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RARE METALS
DOI 10.1007/s12598-015-0550-1
Penetration performance of W/Cu double-layer
shaped charge liners
Wen-Jian Dong, Jin-Xu Liu* , Xing-Wang Cheng,
Shu-Kui Li, Qing-He Zou, Wen-Qi Guo
Received: 19 April 2014 / Revised: 30 June 2014 / Accepted: 17 June 2015
Ó The Nonferrous Metals Society of China and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract Two kinds of W/Cu double-layer shaped charge
liner (SCL) were prepared by chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) combined with electroforming technique: A SCL
with W inner layer and Cu outer layer, B SCL with Cu inner
layer and W outer layer. The penetration properties of A and
B SCLs were researched. The results show that the two SCLs
can form continuous jet and the tip velocities of A and B jets
are 7.4 and 6.3 kms-1, respectively. The kinetic energy
density (5.3 9 1011 Jm-3) of A jet tip increases by 194.4 %
compared with that (1.8 9 1011 Jm-3) of B jet tip. B jet,
however, exhibits deeper penetration depth at the same
experimental conditions. The chemical component and
microstructure of the area nearby the ballistic perforation
were researched. Component analysis shows that both the
jets are formed only from inner layer metal. Microstructure
analysis shows that martensite and intermetallic form around
ballistic perforation penetrated by A SCL due to the intensive
interaction between W jet and steel target. The two kinds of
newly formed ultrahard phases also hinder the jet from
penetrating target further. As a result of relatively alleviative
interaction between Cu jet and target, only solid solution
rather than ultrahard phases forms around ballistic perfora-
tion penetrated by B SCL.
Keywords Shaped charge liner; Jet; Penetration
performance; Chemical vapor deposition; Electroforming
technique
W.-J. Dong, J.-X. Liu*, X.-W. Cheng, S.-K. Li, W.-Q. Guo
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing 100081, China
e-mail: liujinxu@bit.edu.cn
Q.-H. Zou
Mudanjiang North Alloy Tool Co., Ltd., Mudanjiang 157000,
China
www.editorialmanager.com/rmet
1 Introduction
Shaped charge liner (SCL) is a key component of shaped
charge warhead, and the process sundering the armoring can
be divided into three parts: collapsing, forming elongated
jet, and penetrating target. Numerous studies show that
improving properties of the jet such as density, velocity, and
effective length can greatly increase penetration depth [1–
4]. Selecting proper materials for SCLs is the key technol-
ogy to improve these properties of the jet. The high density,
high acoustic velocity, good thermal conductivity, and high
dynamic fracture elongation rate make tungsten one of the
most attractive candidate materials for SCLs [5–8]. Held [9]
even considered tungsten as the best candidate material for
SCL based on calculations. At present, researches on
tungsten liners are mostly focused on pure tungsten liners
and tungsten alloy liners [10–14]. Since the jets of tungsten
alloy liners will extremely quickly disperse after formation,
the use of tungsten alloy liners have been greatly restricted
at large standoff [15]. Recently, related research on tungsten
liner shows that the penetration performance of pure tung-
sten liner is far worse than that of tungsten-copper alloy
liner for the intensive interaction between W jet and target
[10]. Therefore, it is significant to find an effective method
which can not only obtain high quality jet, but also alleviate
the intensive interaction between jet and target while taking
advantage of the excellent properties of tungsten. Large
number of computer simulations show that reasonable
structural designed W–Cu double-layer SCLs would
achieve this goal [16–18]. However, to date, there are
hardly any reports about preparation and penetration test
related to W–Cu double-layer SCLs. It is very necessary to
clarify the jet formation rule and penetration mechanism
[10, 19–21] of W–Cu double-layer SCLs through
experiments.
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This study deals with the characterization of jet forma-
tion and microanalysis of the recovered steel targets pen-
etrated by two different W/Cu double-layer SCLs which
were fabricated by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [22,
23] combined with electroforming technique [24–26]. Jet
formation process was captured by high-energy pulse
X-ray imaging technology, and penetration channel wall of
the recovered targets was researched. The jets tip velocity
of the two different W/Cu double-layer SCLs and
microstructure features of the recovered targets penetrated
by the two different SCLs are very different from each
other.
2 Experimental
SCL was fabricated by depositing a certain thickness of
W by CVD on the surface of matrix copper (W inner layer
and Cu outer layer, named as B SCL). The manufacturing
process of SCL with W inner layer and Cu outer layer (named
as A SCL) was relatively complex. Other than depositing a
certain thickness of W by CVD on the surface of matrix
copper, electroforming technique was also used to electro-
form a certain thickness of Cu on the surface of the obtained
CVD–W. Depending on the input requirements, the obtained
SCL blanks were subjected to further processing such as
accurately polishing, cutting off ring rim of liner bottom, and
etching off the innermost matrix copper layer of A SCL
blanks with nitric acid. Figure 1a, b and c shows the
semifinished products of A SCL whose innermost copper
layers were not etched off, the end products of B SCL, and
schematic diagram of the W–Cu double-layer SCL, respec-
tively. Both the CVD–W layers of A and B SCLs were
prepared by the reduction of hexafluoride tungsten by
Fig. 1 Physical pictures of W–Cu double-layered SCLs: a A SCLs
whose innermost copper layers are not etched off, b B SCLs, and
c schematic diagram of W–Cu double-layer SCL
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W.-J. Dong et al.
hydrogen gas. The Cu layer of A SCL was prepared by
electrolytic bath of 150 gL-1 CuSO4, 50 gL-1 H2SO4,
0.02 gL-1 sulfourea, and 1–2 gL-1 active carbon at tem-
perature of 293 K, current density of 4 Adm-2, duty ratio of
80 %, frequency of 1000 Hz, and cathode rotation rate of
30 rmin-1. The microstructural images of original
microstructures of A and B SCLs were taken by Olympus
PME-3 optical microscopy (OM).
Figure 2 shows the penetration test configuration. All
targets used in the penetration test were stacked 45# steel
column targets (U150 mm 9 100 mm). All SCLs were
tested under the same conditions including composition of
explosive, geometric dimension of explosive, and standoff
(3 times the charge diameter). Table 1 summarizes the
geometric dimensions of A and B SCLs.
In order to research the microstructure features of pen-
etration channel wall, the target columns after penetration
were cut longitudinally along the ballistic perforation.
Some designate parts including residual jet were cut from
the slit targets, polished and etched by nitric acid composed
of 100 ml distilled water and 4 ml hydrogen nitrate to
make samples for microanalysis. These samples were
investigated by Hitachi S-4800 scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM) for microstructure observations. Energy dis-
persive spectroscopy (EDS) attached to SEM was applied
to determine elements of residual jet zone in penetration
channel wall. With the purpose of investigating the prop-
erties of different zones in penetration channel wall,
Vickers microhardness measurements were made on these
samples using a standard diamond indenter at a 0.98 N load
for 15 s. And X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used
Fig. 2 Experimental site and schematic illustration of penetration test
setup
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Penetration performance of W/Cu double-layer shaped charge liners

Table 1 Geometric dimension of A and B liners (parameters such as d, D, and T being marked in Fig. 1)
SCLs d/mm D/mm T/mm Thickness ratio of W
layer to Cu layer
1 2 3 4

A liner 10.08 64.72 1.24 1.28 1.26 1.36 1.74

B liner 10.08 65.30 1.68 1.72 1.74 1.78 1.30

finer than normal columnar crystal. Served as the matrix

Fig. 3 OM images of original microstructures of A and B SCLs:
a electroformed copper layer of A SCL in longitudinal direction,
b matrix copper layer of B SCL after heating in longitudinal direction,
c CVD–W in longitudinal direction, and d CVD–W in transversal
direction
subsequently to determine the phase structures in penetra-
tion channel wall.
3 Results and discussion
Figure 3 shows OM images of original microstructures of
A and B SCLs. It can be observed from Fig. 3a that the
microstructure of the electroformed Cu layer of A SCL
has a tanglesome orientation and does not have an obvi-
ous characteristic of columnar crystal, while the grain is
for CVD, the microstructure of the Cu layer of B SCL
with average grain size of 50–200 lm presents the phe-
nomenon of normal grain growth compared with the
microstructure before heating, as shown in Fig. 3b. Nev-
ertheless, its microstructure is still dense and uniform.
Figure 3c, d shows the microstructures of CVD–W layer
of SCLs in longitudinal direction (the direction perpen-
dicular to the surface of SCL) and transversal direction
(the direction parallel to the surface of SCL), respectively.
It can be observed that CVD–W has an obvious charac-
teristic of fine columnar crystal, and the average grain
size of CVD–W is about 150–200 lm in longitudinal
direction and 25–35 lm in transversal direction. The
purity and density of CVD–W are C99.98 % and
99.26 %, respectively.
Figure 4a–e shows X-ray radiographies of the jets
formed by A and B SCLs. In the formation and elongation
process of both the jets, inner layer material does not
separate from outer layer material. A jet (formed by A
liner) deviates from the axis after 36.1us from initiation as
a result of amplification of the wall thickness asymmetry,
while B jet (formed by B liner) keeps straightness during
elongation process all the time owing to the symmetry of
the wall thickness. By calculating the length of jets at
different time before penetration, jet tip velocity is
obtained. Calculation result demonstrates that A jet tip
velocity of 7.4 kms-1 is 17.5 % higher than B jet tip
velocity of 6.3 kms-1. Kinetic energy density (E0) which
is defined as kinetic energy per unit volume can be cal-
culated by the following formula:

Fig. 4 Radiographs of jet formed by A liner after a 21.6 ls, b 36.1 ls and c 61.0 ls from initiation and jet formed by B liner after d 36.0 ls and
e 55.9 ls from initiation

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Fig. 5 SEM images for microscopic features of penetration channel
wall of targets penetrated by a, b A jet and c, d B jet
E0 ¼ 1=2qt2 ð1Þ
where q is the density of jet tip and t is the jet tip velocity.
Based on jet formation law of the conical SCL, q takes the
density value of inner layer metal. The kinetic energy
densities of A and B jets tip are 5.3 9 1011 and
1.8 9 1011 Jm-3, respectively. Compared with that of B
jet, the kinetic energy density of A jet tip increases by
194.4 %. The calculation results fully illustrate that the
structure design of W applied as inner layer material and
Cu as outer layer material for A SCL can improve the
energy conversion mechanism and consequently optimize
energy distribution.
However, the results of static armor-piercing test show
an amazing fact that the penetration depth of B SCL
(323 mm) is much better than that of A SCL (254 mm). In
order to find out the reasons for the anomalous phe-
nomenon, the surface of ballistic perforation and the area
nearby it were researched. Figure 5 shows SEM images of
targets penetrated by A and B jets. It can be observed that
the targets penetrated by different jets show significantly
different microstructure features, especially deformation
zone and the zone near ballistic perforation.
Figure 5a shows SEM image of the target penetrated by A
jet and, Fig. 5b shows the enlarged SEM image of the des-
ignated zone near the ballistic perforation. It can be clearly
observed that the magnified zone is composed of two dif-
ferent microstructures. EDS analysis in left part of Fig. 5b
illustrates that the zone characterized by acicular is only
composed of Fe and C. Thus, it is proved that the zone is
martensite. Figure 6 is the result of EDS analysis in right part
of Fig. 5b, and it illustrates that a considerable amount of W
exist in this zone. Because W does not belong to the chemical
composition of the original targets, it is reasonable to
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W.-J. Dong et al.
Fig. 6 EDS analysis for right part of Fig. 5b
conclude that this zone adjacent to ballistic perforation is
residual jet. According to the above analysis, the target
penetrated by A jet can be divided into four zones: residual
jet zone, martensite zone, deformation zone, and original
structure zone. The microscopic features of the target pen-
etrated by A jet are almost the same as those penetrated by
pure W jet [10], which combined with the result of EDS
analysis in residual jet zone can provide a powerful evidence
for that A jet forms from the inner layer metal W.
Figure 5c shows the SEM image of the target penetrated
by B jet, and Fig. 5d shows the enlarged SEM image of the
designate zone between ballistic perforation and deforma-
tion zone. It also can be clearly observed that the magnified
zone is composed of another two different microstructures
rather than martensite. In fact, only the two structures are
found by SEM in the zone between ballistic perforation and
deformation zone. The zone between ballistic perforation
and deformation zone illustrates that it is only composed of
Fe and Cu which does not belong to the chemical composi-
tion of the original targets. So it is also reasonable to con-
clude that the zone between ballistic perforation and
deformation zone is also residual jet. Thus, the target pene-
trated by B jet can be divided into only three zones: residual
jet zone, deformation zone, and original structure zone.
In order to determine the composition of the two
structures in Fig. 5d, XRD patterns of the two structures
and EDS analysis of the four zones were made. Figure 7
shows the XRD patterns of the structures in Fig. 5d, indi-
cating that both of the structures are composed of Cu and
Fe solid solutions. Not any other intermediate phases are
found by XRD patterns in the two structures. So it can be
concluded that any designated microscopic phase structure
is a kind of solid solution. Figure 8a–d shows the EDS
results of the four designate zones (microscopic phase
structures) in Fig. 5d. It shows that all the microscopic
phase structures are two-component alloy solid solutions.
Owing to the tiny difference of atomic radius between Fe
and Cu, they can only form substitutional solid solution.
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Penetration performance of W/Cu double-layer shaped charge liners
Fig. 7 XRD pattern of structures in Fig. 5d
According to the atomic proportion that Fe or Cu takes up
in substitutional solid solutions, as shown in Fig. 8a–d,
four kinds of solid solutions can be orderly identified from
the two structures: spherical microscopic phase structure
(Zone 1) in Structure 1 is a kind of solid solution with Fe as
solvent and Cu as solute; light microscopic phase structure
(Zone 2) in Structure 1 is another kind of solid solution
with Cu as solvent and Fe as solute; dark microscopic
phase structure (Zone 3) in Structure 2 is a kind of solid
solution with Fe as solvent and Cu as solute; and particu-
late microscopic phase structure (Zone 4) in Structure 2 is
another kind of solid solution with Cu as solvent and Fe as
solute.
Figure 9a, b shows SEM image and EDS analysis result of
residual jet zone (marked by dark rectangle) of target pene-
trated by A SCL. The result that only W and Fe exist in
Fig. 8 EDS results of a Zone 1, b Zone 2, c Zone 3, and d Zone 4 in Fig. 5d
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residual jet zone illustrates that A jet completely forms from
inner layer metal W. Figure 9c, d shows SEM image and
EDS analysis result of residual jet zone (marked by dark
rectangle) of the target penetrated by B SCL. The result that
only Cu and Fe exist in residual jet zone illustrates that B jet
completely forms from inner layer metal Cu. The above
results show that the jets interacted with targets completely
form from inner layer metal under the conditions of the
structural design used in the experiment.
Figure 10a shows the Vickers hardness values in resid-
ual jet zone of target penetrated by A jet (W jet). It shows
that the hardness values of all the test points, some even
more than HV 1000, exceed the hardness of CVD–W
(average value is 550). Thus, the above results of micro-
hardness test can manifest that ultrahard phases form in
residual jet zone. Figure 10b shows the XRD pattern of
phase structure on ballistic surface of target penetrated by
A jet. It can be observed that intermetallics such as Fe7W6
and FeWO4 form in residual jet zone of ballistic surface.
Owing to the properties of high hardness and poor ductility,
these pre-formed ultrahard phases will prevent the subse-
quent jet from penetrating the target further, and thus, a
large amount of kinetic energy carried by A jet will be
distributed in radial direction of the ballistic perforation,
making the diameter of the ballistic perforation be larger
and penetration depth be shallower [10]. Figure 10c shows
the Vickers hardness values in residual jet zone of target
penetrated by B jet (Cu jet). It shows that the hardness
values of all test points, the maximum value no more than
HV 220, are all between copper’s hardness and target’s
average hardness. Figure 10d shows the XRD pattern of
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Fig. 9 SEM images and corresponding EDS results of a, b residual jet zone of target penetrated by A SCL and c, d residual jet zone of target
penetrated by B SCL

Fig. 10 Microhardness residual of jet zone and XRD patterns of ballistic surface of target penetrated by a, b A jet and c, d B jet

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Penetration performance of W/Cu double-layer shaped charge liners
phase structure on ballistic surface of target penetrated by
B jet. It shows that just pure iron and copper form in
residual jet zone of ballistic surface. Owing to the excellent
ductility, both the pure iron and copper phases can act as
lubricant in the process of penetration. Besides the previous
mentioned factor of interaction between jet and target, the
function of the newly formed phases to subsequent jet is
another factor that affects penetration depth.
In summary, a jet with higher tip kinetic energy density
has a better penetration performance, which is not neces-
sary. It can be concluded that the mechanism of interaction
between jet and target or newly formed phases would also
greatly influence penetration depth. In the penetration test,
A jet with tip velocity 17.5 % and kinetic energy density
194.4 % higher than those of B jet, however, exhibits a
worse penetration performance. Therefore, in order to
maximize the penetration performance of W–Cu double-
layer SCLs, both the jet tip kinetic energy density and the
mechanism of interaction between jet and target or newly
formed phases should be improved. This study indicates
that copper-coated tungsten jet and copper-leaded tungsten
jet may be the ones that can hold a better penetration
performance. In the future work, copper-coated tungsten jet
or copper-leaded tungsten jet can be obtained by optimiz-
ing the configuration of the W–Cu double-layer SCLs
based on large amounts of calculation and simulation, for
instance, reasonably allotting the thickness ratio of W layer
to Cu layer, designing heterogeneous thick-walled W–Cu
double-layer SCLs, etc.
4 Conclusion
Two different kinds of W–Cu double-layer SCLs, named as
A SCL and B SCL, were successfully prepared by CVD
combined with electroforming technique. The tip velocity
and the kinetic energy density (7.4 kms-1 and 5.3 9 1011
Jm-3, respectively) of A jet are much higher than those
(6.3 kms-1 and 1.8 9 1011 Jm-3, respectively) of B jet,
which illustrates that the structure design of W applied as
inner layer material and Cu as outer layer material can
improve the energy conversion mechanism and conse-
quently optimize energy distribution. However, the results
of static armor-piercing tests show that the penetration
performance of A jet is not expectably better than that of B
jet. A jet interacts intensively with target and thus
martensite, and a wide range of deformation zones are
successively formed inside the residual jet zone, while B
jet interacts softly with target, and only a small range of
deformation zones are formed inside the residual jet zone.
The results of EDS analysis in residual jet zone of retrieved
targets show that the jets interacted with targets are com-
pletely formed from inner layer metal. The microscopic
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analysis fully illustrates that W jet interacts more inten-
sively with target and consequently is hindered more by the
target compared with Cu jet. Further study in residual jet
zone of the target penetrated by W jet shows that inter-
metallics are formed in this zone. The subsequent jet is
again hindered in a considerable extent by these pre-
formed ultrahard phases. However, identical research in
residual jet zone of the target penetrated by Cu jet shows
that only solid solutions are formed in this zone. The
subsequent jet is hardly hindered by these pre-formed
ductile phases. Based on the above reasons, B jet with
lower tip kinetic energy density consequently exhibits
greater penetration depth compared with A jet.
Acknowledgments This research was financially supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51201013).
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