3.

NATURAL RESOURCES
(RENEWABLE RESOURCES & NON –RENEWABLE
RESOURCES)
 CONTENT
• Land resources and land use change; Land degradation, soil erosion
and desertification.
• Deforestation: Causes and impacts due to mining, dam building on
the environment, forests, biodiversity and tribal populations.
• Water: Use and over-exploitation of surface and groundwater,
floods, droughts conflicts over water (international & inter-state).
• Energy resources: Renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use
of alternate energy sources, growing energy needs, case studies
WHAT ARE RESOURCES?
• The term “resources” was introduced by E. F. Schumacher in 1970
which can be defined as, Anything which is useful to man , or can be
transformed into a useful product or can be used to produce a useful
things can be referred as a resource.
• The resource constitute the ingredients acting as life support system
for the living organisms.
• In this context, the resources have to be considered with reference to
human being.
 Resources

Cultural Natural Human

Resources Resources Resources

Non- No. of
knowledge
renewable people

Quality of
capital Renewable
people

Technology
NATURAL RESOURCES
• Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are
considered valuable in their relatively natural (unmodified)form.
OR
• Any part of natural environment , such as land, water , air , minerals,
forest, wildlife etc., that man can utilize to promote his welfare may
be regarded as a natural resources.
NATURAL RESOURCES
• “The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not for
anybody’s greed.”
- Mahatma Gandhi.
The environment provides us with a variety of goods and services for our day –to –
day life .These natural resources include,

ABIOTIC •Air, soil, water, Minerals

COMPONENTS •Climate and solar energy

BIOTIC •PLANTS
COMPONENTS •ANIMALS
Earth’s Resources and Humans
• The resources on which humans depend are provides by various
sources or “spheres”, represented in the figure
 ATMOSPHERE(AIR)

BIOSPHERE
(thin layer
on earth in
which life
exist)
HYDROSPHERE LITHOSPHERE
(WATER) (LAND)
THE ATMOSPHERE
I. Oxygen for human respiration (metabolic
requirement).
II. Oxygen for wild fauna in natural
ecosystem and domestic animals used by
humans as food
III. Oxygen as a part of carbon dioxide, used
for growth of plants (which in turn are
used by humans)
 HYDROSPHERE
I. Clean water for drinking ( a
metabolite requirement for all
living process)
II. Water for washing and cooking
III. Water used in agriculture and
industry.
IV. Food resources from sea, including
fish, crustacean and seaweed.
V. Food from freshwater sources,
including fish, crustacean and
aquatic plants.
VI. Water flowing down from
mountain ranges, harnessed to
generate electricity in
hydroelectric projects
Lithosphere
• Soil, the basis for agriculture
to provide us with food.
• Stone, sand and gravel, used
for construction.
• Micronutrients in soil,
essential for plant growth
• Microscopic flora, small soil,
fauna and fungi in soil,
important living organisms
of the lithosphere, which
break down plant litter as
well as animal waste to
provide nutrients for plants.
BIOSPHERE
I. Food, from crops and domestic
animals, providing human metabolic
requirements.
II. Food for all forms of life, which live
as interdependent species in a
community, and form food chains in
nature on which humans are
dependent.
III. Energy needs : Biomass fuelwood
collected from forests and
plantation, along with other forms of
organic matter, used as a source of
energy.
IV. Timber and other construction
materials.
 Land resources & induce change
• Earth’s one-forth area is covered by land which is largely covered
with natural forests, grasslands, wetlands and man- made urban and
rural settlement along with agriculture.
• Out of total land surface 11% cultivated, 52% is under forest cover,
meadows and pastures, 20% deserts, 2.6% is occupied by human
settlement, while rest is covered by ice, glaciers, etc.
• Nearly 80% land is covered by soil.
• In India, agriculture occupier 43% land, forest23%, pastures 4% cent
and human habitat 8% .
LAND as a Resource
• Land is the basic natural resource that provides habitat and
substances for living organisms, as well as being a amjor focus of
economic activities.
• The land has the following functions:
i. The production function:- it is the basis for many life support
system, through the production of biomass that provides food,
fodder, fibre, fuel , timber and other biotic materials for human
use, either directly or through animals husbandry including
aquaculture and inland and coastal fishery.
• The biotic environmental function : Land is the basis of terrestrial
biodiversity by providing the biological habitats and gene reserves for
plants, animals and micro-organisms, above and below ground.
• The climate regulative function : Land and its use are a source and
sink of greenhouse gases and form a co-determinant of the global
energy balance as reflection, absorption and transformation of
radioactive energy of the sun and of the global hydrological cycle.
• The hydrologic function : Land regulates the storage and flow of
surface and groundwater resources, and influences their quality.
• The storage function : Land is a storehouse of raw materials and
minerals for human use.
• The waste and pollution control function:-land has a receptive ,
filtering , buffering and transforming of hazardous compounds.
• The living space function : Land provides the physical basis for human
settlements, industrial plants and social activities such as sports and
recreation.
• The archive or heritage function : Land is a medium to store and
protect the evidence of the cultural history of mankind, and a source of
information on past climatic conditions and past land uses.
• The connective space function : Land provides space for the transport
of people, inputs and produce, and for the movement of plants and
animals between discrete areas of natural ecosystems.
Land degradation causes
• Land degradation is a human induced or natural process which impairs the
capacity to land to function.
• A large portion of the fertile land is degraded due to the following reasons:
1) Unplanned cultivation:- Due to excessive use of agrochemicals and over
cropping.
2) Overgrazing : It makes soil prone to erosion and soil loses its fertility.
3) Mining : It destroys the vegetation and causes soil erosion and land
slide.
4) Desertification : Fertile Agri culturable soil convert into barren land.
5) Water logging : Due to over irrigation, dam construction land degrades .
6. Salinity and alkalinity : These makes fertile land uncultivated.
7. Brick Kilns : It removes topmost fertile soil and leave it barren and
uncultivated.
8.Urbanisation : Urban sprawl changes land use pattern.
9. Soil erosion: Leads deforestation and land degradation.
10.Floods : floods impair the fertility of the soil.
11.Pollution : Land pollution and dumping of the waste play a vital role
in land degradation.
GLOBAL SITUATION OF DEGRADATION
• Globally, about 40% of the total land area has been degraded.(UN ,
2022)
• The Global Assessment of soil degradation (GLASOD) study suggested
that 1.97 Bha had been degraded between the mid 1940s and
1990.This represents total 15% of terrestrial area .
Land degradation on its conservation
• More land is needed for agriculture and forestry due to increasing
population.
• Moreover , good land is shrinking both in quantity and quality.
• The only way to raise land resources is by reclamation and developing
degraded land or wasteland, increase biomass availability and restore
ecological balance.
Soil
• Any part of earth’s crust in which plants root is the uppermost layer
of earth’s surface which supports all forms of life.
• Soil forms the uppermost layer of earth’s crust and is made up of
inorganic and organic matter. Inorganic components are weathered
rock, air, water and minerals. The organic components are the
decomposing (rotting or decaying) fragments of plants and animals.
• Bare rock surface are exposed to various types of physical, chemical
and biological processes which lead to physical and chemical
disruption called weathering.
Soils in India
• Soil –types in India can be classified into three groups;
1. Alluvial, black and red soil- fertile, arable and cultivable.
2. Peaty or marshy – saline or alkaline soils which potentially arable.
3. Laterite and forest and hill soil- not at all suitable for cultivation.
Soil erosion
• Erosion is displacement of solids ( soil, mud, rock and other particles )
by agents of water, wind ,ocean currents or ice by downward or
down-slope movement in response to gravity or by living organisms .
• Erosion is an intrinsic natural process but in many places it is
increased by human land use.
• Poor land use practices include deforestation, overgrazing,
unmanaged construction activity and road or trail budling.
• However, improved land use practices can limit erosion, using
techniques lie tree planting and terrace –budling.
Causes of soil erosion
I. The amount and intensity of precipitation (rain).
II. The texture of the soil.
III. The gradient of the slope
IV. Ground cover (from vegetation, rocks, land use and possibility of
erosion from speed of stream)
Erosion
• Gravity erosion
i. Mass wasting is the downslope movement of rock and sediments,
mainly due to the force of gravity.
ii. The process of transporting agents like streams and glaciers from a
higher elevation to a lower elevation.
iii. Mass-wasting is a slow and continuous process.
iv. Slumping –happens on steep hillsides
v. Surface creep –it is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by
gravity usually not perceptible except through extended
observation.
Surface creep
Water erosion.
• Splash erosion is the detachment and airborne movement of small
soil particles used by impact of raindrops on soil.
• Sheet erosion –is the result of heavy rain on bare soil where water
flows as a sheet down any gradient, carrying soil particles.
precipitation rate >>> soil infiltration
Splash erosion
Ice erosion
• Ice erosion is caused by movement of ice, typically glaciers.
• Glaciers can scrape down a slope and break up rock and then
transport it, leaving moraines, drumlins and glacier erratic's in their
wake, typically at the terminus or during glacier retreat.
• Ice wedging is the weathering process in which water trapped in tiny
rock cracks freezes and expands, breaking the rocks. This can lead to
gravity erosion on steep slopes.
Wind erosion
Wind erosion is the result of material movement by the wind .There are
two main effects.
i. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore , moved
to another region.
ii. Secondly, theses suspended particles may impact on solid objects
causing erosion by abrasion.
Shoreline erosion
• Shoreline erosion , which occurred on both exposed and sheltered
coasts, primarily coasts, through the action of currents and waves but
sea level (tidal) change can also play role.
• Hydraulic action- takes place when air in a joint is suddenly
compressed by wave closing the entrance of the joint. This then
cracks it.
• Abrasion- is caused by waves launching at the cliff.
Hydraulic action
Impact of soil erosion
• Loss of soil fertility
• Loss pastures
• Expansion of dessert
• Increase in frequency of droughts and floods.
• Washout of upper layer of the soil, especially along hillside slopes.
• Uprooting of plants due to cutting , thus responsible for deforestation
• Formation of gullies and ravines and the whole region becomes and
undulating area not suitable for human activities.
Erosion control
• Examples of some erosion control methods include
i. No- till farming(conservation tillage or zero tillage)
ii. Contour ploughing
iii. Cover –crops
iv. Reforestation
v. Riparian- strip
vi. Riprap(rip rap, revetment, shot rock or rock armour)
vii. Strip farming
viii. Vegetated waterways.
No- till
farming(conservation
tillage or zero tillage)

No-till farming is an
agricultural technique for
growing crops or pastures
without disturbing the soil
through tillage.
No-till farming decreases
the amount of soil erosion
tillage causes in certain
soils.
Contour ploughing- is the farming practice of ploughing across a slope following its
contours. In contour ploughing, the ploughman ploughs perpendicular rather than
parallel to the slope, generally, resulting in furrows that curve around the land field
and are level.
COVER CROPS
• Is any annual, biennial
or perineal plant grown
as a monoculture (one
type crop grown
together) or polyculture
(multiple crop types
grown together), to
improve the conditions
associated with soil and
provide nutrients to the
agricultural crops.
 Riparian strip/strip farming

It is a method of farming used when a slope is too steep or too long

or when other types of farming may not cause soil erosion.
 RIP-RAP
• Riprap (also known as rip rap,
revetment, shot rock or rock armour)
is rock or other material used to
stabilize shore.
• Riprap reduces water erosion by
resisting the hydraulic attack and
dissipating the energy of flowing
water or waves. The shape of rocks is
important. Coarse, angular rock,
usually made by crushing or blasting,
or from scree, is more effective at
ground reinforcement than round
river rock.
• A correct mixture of aggregate size can
also aid riprap's ability to create an
interlocking structure.
 Terracing
• In agriculture, a terrace is a leveled
section of a hilly cultivated area,
designed as a method of soil
conservation to slow or prevent the
rapid surface runoff of irrigation
water.
• Often such land is formed into
multiple terraces, giving a stepped
appearance.
 Windbreaks/shelterbelt
• A windbreak, or shelterbelt, is usually made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a
manner as to provide shelter from the wind and prevent soil from erosion.
• They are commonly planted around the edges of fields on farms.
• If designed properly, windbreaks around a home can reduce the cost of heating and cooling and save
energy.
DESRTIFICATION
DESRTIFICATION
• Desertification is a process in which the soil loses its productivity as
consequence of degradation or pervasive dryness.
OR
• Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi-arid and dry-
humid areas.
• It is caused primarily by human activities and climatic variation.
• The process involves loss of regenerative capacity of soil due to
extreme depletion or absence of plant supporting factors.
DESRTIFICATION
• It is a systematic phenomenon involving deterioration of the
ecosystem due to change in the pressure of human adaptation or use
system.
• It is a process through which fertile land is converted into infertile.
• Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting
wild species, domestic animals, agricultural crops and people.
• The reduction in plant cover that accompanies desertification leads to
accelerate soil erosion by wind and water.
 Causes of Desertification
• Overgrazing:-
Overgrazing is the major cause of
desertification worldwide.
• Plants of semi–arid areas are adapted
to being eaten by sparsely scattered,
large, grazing mammals which move in
response to the patchy rainfall common
to these regions.
• Poor grazing management after
accidental burning of semi-arid
vegetation.
• Incorrect irrigation practices in arid
areas can cause salinization, (the build-
up of salts in the soil) which can prevent
plant growth.
• When the practices described above
coincide with drought, the rate of
desertification increases dramatically.
Causes of Desertification
• Destruction of vegetation in arid region , often for the fuel wood
Causes of Desertification
• Deforestation
Causes of Desertification
• Poverty, political instability, deforestation, overgrazing and bad
irrigation practices can all undermine the land’s stability.
• Over 250 million people are directly affected by desertification.
• In addition, some one thousand million (one billion) people in over
one hundred countries are at risk. These people includes many of the
world’s poorest , most marginalised and politically weak citizens.
Desertification control
In order to control desertification the following steps should be taken
i. Ban on cutting of desert vegetation.
ii. Plantation of ecologically suitable plants in affected areas.
iii. Development of pasturelands to release pressure from susceptible
areas.
iv. Control overgrazing in desertified area.
v. Proper use of available groundwater resources.
vi. Management of land use and farming practices.
vii. Public awareness should be generated.
Deforestation
 Deforestation
• Deforestation involves a loss in the area covered by forests.
• Today, expansion of agricultural land, rapid industrialisation
urbanisation, illegal logging and mining are a serious cause of loss
and degradation of forests in our country and all over the world.
• Furthermore, dams built for hydroelectric power or irrigation have
submerged large tracts of forest have displaced tribal people whose
lives are closely knit to forest.
• According to a global survey conducted in 1970 about one –fifth of
earth’s land was covered by closed forest.
• Extensive deforestation has been taking place in developing countries
which lie in tropical and temperate regions of the world.
• The post –independence experience has shown that both extent and
quality of forest have deteriorated in India.
Deforestation: Causes and impacts due to
mining
Deforestation: Causes and impacts due to
mining
• To become a developed country, India has taken many big
development projects at a large scale in the field of power generation
and irrigation .
• These projects are responsible for the destruction of vast area of
forest.
• Mining activity is responsible for large scale devastation of forest by
breaking natural ecological balance of the area.
Sinkhole
Deforestation: Causes and impacts due to mining
• Mining occurs so as to extract precious metals and gemstones such
as Manganese, copper, tin, nickel, bauxite (aluminium ore), iron ore, gold,
silver, and diamonds which are found in many tropical rainforests.
• Mining damages the rainforest ecosystem and causes problems for people
living nearby and downstream.
• Mining has a huge impact on those who are exposed to the toxic waste
from the tailings.
• Forests are cleared to establish the mines and construct roads to transport
the materials. While deforestation and chemical pollution from mining can
impact the rainforest environment, it can affect aquatic habitats even
more.
• The environmental impact of mining includes,
• Degradation and defacing of landscape
• Subsidence of land
• Water pollution
• Air pollution
• loss of biodiversity
• contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals
from mining processes.
• Occupational health hazards
• Mining activities are significant drivers in the degradation of the forest
in the mineral resource-rich region of Odisha State.
• In India, the forest cover occupies 21.67% of the country's total
geographical area (Forest Survey of India, 2019a), and recently has
been suffering from the escalating demand for agricultural expansion
and increased mineral production.
• A case study from the Bijolia quarrying area in Rajasthan, India,
provides some sensational revelations of the impact of mining on the
human ecosystem.
• Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation
due to mining has caused severe land degradation.
• Impact on BIODIVERSITY
i. mining can have adverse effects on surrounding surface and
groundwater .
ii. Habitat destruction - is one of the main issues of mining activity.
Large areas of natural habitat are destroyed during mine
construction and exploitation, forcing animals to leave the site.
iii. Animals can be poisoned directly by mine products and residuals.
iv. Bioaccumulation in the plants or the smaller organisms they eat
can also lead to poisoning.
Dam budling
Deforestation due to dam budling
• Dam is a barrier placed across a stream or river to stop the flow of water.
• Big dams are often regarded as a symbol of national development.
• The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth.
• However, these dams are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas
of forest.
• In India, during the post-independence period, several dams have been
constructed. certainly, these dams have changed the entire scenario of the
power supply and agricultural development.
• Although their negative impact environment is there, in comparison to the
benefits provided, all these projects are considered successful.
Causes and impact on forests due to dam
building on environment
• Today there are more than 45,000 large dams all around the world,
which play an important role in communities and economies that
harness these water resources for their economic development.
• The highest dam is the Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttarakhand
and the largest in terms of capacity is the Bhakra dam on river Sutlej
in Himachal Pradesh.
• Current estimates suggest that about 30-40% of the irrigated land
worldwide relies on dams.
• The world’s two most populous countries China and India, have built
around 57% of the world’s largest dams
Impacts of dam building.
➢For building big dams, large-scale devastation of forests takes place
which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods,
droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such areas.
➢Forests are the valuable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and
destroying them.
 Deforestation : cause and impact on forest
➢The environmental impacts of big dams are also too many due to which very
often the big dams become a subject of controversy. The impact can be at
the upstream as well as downstream levels.
➢The upstream problems:-
➢Displacement of tribal people
➢Loss of forests, flora and fauna
➢Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs
➢ collapse of a river food web, consequently, flora and fauna will be disturbed
➢Microclimatic change
➢Lose of non-forest land
➢The downstream impacts:-
➢Water logging and salinity due to over-irrigation
➢Reduced water flow and silt deposition in river
➢Flash floods
➢Loss of land fertility along the river since the sediments
➢Outbreak of vector-borne diseases like malaria
Impact on forest
Biodiversity
• The term biodiversity is a combination of two
words., “biology “ and “ diversity”.
• The word originated from the Greek word, Bios-life and the Latin
word Diversitas – variety.
• Diversity is the sum of all different species of animals, plants, fungi
and microbial organisms living on the earth or in a particular habitat
or in the ecosystem.
Impacts on biodiversity
➢The results revealed that deforestation has a negative impact on
biodiversity in the area. The impact of deforestation on biodiversity is seen
in terms of the loss of valuable plant species, reduced plant biomass and
extinction of species.
➢Loss of habitats
➢Illegal wildlife trade
➢Global climate change
➢ More than 19,000 species of birds, amphibians, and mammals found that
deforestation substantially increased the odds of species being listed on
the IUCN red list as threatened and exhibiting declining populations
Deforestation : cause Impact on biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity is the main consequence of deforestation in
Amazonia and is also totally irreversible. It is always possible to prevent
soil erosion and recover water bodies and nutrient cycling by means of
simplified ecological systems, but it is impossible to bring back extinct
species.
most of the species are rare, with small populations and very sensitive
to any change in their respective habitats.
Large-scale deforestation threatens thousands of species, many of
which are already listed as endangered
• Deforestation is also impacting the ability of species to adapt to
future climate change.
• For millennia, wildlife around the world has moved up and down
mountains, and towards and away from the equator in order to cope
with changes in the world’s temperature. However, the deforestation
of tropical forests is creating a patchwork landscape where the
natural habitat is fragmented.
impact of deforestation on Tribal people
Forest and tribals are closely related and
inter-dependent due to the following facts:
The tribal women around the forest begin their daily routine from the forest
and collect twigs, leaves, fruits, fuel woods, etc.
B. The tribal men go to the forest to collect honey and hunt birds and
animals.
c. The tribals living nearby the forest collect some edible fruits, roots,
flowers, mushrooms, tubers, and wild vegetables and use them as food.
d. The tribals collect different types of seeds like Mahua, tamarind, Sal, etc,
and boil them before they eat.
e. The tribals living around the forest collect sal seeds, mahua, Dori and
other oil seeds from the forest for self-consumption and also sell them in the
local market.
f. The tribals living around the forest gather honeycombs. The tribals go to
the forest and refresh their minds when they are worried and tired.
Impact on tribal people
➢ Forests have played a vital role in the socio-economic and cultural
life of the tribal people of India.
➢It is well known that the majority of the tribal population lived in
isolation in the forested regions of India with harmony, security and
trust for many centuries and developed a symbiotic relationship with
the forest.
➢The loss of trees and other vegetation can cause climate change,
desertification, soil erosion, crops problem, flooding increased
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and a host of problems for
indigenous people.
Threats and constrains to Indian forest
• Demographic changes
• Mega-development
• Rural development
• Market pressure
• Lack of political will
• Encroachment and degradation
• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Illegal trade
Major causes of deforestation

• Expansion of agriculture
• Extension cultivation on hill slopes
• Shifting cultivation
• Cattle ranching
• Firewood
• Timber extraction
Consequences of deforestation
• Alteration of local and global climates through disruption of:
i. The carbon cycle
ii. Water cycle
• Soil erosion
• Extinction of species
• Desertification
• Silting of species
Methods for forest conservation
• Regulated and planned to cut off trees.
• Control over forest area.
• Afforestation and reforestation.
• Protection of land
WATER
Distribution of water on earth.
Water resources in India
• Fresh water resources:- fresh water comprises surface water,
groundwater and atmospheric water (rain / atmospheric moisture).
Use and overexploitation of water
• Water is important in almost every aspect of human activity and so many
diverse ways.
• It is required for direct consumption or indirectly for washing, cleaning,
cooling, transportation or even for waste disposal.
• Other important sectors of human activity which require water are
irrigation, thermal power generation, industries, livestock management
hydroelectric generation, fisheries, navigation and recreational activities.
• In 1970, it was estimated that about 3,500 cubic km of water is drawn for
human use every year, agriculture being the biggest sector consuming
almost (76% )of the total water used to grow food, followed by power
generation (6.2%) and industries (5.7%). Domestic and livestock
requirement was only 4.3% of the total water drawn.
Use and overexploitation of water
• By 2000 AD, Worlds agricultural demand has increased by 30% and in
power generation and industries water requirements as increases 15-
16 times more than they did in 1970.
• Worldwide, the consumption of water is doubling every 20 years or
more than twice the rate of increase in population. For that reason,
water is a strategic resource around the globe and an important
element in many political conflicts
Water consumption by different age group
Groundwater
Overuse of underground water
• The water amount has been falling in many areas of the country in recent
decades. This is largely due to withdrawal from agricultural, industrial and
urban use, in excess of annual recharge.
• In urban areas, apart from withdrawals for domestic and industrial use,
housing, and infrastructures such as roads prevents sufficient recharge.
• In addition, some pollution of groundwater occurs due to the leaching of
stored hazardous waste and the use of agricultural chemicals, in particular
pesticides.
• Contamination of groundwater is also due to geogenic causes, such as the
leaching of arsenic and fluorides from natural deposits.
• Since groundwater is frequently a source of drinking water, its pollution and
contamination lead to health impacts.
Floods
FLOODS
• Floods have been a part of the human experience ever since the start of
the agricultural revolution.
• Flood occurs when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water, water
then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in river channels
or retained in natural ponds and dams.
• Flood simply means inundation of an extensive land area with water for
several days continuously.
• It is a natural process and is a response to excessive rainfall but it is
hazardous when it causes substantial loss of human lives and property.
• Rapid run-off due to flood causes soil erosion and sediment deposition
problems downstream.
• At the present time, flood is a common widespread hazard occurring year
after year in river valleys distributed all over the world.
• Floods have been regular features in some parts of India and Bangladesh
causing huge economic losses.
• Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are the worst affected
states.
• The most important rivers responsible for floods in India are Ganga,
Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomti, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari
and Narmada.
• Causes of floods Wide range interferences of human beings in the river
valleys have resulted in devastation due to floods.
causes
• Important causes responsible for the occurrence of floods may broadly be
grouped into natural and anthropogenic causes.
• NATURAL CAUSES
i. Prolonged rainfall in the catchment area of the river
ii. Snowmelt during the summer season
iii. Reduced carrying capacity of the river basin due to landslides and
siltation, change in channel gradient
iv. Blockage in the free flow of river water and the nature of river valleys
are the important natural causes
v. Deforestation, dam failure, urbanization, construction and mining
activities are among the anthropogenic Causes.
• ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES.
i. Deforestation
ii. Dam failures
iii. Urbanization
iv. Construction and
v. Mining activities
Flood control
• Flood control in a flood-prone area involving building dams to store
water.
• Planting trees on eroded slopes.
• Along coasts, engineers build dykes, floodwalls and hurricane barriers
to keep seawater off the land.
• sand belonging also controls flood
• Flood looses can be minimized by insurance and relief aid.
Dykes
FLOODWALLS
HURRICANE
DROUGHT
Droughts
• Drought is defined in three ways; an extended period of below-
normal rainfall, long-term depletion of ground, or the stunting of
vegetation growth due to a lack of water.
• It can be defined as a condition when annual rainfall is below normal
and less than evaporation.
• There are about 80 countries in the world, lying in arid regions that
experience a frequent spells of drought.
• When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation,
drought conditions are created.
Droughts
• throughout the world, drought affects more people than any other single
type of disaster and it causes about 20% of disaster-related death.
• The continent most affected by drought is Africa.
• Hydrological drought -results from the depletion of surface water causing
very low stream flow and drying of lakes, rivers and reservoirs and
Agricultural drought resulting from depletion of soil moisture resulting in
acute crop stress and fall in agricultural productivity. India has been
severely affected by droughts over the past years claiming millions of lives.
• The agriculture in India is totally dependent on rains, which when is not
adequate results in poor yielding of crops.
• This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as
southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan.
Causes of drought
• The major causes of agriculture drought in the Indian subcontinent is
its geographical location not favouring abundant monsoon rainfall,
poor quality and excessive depth of groundwater limiting its use for
irrigation, absence of perennial rivers and forests, poor water holding
capacity of soil and uneven distribution of rainfall.
• Due to several anthropogenic causes like overgrazing, deforestation,
mining, etc. there is spreading of the desert tending to convert more
areas to the drought-affected area.
 Drought control measures
• Indigenous knowledge of mixed cropping by drought resistant species
is an effective measure to minimize the drought risk to agriculture.
• Social forestry and wasteland development programs, based on a
proper understanding of ecological requirements and natural
processes may also help the risks of crop failure.
• Effects of drought are reduced by proper storage of water, utilization
of surplus water in water deficit areas, development of rainwater
harvesting methods in water deficit areas, regulating of groundwater
by community participation and by the development of drought-
resistant varieties for agriculture.
• The systematic Government intervention to tackle drought started as
early as during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) when the Dry
Farming Projects were initiated. During 1970-71, the Rural Works
Programme (RWP) was formulated with the objective of creating
assets designed to reduce the severity of drought, wherever it
occurred and to provide employment in drought-affected areas.
• Later, the RWP was redesignated as Drought Prone Area Programme
(DPAP) in 1973-74 and taken up as a centrally sponsored scheme.
The burden of funding was borne both by the Central Government
and the State Government on a 50 : 50 sharing basis.
• The major thrust of the programme was laid on the activities related
to soil conservation and development, afforestation, pasture, fodder
and grassland development, etc.
• These activities are harmoniously related to each other and their
integrated implementation would have the capability to effectively
combat drought.
• Irrigation has proved to be the most effective drought-proofing
mechanism and the single biggest factor in bringing about a large
measure of stability in agricultural production.
• To produce rain iodine crystals are scattered among clouds from the
aircraft (It works in the areas where rainfall readily occurs naturally).
• Afforestation and planting of trees around the ponds and water
bodies help in improving the quantity of water in an area.
Artificial rain
Conflicts over water
• Conflicts can arise from the use of common water resources.
• . Because India is a federal democracy, and because rivers cross state boundaries,
constructing efficient and equitable mechanisms for allocating river flows has long been
an important legal and constitutional issue.
• Numerous inter-state river-water disputes have erupted since independence.
• Unequal distribution of water has often led to inter-state or international disputes.
• A utilization conflict, for example, could be the construction of a power station on the
upper- course of a river.
• The possibility of conflict increases in such cases where this construction has harmful
consequences for the lower-lying states, for example, polluted wastewater.
• The situation becomes more pronounced when the lower-lying states withhold their
consent for such construction because of fears of, for example, water shortage.
• This could include a situation where the construction of a dam on the
upper course of a river, that not only serves the electrical needs but
also the major irrigational works of the lower-lying states, threatens
to stem the flow of water.
• A relative conflict of distribution would present itself where a
disparity over the use of water exists between the upper and lower-
lying states.
• in India out of 18 major rivers 17 are shared between different states.
some major conflicts in India are as follows;
The Indus water treaty
• Under this treaty in 1960,
Indus, Jhelum and Chenab
were given to Pakistan and
Sutlej, Ravi and Beas were
located in India.
• India can construct a barrage
across the river as a riparian
state. But the treaty allows
the non –consumptive use of
rivers allocated i.e. its quality
and flow not be changed.
The Kauvery water dispute
• The core of the Cauvery dispute
relates to the re-sharing of waters
that are already being fully utilized.
• Here the two parties to the dispute
are Karnataka (old Mysore) and Tamil
Nadu (the old Madras Presidency).
• The river water is almost is fully
utilized and both the States have
increasing demands for agriculture
and industry.
• The consumption is more in Tamil
Nadu than Karnataka where the
catchments area is rockier.
• The government of Tamil Nadu argued that since Karnataka was
constructing the Kabini, Hemavathi, Harangi, Swarnavathi dams on
the river Cauvery and was expanding the ayacuts (irrigation works),
Karnataka was unilaterally diminishing the supply of waters to Tamil
Nadu, and adversely affect the prescriptive rights of the already
acquired and existing ayacuts
• On June 2, 1990, the Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal was set up
which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that
205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamil Nadu's Mettur Dam
every year till a settlement was reached.
Yamuna –satluj link (SYL) canal dispute
• Eradi Tribunal (1985) allocated the waters of Ravi-Beas Rivers between Punjab
and Haryana on the basis of the times inflow data of 20 years (1960-80).
• According to this 17.17 MAF (million acre feet) water was available. But now
Punjab's view is that in the last 17 years quantity of water has declined.
• The Supreme Court on January 15, 2002 directed Punjab Government to
complete and commission the SYL within a year failing, which Central
Government has failed to complete it.
• Punjab claims his riparian rights for Beas, Ravi and Sutlej. Haryana is facing acute
shortage of water since 1966 and has completed the stretch of SYL falling within
the boundaries of Haryana. Punjab has recently refused to follow. Eradi awards by
passing legislation unanimously. The entire conflict is being observed by the
centre.
Krishna –Godavari water dispute
• The Krishna-Godavari water dispute among Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
(AP), Madhya Pradesh (MP), and Orissa could not be resolved through negotiations.
• Here Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are the lower riparian states on the river Krishna,
and Maharashtra is the upper riparian state.
• The dispute was mainly about the inter-state utilization of untapped surplus water.
• The Krishna Tribunal reached its decision in 1973, and the award was published in 1976.
• The Tribunal relied on the principle of “equitable apportionment” for the actual
allocation of the water. It addressed three issues
• (1) The extent to which the existing uses should be protected as opposed to future or
contemplated uses.
• (2) Diversion of water to another watershed.
• (3) Rules governing the preferential uses of water.
Ravi –Beas dispute
• Punjab and Haryana, the main current parties in this dispute, are both
agricultural surplus states, providing large quantities of grain for the rest of
India.
• The present dispute between Punjab and Haryana about Ravi-Beas water
started with the reorganization of Punjab in November 1966, when Punjab
and Haryana were carved out as successor states of erstwhile Punjab.
• The four perennial rivers, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna flow through both
these states, which are heavily dependent on irrigated agriculture in this
arid area.
• Irrigation became increasingly important in the late 1960s with the
introduction and widespread adoption of high-yielding varieties of wheat.
Sardar Sarovar projects
• Conflict type –
conflict
through use
• Conflict cause
– water use
• Examples-
Parana,
Danube oder
• Conflict type – through
pollution
• Conflict cause –water
quality
• Examples- Rhine ganges
• Conflict type –relative
distribution conflict
• Conflict cause –water
distribution
• Examples-Euphrates, Nile
• between the co-basin
states. Tigris and Euphrates
basins were effectively
managed during the
Ottoman Empire.
• The Nile, Africa's longest
river, has been at the
center of a decade-long
complex dispute involving
several countries that are
dependent on the river's
waters.
• Grand Renaissance Dam:
This 145-meter-tall (475-
foot-tall) hydropower
project, started by
Ethiopia is the cause of
conflict.
• Conflict type – Absolute
distribution conflict
• Conflict cause –water
distribution and availability
• Examples- Colorado and Rio
grande , Jorden
• The Colorado River dispute is a
long-running dispute between
the United States and Mexico
over water rights to the Colorado
River.
• Hence, the state governments dominate the allocation of river
waters. Since rivers cross state boundaries, disputes are inevitable.
The Inter-State Water Disputes Act of 1956 was legislated to deal with
conflicts and included provisions for the establishment of tribunals to
adjudicate where direct negotiations have failed.
ENERGY RESOURCES
• Energy, a Greek word meaning capacity to do work, is an intrinsic
component of any socio-economic development for raising the standard of
living and also improving the quality of life of the man.
• Energy consumption of a nation is usually considered an index of its
development.
• The increase in human population and use of energy for new activities to
improve lifestyles has depleted many energy sources.
But, today with the challenge to support a large population human society
confronts severe limits for many of energy sources and thus, the
conservation of existing energy resources and exploration of alternative
resource need the urgent attention of the world scientific community.
• Before industrial revolution, man used only muscle power to complete the work
augmented with fire, wind and water energy.
• Sun was the only source of energy at that time.
• First of all, man learned to use fire energy to produce heat,and used it for
cooking, lighting and heating purposes.
• At the beginning of the industrial revolution, man developed technology of using
fossil fuels. Even, formation of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas) is
also due to sun energy trapped by photosynthesis by plants millions of years ago.
• Today, in order to meet the increasing needs of the growing population, energy
consumption level has also increased and fossil fuels are being mined mercilessly
to meet the energy requirement of hundreds of industries, automobiles, aircraft,
space vehicles, thermal power and railway sectors.
• Despite all technological advancement, nearly 98% of present energy
requirements are still being met by fossil fuels, which take million of
years to form. Therefore, there is an urgent need to harvest energy
from unconventional resources such as radioactive substances, wind
and sun.
Growing energy needs
CLASSIFICATION OF energy RESOURCES

Energy
resources

Non -
Renewable
renewable
(i) Renewable or inexhaustible energy sources
• These are the resources which can be generated continuously.
• These are mostly biomass based which are renewed over a relatively
short period of time and thus available in the unlimited amount in
nature.
• These include conventional energy sources; such as firewood,
petroplants, plant biomass, animal dung, water energy, etc.
• Non-conventional energy sources; such as solar energy, wind energy,
tidal energy, geothermal and dendrothermal energy, etc. These can
reproduce themselves in nature and can be harvested continuously
through sustained planning and proper management.
ii) Non-renewable or exhaustible energy
sources
• These are available in limited amount and develop over a longer
period of time.
• Thus, they cannot be replenished in the quantities they are being
consumed in a given period of time.
• These include conventional energy sources; such as coal, petroleum,
natural gas, etc.
• non-conventional energy sources; such as nuclear energy, etc.
• Development of modern technological civilization is chiefly based on
non-renewable sources.
• These reserves are fast depleting and within a few decades, they will
get exhausted.
• The unwise and exploitative use of renewable energy sources have
forced these resources in the category of non-renewable energy
sources as the rate of production of these sources become much less
than the rate of their utilization. Thus it has become essential to look
for alternate energy sources
Renewable or inexhaustible energy
sources
They are natural resources around us
It can be generated continuously and are
inexhaustible
It is environment friendly as the amount of
carbon emission is low
They are pollution free
These resources are sustainable
They are present in unlimited quantity
Non-Renewable or exhaustible
energy sources
They are formed deep down the earth’s
crust millions of years.
It cannot be generated continuously and are
inexhaustible
It is not environment friendly as the amount
of carbon emission is high
They are not pollution free
These resources are exhaustible
They are present in limited quantity
Renewable or inexhaustible
energy sources
These resources cause no harm to life
on earth
The rate of renewal of these resources
are greater than the rate of
consumption
Non-Renewable or exhaustible
energy sources
These resources adversely affect the
health of organisms by emitting
radiation, smoke, and carcinogenic
elements to the environment.
The rate of renewal of these resources
are lower than the rate of
consumption
Non–renewable energy sources

Coal
 Non–renewable energy sources
Coal
• Coal is the major source of energy in the world.
• It was formed 255-350 million years ago in the hot, damp region of the earth
during the Carboniferous period.
• Coal constitutes carbon (60 to 90 %), hydrogen (1 to 12 %), oxygen (2 to 20 %),
nitrogen (1 to 3%) and also a small amount of phosphorous and sulfur.
• Coal is especially abundant and by itself can sustain the current energy
consumption of the entire planet for 600 years.
• This was the fuel that launched the industrial revolution.
• It is currently making a comeback; China is constructing a new coal-fired power
plant every week. Coal is the fastest-growing fossil fuel and its large reserves
would make it more popular to meet the energy demand of the global
community, short of concerns of global warming.
• With the Fischer-Tropsch process it is possible to make liquid fuels
such as diesel and jet fuel from coal.
• In general, there are following four basic varieties of coal, which are
the result of geologic forces having altered plant material in different
ways.
 Coal

Anthracite: Sometimes
also called as “hard coal”.
It contains more than 89
percent carbon.
Anthracite has the
highest energy content of
all coals and is used for
heating and generating
electricity
 Coal

2. Bituminous Coal : It
contains up to 80 per
cent carbon. It has a
higher heating value than
either lignite or sub-
bituminous, but less than
that of anthracite. It is
used to make coke
 Coal

. Lignite : It contains 60
per cent carbon. Lignite is
a brownish-black coal
with generally high
moisture and ash content
and lower heating value.
 Coal

4. Peat : It contains
less than 60 per cent
carbon.
• India has about 5 percent of the world’s coal and Indian coal is not
very in terms of heat capacity.
• Major coal fields in India are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Singrauli, and
Godavari valley.
• The coal States of India are Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• Anthrasite coal occurs only in J&K.
• At the present rate of usage, the coal reserves are likely 200 years and
if its use increases by 2 percent per year, then it will last for another 65
years.
• When coal is burnt it produces carbon dioxide. Which is a greenhouse
gas responsible for causing enhanced global warming.
• Coal also contains impurities like sulphur and, therefore, as it burns
the smoke contains toxic gases like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
Petroleum
petroleum
• Petroleum means rock oil.
• It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon compounds with a minor
amount of impurities like nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen.
• There are 13 countries in the world having 67 percent of the
petroleum reserves which together form OPEC (Organisation of
Petroleum Exporting countries)
• About one-fourth of the oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia.
• Petroleum is a cleaner fuel as compared to coal as it burns completely
and leaves no residue.
• It is also easy to transport and use.
 Petroleum
Petroleum is the lifeline of the global economy and it is cleaner than coal There are 13
countries in the world having 67% of the petroleum reserves which together form the
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).
About 1/4th of the oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. At the present rate of usage, the
world’s crude oil reserves are estimated to get exhausted in another 40 years. Some
optimists, however, believe that there are some yet undiscovered reserves.
Even then the crude oil reserves will last for yet another 40 years or so. Crude
petroleum is a complex mixture of alkane hydrocarbons. Hence it has to be purified and
refined by the process of fractional distillation, during which process different
constituents separate out at different temperatures.
We get a large variety of products from this, namely, petroleum gas, kerosene, petrol,
diesel, fuel oil, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, asphalt, plastic etc. Petroleum is a cleaner
fuel as compared to coal as it burns completely and leaves no residue. It is also easier to
transport and use. That is the reason why petroleum is preferred amongst all fossil
fuels.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): The main component of petroleum is
butane, the other being propane and ethane. The petroleum gas is easily
converted to liquid form under pressure as LPG.
It is odourless, but the LPG in our domestic gas cylinders gives a foul
smell. This is, in fact, due to ethyl mercaptan, a foul smelling gas, added
to LPG so that any leakage of LPG from the cylinder can be detected
instantaneously.
Oil fields in India are located at Digboi (Assam), Gujarat Plains and
Bombay High, offshore areas in deltaic coasts of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri
and Mahanad
Natural gas
• It is mainly composed of methane (95%) with small amounts of propane and ethane. It is
fossile fuel .
• Natural gas deposits mostly accompany oil deposits because it has been formed by
decomposing remains of dead animals and plants buried under the earth. Natura gas is
the cleanest fossil fuel. It can be easily transported through pipelines.
• It has a high calorific value of about 50 KJ/G and burning without any smoke. Currently,
the amount of natural gas deposits in the world is of the order of 80, 450 g m’. Russia has
maximum reserves (40%) followed by Iran (14%) and USA (7%).
• Natural gas reserves are found in association with all the oil fields in India. Some new gas
fields have been found in Tripura, Jaisalmer, the off-shore area of Mumbai and the
Krishna-Godavari Delta. Natural gas is used as a domestic and industrial fuel. It is used as
a fuel in thermal power plants for generating electricity. It is used as a source of
hydrogen gas in fertilizer industry and as a source of carbon in tyre industry.
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): It is being used as an alternative to
petrol and diesel for the transport of vehicles. Delhi has totally
switched over to CNG where buses and auto rickshaws run on this new
fuel. CNG use has greatly reduced vehicular pollution in the city.

• Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG): It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and

hydrogen. It is a connecting link between fossil fuel and substituted
natural gas. Low-grade coal is initially transformed into synthetic gas by
gasification followed by catalytic conversion tO methane.
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Nuclear energy can be produced from minerals such as thorium,
uranium, beryllium, zircon and ilmenite.
• Nuclear energy can be generated by two types of reaction ;
i. Nuclear fussion- it is the nuclear change in which, a chain reaction
initiated by one neutron bombards the uranium nucleus, releasing a
huge amount of energy, two smaller nuclei (Ba,Kr) and 3 neutrons.
• Nuclear fission- between two hydrogen 2 nuclei, which takes place at a
very high temperature of 1 billion degrees Celcius.
• One neutron and one fusion of helium -3 formed with huge capacity
than nuclear fission
• Worldwide, there are currently 435 operational nuclear power plants,
with a further 30 under construction.
• Among the nations not currently using nuclear power are Iran, North
Korea, Australia, Turkey, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Israel and Poland
are building them, or are proposing to do so.
• India is very rich if nuclear energy minerals such as thorium (500
tonnes) and uranium (30,000 tonnes).
• In terms of energy, these reserves are equivalent to more than 30
times of our reserve of coal.
• Hence, India has ample of potential for the development of nuclear
energy.
• Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh are well-known uranium-
possessing states of India. States of India.
Alternate energy sources
• Conventional sources of energy like coal, natural oil and gas are Non,
renewable and their use is invariably associated with problems of
environmental pollution.
• Hydroelectric power generation has its own drawbacks.
• Large-scale use of wood which is an important source of energy
• Indian villages lead to deforestation.
• Non-conventional sources provide energy in a decentralized manner to
small and remote areas.
• Large-scale use of non-conventional energy resources reduces the burden
from conventional energy systems and therefore, will be helpful in
enlarging their life span. Major sources of non-conventional energy are as
follows:
Renewable/ non- conventional Energy
Resources
• Renewable energy sources capture their energy from existing flows of
energy, from ongoing natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, wave
power, flowing water (hydropower), and biological processes such as
anaerobic digestion, and geothermal heat flow.
• In 2004, renewable energy supplied around 7 percent of the world's
energy consumption.
• The renewables sector has been growing significantly since the last
years of the twentieth century, and in 2005 the total new investment
was estimated to have been 38 billion US dollars.
• Germany and China lead with investments of about 7 billion US
dollars each, followed by the United States, Spain, Japan, and India.
 Solar Energy
• 1. Solar Energy Solar energy refers to the energy that is directly from
Sunlight.
Solar energy can be applied in many ways, including
i. To generate electricity using photovoltaic solar cells.
ii. to generate electricity using concentrated solar power.
iii. to generate electricity by heating trapped air which rotates turbines in a Solar updraft
tower.
iv. to heat buildings, directly. Careful positioning of windows and use of brises Soleil can
maximize the inflow of light at the times it is most needed, heating the building while
preventing overheating during midday and summer.
v. To heat foodstuffs, through solar ovens.
vi. To heat water for domestic consumption and heating using rooftop solar panels.
vii. to heat and cool air through the use of solar chimneys
• Solar energy used worldwide during 2005 was approximately 93.4
GW, however the available resources are 3.8 YJ /yr (YECTOJULE=10-
24J)(120,000 TW).
• Only a small fraction of available resources are sufficient to entirely
replace fossil fuels and nuclear power as an energy source, however,
it is likely that at least biodiesel will always be used in certain types of
transport.
• Portugal has opened the world's most powerful solar power plant.
The 11-megawatt solar power plant, comprising 52,000 photovoltaic
modules is based in Southern Portugal which is one of the sunniest
places in Europe.
• Obviously the sun does not provide constant energy to any spot on
the Earth, so its uninterrupted use requires a means for energy
storage.
• This is typically accomplished by battery storage. However, battery
storage implies energy losses. Some homeowners use a grid-
connected solar system that feeds energy to the grid during the day
and draws energy from the grid at night; this way no energy is
expended for storage.
• Advantages of solar energy sources include the inexhaustible supply
of energy and zero emissions of greenhouse gas and air pollutants.
Technologies used for solar energy
• The use of solar energy for thermal applications is well-known in the
country.
• The applications include water heating, drying, space heating,
distillation and power generation
Solar photovoltaic cell (spv)
• Solar photovoltaic is a technology that directly converts the radiation
from the sun into electricity based on the physical process that
requires no moving parts.
• SPV is a proven technology.
• It is possible to generate about 120 watts of electricity from a 10 sq.
ft. area of SPV panel on a sunny day.
• It is reliable on different scale applications. Solar photovoltaic
technology has the following possible functions/applications
• Lighting (streets, residences, public space)
• Running or operating electromechanical equipment(radio andother
systems, TV and video players, fans, pump sets to supply drinking or
irrigation water, etc.) and
• Supplying electrical power to operate poultry incubators, rice mills
telecommunications equipment in remote areas, charge NiCd
batteries for use in torches, radios, and soon.
• Environmental and Efficiency Implications
• SPV systems could provide national economic benefits as it would
reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels.
• SPV systems are economically viable. Taking into consideration the
high reliability of SPV, many small-scale applications can be more
economically powered by this system than with diesel or other small
power systems.
• SPV systems are environmentally friendly. Their use protects the
ecology and environment from degradation through the conservation
of forests and reduction in the emission of harmful gases. An SPV
system is a carbon dioxide-free and clean energy converter
Solar Lantern
• This is a portable lighting device (fluorescent lamp) powered by solar
radiation or a PV (photo voltaic) array :
• It can supply a few hours of bright light a day (suitable for reading)
without using any conventional fuels or AC main grid power
connections.
• The lantern can be used in remote areas without electricity.
• The solar lantern is ideal for campers, researchers, remote
classrooms, rural park offices, and military and police use.
• The SOLANT 7 model of solar lanterns (with a 7 watt fluorescent
lamp) is a durable and rugged product that can give three to four
hours of bright light per day, with optional DC output. (It can be set at
from 1.5 - 12 Volts DC). It can also supply power to other appliances
such as radios, LCD TV, small computers, and so on
cooking
Solar energy use for drying
Wind Energy
• Wind Energy As the sun heats up the Earth unevenly, winds are formed.
• The kinetic energy in the wind can be used to run wind turbines. The power
output is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so such turbines generally
require a wind in the range 20 km/h, and in practice relatively few land areas
have significant prevailing winds, Luckily, offshore or at high altitudes, the winds
are much more constant.
• According to the Global Wind Energy Council, the installed capacity of wind
power increased by 25.6 per cent from the end of 2005 to end of 2006 to total 74
Gw with over half the increase in the United States, Germany, India and Spain.
• Doubling of capacity took about three and half years.
• The total installed capacity is approximately three times that of the actual
average power produced as the nominal capacity represents peak output; actual
capacity is generally from 25-40 per cent of the nominal capacity.
Wind Energy
• The wind power potential of India is estimated to be about 20,000
MW, while at present we are gathering about 1020 MW.
• India has the fifth largest wind power installed capacity in the world.
The largest wind farm of our country is near Kanyakumari in Tamil
Nadu generating 380 MW of electricity.
• New wind farms and offshore wind parks are being planned and
built all over the world. Wind power is renewable and is one of the
few energy sources that contributes to greenhouse gas mitigation
because it removes energy directly from the atmosphere without
producing net emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
and methane (others greenhouse gas mitigating energy sources
include solar thermal and ocean thermal).
• Water Power Energy in water can be harnessed and used in the form
of motive energy or temperature differences. Since water is about a
thousand times heavier than air, even a slow-flowing stream of water,
or moderate sea swell, can yield great amount of energy.
• There are many forms of water power:
• Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for hydroelectric
dams.
• Tidal power captures energy from the tides in the vertical direction.
Tides come in, raise water levels in a basin, and tides roll out. The
water must pass a turbine to get out of the basin.
Hydropower
• Water energy is the most conventional renewable source of energy.
• Energy obtained from water flow — water falling from a height.
• Hilly and highland areas are suitable for this purpose, where there is continuous
flow of water in large amounts falling from high slopes.
• Hydropower is a clean, non-polluting source of energy. It can be transmitted to
long distances through wires and cables. But, this form of energy cannot be
stored for future.
• In India, the generation of hydroelectricity has been emphasized right from the
beginning of the First Five Year Plan. By the end of the Fourth Plan, India was able
to generate 6.9 thousand MW hydroelectricity, contributing 42% of the total
power generation capacity.
• But due to an increase in demand, by the end of the Eighth Plan it fell down to
about 25% only. The hydro-power potential of India is estimated to be 4 x 10'!
KW-hours. Till now we have utilized only a little more than 11% of this potential.
• In the western world although Canada is the largest producer of
hydroelectricity in the world, the construction of large hydro plants
has stagnated due to environmental concerns.
• The hydropower potential of the country is estimated to be about 4 x
1011 kw hour. Till now we have utilized only a little more than 11
percent of this potential.
• Hydro power does not cause any pollution, it is renewable and
normally hydropower projects are multi-purpose projects helping in
controlling floods, used for irrigation, navigation, etc.
• India has witnessed considerable progress in the field of hydro-electricity since independence.
Besides various multipurpose river valley projects such as BhakraNagal, Damodar Valley, Hirakund
and Chambal, there has been the construction of a few exclusive hydel power projects as follows
• The Rihand Project—Located on the border of U.P. and M.P. on river Rihand. The capacity of this
project is 300 MW every year.
• The Konya Project—The project is on river Konya tributary of river Krishna.
• The capacity of project is 880 MW every year. It supplies power to the Mumbai Pune industrial
region.
• The Kundoh Project—Located in Tamil Nadu. The capacity of this project is 535 MW every year.
• The Balimela Project—Located in Orissa. The capacity of this project is 360 MW every year.
• The Ukai Project—Located in Gujarat. The capacity of this project is 300 MW every year.
• The Sharavathy Project—Located at Jog fall in Karnataka. The capacity of this project is 891 MW
every year. It supplies power to Bangalore industrial region and also to the State of Goa and T.N.
• The Kalinadi Project—Located in Karnataka. The capacity of this project is 200 MW every year.
• The Sabarigiri Project—Located in Kerala. The capacity of this project is 300 MW every year.
• The Idduki Project—Located in Kerala. The capacity of this project is 370 MW every year. The
• Tehri Hydel Power Project—Located in Uttarakhand .The goal of this project is to generate 2,400
MW power every year.
Ocean energy
• Ocean energy: Oceans are vast reservoirs of water covering about three-
fourths of the earth’s surface. They can also be used for the generation of
power in the following ways:
• 1. Tidal energy: Gravitational pull exercised by the sun and moon Causes
tides to develop. The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing, a tidal
barrage.
• During high tide, the sea water flows into the reservoir. of the barrage and
turns the turbine, which in turn produces electricity by rotating the
generators. During low tide, the sea-water stored in the barrage flows out
into the sea and again turns the turbines. It provides an inexhaustible, clean
and cheap power source.
• Total tidal energy potential has been estimated to be about 2 x 10'° Joules
per year. In India, potential site for tidal energy are Gulfs of Kutch, Cambay,
Sunderbans, Lakshwadweep Islands and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tidal
power potential of India is of the order of 9,000 MW.
Wave energy
• The incessant motion of the sea surface in the form of wind waves
constitutes a source of energy.
• Floating propellers placed in shallow waters along the shores may be
kept in a state of continuous motion by these waves.
• Their kinetic energy can be used to drive turbines to provide a cheap,
clean and inexhaustible source of energy to mankind.
• For India, whose coastal line extends to about 6000 km in length,
wave energy potential is estimated to be around 60,000 MW,
Ocean thermal energy
• The large temperature difference between warm surface seawater
(28-30°C) and cold deep seawater (5-12°C) , can be utilized to
generate electricity with the help of an ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) system.
• The advantage is that this power is continuous, renewable and
pollution free.
• A floating OTEC (ocean thermal energy conservation)system can
generate power even at mid-sea and can be used to provide power
for operations like off-shore mining. India has already designed a 1
MW plant for Lakshw adweep islands
Geothermal energy
• The energy harnessed from the hot rocks present, inside the earth is called geothermal energy. Or
energy obtained by trapping the heat of the earth itself.
• Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20-75°C per km as we move down from the earth’s
surface.
• This heat comes from the fission of radioactive material occurring naturally in rocks.
• Artificially drilling a hole up to the hot rocks and putting a pipe in it makes the stream of hot
water gush out through the pipe at high pressure which turns the turbine of a generator to
produce electricity.
• It is cheap, clean, almost free from pollution and of local interest only.
• Still the total geothermal energy potential of the world could provide about 2 x 1018 to 20 x 1018
Joules of energy per year.
• Geothermal energy is already under use in New Zealand, Island, Italy and USA.
• At present, more than 350 geothermal springs have been located in our country.
• Puga (Ladakh) geothermal area is a good site for power generation. Other potential areas are
Tattapani (Sarguja Distt., UP), Cambay Basin (Alaknanda valley, UP) and Parvati valley (H-P.)
Biomass energy
• Biomass through burning has been used as an Energy source even by pre-
historic man.
• Biomass in the present time has been converted into a suitable and
convenient state before it can be used.
• Some of the important energy resources which originate basically from the
photosynthetic activity of green plants are
• 1. Dendro-thermal energy or energy plantations: Energy plantation is the
plantation of fast-growing plants, like cottonwood, poplar, Leucaena,
herbaceous grasses, sugarcane, sweet sorghum, sugar beet, water
hyacinth, seaweeds, carbohydrate-rich potato, etc. on denuded
wastelands, which may produce energy either by burning directly or by
getting converted into burnable gas or may be converted into fuels by
fermentation.
Petro-crops
• The hydrocarbons present in some plants can be converted into
petroleum hydrocarbons, under high temperature and pressure,
which may be turned in diesel engines directly or may be refined to
form gasoline.
• A number of plants belonging to families Euphorbiaceae,
Asclepiadaceae, Apocynaceae, Convolvulaceae etc. possess these
hydrocarbons in their saps and latex.
• Fifteen species are found promising. The Indian Institute of
Petroleum, Dehradun has done excellent work in this area.
• The products obtained from their latex-processed crude were gases,
naphtha, kerosene, gas oil, heavier, coke.
JATROPHA
Energy from agricultural and urban waste:
• With the application of proper techniques, urban waste, crop residues,
bagasse, coconut shells, peanut hulls, cotton stalks, etc. can also be used
for the production of energy.
• A pilot plant for demonstration has already been set up in Delhi to treat
solid municipal waste for conversion into energy.
• It produces nearly 4 M energy every year.
• Bagasse, a waste of sugar mills, can be used to generate energy.
• It is estimated that sugar mills in India can generate 2,000 MW surplus
energy during the crushing season.
• In Brazil, 30% of electricity is obtained from burning bagasse.
• Like bagasse, other farm wastes such as rice husk are also being used to
produce electricity.
Biogas energy
• Many organic materials can release gases, due to metabolisation of organic
matter by bacteria (anaerobic digestion, or fermentation).
• Landfills actually need to vent this gas (called landfill gas) to prevent dangerous
explosions.
• Animal feces release methane under the influence of anaerobic bacteria. Under
high pressure, high temperature, and anaerobic conditions many organic
materials such as wood can be gasified to produce gas.
• This is often found to be more efficient than direct burning.
• The gas can then be used to generate electricity and/or heat.
• Biogas can easily be produced from current waste streams, such as paper
production, sugar production, sewage, animal waste and so forth.
• These various waste streams have to be slurried together and allowed to
naturally ferment, producing methane gas.
• This can be done by converting current sewage plants into biogas
plants.
• When a biogas plant has extracted all the methane it can then the
remains are sometimes better suitable as fertilizer than the original
biomass.
• Biogas is a non-polluting, clean and low-cost fuel that is very useful for
rural areas where a lot of animal waste and agriculture waste is
available.
• India has the largest cattle population in the world (240 million) and has
tremendous potential for biogas production. From cattle dung alone,
we can produce biogas of a magnitude of 22,500 Mm3 annually. A sixty
cubic feet gobar gas plant can serve the need of one average family
BIOGAS PLANT
Alcoholic energy
• Ethanol (grain alcohol) and methanol (wood alcohol) can also be produced
through an aerobic fermentation of plant materials containing high sugar
proportions.
• Ethanol can directly be used in automobiles after slight modification of the
engine.
• Gasohol, a mixture of ethanol and gasoline, is a common fuel in Brazil and
Zimbabwe for running cars and buses.
• In India, too gasohol is used on a trial basis in some parts of the country.
• Methanol is an advantageous automobile fuel as it burns at a lower
temperature than petroleum and diesel. The use of methanol may thus
help in eliminating bulky and heavy radiators.
Hydrogen as a Biofuel
• As hydrogen burns in air, it combines with oxygen to form water and a large
amount of energy (150 kilojoules per gram).
• Due to its high calorific value, hydrogen can serve as an excellent fuel.
• Moreover, it is non-polluting and can be easily produced.
• Production of hydrogen is possible by thermal dissociation, photolysis or
electrolysis of water
• By thermal dissociation of water (at 30,000 K or above) hydrogen is produced.
• Thermochemically, hydrogen is produced by a chemical reaction of water with
some other chemicals in 2-3 cycles so that we do not need the high temperature
as in the direct thermal method and ultimately hydrogen is produced.
• Electrolytic method dissociates water into hydrogen and oxygen by making a
current flow through it.
• Photolysis of water involves the breakdown of water in the presence
of sunlight to release hydrogen. Green plants also have photolysis of
water during photosynthesis. Efforts are underway to trap hydrogen
molecule which is produced during photosynthesis.
• However, hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature.
Hence, safe handling is required for using hydrogen as a fuel. Also, it
is difficult to store and transport; and being very light, it would have
to be stored in bulk. Presently, hydrogen is used in the form of liquid
as a fuel in a spaceship
Why use alternative energy sources?
• Alternative energy sources are available free of cost and do not tax the environment for
their usage. Power generation through alternative sources of energy is clean and ‘green’.
• If we shift to use power generated from these sources, then carbon dioxide emission
from the conventional energy sources will be greatly reduced, and the problem of global
warming will be solved in a few years.
• Also the fast depleting traditional energy sources can be preserved. Along with air
pollution, the use of traditional energy resources also cause soil pollution and water
pollution by releasing various toxins to the land and water. This can also be controlled
reasonably.
• The damage that we have caused to earth after the industrial revolution is huge and we
will have to take action immediately if we want to keep the planet sustainable for our
future generations.
• The biggest leap that mankind can take to prevent further damage is to start using
alternative energy sources.
• Energy is essential to the existence of mankind. All industrial
processes like mining, transport, lighting, heating and cooling in
buildings need energy.
• With the growing population, the world is facing an energy deficit.
Lifestyle change from a simple to a complex and luxurious lifestyle
adds to this energy deficit.
• Almost 95% of commercial energy is available from fossil fuels like
coal and natural gas. These fossil fuels will not last for more than a few
years. Hence, we must explore alternative fuel/energy options.
RESOURCES
• Textbook for ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES for UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES by Erach Brachura.
• Environmental studies by Manoj Tiwari, kapil khulbe and Archana Tiwari.
• Perspective in environmental studies by Anubha Kaushik and C P Kaushik.
• An Advanced Textbook on biodiversity by K.V. Krishnamurthy.
• IMPORTANCE AND THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Dr. Ashish Thomas Assistant Professor, Sri Guru
Nanak Dev Khalsa College University of Delhi.
• Biodiversity-Threats and Conservation SHAILESH KUMAR SINGH1*, MADHU SHARMA2 AND
ANJANA PANDEY March 2017