Module No.

5: INTRODUCTION OF DRAMA

Unit Topic: Reading and Writing Poetry and Fiction

Lesson 1: Elements of Drama
Lesson 2: Guidelines in Writing Script for Drama

● Plot - refers to the storyline of the play.

● Spectacle - includes anything that can be seen on stage during the performance of
the play such as set design, costume, and special effects. It is also called “visual
elements.”
● Convention - refers to the techniques or methods that dramatists and directors
adhere to in creating the way the play is written and interpreted.
● Description - provide detailed information and background about the characters and
events before the beginning of the play.

The word “drama” originated from the Greek word “dran” which means “to do.” Thus, both
kinds of plays are intended to be performed on stage with a live audience. The writer of a
play is called a dramatist or playwright. The enactment of a play is usually done in a theater.
The people involved in the production of a play are called “theater artists.”

Aristotle, a world-renowned Greek philosopher, wrote about the six essential elements of
drama more than two thousand years ago. His concepts about drama largely influence the
way we view drama today.

Aristotle’s Six Essential Elements of Drama are as follows:

1. Plot – refers to the storyline of the play (flow of events)
2. Theme – pertains to the message that the playwright wishes to convey through the
events and the characters.
3. Characters – refers to the people, or sometimes animals, portrayed by the actions in
the play.
4. Dialogue – the words or lines of the characters that are meant to be delivered
verbally by actors.
5. Music/Rhythm – refers to the rhythm of the actor’s voices as they speak/the
variations in the manner by which dialogues are delivered.
6. Spectacle – includes anything that can be seen on stage during the performance of
the play such as set design, costume, and special effects. It is also called “visual
elements.”

After a certain period of time, these elements evolved, and modern theater identified
additional elements. These elements are convention, genre, and audience.
1. Convention – refers to the techniques or methods that dramatists and directors
adhere to in creating the way the play is written and interpreted.
2. Genre – pertains to the type of play. Today, plays can come in different forms like
music, comedy, tragedy, avant-garde, and historical plays.
3. Audience – refers to the viewers of the play. Most playwrights and stage directors of
today highly regard the audience as an important factor in the writing and production
of their plays. The storyline and themes should stimulate the common interests of the
audience.
Today, Aristotle’s essential elements of drama are further elaborated and categorized into
three major types. Plays are written and analyzed according to these three major
elements namely: literary, technical, and performance elements.

A. Literary Elements
1. Script
It is the written product of the playwright. It contains the dialogues, descriptions, and stage
directions.
2. Plot
- The plot refers to the storyline or the logical arrangement of events in the play. The
plot structure of the drama is very similar to that of a short story. However, the plot of
the play is presented in the dialogues and stage directions while the plot of a short
story is written in paragraph form. Plot Structure of Drama

a. Exposition refers to the initial incidents that introduce the setting and characters to
the play. It is also the part where the conflict starts to take place. The conflict may
either be an internal or external ‘battle’ between two or more opposing characters,
ideas, forces, or elements in the play. Through the conflict, the playwright is able to
create more dramatic tension as the storyline progresses.
b. Rising Action refers to the events after the exposition. This is the part when the
tension builds further, and the conflict gets more complicated as the characters
struggle to resolve it.
c. Climax is the turning point of the story where the greatest suspense is felt and
experienced by the readers or audience of the play. In the climax, the characters,
most particularly the protagonist, decide what action to take to resolve the conflict.
d. Falling Action pertains to the series of events right after the climax. This is more
commonly known as the untangling of events wherein the conflict begins to get
resolved and things fall into place as a result of the actions and decisions made by
the protagonist in the climax.
e. Resolution happens when the problem/conflict gets resolved to lead eventually to
the ending or final scene of the play.

3. Characters
- The characters are the persons, animals, or other entities that are portrayed in a
play. The playwright usually gives brief, sometimes detailed, character description in
the beginning of the script. The names of the character in the play are repeatedly
stated in the script through the dialogues.
4. Setting
 - The setting basically refers to the particular time and place the story happened. In the
beginning of the script, the playwright usually gives a background of the setting.
Normally, the playwright describes what the audience will see on stage in the
beginning of the scenes.
5. Dialogue
- The dialogue pertains to the conversation between and among the characters in the
play. The appropriate manner of verbal expression and the correct choice of words
are necessary for the playwright to clearly establish the motives, traits, and attitudes
of his characters.
6. Dramatic Devices
- For more creative and meaningful expression, most playwrights use the following
dramatic devices:
a. Monologue – usually a long speech delivered by a single character and addressed
directly to a group of people “within” the play or the actual audience inside the
theater.
b. Soliloquy – a speech that lets the character speak to him/herself, as if thinking
aloud. A playwright uses this device in order to let the reader/audience understand
more deeply what the character goes through internally.
c. Stage Whisper – also called a loud whisper that is delivered by an actor to another
and is audible to the audience but, for a dramatic effect, is not heard by other actors
on stage.
d. Aside – from being ‘unheard’ by the other actors on stage, the character speaks to
the audience, usually in brief remarks, to express his/her unspoken thoughts aloud.
e. Dramatic Irony – the members of the audience are fully and clearly aware of the
significance and implications of the character’s words, actions, or situations except
for the character himself or herself.

B. Technical Elements
1. Scenery
- The scenery refers to theatrical equipment such as backdrops and platforms that set
the mood and setting of each scene in the play.
2. Props
- In stage production, these are objects or articles that vary from scene to scene and
can be moved from one place on the stage to another. Common examples are tables
and chairs.
3. Sound
- It refers to both music and effects used in the production of the play. The music,
usually called musical score, gives emphasis on the emotions conveyed in a
particular scene while sound effects are used to represent sound in the real world
such as the sound of rain, knock on the door, or even explosions.
4. Makeup
- It refers to the use of costumes, body paint, wigs, and other similar body accessories
to transform an actor into the character that he/she portrays.

C. Performance Elements
1. Acting
 - It refers to the manner an actor brings a character to life through his/her words and
actions. The way an actor delivers the role of a character is dependent on the
dialogues and stage directions in the script and how the director interprets the play.
Through effective acting, the actors are able to command the attention of the
audience and establish stage presence.
2. Speaking
- It pertains to the actor’s speaking skills such as vocal expression, enunciation, and
projection that are necessary to effectively deliver the lines from the script.
3. Nonverbal Expressions
- It includes the gestures, facial expressions, and body movements that the actors
employ in their performance, usually to support the delivery of lines

A script for a play is considered well-written if it contains and utilizes the basic parts and
elements effectively.

Basic Guidelines in Writing a Script for a Play

1. Plot Structure
- Before writing the actual script, decide on your theme first. Form this theme, develop
your storyline. Basically, the story refers to the unfolding of events in the story while
the plot is the logical, creative, and intricate manner by which these series of events
are linked and presented from start to finish. The careful use of each component of
the plot (exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution) is a must.
Identify the main conflict and decide how this conflict will be resolved as the story
progresses. Choose the characters that will be involved in your storyline. Then,
decide on your setting. The setting should set the general atmosphere of the story.
Finally, lay out your storyline clearly and smoothly through the dialogues and stage
directions.
2. Title
- The script usually begins with a title followed by the playwright’s name. A good and
catchy title stimulates the interest of the reader while giving him/her an idea of what
the play will be about. Give titles that are easy to recall. It should capture the essence
of the whole play and leave a lasting mark on the audience/reader.
3. Characters
- After the title is the list of major and minor characters in the play. Short descriptions
may be given after each character’s name. Some plays have narrators too. Just like
how narrators function in a novel or short story, they give the audience important
details about the events and other characters in the play. The narrator may either be
a major or minor character in the play.
4. Setting
- The setting refers to the time and places the story happens. A play may have one or
more settings. At the beginning of each scene, you may provide a short description of
the setting to help the readers, as well as the audience, distinguish one scene from
another. In the one-act play “The Worker” by Walter Wykes, the setting is the
apartment. It is an example of a play with only one scene; thus, utilizing one setting.
If you are writing a play with multiple scenes, make sure that you smoothly transition
 one setting to another. The use of technical elements such as props and backdrop
help achieve this kind of transition.
5. Descriptions
- In scriptwriting, the descriptions provide detailed information and background about
the characters and events before the beginning of the play. Through descriptions, the
readers are given an idea of how the characters feel and what they think about even
before the first dialogue is spoken. These descriptions should clearly help the actors
internalize the characters. Descriptions may also give information about the setting of
the play.
6. Dialogues
- The dialogues refer to the lines that each character speaks/delivers in the play. It is
customary that the dialogues begin with the character’s name, usually in capital form.
However, some playwrights follow other formats. Take note that dialogues are
normally written in direct speeches. Moreover, you may also include the use of
literary devices such as monologues and soliloquies for a more dramatic effect.
Shakespeare’s tragedies and comedies are known for the use of these dramatic
devices.
7. Stage Directions
- Stage directions, written inside round brackets, describe how the actors, in the
portrayal of their characters, are expected to move, act, and speak. Stage directions
also describe other ‘movements’ on stages such as sound and light effects. Take
note that the use of the present tense is observed in writing stage directions. Also,
stage directions may be inserted, as deemed fit, before, in-between, or after the lines
of the characters.
The following are some basic terms that are used in writing stage directions:
a. Downstage – that area of the stage that is nearest the audience
b. Upstage – the portion of the stage that is farthest the audience
c. Stage Right – the side of the stage that is the actor’s right as he faces the audience
d. Stage Left – the side of the stage that is the actor’s left as he faces the audience
e. Off-stage – the part of the stage that is not visible to the audience
f. Enter – the character comes upon or appears in the stage [Enter Maria, carrying the
old box], [Maria enters. Silence.]
g. Exit – the character leaves the stage [Exit Pedro, his left leg badly injured] [The MAN
exits slowly. Sound of thunder. Stage lights fade.]

Unit Topic: Reading and Writing Poetry and Fiction

Lesson 1: Types of Theatre in the Philippines
Lesson 2: Introduction of Asian Theatre

● Epic Poetry - these epics, usually of romance or adventure, are commonly presented
during festivals and gatherings such as weddings, baptisms, and wakes.
● Duplo - is a poetic debate presented through song and dance, which originated from
indigenous courtship customs.
● Moro-moro - a street drama that usually lasted for several days, and presented both
secular themes like love and vengeance, and the Spanish-influenced religious theme
of the conflict between Christians and Moors.
 ● Senakulo - is the dramatization of the life and death of Jesus Christ and is usually
presented as a community activity during the Lenten season.
● Sarsuela - is a type of melodrama, usually in three acts, that uses alternately spoken
and sung words.
● Bodabil- It sounds like “vaudeville”, and it is. This form of theater was an American
import in the pre-war era, but became uniquely Filipino with the indigenization of the
name.

EVOLUTION OF PHILIPPINE THEATER

PHILIPPINE THEATER
- Theater in the Philippines is as varied as the cultural traditions and the historical
influences that shaped it through the centuries. The dramatic forms that flourished
and continue to flourish among the different peoples of the archipelago include: the
indigenous theater, mainly Malay in character, which is seen in rituals, mimetic
dances, and mimetic customs; the plays with Spanish influence, among which are
the komedya, the sinakulo, the playlets, the sarswela, and the drama;

PRE-COLONIAL TIME
- During the pre-historic times, theater in the Philippines was in the form of indigenous
rituals, verbal jousts or games, or songs and dances to praise gods. According to
early chronicles, pre-historic dramas consisted of three elements – myth, mimesis,
and spectacle. These mimetic performances mostly dramatized primitive rituals and
epic poetry about deities and mythical legends, where the spirit of the deities would
seemingly possess a catalonan (priest) or babaylan (priestess). During this
entranced state, the priest or priestess would consume the sacrificial offering, which
could be in the form of a pig, chicken, rice, wine, or nuts.

SPANISH REGIME
- When the Spaniards reached our shores, they used dramas such as zarzuelas as a
pedagogical tool to influence the pagan tribes and teach them about Christianity and
religion. Another important form of theater popularized during the Spanish
colonization is the comedia, also known as moro-moro, linambay, or arakyo. It’s a
play in verse that portrays the lives, loves, and wars of moors and Christians.
- Moro-Moro is a secular comedy that dramatizes the war between Christians and
Muslims through the forbidden love between the prince and the princess. The
comedy is resolved with the non-Christian being converted to Christianity, or through
his or her death, immediately followed by his or her resurrection.
- Comedias were normally performed in the pueblos or village centers to attract more
people to the foundation of its regime. The comedia can last anywhere from 3 to 15
hours through a series of performances. The first Filipino comedia was performed in
Latin and Spanish by Fr. Vicente Puche in Cebu in 1598.
- On the other hand, a zarzuela is a form of musical theater that combines spoken
word and song that celebrates various Catholic liturgical feasts. Jugar Con Fuego by
Francisco Asenjo Barbieri was the first zarzuela introduced in the country in late 1878
 or early 1879. By August 17, 1893, Teatro Zorilla, the home of zarzuela, was
inaugurated.
- Throughout the 333 years of the Spanish regime, the Philippines was widely
influenced by their culture, tradition, and religion. Today, zarzuelas and comedias are
still being performed, albeit with other cultural influences and contemporary touches.
-
AMERICAN COLONIZATION
- When American colonial rule was established, the United States introduced the
American way of life through education, media, and language. Their influence on
Philippine theatre is most apparent through the bodabil (vaudeville) and the plays
and dramas staged or translated into English. In 1898, the first bodabil was produced
by the Manila Dramatic Guild for the sole purpose of entertaining American soldiers
and other Americans residing in Manila. It was also the first theatrical performance
since the revolution.
- The bodabil is not a straight-up play. The theatrical performance is, in fact, a mix of
songs, dances, comedy skits, and even magical performances. Local audiences
bought-in and productions soon found themselves becoming entertainment
spectacles that can be transported from one town to the next. Not long after, the
bodabil was interjected into comedias and zarzuelas, as intermission numbers known
as jamborees.

THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION

- By the 1940s, when the Japanese took over the Philippines from the Americans,
movie actors and actresses could no longer appear in films, as the Japanese
confiscated all film equipment. However, the comedia, zarzuela, and bodabil
remained in the country as forms of entertainment and expression.
- Eventually, the bodabil evolved to become stage shows or variety shows with a short
melodrama at the end to accommodate the actors and actresses who moved their
craft to bodabil and theatre. Venues such as the Manila Grand Opera House and the
Savoy Theatre became homes of bodabil.

PHILIPPINE THEATER AS WE KNOW IT TODAY

- After the Japanese occupation, the Philippine theatre has evolved to become an
amalgamation of the various influences such that of the zarzuela, comedia, bodabil,
and western classics. Theatre was largely performed in English during the time, as it
became a large part of classroom education. Meanwhile, zarzuelas such as “Ang
Kiri,” “Dalagang Bukid,” and “Paglipis ng Dilim” became well-known beyond their
regions.
- By the 1950s, theatre had moved out of classrooms and the concept of paying for a
ticket to see a theatrical performance emerged. This “legitimate” theatre was held in
closed theaters – these became events in themselves, not just mere parts of a
celebration or religious ritual. During this time, playwrights such as Severino
Montano, Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, and Alberto S. Florentino honed their crafts and
contributed to the development of performing arts in the Philippines.
Lesson 2: Introduction of Asian Theatre

SANSKRIT DRAMA
- Sanskrit drama in India was the first drama in Asia. It dates back to the 8th century
BCE, before the development of classical Greek tragedy. The Sanskrit drama that
has survived represents some of the earliest theatrical texts that we have. Sanskrit
drama emerged in the early centuries A.D. and continued to form and be performed
up through the 15th century C.E. This nearly 1,200 span makes Sanskrit drama the
longest continuous performing tradition of any dramatic texts in the world. Sanskrit
dramas cover a wide rage of subjects and types ranging from poetic love stories to
short farces. Almost all have happy endings.

BEIJING OPERA
- In China, Beijing (or Peking) Opera is an important form. There are many different
types of Chinese opera. Each region has different characteristics but Beijing Opera is
probably the best known and most iconic. Opera developed from traveling troupes in
1790 and now is the national opera of china. It was originally performed mostly in
open courtyards and the performers had to develop a style a singing that would cut
through the noise. It is not like opera in the west, it combines song, dance,
acrobatics, mime, stylized movements, elaborate costumes and face paint and is
accompanied by an orchestra band and a percussion band.

NŌH DRAMA
- In Japan, there are three important theatrical forms: Bunraku, Kabuki and Nōh. Nōh
is the oldest surviving Japanese dramatic form and has been handed down from
generation to generation. It developed from ancient dance drama traditions and is a
very visually oriented.
- It combines elements of dance, drama, music and poetry into a highly stylized
retelling of a well-know story. Not much happens in a Nōh play. The performers are
storytellers that use their visual appearance and movements to suggest the story
rather than actually reenacting it. The stories are very simple and would be known
already by the audience so the emphasis is on symbols and subtle cultural allusions
contained in the words and movements.
- The Nōh stage is very simple. Originally, Nōh was played in empty fields. In order to
retain this openness, the indoor stages are designed with a roof a bridge and a pine
tree painted on the back wall. There are three major roles in Nōh. The principle actor
is the shite, the supporting actors are the waki and the kyōgen performers serve as
narrators and also present short comic pieces or short pieces that elaborate on one
aspect of the nōh drama between the nōh plays.

KABUKI
- Kabuki is the third important Japanese form. It is thought to be invented by a Kyoto
shrine maiden Okuni, emerging from shrine dances around 1600 and reached its
peak during the shogun dominated Edo era in Japan 1616 to 1853. There are three
categories of Kabuki plays: domestic plays, history plays and dance- dramas.
Domestic plays dealt with issues of common people during the playwright’s time
 period, history plays mostly dramatize historical events of the past and the dance-
dramas deal mostly with the world of spirit and animals.

INTRODUCTION TO WESTERN THEATER

Greek Theater
- Ancient Greece was the birthplace of the drama of the Western world. By the 5th
century bc dramas were presented at Greek religious festivals twice a year. These
grew out of the worship of Dionysus, the god of wine and ecstasy. Choruses of men
dressed in goatskins to represent satyrs (beings half-man and half-goat) sang hymns
of praise to Dionysus. In fact, the term tragedy comes from the Greek words tragos
(goat) and aeidein (to sing). The Greater Dionysian festival featured three contests
for playwrights: one in comedy, one in tragedy, and one in the dithyramb (an
elaborate poem sung by a chorus of 50 singers). From the contests came some of
the world’s greatest dramatists.

Roman Theater
- If the quality of theatre is reflected in the values of the civilization out of which it
grows, then this is vividly illustrated by the fate of theatre in Roman times. Suffering
from vulgarized public taste, a lack of originality, and a preference for spectacle over
seriousness, nearly all of the Roman plays were imitations or loose translations of
Greek dramas, even to the extent of their being performed in Greek costume.

Medieval England Theater

- During the Middle Ages (from about ad 500 to about ad 1500), life centered on the
cathedral. To teach an uneducated and illiterate people the Bible stories, priests
introduced small playlets into their church services. The first known of these was the
Quem quaeritis, acted out by the priests at Easter. It briefly presented the story of the
three Marys approaching the tomb of Christ:
Queen Elizabeth & 17th Century France Theater

- The Elizabethan Age in England showered the world with a burst of brilliant
playwrights. Dramatists wrote in an enormous range of genres, mixing humor with
passion, shifting between verse and prose and back, and testing and extending the
English language. The early Elizabethan Christopher Marlowe (1564–93) is best
remembered for Doctor Faustus, in which Faustus sells his soul to the devil in
exchange for years of power on Earth. John Webster (1580?–1625?) excelled at
creating scenes of horror and of pathos, his two great tragedies being The Duchess
of Malfi and The White Devil.
- William Shakespeare (1564–1616) is the acknowledged master of Western drama
not only for his own age but for all time. His plays, though often based on borrowed
stories, are ingeniously plotted, filled with wonderful characters and extraordinary
language. Above all, his genius penetrates and speaks to the human heart and mind.
18th and 19th Century Theater

- The 18th century in England opened on a sentimental note in drama. Comedy

emphasized warmth, kindliness, and agreeableness rather than wit. The tragedy was
equally sentimental, with the debut of domestic tragedy. The period’s best works
successfully combine sentiment and wit, as in the entertaining farce She Stoops to
Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith (1728–74) and the two major comedies of Richard
Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816), The Rivals and The School for Scandal.
- Many 19th-century dramatists focused on writing melodramas. Their often lurid stage
effects, improbable plots, stock character types, and naive moral lessons offered little
artistic merit—but they were vastly popular. However, the end of the 19th century
marked the beginning of modern drama, with a naturalistic treatment of both subject
matter and style.

20th Century to Present

- The achievements of realism at the end of the 19th century continued to resonate
through the turn of the 21st century, but the most influential innovations in early 20th-
century theatre came from a vigorous reaction against realism. Just as the visual arts
exploded into a chaos of experiment and revolt, generating numerous styles and
“isms,” so the theatre seized upon a variety of sources to express the contradictions
of the new age. Inspiration was sought in machines and technology, Asian theatre,
Symbolism, nihilism, the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud, and the shock of a world
war that spawned widespread disillusionment and alienation. The results of this
eclecticism were often anarchic and exhilarating: designers and directors were as
influential as playwrights, though relatively little drama of lasting value was produced.
Nevertheless, such experiments set the tone and widened the theatrical vocabulary
for all the innovations that followed.

Sociopolitical Structure in Creative Work

- Critical Approaches are different perspectives we consider when looking at a piece of
literature.
They seek to give us answers to these questions, in addition to aiding us in interpreting
literature.
1. What do we read?
2. Why do we read?
3. How do we read?

Sociopolitical/Sociological Approach
● involves both social and political factors
● Sociological criticism examines literature in the cultural, economic, and political
context in which it is written or received.
● Core Belief: Literature is a reflection of its society

What aspects of society might the critic examine?

- culture of the society, including standards of behavior, etiquette, the relations
between opposing groups
 - economy and politics of the society

Types of Sociological Criticism

1. Feminist Criticism
2. Marxist Criticism

Feminist Criticism
● tries to correct predominantly male- dominated critical perspective with a feminist
consciousness.
● places literature in a social context and employs a broad range of disciplines, such as
history, psychology, sociology, and linguistics

Feminist Criticism has two basic premises:

1. Women presented in literature by male writers from male point of view.
2. Women presented in writing of female writers from female point of view.

Marxist Criticism
● a strongly politically-oriented criticism, deriving from the theories of the social
philosopher Karl Marx.
● Marxist critics insist that all use of language is influenced by social class and
economics.

Guidelines in Revising for Unity and Coherence

Understanding the Purpose of Revising and Editing

- Revision is part of the writing process. You revise your work after you have selected
an idea to write about, completed necessary research, organized your information,
decided on what to write about, and then written a first draft.

How to Revise
1. A better way to revise is to write the entire draft, take a break of a day or longer.
2. Revision is about rereading your entire piece of writing, find errors, omissions, things
that requirement improvement or deletion.

What to Revise

1. MACRO-EDIT
● ⮚Ensure that the beginning tells the reader what the story is about and why they
should reader it.
● Ensure that your story has a setting
● Revise to enhance the central character
● Revise to improve the structure.
● Revise for dialogue.
Ensures…
● correct and consistent point of view.
● concrete and specific and significant details and descriptions.
 ● that you show the reader what happened with dialogue,
● that the story has a theme.

2. MICRO-EDITING
● Grammar
● Spelling
● Punctuation
● Scenes
● Diction/Word choice
● Sentence Variety

Proofreading
● Proofreading is the final stage in the writing process.
● It involves making final corrections in spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and
grammar.

Publishing
● Once you have your final version, you are ready to publish it.
● This simply means finding the best way to distribute it to your intended audience.

Introduction
● Hyperlinks are basically the links in websites that a person can click through to
visit another webpage.
● Hypertext involves text acting as hyperlinks, allowing you to connect pages together
through specific words.
● As a storytelling tool, the use of hyperlinks could create an equally seemingly infinite
chain of pages leading from one to other and even back.

What is Hypertext?
● Hypertexts create unique storytelling opportunities for writers willing to learn to use it.
● Allows the plot to become relatively malleable and creates different experiences for
different readers.