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Gymnosperm Diversity of Kashmir Himalaya

Chapter · January 2017

DOI: 10.1079/9781780646947.0228

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12 Gymnosperm Diversity of the

Kashmir Himalayas
Mohd Irfan Naikoo1*, Mudasir Irfan Dar1, Fareed Ahmad
Khan1, Abid Ali Ansari2, Farha Rehman1 and Fouzia
Nousheen3
1
Environmental Botany Laboratory, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
Uttar Pradesh, India; 2Department of Biology, ­Faculty of Science, University of
Tabuk,Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; 3Department of Botany, Women’s College, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract
The Kashmir is rich in biodiversity and is known as the biomass state of India (Lawrence, 1895). Phytogeographically
located at the Holarctic and Paleotropical intersection in the North-Western Himalaya, this bio-region harbours luxurious
treasures of plant diversity. The Kashmir region is rich in gymnosperm diversity, which forms an important component,
floristically, ecologically and socio-economically: it is known as the green gold of the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Gymnosperms harbour a rich diversity of flora and fauna under their canopies. They are the rich source of diverse eco-
nomic and medicinal products, providing innumerable products, including timber, fuel, gums, resins, medicines and many
more useful products, besides acting as effective wind-breaks, especially the evergreen species, which also slow soil erosion
and protect watersheds. The single giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), the state tree of California, which grows
at Yarikhah Drug Farm (Tangmarg) in Kashmir Valley is the lone representative in the India subcontinent. Due to their
immense importance, the gymnosperms have been overexploited by the human population. Sustainable management and
conservation of these gymnosperms is urgently required. Anthropogenic activities should be checked and the stake holders
educated about the proper harvesting of gymnosperm flora for different uses.

12.1  Introduction
The Kashmir Himalayas are world famous for their
picturesque appearance, and are known as paradise
on earth (Vigne, 1842). Kashmir, endowed with rich
biodiversity, is referred to as the biomass state of
India (Lawrence, 1895). Phytogeographically, this bio-­
region, situated between the Holarctic and Paleotropical
intersections in the North-Western Himalaya, har-
bours luxurious treasures of floristic diversity.
Geological evidence (Puri, 1943; Puri, 1947;
Vishnu-Mittre, 1963) reveals that the once-tropical
flora of Kashmir Himalaya changed into a mix of
subtropical-temperate-alpine flora after the Little
Ice Age. Gradually flora from a large number of
places found entry into the Kashmir Himalayas
through natural dispersion or by anthropogenic
means; the existing flora is therefore a mix of adja-
cent phytogeographical regions with a proportion
of endemics (Dar and Khuroo, 2013).
Plant exploration in the Kashmir Himalayas
dates back to 1812, when a (non-botanist) British
veterinary surgeon William Moorcroft collected a
bundle of plants. The first botanical collection was
made in 1831 by Victor Jacquemont, who was sent
by the National Museum of France (Stewart, 1979).
Since then a number of botanists have explored and

*E-mail: mdirfanmsbo@gmail.com

228 © CAB International 2017. Plant Biodiversity: Monitoring, Assessment and Conservation
(eds A.A. Ansari, S.S. Gill, Z.K. Abbas and M. Naeem)
 ©CAB International 2017 – for the personal use of Chapter 12 authors
documented the plant wealth growing along a vari-
ety of vast topographical gradients of this region.
This plant life shows a huge diversity, ranging from
minute algae to huge plants such as Eucalyptus.
The gymnosperms form an important floristic
component, due to their extreme ecological and
socio-economic value (Dar and Dar, 2006a). Despite
this, the taxonomy of gymnosperms has been neglected
in India, particularly in the Kashmir Himalayas.
Even Hooker (1888), who was the first to study
gymnosperms in India, showed little interest in this
region. Since then, Lambert (1933), Dhar (1966, 1975),
Dhar (1978), Stewart (1972), Javeid (1970, 1979), Singh
and Kachroo (1976), Sahni (1990), Dar et al. (2002),
Dar and Dar (2006a, 2006b), Dar and Christensen
(2003), and Dar (A.R. Dar, Taxonomic study on gym-
nosperms in Kashmir. Department of Botany,
University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir,
India, 2004, unpublished thesis) have made strenu-
ous efforts to fill the gap. The sum of their work is
detailed in this chapter.
12.2  Gymnosperms – the Green Gold
of Jammu and Kashmir
In the state of Jammu and Kashmir, the Kashmir val-
ley has the largest area of forest cover (about 50% of
its geographical area is under forests). These are
mainly temperate and occur between 1600 and 2700 m.
The temperate forests comprise mainly the conifers,
such as Himalayan Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Blue
Pine (Pinus wallichiana), Silver Fir (Abies pindrow),
Spruce (Picea smithiana) and the Himalayan Yew
(Taxus wallichiana), associated with some broad-leaved
trees, herbs and shrubs. Beyond the temperate forests,
between 2700 and 3500 m, are the subalpine forests.
The Silver Fir is dominant in the subalpine forests in
the lower reaches, and the Birch (Betula utilis) can be
found above 3200 m, and forms the tree line in the
Kashmir Himalaya. Above the tree line is alpine scrub
vegetation, comprising mainly species of Juniperus,
Salix, Cotoneaster, Lonicera and Rhododendron.
The mountain slopes at the alpine and subalpine
altitudes have lush green meadows (Nayyeh or Bahaks)
with characteristic herbaceous plants species such as
Aconitum, Iris, Ranunculus, Pedicularis, Aquilegia,
Gentiana, and Potentilla.
Gymnosperms dominate in the forests of the
Kashmir Himalayas, and because of their high eco-
nomic importance are known as the green gold of
the state of Jammu and Kashmir. They are the source
of diverse economic and medicinal products,
Gymnosperm Diversity of the Kashmir Himalayas
­ roviding innumerable products including timber,
p
fuel, resins, gums, important medicines and many
more useful products, besides acting as effective
wind-breaks, especially the evergreen species, and
are important for soil-erosion control and protec-
tion of watersheds. The cones of some gymnosperms
are a source of food for wildlife and some gymno-
sperms are used as ornamental plants in gardens
and parks.
The gymnosperm species, though only a few grow
wild, dominate the coniferous forests of the Kashmir
Himalayan region. Due to the low number of gym-
nosperm species, species richness is well docu-
mented and described for this region (Dar and Dar,
2006a). A huge single tree of the gigantic sequoia
(Sequoiadendron giganteum) growing at Yarikhah,
Tangmarg in Kashmir is the lone representative
of the state tree of California in the Indian
subcontinent.
There have been extensive studies carried out by
various workers to collect information about the
diversity of gymnosperms in Kashmir Valley. The
summary the sum up of their findings follows.
A total of 20 species belonging to six families
(Pinaceae, Cupressaceae, Taxodiaceae, Taxaceae,
Ginkgoaceae and Ephedraceae) of gymnosperms
have been so far reported from the Kashmir
Himalayas. These species have been arranged
alphabetically within their families, with their cor-
rect name, synonyms, English name, vernacular/
local names, short description, distribution, where
specimens were examined and economic impor-
tance (Lone, 2013).
12.3  Pinaceae
The Pinaceae family is represented by six genera in
India: Abies, Cedrus, Larix, Picea, Pinus and Tsuga,
including 14 species. In Kashmir, seven species belonging
to four genera of this family have been reported so far.
12.3.1  Abies pindrow
Royle III. Bot. Himal.T.86, pp: 350–351 1839.
English name: West Himalayan Silver Fir.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Badul; Urdu:
budlu.
Evergreen trees (45–55 m tall) with a narrow cylin-
drical crown of horizontally drooping branches;
bark greyish-brown with longitudinal fissures. Shoot
monomorphic. Leaves linear, flattened, spirally
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spread, two greyish bands of stomata on either side
of shallow midrib. Cones erect or cylindrical.
Distribution: Jhelum, Lolab Valley and Sindh Valley.
Specimens examined: Forest slopes of Thajwas,
2900 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2002); Narang
forests, 1900 m by A.R. Dar (2002); Forests of
Akhal, 2250 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2002)
and Prang Forests, 1950 m by G.H. Dar (1993).
Economic importance: Wood soft, easily worked,
good surface finishing, very polishable and paintable,
suitable for joinery and furniture, building construc-
tion and for packing cases. Branches are burnt as fuel
for cooking. Fresh leaves, ground and mixed with
equal quantity of honey, are used for curing cough
and cold. Bark used by nomads as a tea substitute.
12.3.2  Abies spectabilis
(D. Don) Spach. Hist. Nat. Veg. Phan. 2: 422.1842
Pinus spectabilis D.Don.
Abies webbiana Lindl.
English name: Himalayan Silver Fir, Webb Fir.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Reia Badul;
Hindi: Bang.
Tall evergreen tree (50–60 m tall) with dense cylin-
drical crown of pendulous branches; bark dark-­
brown and less deeply fissured than Abies pindrow.
Shoots monomorphic and hairy. Leaves are flattened,
linear and arranged in three or four rows on each
side of branchlet. Cones always erect and shorter
than Abies pindrow. Male cones are solitary and
cylindrical. Female cones are solitary, ovoid-oblong
and sub-sessile. Seeds are winged.
Distribution: Hills of Kashmir, Aru Valley Pahalgam
Specimens examined: Dachigam (Kashmir), 2700
m by Gurcharan Singh (1971).
Economic importance: Wood is used for ceilings,
framing, decking, panelling, mill work, furniture parts,
floor boards and packing cases. The dried leaves
are used to cure indigestion and to stop bleeding.
A powder, made from the leaves along with juice of
Adhatoda zeylanica and honey, is used for asthma.
The juice of fresh leaves is given to infants suffering
from fever and chest infection.
12.3.3  Cedrus deodara
(Roxb ex. Lamb) G. Don in London. Hort. Brit.
3888.1830.
230
Pinus deodara Roxb.
Cedrus libani Barr.
English name: Deodar, Himalayan cedar.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: deodar; Urdu:
Deodar.
Large evergreen pyramidal (40–60 m tall) tree with
horizontal branches and massive trunk, 3–5 m in
girth; bark brown often greyish or reddish, deeply
furrowed with irregular or oblong plates. Shoots
dimorphic. Leaves needle-like, glaucous green and
in clusters, stiff, acuminate with stomatal lining on
both sides. Flowers monoecious. Male cones soli-
tary, cylindrical, composed of spirally overlapping
microsporophylls. Female cones reddish-brown,
solitary, barrel-shaped. Seeds winged.
Distribution: Lolab Valley, Kralpora forests.
Specimens examined: Fourbay forest slopes,
Ganderbal, 1800 m; Kashmir university campus,
1600 m; Shankaracharya forest slopes, 1650 m;
The forest slopes of Chandanwari (Uri), 1500 m by
A.R Dar and G.H. Dar (2002).
Economic importance: Deodar is one of the most
important assets of the Kashmir Himalaya. Being
the strongest among Indian coniferous woods, it
produces valuable timber, which is in high demand.
Wood is used for construction of buildings, rail-
way sleepers, bridges, furniture, packing cases,
electrical poles for carrying high-tension lines and
several other purposes. It is also used for construc-
tion of boats, as it is fairly water-resistant.
Reddish-brown oil extracted from its wood is
used for treating skin disorders, ulcers and rheu-
matic pain. It is also used as an antidote for snake
bites, and is applied to animals’ bodies to repel
insects, tics and mites.
12.3.4  Picea smithiana
(Wall.) Boiss. Fl. Or 5: 700. 1881.
Piceae morinda Link.
Pinus smithiana Wall.
English name: Western Himalayan Spruce.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Kachul, Rayal.
Large evergreen pyramidal tree (50–55 m tall)
with drooping branches and tapering trunk 5–8 m
in girth; bark reddish- or pale grey, rough, exfoli-
ating in thin woody plates. Shoots monomorphic.
Leaves needle-like, single, spirally spread around
Mohd Irfan Naikoo, Mudasir Irfan Dar et al.
 ©CAB International 2017 – for the personal use of Chapter 12 authors
the branches. Male cones solitary, short-stalked
and ovoid. Female cones solitary, long-stalked,
cylindrical, pendulous and dark brown. Seeds
winged.
Distribution: Jehlum, Lolab, Sindh Valley.
Specimens examined: The forests of Gulmarg, 2800
m; Narang forests, 1900 m; Akhal forests, 2250 m
by G.H. Dar and A.H. Dar (2002); Ganderbal for-
ests, 1850 m by G.H. Dar (1982).
Economic importance: The main use of Picea
smithiana is for pulpwood. Wood is used for build-
ing construction, general mill works, framing mate-
rial and for boxes. Oleoresin is applied on wounds
and cracked heels. Leaves used as bath salts; leaf oil
used as deodorants and room sprays. Leaves are
also used as manure and litter for cattle.
12.3.5  Pinus halepensis
Miller, Gard. Dict. Ed. 8:8.1768
Pinus arabica Sieber ex Spreng. 1826
Pinus maritima Aiton 1813 non Mill. 1768
English name: Aleppo pine.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Yaer.
Small to medium-sized tree, 15–25 m tall, with a
straight trunk (60–100 cm in diameter). Bark thick
and reddish-brown and linearly fissured. Shoots
dimorphic. Leaves are needle-like, in fascicles of
two, twisted, edges minutely serrate and yellowish-
green in colour. Stomatal lining on both surfaces.
Male cones in clusters, short-stalked, ovate or
cylindrical, containing spirally overlapping micro-
sporophylls. Female cones are solitary, or 2–3
together, short-stalked, Ovate, conical, dark-brown.
Seeds winged (Dallimore et al. 1967).
Pinus halepensis exists only in cultivation in Kashmir.
Distribution: Srinagar, Gulmarg.
Specimens examined: Hill slopes of Shankaracharaya,
1650 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2003); Gulmarg,
2800 m by Manju Kapoor.
Economic importance: Wood, being poor in qual-
ity, resinous and coarse-grained, is not recom-
mended for construction purposes, but is used for
making inferior joinery, boxes, etc., and as fuel.
A good-quality resin is obtained from it. The bark,
being highly resistant, is used for tanning. The trees
are planted to reduce soil erosion and as
wind-breaks.
Gymnosperm Diversity of the Kashmir Himalayas
12.3.6  Pinus roxburghii
Sargent, Silva.N.Amer.11.1897.
Pinus longifolia Roxb.
English name: Chir pine.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Kairoo; Hindi:
Dhup; Urdu: Chir.
Large evergreen resinous tree (45–55 m tall) with
straight trunk, 1–2 m in girth and spreading
umbrella shaped crown. Bark brownish-red and
deeply furrowed. Shoots dimorphic. Leaves are
needle-like, in fascicles of three, very slender, persis-
tent (1–3 years) and bright green.
Male cones in clusters, ovoid conic with numerous,
stalkless, spirally overlapping microsporophylls.
Female cones are solitary or 2–5 together, oval,
short-stalked and brownish-red. Seeds winged.
Scales woody with a curved ‘beak’.
Distribution: Shankaracharya hill, Kashmir
University.
Jehlum, Lidder, Lolab and Sindh Valleys.
Specimens examined: Botanical Garden, University
of Kashmir, 1600 m; Lalpul, Uri forests, 1200 m;
Hill slopes of Shankaracharaya by G.H. Dar and
A.H. Dar (2003).
Economic importance: Wood is moderately hard,
heavy and resinous. It is used in the construction of
buildings, huts, etc. It is also used for making boxes
and as firewood. Soft bark is used for tanning.
Resin obtained from P. roxburghii is of substantial
commercial importance. Resin yield is high and the
plants are systematically tapped to get resin, which
is applied to cracked heels, and is also used for skin
diseases and to soothe inflammation. It is also used
for wounds, burns, sores, boils, etc. The turpentine
extracted from the resin is diuretic, antiseptic, ver-
mifuge and rubefacient, a valuable remedy for kid-
ney and bladder ailments, diseases of the mucous
membranes and respiratory disorders such as influ-
enza, coughs, colds and TB. Raw or cooked seeds
are eaten as emergency food.
12.3.7  Pinus wallichiana
A.B Jackson in Kew Bull: 85. 1938.
Pinus excelsa Wall.
English name: Himalayan blue pine.
Vernacular/Local name: Kashmiri: kaeur; Urdu:
Kairo; Hindi: Chilla.
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 ©CAB International 2017 – for the personal use of Chapter 12 authors
Graceful evergreen tree (35–50 m tall) with straight
trunk, 2–4 m in girth and downward-curving
branches. When solitary, the larger branches form a
dome-like crown. Bark grey-brown, initially smooth,
but becomes shallowly fissured over time, forming
oblong or ovoid plates. Shoots dimorphic. Leaves
needle-like, in fascicles of five, persistent (3–4 years),
7–14 cm long, glaucous, green on abaxial side and
multiple bluish-white stomatal lines on ventral side.
Male cones in clusters, ovoid conic and short-stalked
with numerous, stalkless, spirally overlapping micro-
sporophylls. Female cones solitary or 2–3 together,
terminal or subterminal in position, cylindrical,
about 5 cm stalked, light brown. Seeds winged.
Scales woody with slight, obtuse tips.
Distribution: Lolab Valley, Gulmarg, Sonamarg,
Aharbal, Lidder Valley.
Specimens examined: Aharbal, 2850 m; Sonamarg
forests, 2800 m; Pahalgam forests, 2134 m; Boniyar
forests, 1550 m; by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2002);
Narang forests, 1900 m by A.R. Dar (2002)
Economic importance: Wood is moderately hard,
durable and rich in resin. It is used in building con-
struction, furniture, railway sleepers, bridges, car-
pentry, paper pulp and firewood. Cones are also
used as firewood, and the residue as charcoal. The
resinous wood is splintered and used as torches.
Oleoresin obtained from blue pine is applied on
cracked heels. In rural areas of Kashmir, a dark-
brown, viscous substance called kellum is obtained
from the wood and applied by farmers to their
limbs to protect against insect bites (Khanze is the
local/Kashmiri term for insect bites) while trans-
planting paddy in water lodged fields. Kellum is
later removed with kerosene oil.
12.4  Cupressaceae
The family Cupressaceae comprises about 20 genera
with 130 species, of which 11 are found in the Indian
subcontinent. In Kashmir, seven species belonging to
three genera of this family have been reported.
12.4.1  Cupressus cashmeriana
Royle ex Carriere Trait Gen. Conif. ed. 2: 161.1867.
Cupressus assamica
Cupressus darjeelingensis
English name: Kashmir Cypress.
232
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Sarva.
Graceful, pyramidal evergreen tree (15–20 m tall)
with straight trunk, 1–1.5 m in girth and tapering
gradually. Bark is fissured superficially and light
brown in colour. The bark peels off in longitudinal
strips. The leaves are opposite decussate, tightly
appressed, scale-like and bluish-green in colour.
Male cones are solitary, ovoid in shape, terminal in
position and composed of 5–10 pairs of micro-
sporophylls. Female cones are solitary, globular or
spherical, faint brown with obvious white bloom.
The cones open and shed their seeds on maturity.
Distribution: Srinagar, lower Lidder Valley forests,
Ganderbal.
Specimens examined: Behama, Ganderbal forests,
1800 m; Rangil rocky slopes, 1850 m; by A.R. Dar
and G.H. Dar (2002). University of Kashmir Campus,
1600 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2003).
Economic importance: Cupressus cashmeriana  is
widely grown as an ornamental plant. It is an ave-
nue tree planted in parks and gardens. In addition
to its glaucous blue beauty, it is very aromatic and
hangs in pendulous, flat sprays.
12.4.2  Cupressus sempervirens
Linn. Sp.Pl. 1002. 1753.
Cupressus sempervirens Pyramidalis.
Cupressus sempervirens stricta.
English name: Mediterranean Cypress.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Sarva; Urdu: saro
Medium-sized coniferous evergreen tree (10–20 m
tall) with a conic crown.  The dark-green foliage
grows in dense sprays. Bark is shallowly fissured
and greyish-brown in colour. The leaves are scale-
like, opposite decussate, tightly appressed, margin
entire and incurving and dark green in colour. The
cones are ovoid or oblong, green at first and brown
at maturity. The male cones are solitary, ovate cylin-
drical in shape, terminal in position and composed
of 5–10 pairs of microsporophylls. Female cones are
solitary or in 2–3 together, globular or spherical,
deep brown, containing 6–8 pairs of fused bract and
ovuliferous scales. Seeds winged.
Distribution: Srinagar, lower Lidder Valley forests,
Ganderbal.
Specimens examined: Rangil forest slopes, 1850 m by
A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2002); Kashmir University
Campus, 1600 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2003).
Mohd Irfan Naikoo, Mudasir Irfan Dar et al.
 ©CAB International 2017 – for the personal use of Chapter 12 authors
Economic importance: Cupressus sempervirens is an
ornamental plant and known for its durable, fragrant
wood. Wood is used for building construction and
furniture purposes. The doors of St Peter’s Basilica in
Vatican City are made from this wood. The wood is
repellent to insects and is used to keep them away
from clothes and other articles. Essential oil extracted
from leaves and shoots is used in cosmetics. It is used
as a fragrance, and for anti-­seborrhoeic, anti-dandruff,
astringent and anti-ageing purposes.
12.4.3  Cupressus torulosa
D. Don. Prodr. Fp. Nep. 55. 1825.
English name: Himalayan Cypress.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Sarva; Hindi:
Surai.
A large evergreen tree (23–35 m tall) with trunk
1–2 m in girth and pyramidal crown with drooping
branches. Bark is thick, fissured superficially and
pale brown or reddish-brown in colour. The bark
peels off in long, thin strips. The leaves are dark
green, scale-like, opposite and decussate, triangular
closely appressed with margins entire and slightly
curved. Male cones are solitary, subglobular in shape,
terminal in position and composed of 6–8 pairs
of imbricate microsporophylls. Female cones are
solitary or grouped on very short stalks, elliptic or
globose, green when young, later turning dark
brown and composed of 6–10 pairs of opposite
and decussate bracts and ovuliferous scales. Seeds
pale brownish and winged.
Distribution: Srinagar, Ganderbal, Lidder Valley.
Specimens examined: Beehama forest slopes,
Ganderbal 1800 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar
(2002) and Botanical Garden, University of Kashmir,
1600 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2003).
Economic importance: Wood of Cupressus toru-
losa is moderately hard and very durable. It is a
prime quality timber with straight grain and fine
texture, resistant to termites and insects. It is con-
sidered as equivalent to deodar. It is used for gen-
eral construction, railway sleepers, window frames,
fine art articles, doors, cabinet work, office furni-
ture, ceilings, etc. The wood is aromatic, especially
the root. The essential oil extracted from Cupressus
torulosa has a medicinal importance, and is used
to cure inflammatory wounds and as an antiseptic.
It is also used for cosmetics. It is the best timber for
making pencils. Traditionally, it has been used for
Gymnosperm Diversity of the Kashmir Himalayas
the construction of Buddhist temples and religious
wood carving. The plant is burnt as incense.
12.4.4  Juniperus communis
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1040. 1753.
English name: Common juniper, red cedar
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Yathur, Vaitro;
Hindi: Jhora, Billa, Bhitaru; Urdu: Bhentri.
Juniperus communis is a small coniferous evergreen
tree (2–4 m tall, but occasionally 10 m), multi-
stemmed, decumbent or rarely upright, with spread-
ing or ascending branches. Bark is brown, fibrous,
that of small branchlets (4–10 mm diameter) is smooth,
exfoliating in strips, or in plates for larger branches.
The leaves are green, when glaucous appearing sil-
very, spreading, in whorls of three, joined at base,
needle-like to narrowly lance-shaped, subulate, with
a single white stomatal band on the inner surface,
apex acute to obtuse and mucronate. Male cones
are yellow, solitary, catkin-like and cylindrical in
shape and composed of 6–8 pairs of opposite and
decussate microsporophylls. They fall after shed-
ding their pollen. Female cones are solitary, berry-
like, initially green and purple-black when ripe,
globose and composed of 3–4 pairs of opposite and
decussate bracts and ovuliferous scales, each scale
with a single seed.
Distribution: Lolab Valley, Dachigam, Lidder
Valley, Jehlum and Sindh Valley.
Specimens examined: Fourbay, Ganderbal forests,
1800 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2002); Sonamarg,
2800 m by A.R. Dar (2002); Khilanmarg, Gulmarg,
3000 m by U. Dhar (1980) and Sangam slopes,
3600 m by U. Dhar (1982).
Economic importance: Wood is mainly used as fuel.
Juniper leaves and twigs are burnt as a fumigant
and incense. The essential oil extracted from it is
used in perfumes. The ripe fruits are aromatic, anti-
septic, diaphoretic, strongly diuretic, rubefacient,
and tonic. Juniper fruits are used in herbal medicine
and are useful in the treatment of digestive disor-
ders, stomach cramping, piles, diarrhoea, dysentery,
and infections of the urinary tract, bladder, kidneys
and prostate. The berries of juniper have anti-
inflammatory properties and are used for relieving
pain and inflammation in chronic arthritis, gout
and rheumatism. Berries, wood and oil of juniper
are reported to be used in remedies for cancer, indu-
rations, polyps, swellings, tumours and warts.
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12.4.5  Juniperus semiglobosa
Regel. Trudy Imp. S-Peterbursk. Bot. Sada. 6(2):
487–488. 1879.
Juniperus drobovii Sumnev.
English name: Himalayan pencil juniper, cedar
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: shir, challai;
Hindi: Dhup.
Juniperus semiglobosa is a medium-sized evergreen
coniferous shrub (6–15 m tall), usually monopodial, but
sometimes multi-stemmed. Bark is reddish-­brown
to grey-brown, fibrous, longitudinally furrowed
and peeling off in long strips. The leaves are light
green to yellowish-green in colour, scale-like,
appressed, accuminate and opposite decussate in
arrangement. Male cones are solitary, terminal or
subterminal, cylindrical, initially green, turning yel-
lowish, and composed of 6–10 microsporophylls.
Female cones are solitary, terminal or subterminal
on ultimate branchlets, when young, they are stel-
late or spheroid and dark green. Mature cones are
semiglobose to triangular and brown to blackish-
blue in colour. 1–2 fertile seeds per cone.
Distribution: Lidder Valley, Kokernag, Sonamarg,
Gulmarg, Lolab Valley, Ganderbal
Specimens examined: Chittergul forests, 1900 m;
Sonamarg forests, 2800 m; Gagangir slopes, 2200 m;
Kangan, 2300 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar (2002).
Economic importance: the wood of Juniperus semi-
globosa is very hard and is used in furniture and
pencil making. The wood is fragrant and is burnt as
incense in monasteries. It is also used as fuel and
charcoal.
12.4.6  Juniperus squamata
Buch-Han ex. D.Don in Lambert, Genus Pinus, II:
17. 1824.
Juniperus recurva Buch-Ham
English name: Weeping blue juniper.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Yathu, Vaitro.
Juniperus squamata is an evergreen shrub or small
tree (2–10m tall), multi-stemmed with prostrate to
irregularly conical crown. Bark is scaly, flaky,
brown and peels off in longitudinal strips. Leaves
are sharply pointed, awl-shaped, bifacial, acumi-
nate and often strongly glaucous blue-green in
colour. Flowers monoecious or dioecious. Male
cones are solitary, axillary in position, short-stalked
234
and globose in shape. Female cones are also solitary,
axillary in position, ovoid and composed of opposite
and decussate bracts and ovuliferous scales. Each
cone contains one seed.
Distribution: Lolab Valley, Dachigam, Keran,
Gulmarg, Sonamarg.
Specimens examined: Apharwat slopes, 3700 m and
Sonamarg forests, 2800 m by A.R. Dar (2002);
Razdani Open Slopes by Dhar, Yousf, Gupta (1981);
Nilnai rocky mountain slopes, 3650–3900 m and Zojila
mountain slopes, 3500 m by G.H. Dar (1983).
Economic importance: The wood of Juniperus squa-
mata is essentially used as fuel in alpine ranges, as
no other arboreals grow there. The female cone is of
great medicinal importance. Berries are used for
treating stomach disorders. It is also burnt as incense.
12.4.7  Thuja orientalis
Linn., Sp. Pl.: 1002.1753; ed. 2; 1422.1763.
English name: White cedar
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Sarva
Thuja orientalis is a beautiful oval or pyramid-shaped
evergreen shrub 2–10 m tall. The bark is smooth,
brownish, superficially fissured, with papery scales.
The terminal shoots are divided into a spray of
branchlets covered by dark green, closely appressed,
acute, opposite and decussate leaves. Male cones
are usually solitary and terminal in position, short-
stalked and ovoid and bear 4–6 pairs of microspro-
phylls arranged decussately. Female cones are either
solitary or arranged in groups of two or more, reddish-­
brown and bear 3–5 pairs of opposite and decussate,
fused bract and ovuliferous scales. Seeds are wing-
less (Biswas and Johri, 2004).
Distribution: Local gardens and parks of Kashmir.
Specimens examined: University of Kashmir,
Botanical garden, 1600 m by A.R. Dar (1983) and
G.H. Dar; Kashmir University Campus, 1600 m by
G.N. Javeid (1970).
Economic importance: Thuja orientalis is an exotic
and is used as an ornamental plant in home gardens
and parks.
12.5  Taxodiaceae
The family Taxodiaceae comprises nine genera and
16 species distributed widely in the temperate and
subtropical regions of the world. In Kashmir, two
Mohd Irfan Naikoo, Mudasir Irfan Dar et al.
 ©CAB International 2017 – for the personal use of Chapter 12 authors
exotic species belonging to two genera of Taxodiaceae
are found.
12.5.1  Cryptomeria japonica
D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 18.167t 13.f.I
1841.
English name: Japanese cedar
Vernacular/local name: Hindi: Suji
Cryptomeria japonica is a large evergreen tree
(25–30 m tall) with a conical crown and a straight,
slender trunk 1–1.5 m in girth. Bark is reddish-brown
to dark gray in colour, fibrous, superficially and
linearly fissured and peeling off in strips. Leaves are
bright bluish-green in colour, needle-like, spirally
arranged in five ranks, acute-acuminate with mar-
gins entire. Male cones are in clusters of 8–20, ovoid
or ovoid-ellipsoid, and bear many spiral microsporo-
phylls. Female cones are solitary or occasionally
aggregated, terminal, sessile, globose or subglobose,
reddish-brown in colour and composed of 20–30
bracts and ovuliferous scales in 4–5 whorls. Seeds
wingless or with rudimentary wings.
Distribution: Srinagar
Specimens examined: Botanical garden, University
of Kashmir, 1600 m by A.R. Dar and G.H. Dar
(2002); A.R. Naqash and G.N. Dar, 1600 m (1979).
Economic importance: Wood is light, fragrant and
fine-grained. It is often used for construction of
buildings and furniture in Japan. The wood is
highly rot-resistant and easily worked, and is used
for construction of buildings, bridges, furniture,
ships, lamp posts, utensils, and paper manufacture.
The essential oil and/or a resin from the plant is
depurative and used for the treatment of gonor-
rhoea. The leaves are aromatic and are used as
incense sticks.
12.5.2  Sequoiadendron giganteum
(Lindley) Buchholz in Am. J. Bot. 1939, xxxvi
536.
English name: Giant redwood
Sequoiadendron giganteum is the lone living species
of the genus Sequoiadendron and occurs naturally
only in groves on the western slopes of the Sierra
Nevada mountains of California.The Sequoiadendron
is the most massive and tallest known tree, reaching
more than 100 m in height and 11–12 m in girth. In
Gymnosperm Diversity of the Kashmir Himalayas
Kashmir, it is represented by a single tree that grows
in Yarikah Drug Farm, Tangmarg. It is a large ever-
green tree (22–25 m tall) with a trunk of 2–3 m in
girth. The bark is dark-brown in colour, spongy
and furrowed. The leaves are evergreen, awl-shaped,
acute, margins entire, appressed at the base and
spreading towards the tip. Both male and female
cones are solitary and terminal in position and oval-­
ellipsoidal in shape. Female cones contain many spi-
rals, bracts and ovuliferous scales.
Distribution: Tangmarg.
Specimens examined: Yarikhah, Tangmarg, 2154 m
by G.L. Dhar (1975).
Economic importance: The wood is not durable, as
it is fibrous, brittle and highly resistant to decay,
therefore unsuitable for construction. It is an avenue
tree and is a very popular ornamental.
12.6  Taxaceae
The family Taxaceae is represented by two species
in Kashmir. Taxus wallichiania and Taxus baccata.
12.6.1  Taxus wallichiania
Zucc. In Abhandl. Bayer. Acad. Classe. Math. Phys. 3:
805. T. 5. 1843.
Taxus bacata Linn.
English name: Himalayan yew.
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Pastul; Hindi:
birmi.
Himalayan Yew is a medium-sized evergreen conifer-
ous tree (10–20 m tall) with fluted stem. Bark is thin,
smooth and reddish-brown. The leaves are linear, flat-
tened, slightly sickle-shaped, coriaceous, distichous,
dark green and shining above, pale or rusty below.
Male cones are solitary, axillary and subglobose.
Female cones are solitary, few imbricate scales
around an erect ovule. A membranous, cup-shaped
and bright red disc surrounds the ovule at its base,
which is succulent. Seeds olive-green.
Distribution: Lidder Valley, Jehlum Valley, Uri, Lolab
Valley, Guraiz.
Specimens examined: Chitragul forests, Anantnag,
1900 m and Gulmarg forest slopes, 2800 m by A.R.
Dar (2002); Limber, Uri forests by Zahid A. Dar (2002).
Economic importance: Wood is used for cabinet
work and for making ploughs and fancy articles,
235
 ©CAB International 2017 – for the personal use of Chapter 12 authors
such as knife handles and cutlery. A well-known
anti-cancer drug, taxol, is obtained from Taxus.
Taxus wallichiana has medicinal importance. The
tincture prepared from the young shoots is used
for the treatment of headache, dizziness and diar-
rhoea. It is also used to treat fever and muscular
pain (Schippmann, 2001).
12.6.2  Taxus baccata
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1040. 1753.
English name: European yew
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Bermi; Hindi:
Thunner.
Taxus baccata is a small to medium-sized evergreen
tree (10–20 m tall) with a trunk up to 2 m in girth.
The bark is thin, dark reddish-brown, often scaly,
coming off in small flakes or peelings. The leaves
are lanceolate, spirally arranged on the stem, dark
green and shiny above, pale green below. The leaves
are highly poisonous. The male cones are globose
and small. Female cones are partly surrounded by
a modified scale, developing into a soft, bright red
berry-like structure called an  aril, which is gelati-
nous and very sweet in taste. Each cone contains
only one seed.
Distribution: Srinagar, Anantnag.
Specimens examined: Botanical garden, University
of Kashmir, 1600 m by A.R. Dar (2003).
Economic importance: Wood is durable, hard,
elastic, takes a good finish, and is used in cabinet
making. It is also used for making tool handles,
ploughs and bows. It is also used as firewood. The
plant shoots contain Taxol, a potential anti-cancer
drug, used particularly in the treatment of ovarian
cancers. All parts of the plant, except the fleshy
fruit, are antispasmodic, cardiotonic, and diapho-
retic, emmenagogue, expectorant, narcotic and
purgative (Duke, 1992). The leaves are used in the
treatment of asthma, bronchitis, hiccups, indiges-
tion, rheumatism and epilepsy. The fruit is relished
by thrushes.
12.7  Ginkgoaceae
The Ginkgoaceae, a family of gymnosperms, appeared
during the Mesozoic Era, of which the only extant
representative is Ginkgo biloba. In Kashmir, it is
exotic and grown in some gardens.
236
12.7.1  Ginkgo biloba
Linn. Mant. Pl. 2: 313. 1771.
English name: Maiden hair tree, Silver fruit.
Vernacular/local name: Chinese: yin-kuo
Ginkgos are large trees (20–35 m tall) with trunk 1.5
m in girth, having long and angular  crown. Young
trees are often tall, slender and sparsely branched. The
crown becomes broader as the tree ages. The leaves
are fan-shaped with veins radiating out into the leaf
blade, sometimes bifurcating, variously lobed, and
venation is conspicuously dichotomous. The leaves
are bright green in summer and golden yellow in
autumn. Male cones are pendant, catkin like and
borne on short shoots in the axil of leaves. Each cone
comprises 40–50 microsporophyll. Female cones are
borne in groups at the apex of the dwarf shoot.
Distribution: Gardens of Srinagar.
Specimens examined: Lal Mandi Floriculture park,
Srinagar, 1600 m by R.A. Qazi, M.Y. Baba, N.A.
Dar; Botanical garden, Chesma Shahi, Srinagar,
1700 m by A.R. Dar (2003).
Economic importance: Wood is light, brittle and
limited in supply. In China and Japan it is used as
firewood and for making chess boards. It is an
important Chinese herbal medicine and can be traced
back 5000 years. It has immense medicinal properi-
ties and is widely used in herbal medicine. Tea made
from the leaves is used for memory loss (Le Bars et al.,
1997). The leaf extract is used in Europe to reduce
symptoms of cognitive disorders due to its antioxi-
dant properties (Diamond et al., 2000). These extracts
are given to the persons suffering from cerebrovas-
cular and peripheral circulatory problems. Oedema
is completely prevented by the administration of
Ginkgo extracts (Kleijnen and Knipschild, 1992).
The female cones are used to treat respiratory dis-
orders. The seeds of Ginkgo biloba are roasted and
eaten by the people of China and Japan.
12.8  Ephedraceae
The family Ephedraceae is represented by one species,
Ephedra gerardiana, in Kashmir.
12.8.1  Ephedra gerardiana
Wall.ex Stapf. I.C. 75 emand Florin, Kungl. Sv.
Vetensk. Handl. Ser. 3, 12 (1): 21, 1933.
English name: joint pine, joint fir.
Mohd Irfan Naikoo, Mudasir Irfan Dar et al.
 ©CAB International 2017 – for the personal use of Chapter 12 authors
Vernacular/local name: Kashmiri: Asmani bhutti;
Hindi: Somalata; Chinese: Tse.
Epherda giardiadiana is a perennial dense, tufted,
evergreen shrubby plant (20–120 cm tall). It is
nearly leafless and has slender, cylindrical, yellow-
green branches arising from a woody base and
underground runners. Male cones are solitary or in
groups of 2–3. Female cones are solitary, sessile or
shortly pedunculate, subglobose and red, resem-
bling berries at maturity.
Distribution: Uri, Upper Lidder Valley
Specimens examined: Noorkhan, Uri, Sedimentary
rock cervices, 1450 m by A.R. Dar (2002) and
Z.S. Khan (2002).
Economic importance: Wood is used locally as a
fuel. It is grazed by sheep and goats. An important
drug, ephedrine, obtained from Ephedra gerediana,
has been widely used for the treatment of cold,
sinusitis, hay fever, bronchial asthma, allergies and
rheumatism. Fruits of Ephedra gerediana are edible
and sweet. They are effective in hepatic diseases,
used as a blood purifier and for cleaning of teeth.
The juice of the berries cures respiratory infections.
12.9  Conclusion
This chapter summarizes that gymnosperms are
predominant in the Kashmir Valley. Although only
a few species of gymnosperms exist in the Kashmir
Himalayas, they constitute the major portion of the
floristric diversity. Due to their vast socio-­economic
importance, they have been referred to as the green
gold of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. In the
Kashmir Himalayas, gymnosperms are represented
by 20 species belonging to the five families. Most
of these dominate the wild forests and a few species
are exotic and are cultivated in gardens and parks.
A substantial single and gigantic tree, sequoia
(Sequoiadendron giganteum) growing at Yarikhah
Drug Farm (Tangmarg) in Kashmir Valley is the
lone representative of this state tree of California in
the Indian subcontinent. Besides providing fire-
wood and timber for various construction purposes,
the gymnosperms are the repository of a vast array
of medicines for mankind. Gymnosperms harbour a
rich diversity of flora and fauna under their cano-
pies. Due to their immense importance, they have
been over-exploited by the general population.
Sustainable management, along with conservation,
are very important: anthropogenic activities should
Gymnosperm Diversity of the Kashmir Himalayas
be checked and the stake holders should be edu-
cated about the proper harvesting of gymnosperm
flora for different uses.
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