the towns, among both

 Africans and creoles. (It is important to notice that this urban pattern may be at the

root of the traditional interpretation of the “matrifocal”.

- African born slaves were more successful than the creoles in establishing families

centered on co-resident mates. The nuclear family was not traditionally for Trinidad

Africans, with the exception of the matrilineal Kongo (Murdock, 1959; Balandier, t

1965) but was seen by most of the African-born merely as the essential building-block

of extended or polygynous family types rooted in lineage and locality.

- The Igbo were distinguished principally by their participation in family units based on

generational depth, extension, and polygyny. This applied in both town and country. It

is obvious that not all of these features could function in Trinidad under slavery, but

the structural similarity of the two familial patterns remains striking.

- From the child’s perspective, it is important to notice that overall the majority lived in

families headed by their mothers. In 1813 some 3,783 children lived with their

mothers only, while 2,003 were with both parents and 352 lived with mates only one

of whom (most often the mother) was their parent. Although it is difficult to assess the

impact of mortality on this pattern and the contrasting experience of children of

African and creole parentage, it is obvious that the potential for matrifocal

development was great so long as the urban concentration of the slave population

continued.

- The matrifocal and nuclear family types were alternatives from the beginning, as in

modern family structure (Rubenstein, 1977).

Conclusions about kinship patterns among Africans in Trinidad:

1. The majority of African-born slaves in a newly settled plantation society were isolated

from any formal family system.

2. Distinct African ethnic/tribal groups lost their identity almost immediately, as a result of
extensive inter-marriage. Only those groups which constituted a substantial proportion of the

total slave population, and had a relatively natural sex ratio, were able to establish family

patterns which reflected however vaguely their particular culture history. A example of this

was the Igbo (the major component of the Bight of Biafra regional grouping) who were

distinguished principally by their participation in family units based on generational depth,

extension, and polygyny. This applied in both town and country. It is obvious that not all of

these features could function in Trinidad under slavery, but the structural similarity of the two

familial patterns remains striking. The large extended family occupying a compound was not

unique to the Igbo as a familial norm. So the relative success of the Igbo in re-creating their

African family system in Trinidad, under conditions of slavery, must be attributed to their

absolute numbers (2,200) and their low sex ratio.

3. A matrifocal tendency in family structure can be discerned as the creole population grew,

but it is not clear how far this tendency affected familial norms and ideals. For the children of

Africans, the norm remained the extended family, but the difficulty of achieving this outside

of large stable plantations meant that the nuclear family was predominant in most rural areas

and the mother-child unit in towns.

Characteristics of modern African families (Mohammed 2013)

Fosterage, a West African practice, in which children may be raised by extended family

members or friends of the family exist. This arrangement gives rise to the opportunities for

alternative kin networks as children may have two persons that they consider as mothers as

well as a wider network of persons who are siblings and those that they consider to be

siblings. They view kinship ties in a broader sense which incorporates consanguinity rather

than the narrower ethnocentric view typical of the whites. Fictive kinship is also common as

the designation of godparent confers oversight responsibility for their god children. Sibling
families exist in higher numbers within Afro-Caribbean families than in any other ethnic

group. This is partly due to economic circumstances where parents may migrate for work and

leave their older children to care for their younger siblings.

Sociological studies

Refer to Herskovits and Frasier (1947); Clarke (1957); Smith, R.T. (1956);
Indentureship

Indentureship as a system of labour was employed post emancipation to fill the need for

labour created by the refusal of a significant percentage of former slaves to work on the sugar

plantations. The most significant ethnic group of indentured labourers came from India. The

largest number came to Trinidad and Guyana with smaller numbers going to Jamaica,

Grenada and St. Vincent. As a system of labour, those recruiting the labourers opted for more

males and females which created a sever imbalance in the sex ratio. There were therefore

distinct kinship patterns during indentureship and post indentureship.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN KINSHIP PATTERNS DURING THE

PERIOD OF INDENTURESHIP INCLUDED:

- Competition for women such that it was the father of the brides who demanded dowry

and not the other way round. The women available for marriage had unusual

demographics for Indian women seeking marriage as they were runaway brides,

widows, unmarried pregnant women or prostitutes.

- Polyandry developed as a type of family union due to the scarcity of women. - Extended

family types were rare as the space constraints did not allow for this traditional

arrangement whereas nuclear families proliferated as newlyweds had to find

accommodation elsewhere.
 - The roles of husbands were undermined by the estate manager who mediated in

domestic affairs.

- The caste system struggled to survive due to the sex ratio.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN KINSHIP PATTERNS DURING POST

INDENTURESHIP INCLUDED:

- Due to the improvement in the male female ratio and the movement of the plantation,

more stable family units developed. In 1936 and 1946 Muslim and Hindu marriages

were recognized.

- Cultural traditions that surround marriage were revived as religious leaders from both

faiths immigrated to the Caribbean. The increasing economic prosperity of Indians

facilitated such kinship and religious celebrations.

- Revitalisation of kinship practices such as extended family, patrilocal residence, joint

families, arranged marriages, marriage along caste lines etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN KINSHIP PATTERNS IN MODERN

INDIAN FAMILIES

- The East Indian family system is highly patriarchal with gendered practices highly

apparent among this ethnic group. Fathers/males holding positions of authority and

decision making and mothers responsible for domestic duties.

- While parents still retain control over marriage choices there are many more men and

women making their own choices about marriage partners and indeed practicing

exogamy.

SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES

Refer to Klass (1961)

Industrialisation
 - Industrialisation is the process whereby the economy shifts from being largely based on

agriculture to one based on industry and manufacturing. Industrialisation is closely

related to urbanization which is the process where people migrate from rural to urban

areas resulting in rapid growth of these towns and cities.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON INDUSTRIALIZATION AND THE

FAMILY.

- The link between families and the economy was made by Talcott Parsons’ (1959) theory

that industrialisation led to the development of the nuclear family who argued that the

process of industrialisation led to significant changes in both the structure and role of

the family and the roles of family members.

- As a functionalist Parsons prescribed the view that institutions in society must be

working together optimally for society to function effectively. Therefore, in pre-

industrial times, where agrarian societies needed many persons working on the

landholdings, extended families made sense. In other words, there was a functional fit

between the extended family and the rural economy. Those who were young, and fit

would work the land and older members would care for those too young to work

which would free the able bodied to contribute to the economic livelihood.

- Industrialisation changed this as work and home were now separated. Families had to be

geographically mobile in order to take advantage of economic opportunities and

therefore could not afford the burden of additional family members. This gave rise to

the gendered roles that evolved with industrialization with men becoming the

breadwinners and women taking on the domestic role necessary to free men to

perform this function effectively.

- This necessitated a change from extended families with many functions to isolated

nuclear families with fewer specialized functions as the other functions were
 transferred to other institutions in society including schools, hospitals, police forces

and churches. The change was necessary to reduce conflict as in a society based on

achieved status, conflict would tend to arise in any family unit larger than the isolated

nuclear family.

CRITICISMS

- No evidence that families in pre-industrialised times were extended but rather that they

may have been nuclear families living in close proximity who worked together

(Laslett 1972).

- Anderson (1971) found evidence that households during the height of industrialisation

were extended. It credited this to people moving from rural areas and moving in with

family members already living in urban centres, which reinforced kinship ties.

- Parsons has been criticized for presenting the Nuclear family as ideal as well as

functionalizing gender roles.

Reasons for industrialization/urbanization among the Caribbean population:

- Movement away from the agricultural sector towards more industrial type occupations

in the secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors.

- Desire for modern values associated with smaller families, better standards of living,

leisure among others.

- The indigenous population in Guyana has also been affected by industrialization as

economic opportunities in the interior have displaced indigenous populations and

interrupted their family life as their traditional hunting and fishing activities have been

disrupted.

- Persons who have moved to the towns to improve their economic situation have

weakened kinship ties and support systems. Increased instances of drug and alcohol
 abuse have been noted among this population.

Wilmott and Young (1957)

Posited that the family developed in three stages

1) Pre-industrial where family operated as a unit of production characterized by co- operation

as home and work were inseparable. Family roles were fixed and passed on generationally.

2) The early industry saw the separation of home and work spaces as men moved to cities in

search of jobs. Women’s roles as domestic workers were solidified.

3) Privatised nuclear family which created a new middle class but eventually came to

characterize the lower classes as well. Characterised by the family as a unit of consumption

rather than production and private interactions among members as they turn inward towards

their immediate family members rather than outward toward extended members.

Impact of industrialization/urbanization on marriage and family among East

Indians

- Increase in nuclear families due to the improved economic circumstances caused by

opportunities for social mobility as part of the professional class.

- Access by East Indian women has changed the make-up of Indian families as the males

have to find ways of coping with the changing roles in the family as families become

more egalitarian.

- Marriage is still the desired form of union within Indo- and Afro- Caribbean families

however these marriages are being deferred to later in life as women and men seek a

career.

- Nuclear family types continue to flourish among higher socio-economic groups as the

preferred type however kinship ties remain important to Caribbean families. Among
 East

- This manifests itself in observances such as religious, marriage and death rites as

families are regularly brought together to observe the same. Mohammed (2013) posits

that these nuclear units become part of a “modified form of extended family.”

- The independence of Indian women may be one of the reasons why domestic violence

exists among this ethnic group as women assert their autonomy (Mohammed 2013).

- Additionally the dichotomy that exists between the now upwardly mobile low-income

Indian girls and the expectation of fulfilling their traditional role may also give rise to

‘potentially violent situations.’

Impact of industrialization/urbanization on marriage and family among Afro-

Caribbean families

- Variety of family types and unions exist apart from nuclear and legal union among this

population including: common-law, single-parent, extended, visiting. - The most

prevalent type of family is single parent both from increasing divorce rates as well as

conscious life choices.

- There has been a decrease in fosterage as infrastructure and other social services and

opportunities have improved, however barrel children persists as parents still seek

better economic opportunities outside of their countries of origin. The shift in this

dynamic is the number of children that live with aging grandmothers or siblings who

are too young to be effective substitutes for parents.

- Extended kinship ties have weakened as this ethnic group do not meet as regularly for

family observances ‘neither are they disposed to share problems and resources
 (Mohamed 2013).

- Clear preference for ‘autonomous households’ free of the obligations to and for

extended family which is facilitated by the wide geographic dispersal of family

members.

- The social obligations that were expected from godparents have largely disappeared as

godchildren and godparents tend not to be close though the ritual of appointing

Godparents still exists.

Impact of industrialization/urbanization on marriage and family among

Indigenous families

- Endogamy was taken to another level by this ethnic group as it is acceptable for brothers

and sisters to marry, these arrangements produce cross cousins. With men seeking

work in towns, as a result of the impact of industrialization and the resulting

urbanization, they are largely absent from the family grouping which has reduced the

number of cross cousins and affected the extended family kinship relationships which

existed prior.

- Exogamy has resulted as members of this ethnicity marry Afro- and Indo-Guyanese in

their new locations as the pressure to locate near to economic opportunities. For this

reason, extended family units have given way to nuclear and single parent units.

- Where single parent units exist, these units have become increasingly isolated from their

kinship support systems.

Migration

The question must be asked about the role of migration on kinship patterns in the Caribbean.
What are the facts about migration in the Caribbean? Migration can be defined as the

movement of populations across a specified boundary for the purpose of establishing a new

residence. It can take the form of internal and international migrations. International

migrations look at both emigration (populations leaving their country of origin for a host

country) and immigration (populations that enter a host country from another country of

origin).

In the Caribbean remittances generated by these migrants are significant aspects of Caribbean

economies as parents send money back home to provide for the care of children and other

dependents left at home. These remittances are used for educational purposes as well as

maintenance of homes.

Facts about Caribbean migration

1. The Caribbean region has lost more than 5million people to migration within the past four

decades.

2. Prepared host countries include North America and Europe.

3. According to data based on the United States Bureau of Census, of all the foreign nationals

living in the United States, 10% are of Caribbean origin and more than 10% of these

Caribbean immigrants are of Jamaican heritage.

4. This contributes to the Caribbean having one of the highest net migration rates in the world

as noted by the United Nations Population Division (2003).

5. The countries within the region with the greatest losses due to migration are Jamaican;

Guyana; St. Lucia and Suriname.

6. According to the Office of Caribbean Program Coordination, the reasons why so many

migrate to the United States is due to its close proximity to the Caribbean; increased earning

capacity; common language for English speakers and favourable immigration policies for
skilled labourers.

Migration however impacts kinship ties differently depending on the type of

migration:

1) Seasonal migration occurs where one or both parents apply and receive visas to work on

fruit farms or in industries where it is difficult to source local labour for up to six months.

2) Serial migration occurs in instances where a parent/s go first to settle in the host country

with intentions to send for the children at a later date.

3) Parental migration occurs in cases where parent/s migrate with no intention of either

returning or having their children join them in the host country.

4) Family migration occurs when the entire family migrates at the same time. It is more

characteristic of middle class rather than lower class families.

Impact of migration on kinship ties

Because more mothers migrate than fathers, there are significant impacts on the family unit.

This ‘feminization of migration’ due to unique circumstances including availability of jobs

and types of jobs on offer impact the family in the following way:

- Barrel children are the phenomena where children are left behind because their parent/s

have migrated. These children are either left in the care of an older sibling or are

fostered by other family members. Though increasingly in the modern world it is

more the former than the latter taking place. Even in cases where the children are left

with adults, these environments are often unstable or less than ideal for the child.

- Researchers have found, according to (Olsen 2009), that remittances often to not make it

to those most vulnerable (the children) and consequently this demographic are at risk

for dropping out of school or experiencing depression, low self-esteem, other health
 issues and being exploited.

- The result of these deprivation is the lack of overall development within this group

which may stymy their ability to become functioning members of society. This may

have a residual effect on their own kinship relationships both present and future.

Changing role of men and women in Caribbean families

The new family trends and patterns have been paralleled by changes in gender roles,

especially an expansion of the female role to include economic provision for a family, and

lately also transformation of the male role with more intense involvement in family

responsibilities, especially care for children. This trend resulted from access to educational

opportunities as well as legislation which prevented discrimination in the work place based on

gender (Equal Opportunities Act (2000) and finally gave women opportunities in all spheres

of work including those traditionally held by men. As a result, significant percentages of

females in the Caribbean population work including 60% of Jamaican women (Pages & Piras

2011).

THE EFFECT OF THIS IS MANIFOLD ACCORDING TO PAGAS & PIRAS

(2011) WHICH INCLUDE:

- Tensions in the family as women are expected to contribute economically to the family

but also continue with their substantive domestic roles, what they called the

phenomena of women being cast in the roles of ‘superwomen.’

- Reinforces the patriarchal nature of Caribbean families as men are still definitively the

heads of the household in which women are still obligated to perform the unpaid

domestic tasks in addition to their external jobs. They pointed out that the enormity of

the domestic obligations have affected the time available to work outside of the home
 which affects the quality of work they can access as they need to take into

consideration flexible hours and other such considerations which stymy their progress

at work.

Other effects include:

- While in parts of the Western world, this change in the female role has led to “more

fathers seem to embrace the idea of active parenting and are willing to engage in the

care for their children” (Seward et al 2006) this does not seem to be the reality for

Caribbean families. According to Mohammed (2013), “men do not accept that

housework and domestic chores should be equally divided.” She goes on to conclude

that “Even if women bring in more money, men are still unlikely to perform the brunt

of housework and child care.”

- The allocation of the collective earnings for the family are generally perceived

differently by the two genders. Less common is pooling all money together so that it

can be accessed by both parties equally. More common is keeping some of the family

money in a mutual account and then allocating some to personal accounts for the man

and the women. Mohammed (2013) noted however that while personal for the woman

includes the husband and children, for the man it does not. She points out that if

gendered separation is the norm then there is more likely to be conflict as accusations

of misappropriation of funds may arise.

- Within single parent homes low-income homes, there is no role conflict instead there are

the pressures of being the sole provider. This impacts the family ties as children

may have to forgo the aspiration of higher education to contribute to the family. This

may occur even before formal education is completed in which case it involves the

child dropping out of school and taking whatever job is on offer.

 - Mohammed (2013) points out that irrespective of whether the man makes a financial

contribution to the family, in both lower- and middle-class homes, he is heavily

involved in decision making and disciplinarian functions. For women who are earning

more than the man they may cause conflict which may result in the woman “opting for

a closer bond with her children and non-permanent relationships with men.”

(D) ISSUES FACING CARIBBEAN FAMILY:

(I) DOMESTIC VIOLENCE,

DEFINITION

According to Ganley and Schecter domestic violence is defined as a pattern of coercive and

assaultive behaviors that include physical, sexual, verbal and psychological attacks and

economic coercion that adult/ adolescence used against the intimate partner. Here partners can

be anyone either they may be married or unmarried, Heterosexual, gay or lesbian, living

together, separated or dating. The Protection of women from domestic violence act 2005

defines domestic violence as domestic violence includes actual abuse or the threat of abuse

that is physical, sexual, verbal, emotional and economical.

CAUSES

There is not a specific cause to establish why domestic violence occurs. However, it has been

documented that domestic violence is a product of physical, emotional, sexual, psychological,

and any other forms of torture or torment that the particular abuser wishes to employ to gain

control or power over their victims (Gosselin, 2005). Due to the complexity of this crime,

many criminologists and sociologists have studied its causes and the effects in order to

determine social policies and additional theories to better understand the causation of

domestic violence.

EFFECTS
Domestic violence maims and kills. It causes an array of health problems ranging from

physical and sexual injuries to psychological and psychiatric disorders.

Furthermore victims-survivors have to cope with other social and economic problems

resulting from such violence.

The World Health Organisation, in a study carried out in 1996 entitled 'Violence Against

Women', identified the psychological and physical impact of domestic violence on the health

of the victims-survivors. They came up with a categorisation of the health consequences of

violence against women according to the degree of the outcome mostly whether the outcome

was fatal or non fatal.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN THE CARIBBEAN STATISTICS

The Caribbean has one of the highest violence rates in the world and violence against women

in that region is widespread. It is estimated that one in three women in the Caribbean on

average will experience domestic violence.

Domestic Violence in Jamaica

- 1 in 3 had experienced some combination of intimate partner violence (IPV) during

her lifetime

- 1 in 5 had experienced physical or sexual IPV in her lifetime

- 1 in 2 (48%) have experienced at least one controlling behaviour and - 8%

reported ever having been forced to have sex by an intimate partner.

(2012)

Source: http://www.refworld.org/docid/52eb9bf94.html

Domestic Violence in Barbados

 - 86% were cases of violence perpetrated by men against women, thus accrediting

the approach of violence against women in an intimate partner relation. - 4% were

by women against men.

- 4% were adults against childrenRegarding the frequency of abuse: -

37% daily or weekly abuse.

- 52% monthly or every few months.

- 11% annually or once or twice.

Source:

http://www.academia.edu/8104674/

Mapping_of_key_issues_and_initiatives_regarding_Dom estic_Violence_in_Barbados

COVID-19 PANDEMIC IMPACT ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

POVERTY,

DEFINITION

Poverty is a social condition that is characterized by the lack of resources necessary for basic

survival or necessary to meet a certain minimum level of living standards expected for the

place where one lives. The income level that determines poverty is different from place to

place, so social scientists believe that it is best defined by conditions of existence, like lack of

access to food, clothing, and shelter. People in poverty typically experience persistent hunger

or starvation, inadequate or absent education and health care, and are usually alienated from

mainstream society.

CAUSES-
Poverty is a consequence of the uneven distribution of material resources and wealth on a

global scale and within nations. Sociologists see it as a social condition of societies with an

unequal and inequitable distribution of income and wealth, of the de-industrialization of

Western societies, and the exploitative effects of global capitalism.

Poverty is not an equal opportunity social condition. Around the world and within the

Caribbean, women, children, and people of color are far more likely to experience poverty

than are white men.

While this description offers a general understanding of poverty, sociologists recognize a few

different types of it.

Some causes of poverty, as highlighted by Olatomide Waheed Olowa, are: "low or negative

economic growth, inappropriate macroeconomic policies, deficiencies in the labor market

resulting in limited job growth, low productivity, low wages, and a lag in human resource

development."

CONSEQUENCES

Poverty leads to a series of consequences that have been detrimental to developing countries.

It can create inappropriate conditions or behaviors that lead to cultural and educational

problems, as well as health problems, criminal conflicts, drug trafficking, terrorism, among

others.

STATISTICS

In 2007 17% of the population of Trinidad and Tobago was under the poverty line which has

risen to 20% in 2014. In Trinidad and Tobago it is reported that “11 per cent are reported to

be undernourished” (Trinidad Daily Express Newspapers, 2014). Haiti’s population below the

poverty line has been the highest in the Caribbean for many years.

Causes of Poverty in the Caribbean

Lack of Qualifications and Skills- Many of the poor do not further their education or drop out

of school because of financial problems, other work, and home duties. The effects of the lack

of qualifications and skills are unemployment and low-paying jobs.

Stigma and Discrimination- The labour force in the Caribbean also constraints opportunities

for those seeking work by stigmisating and discriminating them. Individuals are judged based

on their age, sex, area of residence, religion, disability, sexuality and migrant status. This

results in homelessness, poor living conditions, ill health and inadequate nutrition.

Natural Disasters- The Caribbean is constantly being hit by hurricanes and tropical storms.

Grenada was hit with Tropical Storm Lilly in 2002, Hurricane Ivan in 2004 and Hurricane

Emily in 2005. Haiti was hit with Hurricane Jeanne in 2004, then an earthquake with a

magnitude of 7.0 in 2010 according to Kang (2016), it “destroyed much of Port-au-Prince, the

capital, and devastated the country as a whole” and Hurricane Matthew in 2016.

Political Corruption- Haiti is the most corrupt nation in the Caribbean. “Corruption is defined

as comprising illegal activities, which are deliberately hidden and only come to light through

scandals, investigations or prosecutions'' (News Americas Now, 2016). Other corrupted

nations involve Guyana, Dominican Republic, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and

Cuba. Some of these countries are plagued by dysfunctional judicial systems that are

underfunded, corrupt and inefficient. Others by the increased cost of daily living and

corruption within the police force.

There have been various initiatives made to help reduce poverty within the Caribbean. The

Caribbean countries have an LAC Regional Community of Practice (CoP) meeting on MDGs

and poverty reduction every year. There is also the Eight Caribbean Labour Ministers

Meeting which reviews the agendas of the International Labour Conference and critical

Caribbean issues on employment and labour are discussed.

POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES TO REDUCE POVERTY

Barbados- Rural and Urban Development Commissions- A public service, social

development agency that provides professional services created to improve vulnerable, poor

and disadvantaged individuals and communities living conditions and the quality of life in

Urban and Rural Barbados. Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES)- A programme to help

young individuals develop their entrepreneurial skills and talent for employment or new start

up businesses.

Jamaica- Jamaica Social Investment Fund (JSIF)- A limited liability company established to

handle resources to small based community projects. Policy on Homelessness in Jamaica- A

policy that provides the structure for the management, roles and responsibilities of

government agencies and other stakeholders for the homeless in Jamaica. Social Housing

Policy- A policy of housing accommodations for the extremely poor and homeless, to bring

families and friends back together.

Trinidad and Tobago- National Social Development Programme- a programme of social

intervention strategy created to provide assistance to underserved or deprived citizens and

communities, focusing on the improvement of their quality of life. Poverty Reduction

Programme (PRP)- A programme to better develop relevant strategies and foster a more

integrated approach to poverty reduction. School Nutrition Programme (SNP)- A programme

that provides lunch boxes to ensure the dietary and nutritional needs of children attending

school are met.

THE CHANGING ROLE OF WOMEN AND MEN IN THE

FAMILY, DEFINITIONS

Gender roles play a major role in today's society and have throughout history. They are

introduced at birth through several socializing agents. Gender roles have determined who will

complete nearly every task in our society ranging from who will join the workforce to who

takes care of the household. Society also tells what traits each gender is supposed to follow.

Although it is traditionally assumed that males are the breadwinners and women are the

homemakers, times have changed as men and women have started to share both of these

responsibilities.

Men and women's roles in society have been changing for decades now. Traditionally, men

have worked outside the home and served as the sole breadwinner for the family. They held

some of the most powerful jobs in society, including doctor, lawyer and politician. Women,

on the other hand, governed the domestic sphere.

CAUSES

Family structures, education, and media, have also a hand in the changing gender roles. Thus,

gender roles have changed, and it has been difficult because each gender carries on the

symbol of its own world with the reasons for the change in gender roles including sex role

theory, professionalism, changes in laws, technology, and unemployment. Changing

social requirements as well as conventions have given room for the society to do away with

the past traditional gender affiliated roles.

EFFECTS

The effects of the changing roles of women and families is that women, as well as men, are
spending more post-school years as single adults than have past generations. Whichever

living arrangement, or combination thereof, is chosen, delaying marriage implies a longer

period of independence for the young adult.

(II) CHILD ABUSE

Child abuse is the intentional infliction of physical, moral, and sexual pain and suffеring on а

child. Hence, thеre are four basic forms of child abuse which are neglect, emotional abuse,

physical abuse, and sexual abuse. Neglect accounts for the majority of cases of maltreatment

and it can sevеrely impact а child’s psychological or physical development. Emotional Abuse,

which is 8% of all substantiated cases of child abuse, can be the cruellest and most destructive

of all types of the abuses (National Exchange Club Foundation, 1998).

In most child abuse cases, the offendеr does not really want to hurt the child. Most abuse

happens when adults have а hard time controlling their angеr and/or the stresses that their

lives bring. Howevеr, even if they don’t mean to, а parent, family membеr, friend, or strangеr

who abuses а child might do it again, especially if othеr stresses are not handled. The most

common form of child abuse children endure is negligence. (Bagley, 2005, p683)

Emotional Abuse
Emotional Abuse is the acts or the failures to act by parents or caretakеrs that have caused or

could cause sеrious behavioural, cognitive, emotional, or mental disordеrs. Emotional abuse

includes excessive, aggressive or unreasonable demands that place expectations on а child

beyond his or hеr capacity. This can include parents/caretakеrs using extreme and/or bizarre

forms of punishment, such as confinement іn а closet or dark room or being tied to а chair for

long pеriods of time or threatening or tеrrorizing а child. Less sevеre acts, but no less

damaging are belittling or rejecting treatment, and using dеrogatory tеrms to describe the

child.
Emotional abuse also includes failure to provide the psychological nurturing necessary for а

child’s psychological growth and development — providing no love, support or guidance

(National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse, 1987). Emotional abuse is probably

the least undеrstood of all child abuse, yet it is the most prevalent, and can be the cruellest

and most destructive of all types of abuse. According, to Turney, thеre are іn fact some

indicators to this type of abuse which are, obsеrvable indicators, behavioural indicators, and

family or parental indicators. (Turney, 2005, p194)

Obsеrvable indicators are when а child demonstrate actions such as child rocking back and

forth, sucking on items, biting themselves inappropriately aggressiveness, destructive to

othеrs, suffеrs from sleeping and speech disordеrs, restricts play activities or expеriences, and

demonstrates compulsions, obsessions, phobias, hystеrical outbursts. Some, behavioural

indicators іn children are negative statements about self, shy, passive, compliant, lags іn

physical, mental and emotional development, self destructive behaviour, highly aggressive,

cruel to othеrs, and ovеrly demanding.

A family and/or parental indicator include blaming or putting down of child, being cold and

rejecting of child, indiffеrent to child’s problems or welfare, withholds affection, and shows

prefеrential treatment when thеre is more than one child іn the family.

Physical Abuse
The statistics on physical child abuse are alarming. It is estimated hundreds of thousands of

children are physically abused each year by а parent or close relative. Physical abuse, which

is 19% of all substantiated cases of child abuse, is the most visible form of abuse and may be

defined as the inflicting of physical injury upon а child.

Turney, (2005) stated that this may include, burning, hitting, punching, shaking, kicking,

beating, or othеrwise harming а child. While any of these injuries can occur accidentally
when а child is at play it may, howevеr, be the result of ovеr-discipline or physical

punishment that is inappropriate to the child’s age and physical abuse should be suspected if

the explanations do not fit the injury or if а pattеrn of frequency is apparent. Physical abuse

may consist of just one incident or it may happen repeatedly.

It involves delibеrately using force against а child іn such а way that the child is eithеr injured

or is at risk of being injured. It also includes holding а child undеr watеr, or any othеr

dangеrous or harmful use of force or restraint. For those who survive, the emotional trauma

remains long aftеr the extеrnal bruises have healed. And, the longеr the abuse continue the

more sеrious the injuries to the child and the more difficult it is to eliminate the abusive

behaviour. (Turney, 2005, p196)

Sexual Abuse
Sexual Abuse is the inappropriate sexual behaviour with а child. Sexual abuse is the least

frequently reported form of child abuse (6% of all cases). Expеrts believe that sexual abuse

may be the most undеrreported type of child maltreatment because of the secrecy, the

“conspiracy of silence” that so often surrounds these cases. It includes fondling а child’s

genitals, making the child fondle the adult’s genitals, intеrcourse, incest, rape, sodomy,

exhibitionism and sexual exploitation. To be considеred child abuse these acts have to be

committed by а pеrson responsible for the care of а child (for example а baby-sittеr, а parent,

or а day-care providеr) or related to the child.

If а strangеr commits these acts, it would be considеred sexual assault and handled solely be

the police and criminal courts. Most children choose not to tell that they are being sexually

abused. They are usually being tricked into believing that what are happening to them are

normal behaviours and/or family membеr, pet, and friend has been threatened by the abusеr.

So, if а child tells you he/she was sexually mistreated and are displaying signs of being

sexually abused you should take them sеriously.

Greene made it clear that children will show some physical signs such as having difficulty

walking or sitting. If they are too young to have stained or bloody undеrwear you should take

this vеry sеrious. Or have genital or rectal pain, itching, swelling, redness, or discharge

bruises or othеr injuries іn the genital or rectal area. Some, behavioural and emotional signs

such are difficulty eating or sleeping. Soiling or wetting pants or bed aftеr being potty trained.

If they start acting like а much youngеr child or excessive crying and sadness and start

withdrawing from school or family activities and othеrs. (Greene, 2007, p30)

Talking about or acting out sexual acts beyond normal sex play for age. Physical Indicators

are things you have to pay close attention too for example, а child is having difficulty walking

or sitting, torn clothing, stained or bloody undеrwear, pain or itching іn genital area,

and venеreal disease. Behavioural indicators іn children often do not tell with normal words

that they have been sexually abused or that they have successfully resisted an assault and

don’t know quite what to do next. Thеre are many reasons children might hesitate or be afraid

to tell us about what has happened, including their relationship to the offendеr, fear of the

consequences, retaliation or uncеrtainty about whethеr or not they will be believed. (Jack,

2005, p293)

CAUSES
ALCOHOLAND DRUG ABUSE

Parents who have a history of alcohol and drug abuse can be responsible for child abuse.

Dependence of substance abuse is one of the major causes of child abuse and maltreatment

which includes physical abuse and intentional neglect. Alcohol or drug-abusing parent is

more likely to initiate child abuse with kids of five years or below.

UNTREATED MENTAL ILLNESS

A parent’s untreated mental illness is a common cause of child abuse. Manic depression or

any other illness of the mind can become a prime cause for the parents to be unavailable

for

the child. A mother may remain withdrawn from her kids or in extreme cases suspect that the

child plotting against her. A parent’s suffering is often the cause of subjecting a child to

abuse.

LACK OF PARENTING SKILLS

Most parents are naturally gifted while caring for their children, but few may not be able to

manage their physical and emotional needs adequately. Many parents would often equate

disciplining children with abusing them and will need counselling to understand the role of a

parent in a better manner.

STRESS AND LACK OF SUPPORT

Many children face psychological mistreatment when their caregivers or parents are under

stress. Parents find it difficult to deal with the emotional needs of a child especially when

they face stressful situations. Divorces, relationship issues, financial worries and job-related

problems can lead to parents meting out abuse to their children.

EFFECTS
Child abuse and neglect can cause a variety of psychological problems. Maltreatment can

cause victims to feel isolation, fear, and distrust, which can translate into lifelong

psychological consequences that can manifest as educational difficulties, low self-esteem,

depression, and trouble forming and maintaining relationships. Researchers have

identified links between child abuse and neglect and the following psychological outcomes.

STATISTICS

DIVORCE/CONJUGAL SEPARATION,

Divorce is the socially recognized and legal dissolution of marriage. According to the
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology (1994), ‘the formal legal dissolution of legally

constituted marriage’ is called divorce.

CAUSES

ADULTERY
Adultery is voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and someone other than

the lawful spouse. Historically, adultery has been considered a serious offense in many

cultures. Even in jurisdictions where adultery is not a criminal offense itself, it may still have

legal consequences, particularly in divorce cases.

INFIDELITY

More narrowly, infidelity most commonly refers to a breach of the expectation of sexual

exclusivity that is expressed or implied in intimate relationships in many cultures.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence is defined as a pattern of abusive behaviors by one partner against another

in an intimate relationship such as marriage or domestic partnership.

MIDLIFE CRISIS

A midlife crisis is a term that was coined by Elliott Jaques in 1965 that suggests it is a time

when adults come to realize their own mortality and how much time is left in their lives. A
midlife crisis is experienced by many people during the midlife transition when they realize

that life may be more than halfway over, prompting a sudden change in behavior.

MARRYING TOO YOUNG

The age at which a person gets married is also believed to influence the likelihood of divorce.

Delaying marriage until one is older or more experienced may provide more opportunity to

choose a more compatible partner

ADDICTIONS

Alcoholism is a broad term for problems with alcohol, and is generally used to mean

compulsive and uncontrolled consumption of alcoholic beverages, usually to the detriment of

the drinker’s health, personal relationships, and social standing. Problem gambling is an urge

to continuously gamble despite harmful negative consequences or a desire to stop. Problem

gambling often is defined by whether harm is experienced by the gambler or others, rather

than by the gambler’s behavior.

EFFECTS

Sociologists and psychologists have conducted research that shows the effects of divorce

heavily depend on the child’s age at the time the divorce occurs. The child’s gender,
personality, the amount of conflicts with the parents, and support of family and friends all

contribute to the effects of divorce on a child.

INFANTS AND PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN

Although infants may not understand the exact conflict, they do react to the difference in their

parent’s mood and energy change. Some effects an infant may have include a loss of appetite

and an increase in spit up. Pre-school children range from three to five years old and may

often mistake the divorce as their own fault. Some of the effects for children at this age may

include baby-like behavior such as old toys, a baby blanket, or even wetting the bed. They

also may become depressed, uncooperative, or angry.

SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Children at this age have more of a difficult time adjusting to the parental divorce than

younger or older children. At this age, children are able to understand the pain they feel due to

the separation of their parents, but they are too young to control how they respond to the pain.

Often children experience feelings of anger, grief, and embarrassment. In order to deal with

the situation and cope, it is important that children become involved in activities with other

kids. It is very common for children this age to hope that parents will eventually get back

together.

Teens experience some of the same feelings as school-aged children. They feel anger, fear,

depression, loneliness, and guilt. Some teens feel as though they must take on new

responsibilities such as new chores and taking care of siblings. Teens may also doubt his or

her ability to get married or stay married.

Children of divorced parents (those entirely from unhappy families) are reported to have a
higher chance of behavioral problems than those of non-divorced parents (a mix of happy and

unhappy families). Studies have also reported the former to be more likely to suffer abuse

than children in intact families, and to have a greater chance of living in poverty. A 2002

article in Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review discusses a variety of health

consequences for children of the unhappy couples that do divorce. Constance Ahron, who has

published books suggesting there may be positive effects for children, interviewed ninety-

eight divorced families’ children for We’re Still Family: What Grown Children Have to

Say About Their Parents’ Divorce. Data from this study, in which she describes the

binuclear family, is available at the Harvard Library and online.

Although divorce may be beneficial in some instances, high-conflict divorce (especially

during transition periods) is harmful to children. Children who are shuffled back and forth

between households, and those who hear their parents bickering and fighting, are likely to

suffer the most. The best practice to avoid problems for children is to spend more or equal

time with them while minimizing the amount of transitions for the children.

DIVORCED AND UNMARRIED ELDERLY

Sociologists believe that the rise in the number of older Americans who are not married is a

result of factors such as longevity and economics. Women, especially, are becoming more and

more financially independent which allows them to feel more secure with being alone. In

previous generations, being divorced or single was seen differently than it is now. This has
resulted in less pressure for baby boomers to marry or stay married. Demographers estimate

that baby boomers who remain unmarried will face more financial struggles than those who

are married.

THE ABSENT FATHER AND SERIAL FATHERHOOD

Involved fathers contribute to their children’s development.

A father is defined as a male parent or individual progenitor of human offspring. The

adjective “paternal” refers to a father and comparatively to “maternal” for a mother.

Traditionally, fathers act in a protective, supportive and responsible way toward their

children. Involved fathers offer developmentally specific provisions to their sons and

daughters throughout the life cycle, and are impacted themselves by doing so. According to

the anthropologist Maurice Godelier, the parental role assumed by human males is a critical

difference between human society and that of humans’ closest biological relatives—

chimpanzees and bonobos—who appear to be unaware of their “father” connection.

In many cultures, especially traditional Western, a father is usually the husband in a married

couple. Many times, fathers have a very important role in raising offspring, and the title can

be given to a non-biological father that fills this role. This is common in stepfathers, or males

married to biological mothers. In East Asian and Western traditional families, fathers are the

heads of the families, which means that their duties include providing financial support and

making critical decisions, some of which must be obeyed without question by the rest of the

family members.

The Father complex in psychology is a complex pertaining to a group of unconscious

associations, or strong unconscious impulses, which specifically pertain to the image or

archetype of the father. These impulses may be either positive or negative. Whereas the idea
of the father complex had originally evolved to deal with the heavy Victorian patriarch, by

the new millennium there had developed instead a postmodern preoccupation with the loss of

paternal authority, or the absence of the father. Alongside the shift from a Freudian emphasis

on the role of the father to object relations theory’s stress upon the mother, psychoanalysis

tended to single out the search for the father, and the negative effects of the switched-off

father.

STATISTICS

TEENAGE PREGNANCY,

DEFINITION

Teenage pregnancy, also known as adolescent pregnancy, is pregnancy in a female under

the age of 20. Pregnancy can occur with sexual intercourse after the start of ovulation, which

can be before the first menstrual period (menarche) but usually occurs after the onset of

periods.

CAUSES-
The causes of teenage pregnancy are both social an also economical. The lack of knowledge

on the consequences of teenage pregnancy among the teenagers is the primary factor that

leads to teenagers to engage in irresponsible sexual practices. Another contributing factor is

the up bringing of the children. The way parents bring up their children as well as the kind of

environment they are brought up in contributes realty to the sexual behavior of a child.

Parents who do not communicate openly to with their children on social issues such as sex are

putting their children at the risk of being teenage parents.

The lack of open communication between the children and the parents encourages the

children to find other sources of information and in most cases, they go to their fellow

students or older friends who may end giving them the wrong or misleading information. On

the other hand, children who are brought in an environment that consists of many cases of

teenage pregnancies or even in situations where the parents are single mothers or were victims

of teenage pregnancy are more likely to follow the same course since it is something normal

in their ‘world’.

The way a child is brought up defines who they are in terms of emotional maturity as well as

their communication skills. When children are not taught how to communicate and air their

views openly and boldly, they end up suffering from low self esteem and this makes them

easy targets and increases their chances of being vulnerable to peer pressure which is also

responsible for teenage pregnancy. This lack of communication and guidance from parents

also contributes to the child’s irresponsible behavior.

Poverty is another major factor that contributes to teenage pregnancy. In most low income

earning areas, the are no facilities that are used to educate children on the effects of engaging

in sexual activities at an early age. In some cases, the children are forced to engage in sexual

activities as a way of getting money to support themselves and their families. The wealthier

people in these areas take advantage of the young children and promise them a better life in
exchange for sex. Ignorance is also another aspect that is come in these areas and is usually

brought about by the lack of education. When parents are not well educated, they do not see

the importance of educating or discussing sex and other issues that affect the teenagers and

the children end up messing up since they were not advised.

The kind of messages that are sent to teenagers about sex are also contributing factors to the

early engagement in sex which leads to teenage pregnancy. Today’s culture glorifies sex and

does not put into consideration nor is it accountable for its consequences. The social attitudes

on the other hand do not provide a conducive environment for open discussions on sex and

resources are not also available for the same. From studies, there are some factors such as

poor performance in school that force the children to drop out and when they do, the chances

o them engaging in sexual activities are very high and they end up getting pregnant.

There are many children who are victims of sexual abuse and this completely messes up with

their views and attitude towards sex. These children end up perceiving themselves as sexual

objects from an early age and this increases the cases of teenage pregnancy.

EFFECTS

The effects of teenage pregnancy are felt by the individual victims and also the society. When

school going teenagers get pregnant, most of them opt to drop out of school due to shame and

also so that they can prepare themselves for the coming baby and motherhood in general. On

the other hand, teenage fathers are not in a position to support their families financially so

they also end up dropping out of school so that they can work and provide for their family.

Since getting a job without education is hard, the students find themselves engaging in

criminal activities and drug abuse as they try to find solutions to their state.
Most teenage mothers do not have any support from their families so they and up becoming a

part of the lower society whereby they are not able to access basic needs such as health care

and well balanced diets. This affects their health and the health of their children and

sometimes may lead to complications during child birth.

Teenage parents pose a great economic and social risk to the society since they are not

financially stable. Dropping out of school, doing drug and also engaging in criminal activities

by teenage fathers affect the community in terms of the level of security. Dropping out of

school means that one is not well educated and therefore, they cannot secure good jobs and

this increases the cases of joblessness and this pull down the economic status of the society.

When one is not educated, their level of productivity socially and economically goes down

and this affects the community at large.

PREVENTION

Teenagers should be encouraged not to engage in sexual activities at an early age and they

should also be well informed on early pregnancy and its effects. The students should be well

educated on the topic of sex as a whole should be discussed in schools and this will help in

the reduction of cases of teenage pregnancy. The teenagers should also be educated on the

ways of preventing pregnancy and also ways of ensuring safe sex. They should be allowed to