Article
Effects of Injector Nozzle Number of Holes and Fuel Injection
Pressures on the Diesel Engine Characteristics Operated with
Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel Blends
Mukur Beyan Ahmed and Menelik Walle Mekonen *
Citation: Ahmed, M.B.; Mekonen,
M.W. Effects of Injector Nozzle
Number of Holes and Fuel Injection
Pressures on the Diesel Engine
Characteristics Operated with Waste
Cooking Oil Biodiesel Blends. Fuels
2022, 3, 275–294. https://doi.org/
10.3390/fuels3020017
Academic Editor: Evangelos
G. Giakoumis
Received: 24 February 2022
Accepted: 14 April 2022
Published: 11 May 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Fuels 2022, 3, 275–294. https://doi.org/10.3390/fuels3020017
College of Engineering, Ethiopian Defence University, Bishoftu P.O. Box 1041, Ethiopia; mukur2014@gmail.com
* Correspondence: menelikiitg@gmail.com
Abstract: This work covers the impact of varying injector nozzle hole numbers (INHNs) and fuel
injection pressures (IPs) on fuel atomization, performance, and exhaust emission characteristics of
a diesel engine. The primary goal of this research was to improve fuel characteristics. Increasing
INHNs and fuel IPs have a substantial impact on the blended fuel viscosity and density, which leads
to increased atomization and mixing rates, as well as combustion and engine efficiency. The fuel
atomization was checked by varying the INHNs with an operating diesel fuel using the ANSYS
Fluent spray simulation work. The experimental test was performed on the fuel blends of waste
cooking oil (WCO)–diesel blends from 10 to 30% (with an increment of 10%) by evaluating the
performance and emission parameters. The fuel IPs were altered on four, such as 190, 200 (default),
210, and 220 bar with a modification of INHN of 1 (default), 3, and 4), each 0.84, 0.33, and 0.25 mm in
orifice size, respectively. The simulation result shows that the INHN-4 has better fuel atomization.
Whereas the experimental test revealed that the increment in blending ratio of WCO was up to 30%,
INHNs and fuel IPs enhanced the BSFC and BTE and reduced exhaust emissions. The results indicate
that increasing the fuel IP up to 210 bar with a 4-hole INHN for B30 was the optimal combination for
the overall enhancement of BSFC and BTE, as well as lower CO and HC emissions with a minor rise
in NOx when compared to the baseline diesel.
Keywords: diesel engine; fuel injection pressure; injector nozzle number of holes; waste cooking oil
1. Introduction
Due to their better thermal efficiency, operational dependability, and resilience, diesel
engines are widely employed and dominate power sources for the road transport indus-
try [1]. Diesel engines, on the other hand, produce a lot of soot due to the non-homogeneous
mixing of fuel and air. The performance and emission characteristics of CI engines depend
on the injector nozzle fuel atomization and spray performance. The necessary parameters for
the process of fuel atomization and combustion in an engine that controls the air–fuel mixing
are the inner nozzle flow and spray character. The inner nozzle flow and spray structure
are expected to be significantly altered and, consequently, the performance and emission
features of the diesel engine due to differences in the physical properties of biodiesel and
diesel fuel [2]. The fuel injector nozzle is one of the important components of the diesel
engine. The nozzle hole numbers, increasing the injection pressure, and orifice sizes severely
influence the combustion and performance due to the spray parameters such as penetration
length and droplet size [3]. The fuel particle sizes will grow smaller as injection pressure is
raised. The engine performance will improve when the formation of the fuel–air mixture
improves during the ignition period. The ignition delay period shortens if the injection
pressure is too high. As the likelihood of homogenous mixing declines, so does the efficiency
of combustion. As a result, smoke is produced from an engine’s exhaust. The injector’s
nozzle geometry is critical for managing diesel spray atomization and combustion. The
nozzle hole size must be lowered to produce smaller droplets in order to minimize the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fuels
Fuels 2022, 3 276

size of fuel droplets [4,5]. Biodiesel is usually used as a renewable, clean source due to
its promising ability to reduce soot emissions in diesel engines. Accordingly, it is vital to
examine the effect of the fuel injector nozzle on the performance and emission parameters
with different types of fuel [3,6]. By evaluating the performance parameters, combustion
characteristics, and emissions of a diesel engine operated with preheated palm oil methyl
ester, this study investigates the effects of varying fuel injection pressure from 188 to 224 bar
(with a 12 bar increment), fuel injection timing (19◦ bTDC, 23◦ bTDC, and 27◦ bTDC), and
injector nozzle hole number (3, 4, and 5 holes), each 0.3 mm in diameter. The optimum
combination for overall enhancement in BSFC and BTE with reduced emissions of CO and
HC was a higher fuel IP of 212 bar and an advanced IT of 27◦ bTDC with a 4-hole INHN
for warmed POME (114 ◦ C) [4]. At 200, 220, and 240 bar injection pressures, the DI diesel
engine’s performance and emissions were evaluated using different nozzle hole sizes, such
as 3 holes of 0.28 mm and 5 holes of 0.20 mm. The 5-hole 0.2 mm nozzle displayed improved
performance and emission characteristics at a fuel injection pressure of 220 bar [4]. With
the engine running at a constant speed of 1500 rpm and a CR of 17.5, the performance of
the diesel engine was evaluated using neem oil methyl ester as fuel. The 3, 4, and 5 holes
of 0.3 mm orifice size are used in the injectors. For testing, fuel injection pressures of 205,
220, 230, 240, and 260 bars were used, as well as fuel injection timings of 19◦ , 23◦ , 27◦ , and
31◦ bTDC. With neem oil methyl ester, it was discovered that 240 bar injection pressure,
27◦ injection time, and a 5-hole injector nozzle gave a higher performance [5]. Variable
fuel injection timing of 19◦ , 23◦ , and 27◦ bTDC, as well as fuel injection pressures of 210,
220, 230, and 240 bars, and 3-, 4-, and 5-hole injectors of 0.3 mm in diameter were used to
investigate the performance of a single-cylinder diesel engine. The results show that using a
4-hole injector with a 19◦ injection timing and a 230 bar injection pressure improves engine
performance and reduces emissions [4,7]. Jatropha, which is not used for human food, was
utilized to test the performance of a diesel engine. The tests were carried out on nozzle
injectors with 5, 7, 9, and 11 holes and a 210 bar injection pressure. The 9-hole nozzle is
thought to provide superior performance and lower emission rates [8]. The purpose of the
study was to assess a three-hole nozzle by employing various diameters to see how varying
nozzle hole sizes affect performance, combustion, and emissions. The diameters chosen
were 0.28 mm for the base and 0.20 mm for the modified. In a short amount of time, the
0.20 mm modified nozzle was shown to accelerate vaporization, atomization, and air–fuel
mixing [9].
The effect of alternative fuels on spray, performance, and emission characteristics of
diesel engines, which influence the performance and emission parameters of diesel engines,
is also subject to restricted research. On the other hand, many researchers have looked at the
impact of varying the number of holes in injector nozzles on diesel engine performance and
emission metrics. According to the available literature, no research has yet been conducted
to determine the impact of INHNs and fuel IPs on a diesel engine running on waste cooking
oil and biodiesel mixes. The current study considers various INHNs and fuel IPs while
examining diesel engine characteristics. A computer model is used to investigate the impacts
of different injector nozzles on fuel atomization, vaporization, and mixing rate formation.
Furthermore, an experiment was carried out to see how they affected the performance and
emission characteristics of diesel engines. The size of the nozzle and its holes, as well as
the cylinder dimension, are taken into consideration while designing the nozzles (existing
and modified) and the spray domain of the single-cylinder diesel engine. Based on the
nozzle fluid flow domain and spray parameters on the spray domain in ANSYS Fluent, the
computational model is used to assess the fluid flow inside the nozzles.

2. Methodology
Various numerical simulations were undertaken in the current work to achieve the
objectives defined based on the identified research needs as described in this section.
 Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 3

2. Methodology
Fuels 2022, 3 277
Various numerical simulations were undertaken in the current work to achieve the
objectives defined based on the identified research needs as described in this section.

2.1.
2.1.Simulation
SimulationSetup
Setup
The
The three
threemain
mainsimulation
simulation stages
stages in
in ANSYS
ANSYS Fluent
Fluent arearepreprocessing,
preprocessing, solver,
solver,andand
post-processing.
post-processing. InInthis
thisstudy
studythe theonly
onlyfocus
focusof ofthe
thesimulation
simulationwas wasthe
theinjector
injectorhead
headandand
combustion
combustion chamber
chamber design
design of of the
thefuel
fuelinjector
injectornozzle.
nozzle. Figure
Figure 11 indicates
indicates the
the overall
overall
simulation and analysis flow chart. Figure 2 shows the schematic view
simulation and analysis flow chart. Figure 2 shows the schematic view of fuel injector of fuel injector
nozzles
nozzlesthat
thathave
have single,
single, 3,
3, and
and 44 holes,
holes, diameters
diameters of of 0.84,
0.84, 0.33,
0.33, and
and 0.25
0.25 mm
mm each
each other.
other.
Figure
Figure 3 indicates the half sectional schematic view of the spray domain used for
3 indicates the half sectional schematic view of the spray domain used for the
the
simulation
simulationwork.
work.The
Thehalf
halfsection
sectionfrom
fromthe overall
the overallgeometry
geometry modeling
modelingused was
used in order
was to
in order
reduce the the
to reduce simulation timetime
simulation and satisfactory analysis.
and satisfactory All simulation
analysis. worksworks
All simulation in thisinresearch
this re-
work were performed using DELL Laptop computer, core i-7,
search work were performed using DELL Laptop computer, core i-7, 8GB RAM, and 8GB RAM, and 2.4 GHz2.4
processer (DELL,
GHz processer. Inc., Austin, TX, USA).

Figure1.1.Modeling
Figure Modelingflow
flowchart
chartin
inCFD
CFDanalysis.
analysis.

2.2.
2.2.Computational
ComputationalModels
Models
The
The injector nozzlesand
injector nozzles andtheir spray
their domain
spray domainwere modeled
were using
modeled the existing
using modeling
the existing mod-
software
eling software Solid works 2016. The commercially available package ANSYS Fluentwas
Solid works 2016. The commercially available package ANSYS Fluent 16.0 16.0
set
wasupset
with
upthe three-dimensional
with (3D) calculation
the three-dimensional mesh ofmesh
(3D) calculation the nozzle
of theand spray
nozzle domain.
and spray
The 3D injector
domain. The 3D nozzles and
injector their spray
nozzles domain
and their aredomain
spray more reliable withreliable
are more the configuration of
with the con-
the actual profile, as computing resources authorization. Again, the 3D injector nozzles
figuration of the actual profile, as computing resources authorization. Again, the 3D in- are
convenient for tracking the velocity scattering in the various planes of the nozzle and the
jector nozzles are convenient for tracking the velocity scattering in the various planes of
spray domain.
the nozzle and the spray domain.
A 1-, 3-, and 4-hole diesel fuel injector with a nozzle angle of 150◦ was chosen based
A 1-, 3-, and 4-hole diesel fuel injector with a nozzle angle of 150° was chosen based
on their measurements (for 3 and 4 holes). To minimize computation time, only a single
on their measurements (for 3 and 4 holes). To minimize computation time, only a single
nozzle from the uniformly dispersed injector was modeled out of the three-hole and four-
nozzle from the uniformly dispersed injector was modeled out of the three-hole and
hole nozzles. The fluid flow domain inside the nozzle is depicted in Figure 2, and the
four-hole nozzles. The fluid flow domain inside the nozzle is depicted in Figure 2, and
primary difference between the models is their dimensions, which are based on the nozzles’
the primary difference between the models is their dimensions, which are based on the
technical specifications. The spray domain model was used in this investigation, and half
of the model was chosen for all simulations to save computing time. The spray domain of
the nozzles was modeled at the upper center of the domain in Figure 3, and the difference
between the models was the nozzle specification.
 nozzles’ technical
nozzles’ technical specifications.
specifications. The
The spray
spray domain
domain model
model was
was used
used in
in this
this investigation,
investigation,
and half
and half of
of the
the model
model was
was chosen
chosen for
for all
all simulations
simulations to
to save
save computing
computing time.
time. The
The spray
spray
Fuels 2022, 3 domain of the nozzles was modeled at the upper center of the domain in Figure 3, 278
and
domain of the nozzles was modeled at the upper center of the domain in Figure 3, and
the difference
the difference between
between the
the models
models was
was the
the nozzle
nozzle specification.
specification.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure2.
Figure
Figure 2.A
2. Adiagram
A diagramof
diagram offluid
of fluidin
fluid innozzles:
in nozzles:(a)
nozzles: (a)single
(a) singlehole,
single hole,(b)
hole, (b)3-holes,
(b) 3-holes,(c)
3-holes, (c)4-holes.
(c) 4-holes.
4-holes.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure3.3.
Figure
Figure 3.Computational
Computational
Computational fuel
fuel
fuel spray
spray
spray domains
domains
domains shown
shown
shown schematically:
schematically:
schematically: (a) single
(a)
(a) singlesingle hole,
hole,hole, (b) 3-holes,
(b) 3-holes,
(b) 3-holes, (c)
(c)
(c) 4-holes.
4-holes.
4-holes.
2.3. Grid Independence Tests
2.3. Grid
2.3. Grid Independence
Independence
In order to accomplish Tests a CFD analysis initially mesh must be applied to the geometry
Tests
modeling In order
In order
thatto to accomplish
meets aa CFD
certain criteria
accomplish CFD analysis
analysis initially
in order initially
to mesh must
be successfully
mesh must be applied
applied
recognized
be bytotothe
theanalysis
the geome-
geome-
try modeling
program. The that
basic meets
parameter certainfor criteria
ANSYS in
Fluentorder
mesh
try modeling that meets certain criteria in order to be successfully recognized byto be
is successfully
the maximum recognized
cell skewness bythatthe
the
analysis
must
analysis program.
be under
program. The
0.98, The
which basic
is the
basic parameter
basic concern
parameter for ANSYS Fluent
after theFluent
for ANSYS mesh has mesh
mesh been is the
is generatedmaximum
the maximum [10]. The cell
cell
skewness that
simulation
skewness that
analysismustwas
must be under
be under 0.98,
valued 0.98,
throughwhich
which isrange
theis the basic
the basic concern
of meshes
concern from after
afterlowthethe meshfine.
to mesh
extra has been
has been
The
generatedmesh
optimum
generated [10].from
[10]. The the
The simulation
data analysis
simulation analysis
waswas
analysis was valued
evaluated
valued through
bythrough
the meshthe the range of
resolution
range ofthatmeshes from
contained
meshes from
anlowerror
to within
extra a
fine. 5%The limit [11–13].
optimum Figure
mesh from 4 indicates
the data
low to extra fine. The optimum mesh from the data analysis was evaluated by the mesh the grid
analysis independence
was evaluated tests
by the of the
mesh
overall simulation
resolution that analysis
contained models.
an error within a 5% limit [11–13].
resolution that contained an error within a 5% limit [11–13]. Figure 4 indicates the grid Figure 4 indicates the grid
For the tested
independence
independence tests nozzles,
tests ofof the
the overallfive simulation
overall sets of meshes
simulation withmodels.
analysis
analysis different refinement levels were
models.
established
For the
For in this
the tested study;
tested nozzles, the
nozzles, five number
five sets of elements
sets of meshes
meshes with in each
with different set was
different 133416, 205940,
refinement
refinement levels were
levels 345269,
were es-
es-
392647,
tablished
tablished andinin408662
this (for INHN-1),
this study;
study; the number
the number 125345,
of 141006, 158186,
of elements
elements each202844,
in each
in set was
set was and 245541
133416,
133416, (for INHN-3),
205940,
205940, 345269,
345269,
and 116985,
392647,
392647, and133908,
and 408662140095,
408662 (for 170946, and
(for INHN-1),
INHN-1), 211568
125345,
125345, (for INHN-4)
141006,
141006, 158186,The
158186, velocity
202844,
202844, andof245541
and the nozzle
245541 (for
(for
exit was
INHN-3), used and as one
116985, of the major
133908, characteristics
140095, 170946, in
and the
INHN-3), and 116985, 133908, 140095, 170946, and 211568 (for INHN-4) The velocity of numerical
211568 (for simulation
INHN-4) The of the inner
velocity of
flow
the of the
the nozzle
nozzle exitnozzle,
exit was and
was used the
used as velocity
as one
one of parameters
of the
the major were estimated
major characteristics
characteristics in using
in the five
the numerical different
numerical simulation meshes.
simulation of of
The
the flow
the innervelocity
inner flow of
flow ofincreased
the nozzle,
the nozzle, consistently
and the
and with mesh
the velocity
velocity refinement,
parameters
parameters were
were asestimated
shown in Figure
estimated using five
using 4a. The
five dif-
dif-
flow
ferent
ferent velocity
meshes.
meshes. increases
The flow
The flow dramatically
velocity increased
velocity as the number
increased consistently
consistently of pieces
withincreases.
with mesh refinement,
mesh The flowas
refinement, velocity
as shown
shown
tends
in to
Figure be stable
4a. The when
flow the number
velocity of
increasesnodes reaches
dramatically its maximum.
as the number The Grid
of Convergence
pieces increases.
in Figure 4a. The flow velocity increases dramatically as the number of pieces increases.
Index
The flow(GCI)
flow of thetends
velocity nozzle with
to be
be stable408662
stable when(fortheINHN-1),
number of 245541
of nodes(for INHN-3),
reaches and 202844
its maximum.
maximum. The
The velocity tends to when the number nodes reaches its The
(for INHN-4)
Grid Convergence elements
Convergence Index is 2.97%,
Index (GCI)(GCI) of 1.72%,
of the and 1.24%,
the nozzle
nozzle with respectively,
with 408662
408662 (for using
(for INHN-1), the GCI
INHN-1), 245541 method
245541 (for to
(for
Grid
estimate
INHN-3), andmesh discrete
and 202844
202844 (for error. Similarly,
(for INHN-4)
INHN-4) elements spray
elements istip penetration
is 2.97%,
2.97%, 1.72%, was
1.72%, and used
and 1.24%, as a characteristic
1.24%, respectively,
respectively,
INHN-3),
parameter
using the in
the GCIGCIthemethod
fuel spray simulation.
to estimate
estimate meshWhen the element
discrete number ofspray
error. Similarly,
Similarly, the spray domain is
tip penetration
penetration
using method to mesh discrete error. spray tip
560172,
was used 704079,
used as and 730792
as aa characteristic for
characteristic parameter INHN-1,
parameter in INHN-3,
in the
the fueland
fuel sprayINHN-4, respectively,
spray simulation.
simulation. When the
When the computed
the element
element
was
GCI was 2.64%,
number of the 2.29%,domain
spray and 1.58%, is which 704079,
560172, may match and the meshfor
730792 convergence
INHN-1, criterionand
INHN-3, as
number of the spray domain is 560172, 704079, and 730792 for INHN-1, INHN-3, and
shown in Figure
INHN-4, respectively, 4b–d.
respectively, the the computed
computed GCI GCI waswas 2.64%,
2.64%, 2.29%,
2.29%, andand 1.58%,
1.58%, whichwhich may may match
match
INHN-4,
the mesh
the mesh convergence
convergence criterion criterion as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 4b–d.
4b–d.
Fuels2022,
Fuels 2022,33, FOR PEER REVIEW 2795

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Spray
Spray simulation
simulation grid
grid independence
independence test:
test: (a)
(a) nozzle
nozzle models,
models, (b)
(b) INHN-1,
INHN-1, (c)
(c) INHN-3,
INHN-3, and
and
(d) INHN-4.
(d) INHN-4.

2.4. Boundary
2.4. Boundary Conditions
Conditions
In the
In thenumerical
numericalmodeling
modelingofofnozzle
nozzleinternal
internalflow,
flow,the
the inlet
inlet and
and outflow
outflow of of
thethe noz-
nozzle
zle were
were adjusted
adjusted to pressure
to pressure boundaries.
boundaries. As illustrated
As illustrated in Tablein1Table 1 and5,Figure
and Figure 5, the
the nozzle’s
nozzle’s
inlet inlet pressure
pressure was set towas
fuelset to fuel pressure,
injection injection pressure,
the outletthe outlet was
pressure pressure
set towas set to
ambient
ambient pressure,
pressure, and thewall
and the nozzle’s nozzle’s wallwas
surface surface
set towas set to velocity
a no-slip a no-slipboundary.
velocity boundary.

Table1.1.Boundary
Table Boundaryconditions
conditionsfor
foroperation.
operation.

Boundary
Boundary Conditions
Conditions Value
Value and and
UnitUnit
Injection
Injection pressure
pressure 200 200
bar bar
BackBack pressure
pressure 2 bar
2 bar
Ambient
Ambient air temperature
air temperature T =T300 K K
= 300
After start
After of injection
start (ASOI)
of injection (ASOI) 0–2 0–2
ms ms

In the
In the numerical
numerical simulation
simulation of
of diesel
diesel spray
spray characteristics,
characteristics, the
the top
top surface,
surface, bottom
bottom
surface, and
surface, and circumferential
circumferential surface of the spray
spray domain
domain were all all set
set toto the
the fixed
fixed wall
wall
boundary. Furthermore,
boundary. Furthermore,the
the bottom
bottom surface’s
surface’s boundary
boundary type
type was
was set
set to
to “escape”,
“escape”, and
and the
the
Fuels 2022,
Fuels 3 FOR PEER REVIEW
2022, 3, 280
6

surrounding wall’s
surrounding wall’s boundary
boundary type
type was
was set
set to
to “reflect”.
“reflect”. First,
First, the
the transient
transient flow
flow inside
inside the
the
nozzle was numerically calculated. The spray numerical computation was
nozzle was numerically calculated. The spray numerical computation was then started then started
with the
with the calculation
calculation results
results at
at the
the nozzle
nozzle outlet,
outlet, which
which improved
improved the the accuracy
accuracy of of the
the
spray simulations.
spray simulations.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Schematic
Schematic view
view of
of spray
spray simulation
simulation boundary
boundary conditions.
conditions.

2.5. Mathematical
2.5. Mathematical Model
Model and
and Governing
Governing Equations
Equations
The mathematical
The mathematical model
model and
and governing
governing equations
equations utilized
utilized in
in the
the nozzle
nozzle flow
flow and
and
spray domain simulations are discussed as follows:
spray domain simulations are discussed as follows:
(a) Injector
(a) Injectornozzle
nozzleflow
flowphase
phase
The numerical
The numerical calculations
calculations in
inthis
thisstudy
studywere
wereperformed
performed using
using ANSYS
ANSYS Fluent
Fluentversion
ver-
16.0 CFD software. The Eulerian multi-phase flow is used for the 3-D
sion 16.0 CFD software. The Eulerian multi-phase flow is used for the 3-D simulation of simulation of
spray characteristics. The multiphase flow was described using the mixture
spray characteristics. The multiphase flow was described using the mixture model, which model, which
considered that
considered that air
air and
and liquid
liquid phases
phases were
were mixed
mixed uniformly.
uniformly. Eulerian
Eulerian model
model isis used
used toto
model the
model the continuous
continuous flow
flowofofparticles
particlesbased
basedonon
thethe
Navier–Stokes
Navier–Stokes equation.
equation.TheThe
Navier–
Na-
Stokes governing equations solve the continuous flow of the fuel in the
vier–Stokes governing equations solve the continuous flow of the fuel in the injector injector nozzle
consisting
nozzle of the continuity,
consisting momentum,
of the continuity, and energy
momentum, andequation, which arewhich
energy equation, listedare
in Equation
listed in
(1) below [14].
Equation (1) below [14].
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0
∂ρ ∂x∂i
( ρu ) = 0
∂t
+
∂ρ ∂ ∂t ∂x ∂P i ∂πij
(ρui ) + (ρui ) = i− + + ρgi + Fi (1)
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj

∂ρ∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂P ∂P ∂ ∂πij∂πij
!
(ρh()ρ+
u i ) + (ρui h( ρ
) u=i )−= − + + k + ρg+ +ηγFi (1)
∂t ∂t ∂xi ∂x i ∂xi ∂x i∂xj ∂x j∂xj i

The Shear Stress Transport (SST) k-solver was used for all of the turbulence model
∂ρ work because
research detailed in this ∂ it provides ∂  for
∂Padvantages 
∂πijboundary layer problems
and is more exact and (resilient
ρh ) + than
( ρuother
i h ) =turbulence
− + models.
 k  +stated
As ηγ in Table 2, the
∂t ∂x i analysis was
diesel fuel property employed in this
∂x i based
∂x jon ∂x j  measured and learned
 values
in previous investigations.
The Shear Stress Transport (SST) k-solver was used for all of the turbulence model
research detailed in this work because it provides advantages for boundary layer prob-
lems and is more exact and resilient than other turbulence models. As stated in Table 2,
Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Fuels 2022, 3 281

the diesel fuel property employed in this analysis was based on values measured and
learned in previous investigations.

Table2.2.Properties
Table Propertiesof
ofdiesel
dieselfuel
fuelued
uedin
inspray
spraysimulation
simulation[13].
[13].

Property
Property Value
Valueand andUnit
Unit
Density
Density 835 kg/m
835 kg/m 33

2
Kinematic
Kinematicviscosity
viscosity 3.9
3.9mmmm/s/s
2

Dynamicviscosity
Dynamic viscosity 3.23.2mPas
mPas
Surface tension 0.0281 N/m
Surface tension 0.0281 N/m
Heating value 4.31 MJ/kg
Heating value 4.31 MJ/kg

(b) DiscreteParticle
(b) Discrete ParticlePhase
PhaseModel
Model
The
The discrete
discreteparticle
particlemodel
model (DPM)
(DPM)waswas
utilized to capture
utilized the flow
to capture the of vapor
flow formation
of vapor for-
and atomization throughout the spray development simulation. To compute
mation and atomization throughout the spray development simulation. To compute the the continuous
phase, the Navier–Stokes
continuous equations and
phase, the Navier–Stokes the continuity
equations and the equation
continuitywere solved,
equation werewhile the
solved,
force balance on the particle was integrated into the solver to determine particle trajectories.
while the force balance on the particle was integrated into the solver to determine particle
The particle trajectories
trajectories. The particle were estimatedwere
trajectories usingestimated
the result using
of the continuous
the result offlow
thefor two-way
continuous
interaction, whereas the continuous phase was determined using the Eulerian
flow for two-way interaction, whereas the continuous phase was determined using model [10,15].
the
Figure 6 depicts the two-way connection of the process scheme.
Eulerian model [10,15]. Figure 6 depicts the two-way connection of the process scheme.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Coupling
Coupling scheme
scheme [11].
[11].

Using aa VOF-DPM
Using VOF-DPM (volume (volume of of fluid—discrete
fluid—discrete particle
particle model)
model) hybrid
hybrid technique,
technique, asas
well as
well as KH–RT
KH–RT (Kelvin
(Kelvin Helmholtz–Reynolds
Helmholtz–Reynolds Transport) and the TAB (Taylor Breakup)
model, study explores
model, this study exploresthetheeffect
effectofofINHNs
INHNs andand diameter
diameter sizesize
on on particle
particle penetra-
penetration,
tion, particle
particle velocity,
velocity, and and particle
particle meanmean diameter.
diameter. A VOF-DPM
A VOF-DPM hybridhybrid approach
approach is anisEu-
an
Eulerian-Lagrangian
lerian-Lagrangian approachapproach thatthat solves
solves the the Naiver-Stokes
Naiver-Stokes andandotherother governing
governing equa-
equations
tions by treating
by treating the continuous
the continuous liquid
liquid phase
phase as as a continuum.The
a continuum. Theprecision
precisionof of the droplets
droplets
(dispersed
(dispersed phase)
phase) is is determined
determined by by how
how effectively
effectively the
the interface
interface is is recorded
recorded by by the
the VOF
VOF
model,
model, as
as well
well as
as the
the accuracy
accuracy ofof the
the droplet
droplet identification
identification technique.
technique. The The ANSYS
ANSYS Fluent
Fluent
droplet
droplet identification
identificationalgorithm
algorithmfacilitates
facilitatesthe transition
the of of
transition a lump
a lumpfrom the the
from Eulerian to the
Eulerian to
Langrangian (DPM) phase. For spray simulations, a similar strategy was
the Langrangian (DPM) phase. For spray simulations, a similar strategy was utilized [16]. utilized [16].

3.
3. The
The Experimental
Experimental Setup
Setup and
and Procedures
Procedures
A
A single-cylinder, 4-stroke DI-CI engine
single-cylinder, 4-stroke DI-CI engine rated
rated at
at 5.67
5.67 kW
kW powers
powers the
the experimental
experimental
test setup. A hydraulic dynamometer serves as a loading system, as well as a fuel supply
test setup. A hydraulic dynamometer serves as a loading system, as well as a fuel supply
system, water-cooling, lubrication, and exhaust emissions. Figure 7 depicts a schematic
system, water-cooling, lubrication, and exhaust emissions. Figure 7 depicts a schematic
illustration of the experimental setup. The setup allows for the evaluation of diesel engine
illustration of the experimental setup. The setup allows for the evaluation of diesel en-
performance metrics and exhaust elements. BP, BSFC, and BTE are some of the engine
gine performance metrics and exhaust elements. BP, BSFC, and BTE are some of the en-
performance measures. A test engine’s technical specifications are shown in Table 3. An
gine performance measures. A test engine’s technical specifications are shown in Table 3.
FGA-4100 automobile emission analyzer is used to measure the levels of engine exhaust
An FGA-4100 automobile emission analyzer is used to measure the levels of engine ex-
emissions. During each run of the engine, the CO and CO2 emissions were monitored in
haust emissions. During each run of the engine, the CO and CO2 emissions were moni-
percentage volume (% vol), whereas the HC and NOx emissions were measured in parts
tored in percentage volume (% vol), whereas the HC and NOX emissions were measured
per million (ppm).
in parts per million (ppm).
 Fuels
Fuels 2022, 3 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 8 282

Figure 7. A diagram of the experimental setup.

Figure 7. A diagram of the experimental setup.
Table 3. The test engine’s technical specifications.
Table 3. The test engine’s technical specifications.
Engine Type R180, Single-Cylinder, Four Stroke Diesel Engine
Engine
Make ofType
mode R180, Single-Cylinder,
R180 Four Stroke Diesel Engine
Loading device
Make of mode Hydro-dynamometer
R180
Rated power
Loading device 5.67Hydro-dynamometer
kW at 2600 rpm
Rated
Cylinder power
bore and stroke 805.67
mmkW × 80atmm
2600 rpm
Cylinder bore
Displacement and stroke
volume 80 ×
402 cc 80 mm
mm
Displacement volume
Compression ratio 21:1402 cc
Compression ratio
Injection timing 23° bTDC 21:1
Injection timing 23◦ bTDC
Nozzle type, hole diameter Single hole, 0.84 mm
Nozzle type, hole diameter Single hole, 0.84 mm
Nozzle opening pressure 200 Bar
Nozzle opening pressure 200 Bar

3.1. Fuel Properties

3.1. FuelThe
Properties
test fuel quality attributes that fuel should have when utilized in a diesel engine
The
are test fuel
shown quality
in Table attributes
4. The quality ofthat
thefuel
fuel,should
as wellhave
as thewhen utilized and
performance in a emission
diesel engine
are parameters
shown in Table 4. The
of a diesel quality
engine, ofaffected
are all the fuel,by as
fuelwell as the[17].
attributes performance and emission
The fuel characteris-
tic valuesofmust
parameters be in
a diesel the range
engine, of affected
are all the most by well-known biodiesel
fuel attributes [17].standards, such as
The fuel characteristic
ASTM
values D6751
must and
be in EN14214,
the range of inthe
order
mostto set limitations and
well-known fulfill standard
biodiesel standards,diesel
suchengine
as ASTM
parameters.
D6751 Table 4inshows
and EN14214, orderatobasic analysis of and
set limitations the existing B10, B20,diesel
fulfill standard B30, and diesel
engine fuel
parameters.
characteristics. For testing, B10 (10% biodiesel + 90% diesel), B20 (20% biodiesel
Table 4 shows a basic analysis of the existing B10, B20, B30, and diesel fuel characteristics. + 80%
diesel), B30 (30% biodiesel + 70% diesel), and D100 (100% diesel) would be the fuels
For testing, B10 (10% biodiesel + 90% diesel), B20 (20% biodiesel + 80% diesel), B30 (30%
produced. The measured calorific values are comparable to those of diesel fuel. To avoid
biodiesel + 70% diesel), and D100 (100% diesel) would be the fuels produced. The measured
problems with the fuel atomization and spray characteristics, each biodiesel must meet
calorific values are
the minimum comparable
standard to those
limitations (EN 14214of diesel fuel. D6751)
and ASTM To avoidfor problems with
diesel engine the fuel
appli-
atomization
cation [5]. and spray characteristics, each biodiesel must meet the minimum standard
limitations (EN 14214 and ASTM D6751) for diesel engine application [5].

Table 4. The properties of the test fuels that were employed.

Properties Diesel WCO B10 B20 B30

Density at 27 ◦C (kg/m3 ) 835 913.6 847.5 853.6 860.4
Calorific value (MJ/kg) 43.1 37.28 41.56 40.82 39.5
Kinematic viscosity at 40 ◦ C (mm2 /s) 3.16 10.63 6.72 5.56 4.25
Flash point (◦ C) 96 223 174 156 113
Cetane number 48 53.3 51.8 49.6 48.8
Fuels 2022, 3 283

3.2. Test Procedures

The experimental analysis was carried out on the following three distinct types of
injector nozzle hole numbers: 1-hole 0.84 mm, 3-hole 0.33 mm, and 4-hole 0.25 mm, all of
which were fueled with WCO biodiesel fuel blends. The technical specifications of injector
nozzles used in this study is tabulated in Table 5. The experiments were carried out using the
following engine operating parameters of a fixed compression ratio of 21:1 with 23◦ bTDC
fuel injection timing under varying nozzle opening pressure of 190, 200, 210 and 220 bar,
respectively. During executing the experiment, the fuel injection pressure was varied by
altering the injector spring tension (Figure 8). The photographic view of the nozzles used
is shown in Figure 9. The engine was run at various loads to produce the best operating
load state for performance and emissions testing, including no-load, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%,
and 100% load. Sufficient attention was given to load the engine precisely at each phase
of load and to sustain ambient conditions constant, in which each test was cross-checked
on different days. In each of the sets of experiment, the readings of the fuel flow, CO,
CO2 , NOx , and HC emissions were noted. In which the fuel flow rate and air flow rate
were recorded using a fuel burette and a u-tube manometer, respectively, and the various
emissions concentrations, such as CO, HC, CO2, and NOx emissions, were also measured
using an exhaust gas analyzer. While the performance parameters of BP, BSFC, and BTE
were calculated using Equation (2) based on [18]. In the end, the diesel engine performance
and emission parameters were plotted against varying engine load and then varying INHNs
and fuel IPs, respectively. In the test matrix, Table 6 displays the details of the experiment.
2π×N × T
BP = [kW]
. 60,000
mf ×3600 kg
BSFC = BP [ /kW·h] (2)
BTE = m. ×BP [%]
f QLHV

Table 5. Details of the injector nozzles.

Model Nozzle Label No. of Holes Diameter of Nozzle Orifice Hole (mm)
ZS4S1 INHN-1 (existing) 1 0.84
Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW DL 90S3 INHN-3 (pd-1) 3 0.33 10
DL 100S1053 INHN-4 (pd-2) 4 0.25

Figure8.8.R180
Figure R180diesel
dieselengine
engine fuel
fuel injector
injector assemblies.
Fuels 2022, 3 284

Figure 8. R180 diesel engine fuel injector assemblies.

Figure9.9.Different
Figure Differentinjector
injectornozzles
nozzlesphotograph.
photograph.

3.3. Experimental
Table Test for
6. The test matrix Matrix
the experimental analysis.
The number of tests that were executed and guidance for experimental work is an
experimentalOperating andThe
test matrix. Design Conditions
baseline and detailed experimental test matrices are listed
Experiment below. From the experimentalINHN
IP (Bar) investigation observations,
NHD the superior Test
combined
Fuels com-
binations of the injector nozzles operating at optimal load conditions, INHNs and fuel IPs
1. Investigate the effects of varying engine load (no load, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%) and fuel blending ratio (100D, B10,
with better brake thermal efficiency, fuel economy, and reduced exhaust emission are
B20, and B30) on engine performance and emission parameters.
obtained.
Baseline data test Default
Table 6. The200 1
test matrix for the experimental analysis. 0.84 100D, B10, B20, B30

2. Investigation of the influence of varying INHNs and fuelOperating

IPs a diesel and
engine running
Design at an optimum engine load (80%) and
Conditions
better blending ratio (B30) of engine performance and emission parameters.
Experiment IP (Bar) INHN NHD Test Fuels
1. Investigate the effects of varying engine load (0% to 100%) with an increaments of
Experimental test 190–220 with 10 bar increments 1, 3, and 4 holes 0.84, 0.33, and 0.25 mm B30
20% and fuel blending ratio (100D, B10, B20, and B30) on engine performance and
emission parameters.
3.3. Experimental
Baseline dataTest
testMatrix Default 200 1 0.84 100D, B10, B20, B30
2. The number of
Investigation of tests that wereofexecuted
the influence and guidance
varying INHNs forIPs
and fuel experimental work
a diesel engine is an
run-
experimental test matrix. The baseline and detailed experimental test matrices
ning at an optimum engine load (80%) and better blending ratio (B30) of engine are listed
below. From the experimental
performance and emission investigation
parameters.observations, the superior combined combina-
tions of the injector nozzles operating at optimal load conditions, INHNs and fuel IPs with
190–220 with 10 1, 3, and 0.84, 0.33,
Experimental
better brake thermaltestefficiency, fuel economy, and reduced exhaust emission B30 are obtained.
bar increments 4 holes and 0.25 mm
4. Results and Discussion
In this section, the results of inside nozzle flows and spray development in the chamber
are presented. The test results on the performance and emissions of different INHNs and
fuel IPs executed with WCO–diesel blend fuel are also discussed here.

4.1. Fuel Spray Simulation Results

(a) Influence of INHNs and orifice size on the spray width
One of the parameters, which is the spray width, was taken into account to compare
the spray characteristics of different nozzles. The data of the spray width were compared
using the ratio of spray width over the nozzle hydraulic diameters. Figure 10 shows that the
spray width of the INHN-3 and INHN-4 was significantly bigger than that of the INHN-1.
These results revealed that the superior spray character with a greater spray width would
be attained through the use of the INHN-4 nozzle compared to the INHN-1 and INHN-3.
 One of the parameters, which is the spray width, was taken into account to compare
the spray characteristics of different nozzles. The data of the spray width were compared
using the ratio of spray width over the nozzle hydraulic diameters. Figure 10 shows that
the spray width of the INHN-3 and INHN-4 was significantly bigger than that of the
Fuels 2022, 3 INHN-1. These results revealed that the superior spray character with a greater spray 285
width would be attained through the use of the INHN-4 nozzle compared to the INHN-1
and INHN-3.

Nozzle
Velocity 0.2 ms 0.6 ms 1.2 ms 2 ms
Label

INHN-1

INHN-3

INHN-4

Figure 10. Spray domain model contour velocity for INHN-1,INHN-3 and INHN-4.
Figure 10. Spray domain model contour velocity for INHN-1, INHN-3 and INHN-4.

(b) Influence of INHNs and orifice size on the particle penetration

In comparison to the INHN-3 and INHN-4, the INHN-1 had more aerodynamic drag,
which resulted in a longer penetration. The spray penetration length increases progressively
as the injector nozzle diameter grows, as expected because the increased pressure differential
results in higher velocities and momentum at the nozzle exit, which aids drop penetration,
as illustrated in Figure 11.
(c) Influence of INHNs and orifice size on the spray particles velocity
Because of the higher pressure differential, velocity increases slightly when it enters
the chamber at a 200 bar injection pressure. However, this rise was not seen in INHN-1,
and INHN-3 velocities are higher than INHN-4 velocities at the same axial positions. The
velocity declines rapidly at first, then increases, and then gradually decreases till the end,
as illustrated in Figure 12.
 (b) Influence of INHNs and orifice size on the particle penetration
In comparison to the INHN-3 and INHN-4, the INHN-1 had more aerodynamic
drag, which resulted in a longer penetration. The spray penetration length increases
progressively as the injector nozzle diameter grows, as expected because the increased
Fuels 2022, 3 286
pressure differential results in higher velocities and momentum at the nozzle exit, which
aids drop penetration, as illustrated in Figure 11.

Model INHN-1 INHN-3 INHN-4

KH-RT

TAB

Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Figure 11. Particle penetration for different injector nozzles.
Figure 11. Particle penetration for different injector nozzles.
(c) Influence of INHNs and orifice size on the spray particles velocity
Model INHN-1 INHN-3 velocity increases slightlyINHN-4
Because of the higher pressure differential, when it enters
the chamber at a 200 bar injection pressure. However, this rise was not seen in INHN-1,
and INHN-3 velocities are higher than INHN-4 velocities at the same axial positions. The
velocity declines rapidly at first, then increases, and then gradually decreases till the end,
as illustrated in Figure 12.

KH-RT

TAB

Figure 12. Particle velocity magnitude for different injector nozzles.

Figure 12. Particle velocity magnitude for different injector nozzles.
(d) Influence of INNHs and orifice size on the particles mean diameter
The ratio of the drop volume to its surface area is the particle mean diameter [19,20].
By gradually reducing the droplet size difference while increasing INHNs and decreas-
ing the particle mean diameter, consistent particle size distribution was achieved (Figure
Fuels 2022, 3 287

Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW
(d) Influence of INNHs and orifice size on the particles mean diameter
The ratio of the drop volume to its surface area is the particle mean diameter [19,20].
By gradually reducing the droplet size difference while increasing INHNs and decreasing
the particle mean diameter, consistent particle size distribution was achieved (Figure 13).
Further experimental tests of the various injector nozzles based on varied injection pressures
14
are required, as mentioned in all of the simulation work findings.

Model INHN-1 INHN-3 INHN-4

KH-RT

TAB

Figure 13. Particle diameter for different injector nozzles.

Figure 13. Particle diameter for different injector nozzles.
AllAll
of of
thethe
simulation work
simulation results
work are an
results areindication of theoffurther
an indication experimental
the further tests tests
experimental
of the various injector nozzles based on different fuel injection pressures to gain a
of the various injector nozzles based on different fuel injection pressures to gain a supe-
superior combined combination of fuel injector nozzle, fuel injection pressure, and a
rior combined combination of fuel injector nozzle, fuel injection pressure, and a better
better blending ratio of WCO biodiesel operating blend fuel. These parameters of the
blending ratio of WCO biodiesel operating blend fuel. These parameters of the diesel
diesel engine characteristics were not performed in the simulation analysis but were
engine characteristics were not performed in the simulation analysis but were performed
performed experimentally.
experimentally.
4.2. Experimental Results
4.2. Experimental Results
The fuel characteristics and engine performance (BSFC and BTE) at optimum load
The fuel characteristics and engine performance (BSFC and BTE) at optimum load
circumstances were investigated using a waste cooking oil (WCO) mix fuel in the current
circumstances were investigated using a waste cooking oil (WCO) mix fuel in the current
study. The experimental findings were obtained by combining biodiesel fuels at up to
study. The experimental findings were obtained by combining biodiesel fuels at up to
three distinct blending ratios, ranging from 10% to 30% in 10-percent increments. Finally,
three distinct blending ratios, ranging from 10% to 30% in 10% increments. Finally, the fuel
the fuel properties were compared to the biodiesel specifications.
properties were compared to the biodiesel specifications.
4.2.1. Influences of Engine Load on Diesel Engine Performance and Emission Parameters
4.2.1. Influences of Engine Load on Diesel Engine Performance and Emission Parameters
The engine performance parameters can be evaluated from the engine brake torque,
The engine performance parameters can be evaluated from the engine brake torque,
brake power, brake thermal efficiency, and brake specific fuel consumption.
brake power, brake thermal efficiency, and brake specific fuel consumption.
(a) Effects on brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency;
Figure 14 illustrates that the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake-specific fuel
consumption have opposing trends (BSFC). It depicts the impact of engine load on BTE
and BSFC. The trials were conducted in order to determine the optimal load size that
would provide the best fuel economy and efficiency. The BTE increases with engine load
but reduces significantly between 80 and 100 percent loads, as can be seen. This modest
decrease could be attributed to a low extra air ratio at high engine loads, which harmed
Fuels 2022, 3 288

(a) Effects on brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency
Figure 14 illustrates that the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake-specific fuel
consumption have opposing trends (BSFC). It depicts the impact of engine load on BTE
and BSFC. The trials were conducted in order to determine the optimal load size that
would provide the best fuel economy and efficiency. The BTE increases with engine
Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 15
load but reduces significantly between 80 and 100% loads, as can be seen. This modest
decrease could be attributed to a low extra air ratio at high engine loads, which harmed
combustion [4]. In this situation, INHN-1, the BSFC, is reduced greatly, and the BTE is
boosted
boosted to
to its
its maximum
maximum at at an
an 80%
80% load.
load. The optimum load will
will be
be employed
employed for
for the
the
subsequent
subsequent execution
execution of the impacts
impacts of adjusting
adjusting the
the fuel
fuel IPs
IPs and
and INHNs
INHNs based
based on
on the
the
outcome
outcome ofof the
the 80%
80% load
load condition.
condition.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Influences
Influences of
of engine
engine load
load on
on brake
brake specific
specific fuel
fuel consumption
consumption (BSFC)
(BSFC) and
and brake
brake thermal
thermal
efficiency (BTE)
efficiency (BTE)forforvarious
varioustest
testfuels.
fuels.

(b) Engineexhaust
(b) Engine exhaustemissions
emissionsanalysis;
analysis
The incomplete
The incompleteburningburningofoffuels
fuelsthatthatdodo notnot include
include oxygen
oxygen in their
in their chemical
chemical struc-
structure
ture produces
produces carbon carbon monoxide
monoxide (CO). (CO).
The CO The CO emissions
emissions from afrom a diesel
diesel engineengine
running running on
on diesel
diesel
and and mixed
WCO WCO mixed fuelsvarious
fuels with with various
loads loads
are shownare shown in Figure
in Figure 15a. The15a. CO
Theemissions
CO emis-
sionslowered
were were lowered at higher
at higher load conditions
load conditions due todue to improved
improved fuel atomization,
fuel atomization, vapori-
vaporization,
zation, distribution,
distribution, and mixing and rate
mixing rate of injected
of injected fuel, resulting
fuel, resulting in betterin better mixing
air–fuel air–fueland mixing
the
burning of more carbon fuel [21]. The CO emissions for INHN-1
and the burning of more carbon fuel [21]. The CO emissions for INHN-1 at fuel IP 200 bar at fuel IP 200 bar were
shown to be lower
were shown when when
to be lower the loadthewas
loadincreased
was increased from 0from to 100% [4]. percent
0 to 100 The carbon dioxide
[4]. The car-
(CO ) emissions
bon2dioxide (CO2increased
) emissionsfrom 0% tofrom
increased 100%0% during
to 100% load change
during loadaschange
a resultasof starved
a result of
atomization and incorrect
starved atomization combustion.
and incorrect The change
combustion. in CO2 emissions
The change when diesel
in CO2 emissions whenfuel dieselis
utilized with changing
fuel is utilized loads isloads
with changing depicted in Figure
is depicted in15b.
Figure The15b.
trends
Thefor CO2 emissions,
trends for CO2 emis- on
the other hand, are the polar opposite;
sions, on the other hand, are the polar opposite; CO 2 emissions increased as engine load
CO2 emissions increased as engine load increased.
This could This
increased. be due to the
could be increased
due to thevolume increased of intake
volume airofinintake
the combustion
air in the chamber
combustion as
the engine load increases, pushing it to use lean mixes that resulted
chamber as the engine load increases, pushing it to use lean mixes that resulted in better in better combustion
compared
combustion to compared
low enginetoload lowsituations
engine load [5].situations [5].
Because
Because of of better
betteratomization
atomization and and combustion,
combustion, the the unburned
unburned hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon (HC)
(HC) emis-
emissions for INHN-1 at fuel IP 200 bar reduced as the load
sions for INHN-1 at fuel IP 200 bar reduced as the load increased from 0 to 100 percent. Aincreased from 0 to 100%.
A shorter
shorter igniting
igniting delay
delay will
will result
result fromfrom improved
improved atomization.
atomization. Higher
Higher temperatures
temperatures in
in the
the combustion chamber, caused by correct atomization and
combustion chamber, caused by correct atomization and evaporation, have reduced INHN-1 evaporation, have reduced
INHN-1 HC emissions
HC emissions by 0.84 mm. by Figure
0.84 mm.15c Figure
depicts15c the depicts
HC emissions the HCproduced
emissions byproduced by a
a diesel engine
diesel engine running on WCO–diesel blend fuel at various loads.
running on WCO–diesel blend fuel at various loads. This means that when the load increas- This means that when
the load
es, the HCincreases,
emissionsthe HCthe
from emissions
WCO–diesel fromblendthe WCO–diesel
fuel decrease.blend Thesefuel decrease.
decreases imply These
that
when the load is high, the fuel undergoes extra combustion, resulting in a significant reduc-
tion in HC emissions [4]. Because of the greater combustion phase, the nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions for INHN-1 at fuel IP 200 bar increased as the load was increased from 0% to 100%.
The NOx emissions for the test diesel fuel with varied loads are shown in Figure 15d. The
Fuels 2022, 3 289

decreases imply that when the load is high, the fuel undergoes extra combustion, resulting
in a significant reduction in HC emissions [4]. Because of the greater combustion phase,
the nitrogen oxide (NOx ) emissions for INHN-1 at fuel IP 200 bar increased as the load was
increased from 0% to 100%. The NOx emissions for the test diesel fuel with varied loads are
shown in Figure 15d. The data reveal that as the load increases, so do the NOx emissions.
Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 16
As the load grows, the temperature of the combustion gas rises, increasing NOx emissions.
This is because NOx production is affected by the temperature of the cylinder gas [7].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 15.
15. Influence of engine
Influence of engine load
load on
on (a)
(a) CO;
CO; (b)
(b) CO
CO2;; (c) HC; (d) NOx emissions from engine.
Figure 2 (c) HC; (d) NOx emissions from engine.

4.2.2. Influences of Injector Nozzle Number of Holes and Fuel Injection PressuresPressures on
on En-
Engine Performance
gine Performance andand Emission
Emission Parameters
Parameters
Fuel
Fuel injection pressures (IPs)
injection pressures (IPs) and
and injector
injector nozzle
nozzle number
number of of holes
holes (INHNs)
(INHNs) are
are two
two
critical parameters that affect a diesel engine’s performance and emissions.
critical parameters that affect a diesel engine’s performance and emissions. In a dieselIn a diesel
engine,
engine, the
the primary
primarydeterminants
determinantsofof combustion
combustion areare
fuelfuel
spray formation
spray and and
formation mixing rate.
mixing
Increased fuel IP results in increased fuel atomization, better spray characteristics,
rate. Increased fuel IP results in increased fuel atomization, better spray characteristics, and
a shorter physical delay period, resulting in improved premixed combustion and quick
and a shorter physical delay period, resulting in improved premixed combustion and
combustion rates, as well as improved engine performance metrics and lower CO and HC
quick combustion rates, as well as improved engine performance metrics and lower CO
emissions. A high fuel IP, on the other hand, produces delayed injection, which can result
and HC emissions. A high fuel IP, on the other hand, produces delayed injection, which
in a greater velocity of droplets going through without properly mixing the air, resulting
can result in a greater velocity of droplets going through without properly mixing the air,
in poor engine performance and higher emissions due to faulty combustion. The INHN
resulting in poor engine performance and higher emissions due to faulty combustion.
and diameter size play a role in fuel spray atomization, evaporation, distribution, and
The INHN and diameter size play a role in fuel spray atomization, evaporation, distri-
bution, and combustion. Increased INHNs result in better combustion by increasing air–
fuel mixing, fuel vaporization, and heat release rates.
(a) Effects of INHNs and fuel IPs on brake specific fuel consumption;
Figure 16a depicts the influence of INHNs and fuel IPs on BSFC in an ideal load
 220 bar. Higher BSFC values have come by increasing the fuel IP beyond 200 bar. This
could be because increasing the injection pressure reduces the size of the fuel droplets
while also increasing their momentum. As a result, excessively large increases in pres-
sure would have produced even smaller droplets, but the droplets’ motion would have
Fuels 2022, 3 caused them to impact the cylinder’s inner wall, resulting in increased fuel consumption 290
to provide the same power. Because of greater rates of air–fuel mixing in INHN-3 and
INHN-4, the BSFC decreases dramatically with increasing fuel IP until 210 bar. This in-
dicates that aIncreased
combustion. smaller diameter
INHNs result nozzleinnecessitates
better combustion a higherby injection
increasing pressure in order
air–fuel mixing, to
achieve complete combustion
fuel vaporization, and heat release rates. and reduce fuel usage. As a result, in the current condi-
tions, a fuel IP of 210 bar resulted in a reduced BSFC. It can be shown that the BSFC with
(a) Effects of INHNs and fuel IPs on brake specific fuel consumption
INHN-3 and INHN-4 and a fuel IP of 210 bar has the lowest values; thus, it can be con-
Figure
cluded from16a depicts
these studiesthethat
influence
INHN-4ofand INHNsa fuelandIP offuel
210IPs
baron yieldBSFC
lower in values.
an idealFigure
load
situation.
16a depicts Thethegoal of theof
impacts tests
fuelwas to find
INHNs onthethebestBSFCinjector
of WCO nozzle number
biodiesel of holes
(B30) blendand fuelfuel
for
injection
various IPs pressure for optimal
at 80 percent fuel economy.
operational load. At Because
210 baroffuel
the IP,
starved atomization,
the results the BSFC
reveal that BSFC
increases
dropped as asthe
INHNnozzle hole diameter
increased from one (NHD)to threeincreases.
and four Figure 16a shows
INHNs. This that
is duefortoa fuel IP
the in-
of 200 bar, the values of BSFC for INHN-1 are lower than for
creased number of holes, which improved fuel atomization and increased the fine drop- 190 bar, 210 bar, and 220 bar.
Higher BSFC values
lets of injected diesel.have come by the
At INHN-4, increasing
averagethe dropfuelinIPBSFC
beyond 200 bar.
of diesel testThis
fuel could be
was 5.62
because increasing the injection pressure reduces the size of
percent compared to INHN-3, for fuel IP of 210 bar. However, as compared to the initialthe fuel droplets while also
increasing
fuel IP of 200their momentum.
bar, the 210 bar fuelAs aIP result,
for allexcessively
INHNs resulted large increases
in a drop. in pressure would
have produced even smaller droplets, but the droplets’ motion would have caused them
(b) Effects of INHNs and fuel IPs on brake thermal efficiency;
to impact the cylinder’s inner wall, resulting in increased fuel consumption to provide
the sameFigure 16b depicts
power. Becausethe ofinfluence
greater ratesof INHNs
of air–fueland mixing
fuel IPs inonINHN-3
the BTE and of a INHN-4,
diesel enginethe
at an optimal load state for WCO mix (B30) fuel. According
BSFC decreases dramatically with increasing fuel IP until 210 bar. This indicates to the findings of INHN-1,
that a
there isdiameter
smaller an initialnozzle
increase in BTE with
necessitates an increase
a higher injection in fuel IPinfrom
pressure order190 to 200 bar,
to achieve but a
complete
decrease in and
combustion BTEreduce
with an fuelincrease
usage. inAsfuel IP from
a result, 210current
in the to 220 conditions,
bar. As a result,a fuelinIPthe current
of 210 bar
conditions, a fuel IP of 200 bar resulted in a greater BTE
resulted in a reduced BSFC. It can be shown that the BSFC with INHN-3 and INHN-4 and for INHN-1, which is the best
aoption.
fuel IP Figure
of 210 bar16bhasshows that raising
the lowest values; the fuelitIP
thus, canfrom 200 to 210from
be concluded bar BTE
theseincreased
studies that the
fuel IP by 10.36 percent and 10.96 percent at INHN-3 and INHN-4,
INHN-4 and a fuel IP of 210 bar yield lower values. Figure 16a depicts the impacts of fuel respectively. This was
due to an
INHNs on increase
the BSFCinofINHN, which resulted
WCO biodiesel (B30) blend in improved air–fuel IPs
fuel for various mixing,
at 80% fuel vaporiza-
operational
tion, At
load. and210combustion
bar fuel IP, and heat release
the results reveal thatrates. As dropped
BSFC a result, as BTE INHNrisesincreased
as the number
from one of
INHNs
to rises.four
three and TheINHNs.
smallerThis nozzle holetodiameter
is due the increased also increases
number ofthe mixing,
holes, which which is evi-
improved
denced
fuel by a shorter
atomization combustion
and increased the duration.
fine droplets As of a injected
result, the heatAt
diesel. and time losses
INHN-4, are re-
the average
duced,
drop in resulting in a greater
BSFC of diesel test fuelBTE wasand a lower
5.62% BSFC. One
compared of the nozzles
to INHN-3, for fuelwithIP ofa 210
smaller
bar.
However,
diameter (Ø as compared
0.25 mm) has to the initial fuel
enhanced IP of 200for
combustion bar,
allthe 210 test
of the bar situations,
fuel IP for resulting
all INHNs in
resulted
an increasein aindrop.
fuel conversion efficiency compared to the reference nozzle (Ø 0.84 mm).

(a) (b)
Figure16.
Figure 16.Influences
Influencesof
ofINHNs
INHNsand
andfuel
fuelIPs
IPson
onengine
engineperformance:
performance:(a)
(a)BSFC
BSFCand
and(b)
(b)BTE.
BTE.

(b) Effects of INHNs and fuel IPs on brake thermal efficiency

Figure 16b depicts the influence of INHNs and fuel IPs on the BTE of a diesel engine at
an optimal load state for WCO mix (B30) fuel. According to the findings of INHN-1, there
is an initial increase in BTE with an increase in fuel IP from 190 to 200 bar, but a decrease in
BTE with an increase in fuel IP from 210 to 220 bar. As a result, in the current conditions, a
fuel IP of 200 bar resulted in a greater BTE for INHN-1, which is the best option. Figure 16b
Fuels 2022, 3 291

shows that raising the fuel IP from 200 to 210 bar BTE increased the fuel IP by 10.36%
and 10.96% at INHN-3 and INHN-4, respectively. This was due to an increase in INHN,
which resulted in improved air–fuel mixing, fuel vaporization, and combustion and heat
release rates. As a result, BTE rises as the number of INHNs rises. The smaller nozzle hole
diameter also increases the mixing, which is evidenced by a shorter combustion duration.
As a result, the heat and time losses are reduced, resulting in a greater BTE and a lower
BSFC. One of the nozzles with a smaller diameter (Ø 0.25 mm) has enhanced combustion
for all of the test situations, resulting in an increase in fuel conversion efficiency compared
to the reference nozzle (Ø 0.84 mm).
(c) Effects of INHNs and Fuel IP on Carbon Monoxide Oxide Emission
Figure 17a depicts the influence of INHNs and fuel IPs on CO emissions for WCO
biodiesel (B30) blend fuel at an optimal load situation. CO emissions, as we all know,
are the result of incomplete combustion caused by a rich air–fuel mixture. Furthermore,
it was shown that as INHN and fuel IP increased, CO emissions reduced. This has the
added benefit of increasing the fuel IP and injector nozzle of the hole to a certain extent.
CO emissions are lower at fuel IP 210 bar and INHN-4 injector nozzle due to enhanced
atomization and proper combustion. The CO emission for B30 with INHN-4 was found
to be greater at a standard 200 bar fuel IP. In contrast, when the fuel IP was reduced to
190 bar, CO emissions rose with the identical INHN-4. However, when the fuel IP was
increased to 220 bar, the CO increased again due to the mixture’s non-uniform composition
throughout due to a lack of the air entrainment essential for achieving a stoichiometric
mixture [4]. When the fuel IP was increased from 200 to 210 bar using INHN-4, the CO
emission level dropped by 4.99%. However, when compared to 200 bar, CO emissions
for INHN-4 increased by 3.48% and decreased by 3.52% at 190 pressure and 220 bar fuel
IPs, respectively.
(d) Effect of INHNs and Fuel IP on Carbon Di-Oxides Emission
Figure 17b shows the influence of INHNs and fuel IPs on CO2 emissions at an ideal
load situation for WCO biodiesel (B30) blend fuel. CO2 emissions, as we all know, are
the result of incomplete combustion caused by a rich air–fuel mixture. Furthermore, it
was discovered that as INHNs and fuel IPs grew, CO2 emissions increased. This has the
added benefit of allowing the fuel IP to be increased up to a specific limit. CO2 emissions
are reduced at fuel IP 220 bar and INHN-4, owing to better atomization and appropriate
combustion. Using the standard INHN-1, increasing the fuel IP to 210 bar increases CO2
emissions from diesel fuel. The CO2 emission increased by 6.16% at fuel IP 210 bar, and by
4.75% at 220 bar, compared to 200 bar fuel IP and INHN-4 lowered the proportion of CO2
emission at standard conditions due to incorrect combustion [4]. CO2 emissions increased
as INHN was raised, according to the findings. As a result, fuel atomization increases,
resulting in more carbon being burned and more CO2 emissions. When compared to
the optimal working fuel IP of 210 bar utilizing INHN-3, CO2 emissions from diesel fuel
increased by 4.23% at INHN-4 but decreased by 11.46% at INHN-1.
(e) Effect of INHNs and Fuel IP on Hydrocarbon Emissions
Figure 17c shows the effects of INHNs and fuel IP on HC emissions at an ideal load
situation for WCO biodiesel (B30) blend fuel. We know that low fuel velocity that is
insufficient to penetrate the air spray creates HC emissions, resulting in inappropriate
air–fuel mixing and a decreased equivalency ratio. The HC emissions are lower at a
fuel IP of 210 bar and an INHN-4 injector nozzle due to the enhanced atomization and
appropriate combustion. Improved atomization will also result in a shorter igniting time [4].
Unburned HC is formed as a result of incorrect fuel combustion in the combustion chamber.
The graphs below show that with 0.25 mm of INHN-4 and B30 fuel, HC production is
significantly reduced. When the orifice diameter is reduced, the high temperature is
increased, and the fuel is completely burned in the combustion chamber. Because of the
harder reaction induced by the decreased temperature in the combustion chamber, which
Fuels 2022, 3 292

is caused by poor atomization and evaporation. It can be perceived that the HC emission
for diesel fuel decreases considerably with a rise in fuel IP up to 210 bar, from the standard
200 bar. While, with an increase of fuel IP from 210 bar to 220 bar, HC emissions increased
Fuels 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW slightly. The HC emissions of the operating fuel were increased by 9.49% and 4.57% when19it
was worked at 200 bar and 220 bar, respectively, compared to 210 bar fuel IP and INHN-4.
(f) Effects of INHNs and Fuel IP on Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions
Figure
Figure17d 17dshows
showsthe theinfluence
influenceof of INHNs
INHNsand andfuel
fuel IPs
IPs on
on NO
NOXx emissions
emissionsfor forWCO
WCO
biodiesel
biodiesel(B30)
(B30) blend
blend fuel
fuel at
at an
an ideal
ideal load
load situation.
situation. TheTheoxidation
oxidationof ofnitrogen
nitrogenat at peak
peak
combustion
combustiontemperature
temperatureproduces
produces NO NOXx emissions
emissions[4].
[4].The
TheNO NOXxemissions
emissionswere wereobserved
observed
to
tobe
be rising
rising for
for every INHN operation,
operation, with
withaarise
risein
infuel
fuelIPIPup
uptotoa aspecific
specificlimit
limitbecause
because of
of rapid combustion and higher temperatures attained in the cycle, as illustrated
rapid combustion and higher temperatures attained in the cycle, as illustrated in Figure 17d. in Fig-
ure 17d. However,
However, atof
at a fuel IP a 210
fuelbar
IP for
of 210 bar for
INHN-1 andINHN-1
220 bar and 220 bar and
for INHN-3 for INHN-3
4, the NOand 4, the
x emission
NO X emission
starts decreasing.starts
Thedecreasing. The INHN-4
INHN-4 delivers superiordelivers
air andsuperior
fuel mixingair and
and,fuel mixinggreater
therefore, and,
therefore,
premixedgreater premixed
combustion combustion
happens, resultinghappens, resulting
in a slight rise inin NO
a slight rise in NO
x emissions. emis-
ItXcan be
sions. It can
perceived be with
that perceived that
a rise of with
fuel a rise200
IP from of to
fuel
210IPbar,
fromfor200 to 210the
INHN-4 bar,
NO for
x INHN-4
emission the
was
increased
NO X emission by 5.43%, while increasing
was increased by 5.43 the fuel IPwhile
percent, to 220 bar caused
increasing thethe NOIP
fuel x emission
to 220 bar to
marginally decrease by 7.76%.
caused the NOX emission to marginally decrease by 7.76 percent.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure17.
17.Effects of fuel
Effects IPs IPs
of fuel andand
INHNs on: (a)
INHNs on:CO;
(a)(b)
CO;CO(b)
2; (c) HC, and (d) NOx emissions from en-
CO2 ; (c) HC, and (d) NOx emissions
gine.
from engine.

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
Some
Someofofthe
themost
mostcritical
criticalfindings of of
findings thethe
numerical simulation
numerical are are
simulation stated as follows:
stated as follows:
(a) The cavitation intensity for INHN-4 was higher than for INHN-1 and INHN-3 for the
same injection period, according to the nozzle flow simulation findings;
(b) The particle size of the INHN-4 was smaller than that of the INHN-1 due to higher
aerodynamic effects in the INHN-4, which might have reduced droplet size, resulting in
a larger cloud formation after secondary breakage;
Fuels 2022, 3 293

(a) The cavitation intensity for INHN-4 was higher than for INHN-1 and INHN-3 for the
same injection period, according to the nozzle flow simulation findings;
(b) The particle size of the INHN-4 was smaller than that of the INHN-1 due to higher
aerodynamic effects in the INHN-4, which might have reduced droplet size, resulting
in a larger cloud formation after secondary breakage;
(c) The INHN-4’s spray tip penetration was less than the INHN-1’s. Because the INHN-
1’s spray widths and cone angles were smaller, this was the case.
The engine’s fuel economy is critical. The following conclusions are formed based on
the findings of the experimental investigation:
(a) As the number of injector holes and fuel IPs increased, the BTE also increased, and
the BSFC fell until the INHNs and fuel IPs reached a predetermined limit. INHN-4,
on the other hand, has a 3.16% greater BTE at 210 bar. As a result, boosting injection
pressure and hole count had a significant impact on engine performance;
(b) The CO, CO2 , and HC emissions for INHN-3 and INHN-4 at optimum load were
determined to be lowest at 210 bar and 200 bar for INHN-1, respectively. The CO
emissions for INHN-4 were 5.58%, 18.82%, and 19.68% lower, respectively, while
the HC emissions were 8.88%, 17.49%, and 8.59% lower than for INHN-3 at 200 bar,
210 bar, and higher 220 bar fuel IP. When compared to higher pressures of 200 bar,
210 bar, and lower pressures of 220 bar, NOx emissions were 6.79%, 5.43%, and 7.76%,
while CO2 emissions were 6.65%, 10.28%, and 5.80%, respectively;
(c) For WCO biodiesel blend fuel, the BTE and BSFC are improved with increased INHNs
and fuel IPs;
(d) With increased INHNs and fuel IPs, CO, and HC exhaust emissions are reduced,
whereas CO2 and NOx emissions are somewhat increased;
(e) Increasing fuel IP from 200 to 210 bar for WCO biodiesel blend fuel with INHN-4
provided the preeminent outcome for the engine performance parameters.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.B.A. and M.W.M.; methodology, M.B.A. and M.W.M.;
software, M.B.A.; investigation, M.B.A. and M.W.M.; resources, M.B.A. and M.W.M.; data curation,
M.B.A.; writing, M.B.A. and M.W.M.; supervision, M.W.M.; project administration M.B.A. and
M.W.M.; funding acquisition, M.B.A. and M.W.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors would like to recognize Ethiopian Defence University, College of Engineering.
Data Availability Statement: The dataset used in this research are available upon request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
BP Brake Power (kW)
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption (kg/kWh)
bTDC Before top dead center
BTE Brake thermal efficiency (%)
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
CI Compression ignition
CR Compression ratio
DI Direct Injection
INHN Injector nozzle hole number
IP Injection pressure (bar)
IT Injection timing (◦ CA)
NHD Nozzle hole diameter
WCO Waste Cooking Oil
100D Neat diesel fuel
Fuels 2022, 3 294

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