Cable Fault Location Manual - 2021

CABLE FAULT
LOCATION
MANUAL
DISTRIBUTION NETWORK DIVISION, TNB
june2021
ASSET MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT, TNB DISTRIBUTION NETWORK DIVISION
Cable Fault Location Manual
Distribution Network Division, TNB
June 2021
Asset Management Department

Distribution Network Division
Tenaga Nasional Berhad
Disclaimer: This Cable Fault Location Manual is a document solely to provide technicians, engineers and
managers of Distribution Network (DN), Tenaga Nasional Berhad with an understanding of cable fault
location. The information in this document has been prepared in good faith and represents the Asset
Management Department’s intentions and opinions at the date of issue. The Asset Management
Department may change any information in this document at any time.
CABLE FAULT LOCATION MANUAL
Acknowledgement
Head (Asset Management), Ir. Ismail Bin Lam Din
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to

the management of the Distribution Network
Division, for giving us the opportunity to develop
the TNB Distribution Network Division’s Cable Fault
Location Manual.
Special thanks to Ir. Ts. Tan Chow Heang, Mdm.

Zairul Aida bt Abu Zarim, Mr. Radzlan Hisham Bin
Mohd Arifin, Ir. Mohd Rizal bin Johari and Ir. Mohd
Faizal bin Omar from TNB Engineering Services Unit, for their valuable
contribution and assistance in developing this manual.
Our appreciation also goes to the TNB ILSAS Team, comprising Ir Muhammad
Nazri bin Ismail, Ir Pairolani Bin Safari @ Hj Hashim, Ir Nur Khairunnisa bt Noorahim,
Mr. Harun bin Zainudin, Mr. Mok Kin Wah, Mr. Hailani bin Marzuki, Mr. Mohd
Nizam Pujaman, Mr. Ahamad Danial bin Mat Lui, Mr.Muhammad Azri bin Abdul
Rahman, Mr Muhammad Naim bin Zailan and other TNB ILSAS staff for their
untiring efforts and patience towards the successful completion of this manual.
Thank you.
Ir. Ismail Bin Lam Din

Head (Asset Management)
Distribution Network Division, TNB
Page | ii
Foreword
Chief Distribution Network Officer, Wan Nazmy Bin Wan Mahmood
Medium voltage underground cable is one of the important

assets in TNB Distribution Network system. It is crucial
for us to locate and repair underground cable fault as
soon as possible to enhance our customer experience.
TNB Distribution Network Division through its

Engineering Services, Asset Management Department,
in collaboration with TNB Integrated Learning Solution
(ILSAS) have taken a step forward to develop this manual
as an effort to preserve the knowledge on cable fault locating technique. This
initiative is believed to benefit all TNB staff and will serve as a practical
reference towards better asset management and distribution system
restoration as well as enhancing competency and promote safe work practice.
I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate the project team from
the Engineering Services and ILSAS for their impressive effort in developing this
useful manual.
Thank you.
Wan Nazmy Bin Wan Mahmood

Chief Distribution Network Officer
Tenaga Nasional Berhad
Page| iii
List of Abbreviations
𝐿𝑓 Fault Length
𝑅𝑓 Fault Resistance
𝑍𝑜 Surge Impedance
ARM Arc Reflection Method
C Capacitance
CT Current Transformer
DC Direct Current
E Earth
EPR Ethylene Propylene Rubber
HIRARC Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment and Risk Control
ICE Impulse Current Equipment
ICM Impulse Current Method
IR Insulation Resistance
L Inductance
LV Low Voltage
MIM Multiple Impulse Method
MV Medium Voltage
Ø Phase
OC/EF Over Current / Earth Fault
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
Page | iv
PE Polyethylene
PILC Paper Insulated Lead Covered
PMPD Permit Menjalankan Pengujian Diagnostik
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RADAR Radio Detection and Ranging
SIM Secondary Impulse Method
SSG Surge Signal Generator
TDR Time Domain Refelectometer
TNB Tenaga Nasional Berhad
VLF Very Low Frequency
VOP Velocity of Propagation
XLPE Cross Linked Polyethylene
Glossary of Terms
H – Type Type of cable designed by M.Hochstadter. Each conductor in

this cable is insulated with paper, covered by a metallic
screen which is generally perforated metallic screen
Page| v
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. ii
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................... iv
GLOSSARY OF TERMS .............................................................................................. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... x
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................. xiv
CHAPTER 1 : OVERVIEW OF CABLE FAULT LOCATION ............................................1

1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................1
1.1.Fault Characteristics .............................................................................2
1.2.Types of Fault .......................................................................................4
1.2.1 Series / Open Circuit Fault.....................................................5
1.2.2 Shunt / Short Circuit Fault .....................................................5
1.2.3 Low Resistance Fault .............................................................8
1.2.4 High Resistance Fault ............................................................9
1.2.5 Intermittent / Flashing Fault ...............................................15
1.3 Safety Requirement for Fault Location ..............................................16
1.3.1 Safety Requirement ............................................................16
1.3.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .................................17
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1.3.3 Tool Box Talk .......................................................................18

1.3.4 Permit to Perform Diagnostic Test (Permit Menjalankan
Pengujian Diagnostik - PMPD) .....................................................19
1.4 Fault Location Overview Process .......................................................20
CHAPTER 2 : FAULT DIAGNOSIS .............................................................................22

2.0 Overview of Fault Diagnosis .....................................................................22
2.1 Fault Analysis .....................................................................................23
2.1.1 Insulation Resistance Test ...................................................24
2.1.2 Continuity Test ....................................................................25
CHAPTER 3 : FAULT PRE-LOCATION.......................................................................28

3.0 Overview of Fault Pre-Location ................................................................28
3.1 Low Voltage Method ..........................................................................29
3.1.1 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) .....................................30
3.2 High Voltage Method .........................................................................39
3.2.1 Secondary Impulse Method / Multiple Impulse Method
(SIM / MIM) ..................................................................................44
3.2.2 Arc Reflection Method (ARM) .............................................49
3.2.3 Impulse Current Method/Equipment (ICM / ICE) ...............51
3.2.4 Decay Method .....................................................................54
3.3 Bridge Measurement Method ...........................................................56
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CHAPTER 4 : CABLE ROUTE TRACING ....................................................................59

4.0 Overview of Cable Route Tracing .............................................................59
4.1 Cable Route Tracing Equipment .........................................................59
4.2 Passive Live Cable Tracing ..................................................................64
4.3 Active Cable Route Tracing ................................................................64
4.4 General Guide for Successful Cable Tracing .......................................71
CHAPTER 5 : PIN-POINTING ...................................................................................73

5.0 Overview of Pin-Pointing .........................................................................73
5.1 Acoustic / Shock Wave Discharge / Thumping ...................................73
5.2 Magnetic Field Detection / Electromagnetic Surge Detection ...........75
5.3 Pool of Potential / Step Voltage .........................................................76
5.4 Pin-Pointing Equipment .....................................................................77
CHAPTER 6 : CABLE IDENTIFICATION ....................................................................79

6.0 Overview of Cable Identification.....................................................................79
6.1 Cable Identification Equipment .........................................................80
CHAPTER 7 : FAULT CONFIRMATION & RE-TEST ...................................................81

7.0 Introduction ..............................................................................................81
7.1 Fault Confirmation .............................................................................81
7.2 Re-Test ...............................................................................................82
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CHAPTER 8 : REPAIR, TESTING & RE-COMMISSIONING ........................................84

8.0 Introduction ..............................................................................................84
8.1 Repair .................................................................................................84
8.2 Testing & Re-Commissioning .............................................................85
8.2.1 Testing .................................................................................85
8.2.2 Re-Commissioning ...............................................................86
List of References...................................................................................................87
Page| ix
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 : Equivalent Circuit of Cable Fault .......................................................... 3

Figure 1.2 : Failure of Continuity in Conductors ...................................................... 5
Figure 1.3 : Phase to Earth (Ø to E) Fault ................................................................ 5
Figure 1.4 : Phase To Phase (Ø to Ø) Fault .............................................................. 6
Figure 1.5 : Characteristic Impedance of Shunt Fault ........................................... 10
Figure 1.6 : Characteristic Impedance of Series Fault ........................................... 11
Figure 1.7 : Relative amplitude of reflective pulse as a function of the ratio of fault
resistance 𝑅𝑓 to surge impedance 𝑍0 for both series and shunt faults
........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 1.8 : Examples of PMPD.............................................................................. 19
Figure 1.9 : 5 Main Process in Fault Location ........................................................ 20
Figure 1.10 : Cable Fault Pre-Location Method Selection Flowchart .................... 21
Figure 2.1 : Insulation Resistance Tester 5 kV (Brand : Megger) ........................... 24
Figure 2.2 : Multimeter ......................................................................................... 26
Figure 2.3 : Insulation Resistance Tester ............................................................... 26
Figure 3.1 : Example of TDR Connection and Display Trace .................................. 31
Figure 3.2 : Examples of TDR Trace ....................................................................... 32
Figure 3.3 : Echometer Baur IRG 3000 .................................................................. 35
Figure 3.4 : Teleflex SebaKMT ............................................................................... 35
Figure 3.5 : Echometer IRG 2000 ........................................................................... 35
Figure 3.6 : Principle of Travelling Wave ............................................................... 36
Figure 3.7 : Principle of Travelling Wave in Cable ................................................. 37
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Figure 3.8 : 0 - 8 kV Range ..................................................................................... 41

Figure 3.9 : 0 - 16 kV Range ................................................................................... 41
Figure 3.10 : 0 - 32 kV Range ................................................................................. 42
Figure 3.11 : Graph of Surge Voltage Level vs Energy Released............................ 43
Figure 3.12 : Connection Diagram for SIM Method .............................................. 45
Figure 3.13 : SIM Graph Measurement ................................................................. 46
Figure 3.14 : Illustration of MIM Fault Pre-Location Process ................................ 47
Figure 3.15 : MIM Pre-Location Trace ................................................................... 48
Figure 3.16 : Simplified Diagram for the ARM Pre-Location Connection .............. 49
Figure 3.17 : Fault Trace by ARM Pre-Location Method ....................................... 50
Figure 3.18 : Illustrations of ICM Connection, Arc Reflection Sequence and Typical
Reflection Traces ............................................................................... 52
Figure 3.19 : Example of ICM Reflection Trace and Measurement of Fault Distance
........................................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.20 : Illustrations of Decay Method, Surge Voltage Transient Reflection
Sequence and Typical Reflection Traces ............................................ 55
Figure 3.21 : Murray Loop Test for Earth Fault ..................................................... 56
Figure 4.1 : RD 8000 .............................................................................................. 60
Figure 4.2 : RD 8000 (Radio Detection) ................................................................. 61
Figure 4.3 : Metrotech i5000 ................................................................................. 61
Figure 4.4 : Metrotech i5000 ................................................................................. 62
Figure 4.5 : RD Route Tracer.................................................................................. 62
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Figure 4.6 : Maximum and Minimum Mode Illustrations ..................................... 63

Figure 4.7 : Illustration of Galvanic / Direct Connection ....................................... 67
Figure 4.8 : Principle of Cable Route Tracing by Direct Connection ...................... 67
Figure 4.9 : Inductive Connection (Clamp) at Joint Pit .......................................... 68
Figure 4.10 : Inductive Connection (Clamp) at Cable End ..................................... 69
Figure 4.11 : Illustration of Inductive Connection (Frame Antenna) at Site .......... 70
Figure 5.1: Baur UL30-BM30 Pin-Pointing Equipment .......................................... 78
Figure 5.2 : Megger Digiphone+ Surge Wave Receiver ......................................... 78
Page | xii
List of Tables
Table 1.1 : Fault Characteristics .............................................................................. 3

Table 1.2 : Belted Cable (PILC) vs H-Type (PILC) / Screened Cable (XLPE) ............... 7
Table 1.3 : Cable Parameter .................................................................................... 8
Table 1.4 : Characteristics of Pulse Reflection ...................................................... 11
Table 1.5 : Shunt Fault Example ............................................................................ 13
Table 1.6 : Series Fault Example ............................................................................ 14
Table 1.7 : List of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ....................................... 17
Table 2.1 : Typical Technical Information from Cable Manufacturer Data Sheet . 27
Table 3.1 : Typical Velocities of Propagation......................................................... 38
Table 4.1 : Various Type Connection of Transmitter Signal .................................. 70
Table 4.2 : Recommended Signal Frequency Based on Cable Length ................... 72
Table 7.1 : Common Issue at Site and Solution ..................................................... 83
Page| xiii
List of Appendices
Appendix I : Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform Insulation Resistance (IR) 88

Test………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Appendix II : Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform Continuity Test................. 96
Appendix III : Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform TDR Measurement
(Baur)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100
Appendix IV : Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform TDR Measurement
(Megger)………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 120
Appendix V : Step-By-Step Procedures for Secondary Impulse Method /
Multiple Impulse Method (SIM / MIM)………………………………………………………… 136
Appendix VI : Step-By-Step Procedures for Arc Reflection Method
(ARM)………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 162
Appendix VII : Step-By-Step Procedures for Impulse Current Method
(ICM)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 188
Appendix VIII : Step-By-Step Procedures for Impulse Current Equipment
(ICE)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 212
Appendix IX : Step-By-Step Procedures for Pin-Pointing (Megger
digiPHONE+)………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 241
Appendix X : Step-By-Step Procedures for Pin-Pointing (Baur UL 30 & BM
30)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 271
Appendix XI : Step-By-Step Procedures for Cable
Identification…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 296
Appendix XII : Step by Step Fault Confirmation & Re-Test (Baur)…………………… 323
Appendix XIII : Step by Step Fault Confirmation & Re-Test
(Megger)………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 325
Appendix XIV : Example of Fault Analysis Test Sheet……………………………………… 327
Page | xiv
CHAPTER 1 : OVERVIEW OF CABLE FAULT LOCATION
1.0 Introduction
Underground cable is a very essential part in TNB systems in transmitting
electricity from one location to another. As the distribution network expands
and becoming more complex, it is critical to develop the underground cable
systems right from design stage. Proper selection and installation of cables will
ensure a reliable electrical system with extended operation lifetime and
enhance systems reliability. Cable installation procedures must be rigorously
followed to ensure a good underground cable installation. Nevertheless, cable
fault is inevitable as the cable network is exposed to numerous site conditions
and harsh environments. However, there are several scenarios that cause cable
fault to occur. Below are the examples of the scenarios:
 Accidental damage by external mechanical means.
 Damage caused by mishandling of cables during initial laying.
 Poor cable jointing workmanship.
 Manufacturing defects.
 Natural causes due to aging of cables and accessories.
 Damage caused by movement of soil and erosion.
A fault is defined as any defect, weakness, inconsistency or non-homogeneity

that affects the performance of a cable.
Page| 1
In general, cable fault can be divided into two types which are:
1. Series Fault (Open Circuit)

2. Shunt Fault (Short Circuit)
However, in practice, the above-mentioned faults can occur singularly or in

combination and vary so much in degree that they may take on a multitude of
forms.
1.1. Fault Characteristics
Cable faults can be divided into series or shunt types. Series faults occur when
the continuity of one or more metallic elements in a cable, be it either
conductor or metallic sheath, is impaired. Usually series faults only become
apparent when its continuity has been completely broken on at least one
conductor causing an open circuit fault.
Shunt faults occur where the insulation of cable conductors is damaged.

Although shunt faults on belted (MV PILC Cables) cables may involve more than
one phase, the most common fault is because of single phase to earth fault. On
screened cables (MV XLPE Cables), all shunt faults are earth faults. Combined
shunt and series faults may also occur from damaged insulator.
Page | 2
Both series and shunt faults can be represented by the equivalent circuit in
Figure 1.1.
The value of all the
elements in the
equivalent circuit can
widely vary and are
completely
independent of each
other.
Figure 1.1 : Equivalent Circuit of Cable Fault
Table 1.1 : Fault Characteristics
Fault Resistance Fault

Fault Type Spark Gap (SG)
(𝑹𝒇 ) Capacitance (𝑪𝒇 )
Influenced by
No breakdown
presence of
Series Near Infinity under impulse or
water at fault
DC stress
point
Breakdown under
impulse or DC
𝑅𝑓 <10𝑍0
stress, if 𝑅𝑓 is not
Low Resistance too low N/A
𝑅𝑓 near 0Ω Bridged (Shorted)
Influenced by
Breakdown under
presence of
High Resistance 𝑅𝑓 >10𝑍0 impulse or DC
water at fault
stress
point
Page| 3
Fault Resistance Fault Capacitance

Fault Type Spark Gap (SG)
(𝑅𝑓 ) (𝐶𝑓 )
Influenced by
Breakdown under
Near Infinity/ presence of
Flashing impulse or DC
Infinity water at fault
stress
point
Influenced by
Breakdown under
Near Infinity/ presence of
Intermittent prolonged DC
Infinity water at fault
stress
point
1.2. Types of Fault
There are few types of fault such as :-
1. Series / Open Circuit Fault

2. Shunt / Short Circuit Fault
3. Low Resistance Fault
4. High Resistance Fault
5. Interminttent / Flashing Fault
All these faults will be further explained in Chapter 1.2.1 – Chapter 1.2.5.
Page | 4
1.2.1 Series / Open Circuit Fault

A fault involving broken continuity in either the conductors or cable metallic
sheath.
Figure 1.2 : Failure of Continuity in Conductors
1.2.2 Shunt / Short Circuit Fault
Shunt fault is the failure of the cable’s insulation. Faults can occur between
phase to phase (Ø to Ø) or phase to earth (Ø-E). In belted PILC cables, fault can
occur between phase to phase or phase to earth.
Figure 1.3 : Phase to Earth (Ø to E) Fault
Page| 5
Figure 1.4 : Phase To Phase (Ø to Ø) Fault
For screened type MV XLPE cable and H-Type Screened PILC Cable, it is not
possible to have phase to phase fault due to the cable construction where each
cable core is screened and connected to earth. However, phase to earth fault
could develop into a phase to phase fault if the protection device does not
operate fast enough to isolate the fault.
Page | 6
Table 1.2 : Belted Cable (PILC) vs H-Type (PILC) / Screened Cable (XLPE)
Belted Cable (PILC) H-Type (PILC) /

Screened Cable (XLPE)
Page| 7
1.2.3 Low Resistance Fault
A cable fault is considered as low resistance fault when the fault resistance is
𝑅𝑓 <10𝑍0 .
𝐿
𝑍0 (Surge Impedance) = √ Equation 1.1
𝐶
Where;
𝑅𝑓 = Fault Resistance, L = Inductance, C = Capacitance of Cable
Table 1.3 : Cable Parameter
Type of Cable
Cable Parameter
11 kV 3 Core 150mmsq 11 kV 3 Core 240mmsq
Inductance
0.310 0.289
(𝒎𝑯⁄𝒌𝒎)
Capacitance
𝞵𝑭⁄ 0.382 0.465
( 𝒌𝒎)
Surge Impedance of
𝑳
28.5 24.93
Cable, 𝒁𝟎 = √
𝑪
Page | 8
The typical fault resistance value, 𝑅𝑓 considered as Low Resistance Fault given
by Megger is ≤ 300Ω and for Baur is ≤ 100Ω respectively. For low resistance
fault, Pulse Echo or Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) pre-location method is
recommended to determine the fault distance.
1.2.4 High Resistance Fault
Cable fault with fault resistance 𝑅𝑓 >10𝑍0 is considered as high resistance fault.
For high resistance fault, the normal Pulse Echo/ Time Domain Reflectometry
(TDR) fault pre-location method is incapable of detecting the fault location
distance due to minimum characteristic impedance mismatch at the fault point.
This can be demonstrated by a reflection factor.
High Voltage Pre-Location Method such as Secondary Impulse Method (SIM)/ Arc
Reflection Method (ARM) and Impulse Current Method (ICM) are recommended
to obtain the fault distance. If the high resistance fault is unable to be determined
by 5 kV Insulation Resistance Tester, the next step is to apply high DC voltage to
determine the voltage where the fault condition is changing. This Breakdown
Voltage shall be noted, as it will be the minimum voltage value setting for the
Surge Signal Generator (SSG) in high voltage fault pre-location procedure where
a surge voltage from the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) or thumper is applied to
cause the fault to flashover.
Page| 9
Reflection Factor (r)

When a pulse travelling in a cable meets with a sudden change in the characteristic
impedance (𝑍0 ), a fraction of pulse would be reflected. The degree of reflection is
determined by a factor called coefficient of reflection or reflection factor (r). The
Reflection Factor (r) is a function of the fault resistance (𝑅𝑓 ) and the characteristic
impedance ( 𝑍0 ), of the cable concerned.
𝑍01 −𝑍0
Reflection Factor, r = Equation 1.2
𝑍01+ 𝑍0
Where;
𝑍0 = Surge Impedance of Cable
𝑍01 = New characteristic impedance
𝑍0
𝑅𝑓 𝑍01
Figure 1.5 : Characteristic Impedance of Shunt Fault
Where;
𝑅𝑓 𝑍0 Equation 1.3
𝑍01 =
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑍0
Page | 10
𝑅𝑓
𝑍0 𝑍01
Figure 1.6 : Characteristic Impedance of Series Fault
Where;
𝑍01 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑍0 Equation 1.4
In the two extremes, 𝑅𝑓 value tends to be zero for shunt fault (short circuit) and
infinity for series fault (open circuit). The waveforms generated are as shown in
Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 : Characteristics of Pulse Reflection
Shunt Fault Series Fault
Page| 11
Figure 1.7 : Relative amplitude of reflective pulse as a function of the ratio of fault
resistance 𝑅𝑓 to surge impedance 𝑍0 for both series and shunt faults
Page | 12
Relationship between Fault Resistance and Reflection Factor
Listed are examples of relationship between fault resistance, (𝑅𝑓 )and reflection
factor (r).
Shunt Fault
For 3 Core 240mmsq XLPE cable : 𝑍01 = 24.93 Ω
Table 1.5 : Shunt Fault Example
Formula of
Fault Reflection
Reflection Calculation Remarks
Resistance Factor
Factor
−24.93 Clear
5Ω x 100% - 71.37% Negative
2 𝑥 5+24.93
Reflection
−24.93
x Minimum
2 𝑥 250+24.93
250 Ω −𝑍01 - 4.75% Negative
2𝑅𝑓 + 𝑍01 100% Reflection
X 100%
−24.93
x Reflection
2 𝑥1000+24.93
1000 Ω -1.2% Cannot Be
100% Seen
Page| 13
Series Fault
For 3 Core 240mmsq XLPE cable : 𝑍01 = 24.93 Ω
Table 1.6 : Series Fault Example
Formula of
Fault Reflection
Reflection Calculation Remarks
Resistance Factor
Factor
1000
Clear
1000 Ω 1000+2 𝑥 24.93 95.25% Positive
X 100% Reflection
𝑅𝑓 250
X X Clear
250 Ω 𝑅𝑓 +2𝑍01 250+2 𝑥 24.93 83.37% Positive
100% 100% Reflection
5
Minimun
5Ω 5+2 𝑥 24.93 9.11% Positive
X 100% Reflection
Page | 14
1.2.5 Intermittent / Flashing Fault
An intermittent or flashing fault is where the fault is not apparent to the usual 5 kV
insulation resistance tester and may not breakdown on applied surge from a Surge
Signal Generator (SSG). However, it will show when DC High Voltage is applied.
When a fault is a highly resistive or intermittent and surge voltage from Surge
Signal Generator (SSG) failed to break the fault, then the next step is to apply a high
DC voltage to determine the voltage where the fault breaks down and the fault
condition changes. This Breakdown Voltage shall be recorded as it will be used as
minimum voltage value in applying High Voltage fault pre-location method.
Page| 15
1.3 Safety Requirement for Fault Location
Listed are the sub-topic that will be further elaborated in order to conduct a
systematic approach to determine fault location.
 Safety Requirement
 Personal Protective Equipmment (PPE)
 Tool Box Talk
 Permit to Perform Diagnostic Test (Permit Menjalankan Pengujian
Diagnostik – PMPD)
1.3.1 Safety Requirement
Before commencing cable fault locating, all safety requirements in accordance

to TNB Electrical Safety Handbook must be complied.
 Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) must be worn by all
personnel involved in fault location
 Tool Box Talk based on HIRARC (Hazard Identification Risk Assessment and
Risk Control) must be conducted before starting work
 All necessary permits must be obtained or issued by relevant parties
Page | 16
1.3.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Below are the relevant PPE provided by TNB for fault location team :-
Table 1.7 : List of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Type of PPE Remarks
Must be worn when

Reflective Vest working outdoor with
traffic hazard
Safety Shoes Must be worn at all times
Must be worn at all times

Safety Helmet **Exception is only during Fault
Locating (Pin Pointing) when
using ground microphone
Must be worn when

Wellington
working in wet/ swampy
Boot
environment
Must be worn when

Working Glove
making connections
Page| 17
1.3.3 Tool Box Talk
Toolbox talk must be conducted by team leaders reminding team members on the
scope of work and safety at site. Typical topics shall be covered in HIRADC for cable
fault location and not limited to the following :-
 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

 Testing Procedure
 High Voltage Equipment (Live)
 Safety Barricade
 Sufficient Lighting
 Permit To Work (PTW)
Page | 18
1.3.4 Permit to Perform Diagnostic Test (Permit Menjalankan

Pengujian Diagnostik - PMPD)
Before fault location work can begin, a permit to perform diagnostic test (PMPD)
must be obtained from an Authorized Person responsible for the job. For detailed
process, please refer to latest relevant safety circular.
Figure 1.8 : Examples of PMPD
Page| 19
1.4 Fault Location Overview Process
A systematic , efficient, speedy and safe cable fault locating process consist of 5
steps below :-
1 Fault Diagnosis - Process to identify the type of fault
2 Pre - Location - Determine the fault distance
3 Cable Route Tracing - Determine the cable route at site
4 Pin - Pointing - Confirmation of the exact cable fault location
Cable Identification & Confirmation and Re-Test - Determine the

5 faulty cable amongst several cable in trench by following TNB
Guidelines
Figure 1.9 : 5 Main Process in Fault Location
Page | 20
Figure 1.10 : Cable Fault Pre-Location Method Selection Flowchart
Figure 1.10 above is the summary of cable fault pre-location method selection
flowchart that can be referred to when performing cable fault pre-location at
site. Details explanation will be further explained in the next following chapter.
Page| 21
CHAPTER 2 : FAULT DIAGNOSIS
2.0 Overview of Fault Diagnosis

Cable fault diagnosis is the first step in fault location. It is to determine and
confirm the nature or characteristics of the fault. Accurate fault diagnosis will
assist in making correct logical decisions and avoide mistakes when locating cable
fault. To facilitate accurate and speedy fault diagnosis, all informations related to
the faulty cable should be considered including the following: -
1. Relay Operation/ Type of Fault (OC/EF)

2. Fault Current Value (Download from relay)
3. Test Result During Fault Isolation
4. Type & Size of Cable
5. Cable Length
6. Cable Route Record
7. Cable Route Condition
8. Cable Loading History
9. Weather conditions during fault
Page | 22
These informations are needed to ensure easier and effective cable fault
identification. Related information has to be verified at site such as cable types
and cable route condition. After obtaining all the relevant informations, the next
step is to perform fault analysis. The objective of fault analysis is to determine
which of the cable fault pre-location method is best suited to locate the particular
fault.
Cable fault analysis are normally carried out via insulation resistance test, carried
out using a 5 kV insulation resistance tester; and cable continuity check using a
multimeter.
2.1 Fault Analysis
In this topic, two (2) test will be carried out in performing fault analysis. These
two tests that will be explained further are :-
 Insulation Resistance Test

 Continuity Test
Page| 23
2.1.1 Insulation Resistance Test

To perform insulation resistance test on the faulty cable section, the intentionally
applied safety earth during fault isolation should be removed from the circuit
(according to TNB Safety Rules). The insulation resistance test should be carried
out with a 5kV insulation resistance tester.
The objectives of insulation resistance test are:-

 To check the condition of insulation for each cable core to earth
o Red-Earth, Yellow-Earth and Blue-Earth
 To check the condition of insulation between phases of cable
o Red-Yellow, Yellow-Blue and Blue-Red
One of the commonly used insulation resistance tester in TNB is shown in Figure
2.1.
Figure 2.1 : Insulation Resistance Tester 5 kV (Brand : Megger)
Page | 24
Refer to Appendix I for step by step procedure to perform Insulation

Resistance Test.
2.1.2 Continuity Test
Continuity test should always be performed immediately upon completion of

insulation resistance test. It is to confirm there is no open circuit fault or high
resistance series fault in a cable. This can be done using cable earth by engaging
switchgear earth switch at the far end substation.
Continuity tests should not be done using Insulation Tester, unless it has a
special “continuity” range (usually 0 – 100 Ohms). It is preferable to use low
resistance range in a digital multimeter. The value of conductor resistance
obtained from continuity test can be verified by comparing with the published
conductor resistance from cable manufacturer data sheet as shown below.
Page| 25
Figure 2.2 : Multimeter Figure 2.3 : Insulation Resistance Tester
Refer to Appendix II for step by step procedure to perform Continuity

Test.
Page | 26
Example: Cable XLPE 240𝒎𝒎𝟐 , 6 km length
Conductor Resistance @ 20°C = 6 km x 0.125 x 2 = 1.5Ω
Conductor Resistance @ 90°C = 6 km x 0.161 x 2 = 1.932Ω
Measured conductor resistance should be between 1.5Ω to 1.932Ω
Table 2.1 : Typical Technical Information from Cable Manufacturer Data Sheet
2
Conductor Size (mm )
Nominal
Cross Parameter Conductor 95 150 240 500 630
Sectional
Max.
Conductor
Ω/km Al 0.320 0.206 0.125 0.0605 0.0469
Resistance
DC at 20°C
Max.
Conductor
Ω/km Al 0.411 0.265 0.161 0.0801 0.0627
Resistance
50Hz at 90°C
Capacitance µF/km Al 0.31 0.36 0.44 0.59 0.32
Current
Rating in
A Al 225 290 380 560 660
Ground at
25°C
Short Circuit
Current for 1 kA Al 9.19 14.4 22.9 47.6 59.8
sec.
Page| 27
CHAPTER 3 : FAULT PRE-LOCATION
3.0 Overview of Fault Pre-Location
Fault Pre-Location is a process to roughly determine the location of the cable fault.
The most common method used to pre-locate low resistance fault is the Time
Domain Reflectometry (TDR) Method which is also called Low Voltage fault pre-
location method.
For High Resistance / Intermittent Fault, the Low Voltage pulse from the Time
Domain Reflectometer (TDR) equipment is incapable of returning a clear reflection
due to fault resistance being very much higher than the cable surge impedance, 𝑍0 .
This can clearly be shown by the reflection factor value of almost zero.
The alternative fault pre-location method for high resistance fault is the High
Voltage pre-location method such as Arc Reflection Method (ARM – Seba) or
Secondary Impulse Method / Multiple Impulse Method (SIM / MIM – Baur) or
Impulse Current Method (ICM – Baur, ICE – Seba).
Page | 28
Bridge Measurement method is another alternative method suitable for pre-

locating cable fault types where travelling wave technique is not possible. It is
commonly used for locating low voltage cable fault.
High Voltage Bridge Measurement method is an effective fault pre-location

method for locating high resistance fault in single core cable system where the
continuity of the cable metallic sheath cannot be maintained due to situations such
as inaccessibility to cross-bonding link box, missing link box, vandalized link box etc.
which rendered all other pre-location method based on Pulse Echo or Arc
Reflection (TDR, SIM/MIM/ARC, ICE/ICM) impossible.
3.1 Low Voltage Method
One of the methods to pre-locate cable fault is by using low voltage method in
which the main equipment is Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR).
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3.1.1 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
The Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) method is the most established and widely
used measuring method for determining:
 Total length of a cable
 Location of low resistive cable faults
 Location of cable interruptions/ open circuit/ breaks
 Location of joints along the cable
A Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) sends a low voltage pulse into the cable under
test and at any changes in characteristic impedance within the cable will cause a
reflection. The TDR measures the time between release and return of the low
voltage pulse from any reflections. By measuring the time and knowing the
propagating velocity of the pulse in the cable dielectric material, distance to the
reflection can then be calculated. The TDR trace helps to provide information on
the type of characteristic impedance change or failure that could be present in the
cable.
The figure below shows a typical set-up for a TDR measurement. A parallel path of
two conductors is required to determine a reflection graph of a pulse traveling
along a cable. Therefore, one of the leads of the TDR is connected to one phase of
the cable and the other lead is connected to the cable metallic sheath, which is also
connected to ground.
Page | 30
The reflection of the pulse is caused by the change in characteristic impedance

between those two paths and every interruption, change of characteristic
impedance, or cable end is indicated on the display trace.
The low voltage pulse travels through the cable and is positively reflected at the
cable end or at any cable interruption (open circuit). At a short circuit point this
low voltage pulse is negatively reflected. A change of the characteristic impedance
in the cable, such as at a joint, it will be displayed as a laid S. The size of the reflected
pulse is dictated by the reflection factor.
Figure 3.1 : Example of TDR Connection and Display Trace
Page| 31
Below are a few more examples of typical characteristic impedance changes

occurring in cables and can be seen using TDRs:
Figure 3.2 : Examples of TDR Trace
Page | 32
Determining the exact distance of a reflection depends on the time a pulse takes
to travel from the TDR and back along the cable and also the propagation velocity
of the pulse. The determining formula is:
𝑉𝑝
𝐿𝑓 = Tx Equation 3.1
2
Where;
𝐿𝑓 is fault distance of cable,
T is the times taken for pulse to travel from source to fault and back to
source
𝑉𝑝 is the velocity of propagation of electric wave travel in the cable
dielectric
With the TDR connected to the cable section, the TDR measures the time it takes
for the pulse to travel to the end of the cable and return. If the exact length of
cable is known, then the formula above can be used to determine the velocity of
propagation. If the length is not known, as commonly encountered at site, with
known propagation velocity of the cable insulation, again by using the formula
above, the length can be calculated.
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In real situations, where the faulty cable section is of mixed insulation type, the
exact velocity of propagation cannot be accurately determined. The velocity of
propagation besides depending upon the dielectric or insulation between the two
conductors, it also depends on the condition of the cable, such as metallic sheath
corrosion, water ingress, etc. In these cases, normally a generalised standard
propagation velocity is used with the understanding that a certain error will be
present in the TDR measured fault distance.
𝑉𝑝
TNB uses Velocity of Propagation ( ) = 80 𝑚⁄𝜇𝑠 , taking
2
into consideration most of TNB cable circuits are a mixture
of PILC and XLPE cables. For pure XLPE cable systems, the
𝑉𝑝
more accurate can be used.
2
Page | 34
TDR Equipment Used in TNB

These are some common portable and van mounted TDR equipment used by
TNB.
Figure 3.3 : Echometer Baur IRG 3000
Figure 3.4 : Teleflex SebaKMT Figure 3.5 : Echometer IRG 2000
Page| 35
Principle of Travelling Wave

The Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) fault pre-location method is based on the
principle of travelling wave, developed in the late 1940’s. The original acronym,
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging), was applied to the method of detecting
distant aircraft and determining their range and velocity by analysing reflections of
radio waves.
The radar produces pulses of radio frequency energy, is basically a time measuring
device. A timer starts counting in microseconds when a pulse of radio frequency
energy leaves the transmitting antenna and then stops when a reflection is
received. The actual time measured is the round trip, out to the target and back.
The speed or Velocity of Propagation (𝑉𝑝 ) of this pulse in air is almost the speed of
light or approximately 300 meters per microsecond.
. The speed of light ≈ 300 𝑚⁄𝜇𝑠
Figure 3.6 : Principle of Travelling Wave
Page | 36
When a pulse is injected into the cable, the pulse is reflected back to the source by
any change in the characteristic impedance (𝑍0 ) of the cable. The waveform
generated can then be monitored using an Oscilloscope as shown.
If the velocity of propagation, 𝑉𝑝 (𝑚⁄𝜇𝑠) is taken to be constant for a given cable,

the time interval T (𝜇𝑠) taken for the pulse to travel from the cable terminals to the
fault, 𝐿𝑓 (m) is given by the following formula:
2 𝐿𝑓 = T x 𝑉𝑝 Equation 3.2
𝑉𝑝
𝐿𝑓 = Tx Equation 3.3
2
T (𝜇𝑠)
Cable Metallic Sheath
Cable Core
T
 Cable Metallic Sheath
OSCILLOSCOPE 𝐿𝑓 (m)
Figure 3.7 : Principle of Travelling Wave in Cable
Page| 37
Velocity of Propagation
Velocity of Propagation is the measurement of speed of a wave (pulse signal) travel
in a medium at which the wave passes through. The Velocity of Propagation is
defined as:
Vs
Vp = Equation 3.4
√ εr
Where;
𝑉𝑠 is the velocity of light in free space (300 𝑚⁄𝜇𝑠)
𝜀𝑟 is the relative permittivity of dielectric material
Table 3.1 below are the typical velocities of propagation for different dielectric
materials.
Table 3.1 : Typical Velocities of Propagation
Velocity of Propagation
Dielectric Types 𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝒑 (𝑚⁄𝜇𝑠) ) (𝑚⁄𝜇𝑠) )
𝟐
Impregnated Paper 150 – 171 75 – 85

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 152 – 175 76 – 87
Polyethylene (PE) Approximately 200 Approximately 100
Cross Linked
156 – 176 78 – 88
Polyethylene (XLPE)
Ethylene Propylene
135 – 171 68 - 86
Rubber (EPR)
Page | 38
Refer to Appendix III for step by step procedure to perform TDR

Measurement Test (Baur) and Appendix IV for TDR Measurement Test (Megger)
3.2 High Voltage Method
High resistance fault (𝑅𝑓 > 10𝑍0 ) and transient / intermittent fault could not be
pre-located using low voltage TDR method because the TDR trace could not show
a clear reflection due to minimum characteristic impedance mismatch at the fault
point (reflection factor (r) approaches 0%). High voltage pre-location method
utilised combined high voltage source (Surge Signal Generator, SSG) coupled with
TDR.
This method can be used to locate a high resistance or transient / intermittent fault
without the need to condition the fault using burn down transformer. Fault burning
is proven to be unsuitable for solid plastic insulation cable such as XLPE cable. The
burning could melt the XLPE insulation and further insulate or masks the fault and
make the fault pre-location impossible.
Page| 39
The available high voltage fault pre-location method are:-
Transient Voltage Method

1. Secondary Impulse Method (SIM) – Baur
2. Arc Reflection Method (ARM) – Seba / Megger
3. Multiple Impulse Method (MIM) – Baur
Impulse Current Method
1. Impulse Current Method (ICM) – Baur
2. Impulse Current Equipment (ICE) – Seba
Surge Signal Generator (SSG) / Thumper
Surge Signal Generator (SSG) is a high voltage source that enables the application
of high voltage transient fault pre-location method. It is also used to generate a
periodic high voltage surge signal applicable for acoustic pin-pointing method.
The output voltage of the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) is typically adjustable in the
range of 0 – 8 kV, 0 – 16 kV and 0 – 32 kV. For high voltage pre-location, single shot
high voltage pulse is manually triggered by a push button. Pin-pointing the cyclic
high voltage pulse is triggered by a timer controlled surge switch in the Surge Signal
Generator (SSG) set.
Page | 40
The high voltage surge is generated by discharging high voltage capacitor into the
faulty cable which can either be direct (single shot) or cyclic (multiple shots)
through a surge switch. To configure the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) into various
output voltage range, the high voltage capacitors are connected either in series or
in parallel.
Typically the configuration of high voltage capacitor in the Surge Signal Generator
(SSG – Baur) are as the following figure in forming the available three voltage
ranges:-
 Range : 0 – 8 kV
Figure 3.8 : 0 - 8 kV Range
 Range : 0 – 16 kV
Page| 41
 Range : 0 – 32 kV
Surge Signal Generator (SSG) Range Selection
The output energy that can be delivered by Surge Signal Generator (SSG) is basically
depending on the capacitance (C) of the integrated capacitor bank. The energy
stored (J) in the capacitor is defined by the charging voltage.
1 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 𝐶𝑉 Equation 3.5
2
The energy of the high voltage impulse delivered by the Surge Signal Generator
(SSG) will determine the intensity of flashover at the fault point.
Page | 42
This value is very important to maintain a stable flashover required for

successfully applying the transient fault pre-location method (SIM / MIM / ARM)
or Impulse Current Method (ICM / ICE). The high voltage surge delivered by the
Surge Signal Generator (SSG) should have enough high energy to cause flashover
at the fault point in creating a loud flashover noise to be detected by acoustic
fault pin-pointing method. The higher the discharge energy, the flashover noise
will be higher.
Figure 3.11 Graph of Surge Voltage Level vs Energy Released
Depending on the value of the fault’s flashover voltage, the correct selection of
voltage range is very important to enable the delivery of maximum surge energy
to the fault.
Page| 43
This is clearly demonstrated in the graph shown above. For example, if a fault
flashover is at 8 kV, with the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) setting at 32 kV range,
the energy delivered to the fault is only 62 Joules. If the range is set at 16 kV, the
energy delivered to the fault is only 250 Joules. By setting the Surge Signal
Generator (SSG) range to 8 kV, full output energy (1000 Joules) will be delivered to
the fault and the flashover will produce maximum acoustic signal at the fault point
that can be clearly picked up by the ground microphone placed over the fault.
3.2.1 Secondary Impulse Method / Multiple Impulse Method (SIM /

MIM)
The high resistance / intermittent fault cannot be pre-located by means of the low
voltage TDR method. The low voltage pulse sent out by the TDR is not reflected at
the fault point, as the fault impedance compared to the insulation impedance of
the healthy core of the cable is not significantly lower.
The Secondary Impulse Method (SIM) is commonly used for pre-locating high
resistance or flashing / intermittent fault. In this method, a single high voltage
impulse is generated by the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) into the fault and it is
possible to change the high fault resistance temporary into a short circuit
(flashover, temporary low resistance fault condition) and therefore can only be
detected by a second low voltage TDR pulse. The low voltage TDR pulse is coupled
to the high voltage output of the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) via the coupling unit.
Page | 44
Figure 3.12 : Connection Diagram for SIM Method
Source: Baur
When applying high voltage secondary impulse pre-location method (SIM), the first
measurement before applying high voltage impulse will indicate a TDR trace with
the positive reflection of the cable end. Raise the voltage at Surge Signal Generator
(SSG) to greater than the measured breakdown voltage, triggered high voltage
impulse to be sent to the faulty cable. The high voltage impulse will cause the high
resistance / intermittent fault to breakdown and creates a low resistive arc. The
second measurement shows the TDR trace with a negative reflection from the
arcing fault.
Page| 45
Figure 3.13 : SIM Graph Measurement
The flashover of fault by the high voltage impulse can be very unpredictable
depending on the cable length and the condition of the fault i.e., water in joint.
This makes synchronising the low voltage pulse from TDR with the flashover of the
fault becomes very difficult. Hence, the TDR may not record the faulty trace. Baur
improved the method by introducing Multiple Impulse Method (MIM), in which
many TDR pulses (up to 20) are simultaneously sent down the cable with the high
voltage impulse in order to increase the possibility of having one or more TDR
pulses reflected at the low resistive arcing fault.
Page | 46
Presence of water in cable or joint can cause ignition of the breakdown of the cable
fault to be delayed and can also quickly extinguish the flashover. By sending a
sequence of TDR pulses with different trigger delays, a larger monitoring window
can be monitored and will increase the likelihood of one or more TDR pulses
reflected at the arc.
Figure 3.14 : Illustration of MIM Fault Pre-Location Process
Page| 47
Figure 3.15 : MIM Pre-Location Trace
Refer to Appendix V for step by step procedure to perform Secondary

Impulse Method / Multiple Impulse Method (SIM / MIM) High Voltage
Pre-Location Method (Baur).
Page | 48
3.2.2 Arc Reflection Method (ARM)
This fault pre-location method developed by Seba / Megger is similar to Multiple

Impulse Method (MIM) by Baur, where the high voltage impulse from the Surge
Signal Generator (SSG) is discharged into the fault with the TDR meter coupled to
the high voltage signal by energy separation filter. The arc stabilisation unit
introduced in this system maintain the flashover arc for a longer duration hence
ensures the TDR can easily locate the fault.
The ARM pre – location method is particularly well suited for shorter cable length
(up to 5 km) and lower breakdown voltage up to 12 kV.
Figure 3.16 : Simplified Diagram for the ARM Pre-Location Connection
Page| 49
Figure 3.17 : Fault Trace by ARM Pre-Location Method
Refer to Appendix VI for step by step procedure to perform Arc Reflection

Method (ARM) High Voltage Pre-Location Method (Megger).
Page | 50
3.2.3 Impulse Current Method / Equipment (ICM / ICE)
TDR cable fault pre-location method is affected by damping of the low voltage
pulse in very long cables, reflections at joints and other characteristic impedance
changes along the cable, or by corrosion of the cable metallic sheath. In extreme
cases, the pulse from the Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) may damp to such a
degree that the reflection pulse is not detectable. The Impulse Current Method
(ICM) is a better alternative method for fault pre – location of much longer cable.
To conduct Impulse Current Method (ICM) fault pre-location, an inductive coupling

unit is connected to the metallic sheath of the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) output
cable. The Surge Signal Generator (SSG) / Thumper releases a HV impulse that
causes the fault position to break down, hence creates a transient current wave
traveling along the cable metallic sheath between the Surge Signal Generator (SSG)
and the cable fault. The initial impulse is emitted as a negative pulse and every
reflection at the fault position and generator causes a reversal in polarity, as both
positions are low resistive points of reflection.
Page| 51
Figure 3.18 : Illustrations of ICM Connection, Arc Reflection Sequence and Typical
Reflection Traces
The first impulse reflection is sometimes influenced by the ignition delay time of
the fault breakdown. The distance to the fault can be taken as the distance
between the 2nd and 3rd pulse or 3rd and 4th pulse or 4th and 5th pulse. There is
damping of the signals over time, so further pulses should not be analysed as it
would lead to inaccurate results. As the pulse width of the transient current pulse
is very wide, the ICM method is only accurate for very long cables. For short cables,
the transient pulses influence each other and causes difficulty in reflection trace
interpretations.
Page | 52
Figure 3.19 : Example of ICM Reflection Trace and Measurement of Fault Distance
Refer to Appendix VII for step by step procedure to perform ICM High
Voltage Pre-Location Method (Baur) and Appendix VIII for ICE High
Voltage Pre-Location Method (Megger).
Page| 53
3.2.4 Decay Method
Decay Method is an alternative method to Impulse Current Method (ICM) method.

This is because sometimes the breakdown voltage of the fault may be higher than
the rated output of the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) / Thumper (> 32 kV). In this
case a VLF or DC source with higher voltage output needs to be used as the high
voltage source. The faulted cable is charged by applying high voltage VLF or DC
until the fault breaks down. Cable capacitance stores the energy, and once
breakdown occur, a transient wave is created that travels between the cable fault
and the high voltage source. The transient wave is recorded by TDR via a capacitive
coupler and the recorded period of oscillation is equal to the fault distance.
Compared to the Impulse Current Method (ICM) method above, the decay method
is based on a transient voltage wave that is continuously recorded by the TDR
connected via the capacitive coupler.
The sequence below describes the steps during the decay method pre - location.
The cable is charged with negative voltage and the flashover at the cable fault
creates a positive discharge transient wave that travels towards the near end of
the cable. At the high voltage source, the pulse is reflected without any polarity
change. Once the pulse travels back to the cable fault, the pulse is reflected and
the polarity changes. This process is repeated until the pulse dampens and loses
energy.
Page | 54
Figure 3.20 : Illustrations of Decay Method, Surge Voltage Transient Reflection Sequence
and Typical Reflection Traces
Page| 55
3.3 Bridge Measurement Method
Fault pre-location by Bridge Measurement Method is suitable for all categories

of shunt fault only, measurement is made by balancing two internal resistance
arms (𝑅𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑏 ) , against the two external resistance arms
(𝑅𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑦 ) represented by the length of cable conductors up to the fault.
In order to create the external loop as zero Ohms, short circuits must be made at
the remote end between a healthy core and the faulty core as shown in Figure
3.21. This configuration is called the Murray Loop Test.
L
Ra
Rb
Figure 3.21 : Murray Loop Test for Earth Fault
At balanced condition, the ratio of internal resistance arms is the same as the
external resistance arms.
Page | 56
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑥
= Equation 3.6
𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑦
and
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑥
= Equation 3.7
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅𝑦
As the cable has a constant resistance per unit length, x and y can be considered as
lengths. The location of the fault as a fraction of loop length is given by:-
𝑅𝑎 (𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅𝑦 ) 𝑅𝑎
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = (2𝐿) Equation 3.8
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏
As the location of the fault depends on the linearity of resistance per unit length
along the cable core, the main disadvantage of this method is the pre-requisite
conditions needed for this method can be applied such as the cable core cross
sectional area must be consistent and the quality of loop connection between the
healthy and faulty cores must be good.
Page| 57
With constant core cross sectional area and good looping, the Murray Loop Test
can achieve a very accurate fault pre-location. Bridge Measurement Methods are
basically used for pre-location of low resistance fault. Using a high voltage source
that is integrated in the latest generation of bridge measuring equipment, high
resistance fault can also be easily pre-located.
The High Voltage Bridge Measurement fault pre-location method is the most
suitable method for pre-location on high resistance or intermittent fault on single
core cable systems where TDR and other High Voltage fault pre-location methods
are not possible due to interruptions to the cable metallic sheath by situations such
as cross bonding link box being inaccessible, missing or vandalised.
There are other variation of bridge measuring circuits such as Glaser which can be
used for pre-location of cable sheath fault and unshielded plastic low voltage cable.
Detailed connection and operational steps should refer to equipment Original
Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Manual.
Page | 58
CHAPTER 4 : CABLE ROUTE TRACING
4.0 Overview of Cable Route Tracing
Cable route tracing is to determine the exact route of the underground cable.
Unless an accurate cable route map / as built drawing is available, cable route
tracing is a very important step prior to cable fault pin pointing. Accurate cable
route enables accurate measurement of fault distance based on pre-location
results and this will reduce the areas / distance to cover hence saving time
needed for pin-pointing.
Cable route tracing techniques consists of Passive Live Cable Tracing and Active
Cable Route Tracing that will be further explained in Chapter 4.2 and 4.3.
4.1 Cable Route Tracing Equipment
Cable route tracing equipment consists of two main components and its
associated accessories.
 Transmitter
 Receiver
Page| 59
Figure 4.1 : RD 8000
Transmitter / Audio Frequency Generator
The Transmitter generates audio frequency signal to be transmitted into the cable
for active cable route tracing. It has a range of frequencies for selection and the
selection is based on the length of cable to be traced and method of signal
connection. Methods to couple the audio frequency signal to the target cable are
galvanic / direct connection, clamp on induction and frame antenna induction. The
low frequency range is normally used for direct connection and tracing of long
cables.
Page | 60
In using this mode, it must be careful to prevent from injecting too high signal
current, as it may cause induction to surrounding cables or metal objects which
may subsequently cause error in tracing. The medium range frequency is suitable
for clamp-on induction connection. The high frequency range is more suitable in
tracing short length cable by direct connection because it gives high resolution in
signal detection. It is also used for frame antenna induction connection where
signal injection by Galvanic Connection or Clamp on Inductive Connection is not
possible.
Figure 4.2 : RD 8000 (Radio Detection) Figure 4.3 : Metrotech i5000
Page| 61
Receiver / Locator
The receiver contains sensors that detect the electromagnetic field (signals); these
sensors are also known as antennas. The signal induces a response in the antennas
by electromagnetic induction. Modern receiver has several antennas in different
combinations. Each combination (known as Modes) provides a different types of
response. The most common responses for general locating are “Peak” and “Null”.
Figure 4.4 : Metrotech i5000 Figure 4.5 : RD Route Tracer
Page | 62
“Peak / Maximum” Mode

“Peak / Maximum” mode provides a maximum response when the receiver is
directly over the targeted cable.
“Null / Minimum” Mode

“Null / Minimum” mode provides a minimum response when the receiver is
directly over the targeted cable.
Minimum / Null Mode Maximum / Peak Mode
Figure 4.6 : Maximum and Minimum Mode Illustrations
Page| 63
4.2 Passive Live Cable Tracing
Passive live cable tracing detects power frequency electromagnetic signal emitting
from live cables carrying load current without making use of the transmitter. It is
often used to scan and trace the location of unidentified buried live cable before
digging to avoid accidental damage to the cable. It is not intended to be used for
identifying or tracing a specific cable. The ease of locating a live cable is very much
influenced by the load current flow in the cable, where the electromagnetic signal
strength varies with the load current flow in the cable. Passive live cable tracing
might not be detecting any energised cable without any carrying current.
4.3 Active Cable Route Tracing
A successful, speedy cable fault location relies on knowing the exact routes of the
cable where the possible fault location from pre-location can be accurately
measured and marked prior to pin-pointing. If the exact route of the underground
cable is unknown, magnetic frequency cable route tracing equipment can be used
to trace and mark the cable route.
Page | 64
To conduct cable route tracing, an audio frequency generator can be connected to

a healthy phase of the faulted cable via galvanic connection, clamp on inductive
connection with a clip-on CT clamp, or inductive connection with a frame antenna.
Galvanic connection is the best method as the best signal strength can be obtained.
However, an inductive connection may be necessary in areas or circumstances in
which a galvanic connection is not possible, such as tracing cable route of live
cables that could not be shutdown. For galvanic connection, a lower frequency
signal with not too high signal current is advisable to minimise inductive coupling
into other cables. When audio frequency signal coupling by inductive method, a
higher coupling effect is required and therefore a higher frequency signal should
be chosen.
Galvanic / Direct Connection
The most effective connection for cable route tracing is galvanic / direct
connection. It enables the strongest signal injection and hence improve the tracing
result. In this method, the audio frequency signal generated by the audio frequency
generator is directly transmitted onto the target cable. The connection between
the audio frequency generators to the cable core must be in good contact. The
signal is generated by the current flow from the signal generator which travels
along the cable conductors and back to the transmitter. For this method to work,
the targeted cable must be de-energized and earthed at the far end.
Page| 65
The current uses the ground and the earthing spike to complete the circuit. The
ground return earthing spike must be positioned perpendicular to the cable to be
traced. The earthing spike should be buried deep enough in the ground so that it
increases the surface contact of the soil, the intensity / strength of the signal
depends on good earthing connection.
To successfully trace the cable route, correct selection of signal frequency is very
important as the injected audio frequency signal will be attenuated by losses of the
signal strength. Injecting lower audio frequency signal will enable longer tracing
distance with less coupling effect to adjacent cables or other conductive metal
objects.
When tracing cable route with Galvanic / Direct Connection, try to avoid possibility
of signal current return to the signal generator / transmitter via the targeted
cable’s metallic sheath, as the return current signal may cancel the signal strength
of the injected signal hence producing very small resultant signal which may not be
easily detected by the receiver.
Page | 66
Figure 4.7 : Illustration of Galvanic / Direct Connection
Figure 4.8 : Principle of Cable Route Tracing by Direct Connection
Page| 67
Inductive Connection (Clamp On)
In situations where galvanic / direct connection is not possible due to inaccessibility

to cable termination or the target cable cannot be shutdown, the inductive clamp
on connection method can be used. For this method, the audio frequency signal is
injected into the target cable by induction using a CT clamp over the target cable.
The CT clamp acts as the primary and the targeted cable conductors as the
secondary of a transformer. For this method to work, normally the medium range
injection frequency is used and metallic sheath of the target cable must be earthed
at both ends with low earthing resistance.
Figure 4.9 : Inductive Connection (Clamp) at Joint Pit
Page | 68
Figure 4.10 : Inductive Connection (Clamp) at Cable End
Inductive Connection (Frame Antenna)
In cases of long cable where the direct connection or clamp on connection at the
terminal of the cable is not possible, tracing cable route can be carried out by
injecting audio frequency signal from the signal generator / transmitter using
inductive / frame antenna method. The signal generator / transmitter is placed
directly inline over the targeted cable and high frequency range signal is selected.
To avoid interference to the receiver, the signal generator must be placed at least
5 meters away from the receiver.
Page| 69
Figure 4.11 : Illustration of Inductive Connection (Frame Antenna) at Site
Table 4.1 : Various Type Connection of Transmitter Signal
Condition Method
Accessible to termination
Galvanic / Direct Connection
(Shut Down)
Inaccessible to termination Inductive Connection (Clamp)
Live Cable Inductive Connection (Clamp)
Inductive Connection
Far from Cable End (Frame Antenna) / Clamp in Trial
Hole
Page | 70
4.4 General Guide for Successful Cable Tracing
In order to have successful cable tracing, the following tips are helpful.
1. Make sure transmitter battery is fully / sufficiently charged or

accessible to AC Source.
2. Make sure receiver battery is fully / sufficiently charged.
3. Apply Direct Connection / Galvanic Connection for maximum signal
strength transmission.
4. Signal connection must be connected to sound core of the cable.
5. Ensure the far end of the cable is properly earthed.
6. Ensure transmitter earth connection is good by either connecting to
earthing spike or substation main earth.
7. Select correct signal frequency suitable for the length of cable to be
traced. Table 4.2 recommends the suitable frequency to be used based
on cable length:-
Page| 71
Table 4.2 : Recommended Signal Frequency Based on Cable Length
Frequency Cable Length
Low (<1 kHz) Long Length Cable
Medium (<10 kHz) Medium Length Cable
High (<75 kHz) Short Length Cable
8. Pairing the transmitter and receiver frequency if necessary.

9. Do not apply too high transmitter output to avoid induction to other
metallic structure that can cause confusion.
10. Start the cable tracing from the source to avoid picking up induced
signal on wrong cables / metallic structure.
For full understanding and improvement in cable route tracing, the cable route
tracer manufacturer operation manual is a good reference and regular practice will
improve competency in cable tracing.
Page | 72
CHAPTER 5 : PIN-POINTING
5.0 Overview of Pin-Pointing
Pin-Pointing is the application of tests that positively confirmed the exact location
of the fault over ground. The most common method of pin-pointing:-
1. Acoustic / Shock Wave Discharge / Thumping

2. Magnetic Field Detection / Electromagnetic Surge Detection
3. Pool of Potential / Step Voltage
5.1 Acoustic / Shock Wave Discharge / Thumping
This is the most commonly used method for pin-pointing power cable fault. The
Surge Signal Generator (SSG) connected to the faulty core of the cable delivers a
high voltage surge into the cable at a selected frequency typically once every 1 to
10 seconds. Most people would select discharge rate of 1 at every 3 or 4 seconds.
If the selected discharge frequency is too high, the fault locating technician may
walk past the fault without picking up the discharge. If the discharge frequency is
set too fast i.e. 1 every second, this may not give the Surge Signal Generator (SSG)
time to charge up the capacitor hence limiting the energy available to discharge at
the fault point.
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It is a good practice to measure the fault resistance before connecting the Surge
Signal Generator (SSG), then connect and start the Surge Signal Generator (SSG).
When the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) is connected to the faulty cable, it is not
advisable to rush over to the possible fault location as indicated by the pre-location
reading to listen for the acoustic signal. Allow the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) to
run for a few minutes, switch off, disconnect and measure the fault resistance
again. If the fault resistance is in kilo Ohms range, this confirms the surge from the
Surge Signal Generator (SSG) is consistently discharged at the fault and acoustic
noise will be generated.
Sometimes, the fault is unstable and this can be seen by the intermittent
discharging indicated by the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) volt meter that does not
drop towards 0 reading after each shot. This can be overcomed by switching off
the Surge Signal Generator (SSG) and re-start surging / thumping at a higher
voltage.
For acoustic pin-pointing method to be effective, the fault locating technician must
put the ground microphone directly over the cable fault point. This can only be
assured by positively marking the cable route by cable tracing. It is a good practice
to mark the cable route with highly visible markings such as spray painting at
intervals of 2 to 3 meters spacing for about 2% of cable routes length on each side
of pre - location distance.
Page | 74
5.2 Magnetic Field Detection / Electromagnetic Surge Detection
When a high voltage surge signal is discharged into the faulty cable, a very high
energy steep fronted surge wave pulse travels down the faulty cable, and as the
surge pulse travels along the cable, electromagnetic signal is created by the current
generated by the surge.
Modern pin-pointing equipment is also equipped with pickup coil that can detect
electromagnetic signal. The strength of the electromagnetic signal indicates the
relative position of the pickup coil over the faulty cable. This can sometimes be
used as a guide to cable route tracing. Some pin-pointing equipment has displays
or visual indications of the electromagnetic signal and in some cases, capable of
measuring the time lag between the electromagnetic signal and acoustic signal.
The fault pre-location technician can make use of this function to guide them on
the correct cable route while trying to pick up the acoustic signal at the fault point.
Page| 75
5.3 Pool of Potential / Step Voltage
Cable sheath faults or short circuit faults to ground does not cause a flashover
when a high voltage surge signal is sent into the cable, and therefore, acoustic fault
pin-pointing method cannot be used. This situation also commonly occured when
the cable fault is ingressed with water. In this case, a sequence of voltage impulses
is sent into the faulted cable, which produces a pool of potential at the fault point.
The pool of potential is the voltage drop / voltage gradient radiating from the fault
point. This voltage gradient can be measured using two earth probes above
ground.
When walking towards the fault, an increasing voltage should be detected and
immediately over the fault point a detectable polarity change will be indicated. The
fault location is confirmed by zero volt indication when the earth probes are placed
symmetrically above the fault. To determine the exact location of the fault, the
voltage probes is rotated 900 perpendicular to the original position; when zero volt
indication intersects the original location, this will indicate the exact fault location
is at the intersection.
Page | 76
5.4 Pin-Pointing Equipment
Pin-Pointing equipment for location of fault by acoustic signal detection consists

of:-
1. Receiver / Amplifier Unit with:-
 Magnetic signal display to indicate the flow of signal current as well
as guide to the cable route.
 Acoustic signal display to indicate the strength of the acoustic signal
picked up by the ground microphone.
2. Ground Microphone is the acoustic signal transducer to sense the
acoustic signal generated by flashover of high voltage surge signal at the
fault point. The acoustic signal picked up by the ground microphone is fed
to the receiver unit for acoustic signal display and to the headphone for
audible identification by the operator.
3. Headphones is used by the operator to receive and positively identify the
acoustic signal picked up by the ground microphone at the exact fault
point.
Refer to Appendix IX for step by step procedure to perform Pin-Pointing

(Baur) and Appendix X for Pin-Pointing (Megger).
Page| 77
Some pin-pointing equipment commonly used by TNB are as follows:-
Headphones KH20
Locator UL30 (Receiver / Amplifier)
Ground Microphone BM30
Figure 5.1: Baur UL30-BM30 Pin-Pointing Equipment
Indicating Unit
Headphones
Ground Microphone
Receiver Unit
Figure 5.2 : Megger Digiphone+ Surge Wave Receiver
Page | 78
CHAPTER 6 : CABLE IDENTIFICATION
6.0 Overview of Cable Identification
Cable identification is an important safety step in cable fault location especially

when there are multiple cables in the same trench, where the faulty cable need to
be specifically identified among other live cables. Unless the faulty point can be
positively confirmed by physical damage to the cable core, the faulty cable should
be identified by using an approved cable identification equipment.
Even with confirmation by cable identification equipment, the cable should never
be cut with a hacksaw and it should be spiked first by using an approved cable
spiking equipment before cutting or alternatively cut the cable using an approved
live line cable cutter.
Note: Always observe TNB Safety Guidelines when cutting cable
Page| 79
6.1 Cable Identification Equipment
Cable Identification equipment typically consists of the following components:-

 Transmitter (TxCi)
 Receiver (RxCi)
 Flexible Clamp
 Inductive Sensor Flexible Clamp
Transmitter (TxCi) Receiver (RxCi)
Refer to Appendix XI for step by step procedure to perform Cable

Identification.
Page | 80
CHAPTER 7 : FAULT CONFIRMATION & RE-TEST
7.0 Introduction
In this chapter, a general explanation on how to perform fault confirmation is
elaborated in Chapter 7.1 and re-test general guidelines based on common issue
at site is further explained in Chapter 7.2.
7.1 Fault Confirmation
When the fault is pin-pointed, the location is clearly marked with spray painting.
The location will be excavated to expose the fault. Excavation should be carried out
with proper supervision so that no accidental damage to the cable or other cables
which might exist at the same location. Accidental damage to any existing live cable
can have safety consequences to the excavation machine operator as well as
interruptions of supply to large number of customers. If multiple cables are found
during excavation and faulty cable could not be positively identified by physical
damage on the cable, further cable identification process need to be carried out.
Page| 81
Even if there is only one cable or the fault can be visually identified, the best
practice is to repeat the thumping process or to perform cable identification in
order to confirm the right cable and also to physically observe any flashover nearby
the fault point.
It is a good practice to take photographs when the faulty core is exposed. This is
important if the fault is caused by third party damage and the photograph could
be used as evidence when processing claims.
7.2 Re-Test
Once the fault has been identified and faulty portion is cut, the cable section need
to be re-test by performing Continuity Test and Insulation Resistance Test to
confirm and identified the right cable.
It is also must never be assumed that the remaining parts of the cable is healthy.
Further test need to be carried out between the cable cut towards left and right of
the cable cut area to confirm the fault is removed and there is no other fault in the
cable. In case further test shows fault still exist, further fault location must be
carried out and each should be treated as a separate case. The advantages is the
cable route, route length and Velocity of Propagation (VOP) is known from the first
fault location.
Page | 82
Table 7.1 : Common Issue at Site and Solution
Issue Solution
Multiple Cable In Trench Cable Route Tracing & Cable Identification
Cables are Visually Good Cable Identification & Cable Spike
No Cable In Trench Cable Route Tracing
Cut cable at the end of pipe, draw out cable &

Cable Fault Inside Pipe
find the fault
When the fault is confirmed, cable has to be cut and repaired. After repairing, re-
test the cable to make sure the cable is in good condition.
Refer to Appendix XII for step by step procedure to perform Fault Confirmation
& Re-Test (Baur) and Appendix XIII for step by step procedure to perform Fault
Confirmation & Re-Test (Megger).
Page| 83
CHAPTER 8 : REPAIR, TESTING & RE-COMMISSIONING
8.0 Introduction
This chapter will explain more on repair work that has to be done after fault
confirmation and re-test. After repair work has been completed, the next step is to
perform testing and commissioning.
8.1 Repair
After the cable fault point being cut out and further test confirmed there is no
other fault in the cable, repair works can begin. A short length cable is laid to
connect the healthy portion of the cable. The cable used must be of same type, size
and design or alternatively replaced with compatible cable specification and size.
Cable joint pits are used as connection points to connect the short length cable
with the existing cable. The type of joint kits used must be TNB approved type and
installed by certified jointers. Before installation of joints, dead phasing using
approved method such as resistance box must be carried out by TNB Qualified
Person (QP) or Suruhanjaya Tenaga (ST) Authorized Person (AP). The identified
phases must be clearly marked by colour tapes and handed to jointers to proceed
with the installation of joints.
Page | 84
8.2 Testing & Re-Commissioning
When the repair joint is completed by jointers, the Permit To Work (PTW) is
cancelled and TNB QP should conduct testing to confirm the repair work is properly
done and the cable section is ready to be re-commissioned.
8.2.1 Testing
One or more of the following tests should be carried out after completion of
jointing works:-
 Insulation Resistance Test (IR Test)
 Offline Partial Discharge (PD) Mapping
 On Soak 24 hours
 Monitored Withstand Test (MWT) / Very Low Frequency (VLF)
Note: All test result must be recorded in the fault location log sheet.
The personnel responsible for locating and repairing cable fault also needs to
report the fault in the LGB Net (Laporan Gangguan Bekalan) system with all the
necessary informations as required by system. This report would allow TNB to
conduct statistical analysis on the fault over time.
Page| 85
The analysis would provide powerful input to engineering management and input
to policy decisions such as improvement to cable or it’s accessories design and
installation practices. It can also be an input for identification of training
requirement to underground cable teams for reliability performance improvement
of underground cable system.
8.2.2 Re-Commissioning
When the repaired cable has passed all necessary re-commissioning test, TNB
Qualified Person (QP) will report back to the Distribution System Operator (DSO)
and cancel the authorization for repair of the cable fault issued to him. The cable
section is officially returned to Distribution System Operator (DSO) to resume the
existing system. The re-commissioning of the repaired cable section can be verified
either via SCADA by Control Engineers from control room or locally by TNB
Qualified Person (QP) under the instructions of the DSO Control Engineer.
Note: During re-commissioning process, all relevant TNB Safety Rules must be strictly
adhered.
Page | 86
List of References
1. Underground Cable Fault Location

Author: Barry Clegg
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Book Company
Year Published: 1993
2. Cable Fault Location in LV,MV and HV Underground Cable Network – Practical

Experience
Author: Ing. Tobias Neier
Publisher: Baur
3. The Theory of Buried Pipe and Cable Location

Publisher: Radio Detection, UK
4. Cable Fault Location

TNB Distribution Engineering Manual
5. Cable Fault Location in Power Cables

Publisher: Seba KMT
6. Cable Fault Location with BAUR Syscompact 2000

Publisher: Baur
7. Using The Surge Wave Generators

Publisher: Seba KMT
8. Impulse Current Method (ICM)
9. Publisher: Baur Operating Manual for Impulse Current Equipment

Publisher: Biccotest Limited, UK.
Page| 87
APPENDIX I – INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST
Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform Insulation

Resistance (IR) Test
Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform insulation resistance test

using Megger IR Tester.
CONTROL BUTTONS
1 3
10
4
9
8 5
7 6
Page | 88
1. Positive (+) terminal

2. Guard terminal
3. Negative (-) terminal
4. Four arrow buttons and OK button
5. TEST button with associated HV warning lamp
6. Backlight button
7. Central rotary switch
8. Test mode rotary switch
9. LED indicating line power / mains
10. Display
IR TESTER DISPLAY
Page | 89
11. IR Test Mode

12. Test Voltage
13. Resistance Result
14. Timer
15. Battery indicator
16. Scale
17. Caution: Risk of Electric Shock
18. Test Current
ACCESSORIES
Test Leads
Page | 90
INSULATION RESISTANCE (IR) TEST STEP BY STEP
Step 1
Setting up Insulation Resistance

(IR) Tester
 Insert Red Clip to Positive

(+) Terminal.
 Insert Black Clip to
Negative
(-) Terminal.
Page | 91
Step 2(a)
Cable Connection at VCB Spout

CAUTION!
ENSURE NEAR END & FAR END
Connection at
(VCB) IS IN “EARTH OFF”
the Phase
POSITION.
 Red Clip connects to VCB

earthing bar.
 Black Clip connects to the
Connection at VCB
Earthing Bar core.
Phase to Earth Connection
 Black Clip connects to

one of the cores.
 Red Clip connects to
another core.
Phase to Phase Connection
Page | 92
Step 2(b)
Cable Connection at RMU Test

Bushing
CAUTION!
Connection at
the Phase ENSURE NEAR END & FAR END
(RMU) IS IN “EARTH OFF”
POSITION.
substation earthing bar.
Connection at
Earthing Bar core.
Phase to Earth Connection
 Black Clip connects to

one of the cores.

another core.
Phase to Phase Connection
Page | 93
Step 3
Perform Insulation Resistance
(IR) Test
To Select “Test Voltage”
 Rotate “Central Rotary

Switch” from OFF to 5kV
range.
Step 4
To Perform IR Test (Phase to

Earth)
 Red – Earth
 Yellow – Earth
 Blue – Earth
To Perform IR Test (Phase to

Phase)
 Red – Yellow
Test Mode Test  Yellow – Blue
Rotary Switch Button  Blue – Red
Page | 94
 Rotate “Test Mode

Rotary Switch” to select
IR mode by turning the
dial.
 Press “Test” button to
start testing (minimum 1
minute or until stable
reading is achieved).
 Press “Test” button again
to stop Testing.
Test Mode Rotary Test Button

 Record the reading into
Switch the test sheet (attached
in Appendix XIV – Fault
Analysis Test Sheet).
CAUTION!
ENSURE TO DISCHARGE CABLE
AFTER TEST.
Page | 95
APPENDIX II – CONTINUITY TEST
Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform Continuity

Test
Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform continuity test using Fluke
Multimeter.
CONTINUITY TEST STEP BY STEP
Step 1
Connection of Test Leads (Phase

to Phase)
CAUTION!
 ENSURE NEAR END (VCB
/ RMU) IS IN “EARTH
OFF” POSITION.
 ENSURE FAR END (VCB /
RMU) IS IN “EARTH ON”
POSITION / PREFERABLY
LOOPED.
 Red – Yellow
Connection at VCB
 Yellow – Blue
 Blue – Red
Page | 96

core.
another core.
Connection at RMU
Step 2
To Set up the Multimeter
 Red lead – Ohm

 Black lead – COMMON
Note: Ensure battery is sufficient

and test leads are in good
condition.
Page | 97
Step 3
To Select Test Mode
 Rotate “Central Mode

Switch” from OFF to
resistance measurement
function (Ω).
Step 4
To Measure Test Lead Resistance
 Short these red lead and

black lead together
(let these two leads
touching each other).
 Record the reading.
Page | 98
Step 5
To Perform Continuity Test

(Phase to Phase)
 Place test leads to the
Connection at VCB
cores as below:-
 Red – Yellow
 Yellow – Blue
 Blue – Red
Connection at RMU
Notes:
 The conductor resistance =

(Measured Resistance Value – Test Lead Resistance)
2
 Compare the calculated conductor resistance using Table 2.1.
Note: Record all insulation resistance test and continuity test result in the Fault
Analysis Test Sheet – Appendix XIV.
Page | 99
APPENDIX III – TDR MEASUREMENT (BAUR)
Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform TDR

Measurement (Baur)
Following are the step-by-step procedures to measure TDR using Baur IRG 2000.
CONTROLS BUTTONS / KNOB
TDR Meter (BAUR IRG 2000)
1. “MENU” : To enter menu

2. “CURSOR” : To display cursor toolbar
3. “FUNCTION” : To display the echogram function toolbar
4. “COMPARE” : To enter compare toolbar
5. “KNOB” rotary knob + switch : Allows the user to select various
options by rotating it CW or CCW, and to select by pushing it
6. “BACK” : Exits to the upper menu level
7. “I/O” : Turns the device ON and OFF
Page | 100
TDR MEASUREMENT (BAUR) STEP BY STEP
Step 1
Setting up the instrument IRG 2000
 Plug in the TDR Probe to the

socket.
Step 2(a)
HV Test Lead Connection at VCB

Spout
To check total cable length:-
 Connect test lead (black clip)

to VCB earthing bar.
 Connect test lead (red clip)
to the healthy core.
Page | 101
To pre-locate fault distance:-
 Connect test lead (black clip)

to VCB earthing bar.
to the faulty core.
Step 2(b)
HV Test Lead Connection at RMU

Test Bushing
 Connect test lead (black

clip) to substation earthing
bar.
to the healthy core.
Page | 102
 Connect test lead (black

clip) to substation earthing
bar.
to the faulty core.
Step 3
To Switch “ON” TDR
 Press ON/OFF button.
Step 4
To Display “Menu”
 Press “Menu” Button to

display “Mode”.
Page | 103
Step 5
To Select “Mode”
 Press knob to select “Mode”.
Step 6
To Select “TDR” Method
 Rotate knob until “TDR”

appears and press the knob
to activate “TDR Mode”.
Page | 104
Step 7(a)
To Set the TDR Pre-Location

Parameter
To Set “Range”
 Move the red frame to

“Range” by rotating the
knob, then press the knob
once to activate.
 Rotate the knob to select the
desired range corresponding
to the cable length.
 Press the knob to confirm.
Page | 105
Step 7(b)

Parameter
To Set “Gain (dB)”

“Gain” by rotating the rotary
knob and then press the
knob once to activate.
 Rotate the rotary knob to
select the desired gain value.
 For fine adjustment, rotate
and press rotary knob once
more (window will display
yellow colour).
Page | 106
Step 7(c)

Parameter
To Set “Velocity of Propagation

(V/2)”
“Velocity (V/2)” by rotating
the rotary knob, then press
the knob once to activate.
select the desired V/2 value.
 For fine adjustment, press
the rotary knob once more,
(window will display yellow
colour).
select the desired V/2 value
(refer to Table 3.1: Typical
Velocities of Propagation).
Page | 107
Step 8(a)
To Perform Measurement
Measuring Healthy Core / Total

Cable Length
 Refer Step No. 2(a) / (b).

 Press the knob for 2
seconds to obtain the TDR
trace (waveform).
 Refer to the displayed TDR
trace (waveform).
Step 8(b)
Measuring Distance
Cursor Selection
 Press the “Cursor” button.
Page | 108

“Cursor#0” by rotating the
once to activate.
 Rotate the knob to move

the yellow cursor to the
starting point of the initial
pulse.
 Press 2nd time for fine pitch.
Yellow Cursor on Initial Pulse
Page | 109

“Cursor#1” by rotating
knob.
 Press the knob once (1st) to
activate.
 Rotate the knob to move

the cursor and place it close
to the beginning of the
Positive Pulse.
Page | 110
 Press 3rd time to fix cursor

Total Cable Length at position to confirm.
 Read and record the total
cable length shown at the
top right hand corner of the
display.
Step 9
To Pre-locate Fault Distance
 Remove red test lead

connection from healthy
core.
 Connect the red test lead to
the faulty core.
Page | 111
 Press the return key to

return to initial menu
selection screen.
 Press the knob for 2

seconds to obtain
measurement trace.
 The faulty core waveform

will be displayed.
Page | 112
Step 10
To Measure Fault Distance
Cursor Selection
 Press the cursor selection

button.

“Cursor#0” by rotating the
once to activate.
Cursor # 0
Page | 113

“Cursor#1” by rotating
Fault Distance
selection dial.
 Press the knob once (1st) to
activate.
 Move to location close to the
next measurement point
(beginning of the negative
Black Cursor (Cursor #1) on the Negative
pulse).
Pulse
 Press 3rd time to fix the
cursor at whichever position
to confirm.
 Record the displayed fault
distance (at the top right
hand corner).
Page | 114
Step 11
Healthy Core & Faulty Core

Measurement Trace Comparison
 Perform Step No. 8
Function (Measure Healthy Core/

Total Cable Length)
 Press Function button
 Move the red frame to “Set
REF” by rotating the knob,
then press the knob once to
activate.
Note: Set REF saves measurement

temporarily for comparison reasons.
 Press the return key to

return to initial menu
selection screen.
Page | 115
 Perform Step No. 9 (To Pre-

locate Fault Distance).
 Press Compare button.

“Insert REF” by rotating the
once to activate.
Page | 116
 Both healthy (blue

waveform) and faulty (red
waveform) will be
displayed.
 Press “Return” button to

return to the initial page of
the screen.
Page | 117
Step 12
To Measure Fault Distance

Total Length
Fault Distance  Select “Cursor”

 Place Cursor # 0 to the start
of Initial Pulse.
of Positive Pulse to confirm
total cable length.
 Place Cursor # 2 to the
point of separation or
Cursor # 0 Cursor # 2 Cursor # 1
divergence.
 Measurement of Fault
Distance is from the
beginning of the Initial
Pulse to the point of
separation or divergence.
 Press Return button to

return to the initial page of
the screen.
Page | 118
Step 13
To Switch Off the TDR
 Switch OFF the TDR unit by

pressing the ON/OFF
button.
Page | 119
APPENDIX IV – TDR MEASUREMENT (MEGGER)
Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform TDR

Measurement (Megger)
Following are the step-by-step procedures to measure TDR using Megger Teleflex SX.
DISPLAY AND CONTROLS
Element Description
1 Display
2 Rotary encoder with function keys on the side
3 USB port for connecting a USB flash drive or a USB printer
4 ON/OFF button with charge state indication
Page | 120
CONNECTION ELEMENTS
The following connection elements are located at the rear of the Teleflex SX:
Element Description
5&7 BNC Socket connection to perform ARM Method
6 BNC Socket connection to perform ICE Method
8 & 10 BNC socket L1 & L2 connection to perform TDR Method
9 Socket for equipment protective ground connection
11 Service interface
12 Charging socket
13 CAN Interface for connection of specific HV devices
Page | 121
SCREEN LAYOUT
Segment Description
1 Battery-status display
2 Date and time
3 Traces for current measurement or loaded measurements. The

display is split into a general overview (top) and the enlarged section
(bottom).
4 Current status messages and the required next step in the test
sequence.
Page | 122
Information on current phase selection.When the SPG 40 remote-

control mode is active, the symbol to the left of the current selected
phase indicates the SPG 40's operating state. The following states
can occur here:
5 High voltage generation is switched off and the HV output
on the SPG 40 is discharged and connected to earth through
a resistor.
The resistor discharge is not effective. High voltage is
present!
The display elements arranged in the lower area of the screen may
contain the following information:
• Set measurement parameters
• Current measurement values, which are continuously
6
updated as the measurement progresses
• Information (e.g. measurement values) which is applicable
for a particular trace only, is shown in the respective
colour.
7 Selection menu
Current device state:-
The device is currently in standby.
Pulse reflection measurement currently under way.
The measurement was stopped and the traces frozen.
The device is in measurement operational readiness and

waiting to be triggered.
8 The device is in the SPG 40 remote-control mode.
The FOHM safeguard of the SPG 40 has been deactivated in

the system settings.
The FU safeguard of the SPG 40 has been deactivated in the
system settings
The user operating the system has successfully logged into the
administration menu (see page 40) and identified himself /
herself as administrator.
9 Current operating mode
Page | 123
DIRECT CONNECTION TO TEST OBJECT
To enable the Teleflex SX-1 to be used for pulse reflection measurement, the
device must be connected to one or two phases of the test object as shown in the
figure below:
Note : For detailed operation refer to Teleflex SX User Guide.
Page | 124
TDR MEASUREMENT (MEGGER) STEP BY STEP
Step 1
Setting up the Megger Teleflex SX
 Plug in the Red Clip TDR

Probe to the IN 1 socket.
 Plug in the Blue Clip TDR
Probe to the IN 2 socket.
Page | 125
Step 2(a)
HV Test Lead Connection at VCB

Spout

 Connect black test lead to
VCB earthing bar.
 Connect red test (red mark)
lead to the healthy core.

VCB earthing bar.
 Connect red test (blue
mark) lead to the faulty
core.
Page | 126
Step 2(b)
HV Test Lead Connection at RMU

Test Bushing

 Connect red test (red mark)
lead to the healthy core.

 Connect red test (blue
mark) lead to the faulty
core.
Step 3
To Switch “ON” Megger Teleflex SX
 Press “ON/OFF” key.
Page | 127
Step 4
To Select mode “Teleflex”
Note: Mode selection displayed

when Teleflex is switched ON.
 Turn the Rotary Encoder to

select “Teleflex” mode.
 Press Rotary Encoder to
confirm.
Page | 128
Step 5
To Select Phase
 Input 1: Select L1-N and

press to confirm.
 Pull down rotary encoder to
select Input 2 (L2-N) and
press to confirm.
 Move Left Rotary Encoder to
skip Phase Selection.
 Select Menu Item
 It is recommended NOT to
press Rotary Encoder yet to
activate Teleflex / TDR
Mode!
 Adjust other settings (e.g. Y-
Gain, X-Range & V/2) before
starting the measurement
(refer Step 6 – 8).
Page | 129
Step 6
Setting the TDR Pre-location

Parameter
To Set “YG” (Y-Gain)
 Select “YG” and press the

Rotary Encoder to confirm.
 Select the desired Gain
Value.
 Press the Rotary Encoder to
confirm.
Step 7

Parameter
To Set “XR” (X-Range)
 Select “XR” by rotating the

Rotary Encoder and press to
confirm.
 Select Range value.
confirm.
Note: Set the range slightly longer
than the actual cable length.
Page | 130
Step 8

Parameter
To Set “Velocity of Propagation”

(V/2)
 Select “V/2” by rotating

the Rotary Encoder and
press to confirm.
 Select the desired “V/2”
value.
 Press the Rotary Encoder
to confirm.
Step 9
To Conduct Measurement
 Select Menu Item by

rotating the Rotary Encoder.

start measuring.
Page | 131
Step 10
To Stop Measurement
 Press Menu Item to

Pause or Stop Measurement.
Step 11
To Perform Distance Measurement
 Rotate Rotary Encoder to

Menu Item
 Press to select “Cursor”.
 Rotate the Rotary Encoder to
move the cursor to the fault
point.
Page | 132
For Comparison Mode:
 Red Trace is Healthy Core

and Blue Trace is Faulty
Core.
 Divergence between healthy
core and faulty core traces is
the fault location.
Step 12
To Zoom (If Necessary)
 Rotate the Rotary Encoder

to select Menu Item.
select the desired Zoom
value.
confirm.
Page | 133
Step 13
To Save a Trace

Menu Item and press
to confirm.
Menu Item and press to
confirm.
screen display “Save Current
Measurement” and press to
save.
 To abort saving, select
“Abort” and press to
confirm.
Page | 134
Step 14
Return to Main Menu

Menu Item and press to
confirm.
 The test set is ready for new
measurement or;
 To shut down, press ON/OFF
Switch.
Page | 135
APPENDIX V – SIM/MIM HIGH VOLTAGE PRE-LOCATION METHOD
Step-By-Step Procedures for Secondary Impulse

Method / Multiple Impulse Method (SIM / MIM)
Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform SIM / MIM High Voltage Pre-
location Method using Baur IRG 2000 & BAUR SSG 1500.
Baur IRG 2000
Baur SSG 1500
Page | 136
Page | 137
INSTALLATION OF FAULT LOCATION EQUIPMENT AT VCB COMPARTMENT
Step 1(a)
Safety Earth Connection
 Connect equipment safety

earth cable to Substation
earthing bar.
Equipment Safety Earth Cable
 Clamp equipment safety

earth cable to chassis of
the test van.
Test Van Chassis

Clamped with
Equipment Safety Earth
Cable
Page | 138
Step 2(a)
Auxiliary Earth Connection
 Auxiliary Earth Rod

inserted into ground near
to test van.
 Connect Auxiliary Earth

Lead to the Auxiliary Earth
Rod.
Step 3(a)
Discharge Rod Connection
 Connect the Discharge

Rod to the Substation
earthing bar.
Discharge Rod Note: Make sure the connection

Lead point is free of rust/paint/oxide
etc.
Page | 139
Step 4(a)
HV Test Lead Connection
 Connect HV Test Lead to

VCB Spout faulty core at VCB Spout.
 Connect Operating Earth (HV

Test Lead) to VCB Substation
VCB Substation earthing bar.
Earth
 Insert HV Test lead plug into

HV Socket of the Test Van.
HV Test Lead Plug & Socket
Page | 140
INSTALLATION OF FAULT LOCATION EQUIPMENT AT RMU COMPARTMENT
Step 1(b)

earthing bar.

earth cable to the test van
chassis.
Test Van Chassis Clamped

with Equipment Safety Earth
Cable
Page | 141
Step 2(b)

to test van.

Rod.
Step 3(b)

earthing bar.
Note: Ensure the connection point

is free of rust / paint / oxide etc.
Page | 142
Step 4(b)

faulty core at RMU bushing.
 Connect Operating Earth (HV

Test Lead) to RMU
RMU Substation RMU Bushing Substation Earth.
Earth

Page | 143
POWER SUPPLY CONNECTION (230V)
Step 5(i)
Main Power Supply (230V AC)
 Ready to plug in
(13A/320V) to main switch
socket outlet.
 Plug in the LV plug to the

test van’s Commando Plug
Page | 144
Step 5(ii)
Portable Generator Power Supply
 Connect power supply to the

test van from portable
generator, via a Distribution
Board (DB).
 The DB comprises of 13A
Socket Outlet.
Distribution Box (DB) with 13 Amp

Socket Outlet
3-prong locking
Generator Safety
plug Earth
Page | 145
DETERMINE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE OF FAULT
Step 6
Preparation to Switch ON
Thumper / Surge Voltage
1 2
Generator:
1. Release Emergency Key-

Button.
3 4
2. Select RANGE Selector
(kV)
3. Set Variac to “0”
4. Turn Selector Switch to
“Single Shot”.
5. Ensure both Pull-Switch
(Test & SA32) are pushed
in.
5
Page | 146
Step 7
Switch ON the LV Main Supply
 Switch ON the LV Power

Supply from 3-pin plug
(13A/230V).
Toggle Switch on  Switch ON Toggle Switch

Thumper on Thumper.
3-pin plug
Step 8
 Press ON Button [ ] – HV
Ready.
Step 9
 Press Button [1] – HV ON.
Page | 147
Step 10
Raise Voltage (kV) & Thump to

Obtain Breakdown Voltage
 Slowly raise the kV &

thump (press Single Shot
Button) until breakdown
voltage is obtained.
 Observe kV collapse to
confirm breakdown
voltage.
 Record the breakdown
voltage value.
 Reduce Variac to “0”.
 Press single shot button to
discharge capacitor of
thumper.
Page | 148
Step 11
 Press Button [0] to OFF

Thumper.
Step 12
 Switch OFF Toggle Switch.
Page | 149
PERFORM “SIM” METHOD OF PRE-LOCATION
Step 13
Signal Cable Connection
 Ensure signal cable from the

Filter Unit (SA32) at the
Surge Signal Generator (SSG)
is connected to SIM (BNC
Signal Cable socket) of the TDR.
Page | 150
Step 14
To Switch “ON” Thumper.
1. Switch ON Toggle Switch

on Thumper.
1 2
2. Press Button [O] – HV

Ready.
3. Press Button [ I ] – HV ON.

3
Step 15
To Switch ON the SA 32 Filter Unit.
 Pull out rod to switch “ON“

Filter Unit (SA 32).
Page | 151
Step 16
 Press ON/OFF Key.
Step 17
 Press “Menu” Button.
Page | 152
Step 18
 Rotate knob to “Mode” and

press the knob.
Step 19
To Select “SIM”
 Rotate and Press the knob.
Note: Switch ON the Filter Unit (SA

32) Unit BEFORE selecting SIM on
the TDR Meter.
Page | 153
Step 20
To Set the TDR Pre-location

Parameter
Range
“Range” by rotating the knob
and then press the knob once
to activate.
desired value corresponding
to the cable length.
 Press to confirm.
Step 21

Parameter
Gain
“Gain” by rotating the knob
and then press it once to
activate.
Page | 154

desired gain value.
the knob once more,
(window display yellow
colour).
desired gain value and press
it to confirm.
Step 22

Parameter
Velocity (V/2)
“Velocity (V/2)” by rotating
the knob, then press it once
to activate.
Page | 155
 Rotate the selection dial to

select the desired V/2 value.
the knob once more,
(window will display yellow
colour).
desired V/2 value, then press
to confirm.
Step 23
To Start Measurement
 Refer Step No. 2(a) / (b) for
connection.
 Press the knob at TDR for 2
seconds.
 The first trace / waveform
will be displayed on the TDR
screen.
Note: A message “increase voltage

at thumper” appears on the screen
indicating ready for HV-impulse
from the surge generator.
Page | 156
Step 24
To Create a Surge
 At Voltage Control Variac,
rotate to raise the HV Voltage
slightly above the pre-
determined breakdown
voltage of the fault.
Step 25
 At the SSG, press the Single

Shot Button to release the HV
Pulse Voltage and a
secondary TDR measurement
(2nd Trace) will be shown on
the TDR screen superimposed
on the 1st trace.
Page | 157
Step 26
Measurement of Fault Distance
 A 2nd Trace will be super
imposed onto the initial
trace.
 The negative reflection on
the 2nd Trace indicate the
fault location.
 Select “Cursor” and place
Cursor # 0 to the start of
Cursor # 0 Cursor # 2 Cursor # 1
Initial Pulse.
of Positive Pulse to confirm
total length of cable.
 Place Cursor # 2 to the point
of separation or divergence
between the two traces.
 Measurement of Fault
Distance is from the start of
the Initial Pulse to the point
of separation or divergence
(between Cursor #0 to #2).
Page | 158
Step 27
 Press “Reverse” Key to return

to original display screen.
Step 28
To Zoom (if necessary)

“Scroll/Zoom” by rotating the
dial, then press to activate.
 Rotate the dial to the location
to zoom in and press to
activate.
 Rotate the dial to zoom in.
Step 29
To Shut Down TDR
 Press the [0/1] button to OFF
the TDR Meter.
Page | 159
Step 30
To Switch Off Filter Unit (SA 32)
 Push in the Pull Switch SA 32.
Step 31
To Shut Down SSG 1500 /
Thumper and Disconnect Test
Lead
1. Rotate the Variac to
minimum or zero.
2. Discharge the stored charge
at the thumper by pushing
1 2
the Single Shot Button.
3. Push the [0] button to OFF.
4. Switch OFF the Main Switch
(Toggle Switch).
Note: Use the discharge rod to
discharge the cable at the
3 4 connection point. With the
discharge rod touching the terminal
connection, then only disconnect
the connection.
Page | 160
Fault Distance Measurement for MIM Method
For MIM High Voltage Pre-location Method, the step-by-step procedures are the same
except the TDR set must be capable of sending multiple measuring impulses such as
Baur IRG3000.
 Scroll to select the best

displayed trace for fault
distance measurement.
 The fault distance
measurement method is
the similar as Step 26.
Page | 161
APPENDIX VI – ARM HIGH VOLTAGE PRE-LOCATION METHOD
Step-By-Step Procedures for Arc Reflection

Method (ARM)
Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform ARM High Voltage Pre-
location Method using Teleflex SX (Megger-Seba) and Surge Signal Generator
(SPG 32-1750).
SSG (SPG 32-1750) Teleflex SX (Megger-Seba)
Page | 162
Step 1(a)

earthing bar.

earth cable to the chassis of
the test van.
Page | 163
Step 2(a)
 Auxiliary Earth Rod inserted

into ground near to test
van.
Rod
Drum (Spool) in the Test
Van.
Step 3(a)
 Connect the Discharge Rod to

the Substation earthing bar.
Note: Ensure the connection point is

free of rust/paint/oxide etc.
Page | 164
Step 4(a)
 Connect HV Test Lead to the

faulty core.
VCB Spout
 Connect Operating Earth

(HV Test Lead) to VCB
VCB Substation
Earth
 Connect the test lead to the

HV Connector at Test Van
(male & female socket).
Female Socket Connection
Male Socket Connection
Page | 165
Step 1(a)

earthing bar.

earth cable to chassis of the
test van.
Page | 166
Step 2(b)

van.
Rod.
Van.
Step 3(b)

the Substation earthing bar.
Note: Ensure the connection point is

free of rust/paint/oxide etc.
Page | 167
Step 4(b)


(HV Test Lead) to RMU
Substation Earth.
RMU Substation RMU Bushing

Earth
 Connect the test lead to the

HV Connector at Test Van
(male & female socket).
Page | 168
POWER SUPPLY CONNECTION
Step 5(i)
Power Supply Connection from

13Amp Socket Outlet
 Connect power supply to the

test van from 230V main
supply (13 Amp Socket Outlet).
 Insert LV Socket to LV Plug of

drum.
Page | 169
Step 5(ii)

Generator Set
 Connect power supply to

the test van from portable
generator, via a Distribution
Board (DB).
Socket Outlet.
Socket Outlet
3-prong Generator Safety

locking plug Earth
Page | 170
Step 6
 Ensure the “limit switch” at

the test van’s rear access
door is functioning.
Step 7
 Ensure the test cables are

tidily arranged at the test
Van’s rear access door
recess.
 Close the test van door

tightly to ensure the “door
closed” limit switch is
engaged.
Page | 171
Step 8
 Ensure the “Main Earth (F -

Ω)” and “Auxiliary Earth (F -
U)” connections of the
monitoring lamps are not
illuminated.
Step 9
 Check for improper earthing

connection if the lamp is
illuminated.
Step 10
Ensure that signal cables are
correctly connected to the rear of
TDR:
ARM for Arc Reflection Method
Earth / Ground
Page | 172
Step 11
 Release Emergency Stop

Button.
 Select RANGE Selector (kV).
 Set Variac to “0”.
Page | 173
Step 12
 Press White button to

Switch ON Thumper. Green
lamp will illuminate.
Step 13
 Ensure selected to “SWG”

on the Thumper.
Step 14
 Press Green button on

Thumper to switch ON High
Voltage.
Page | 174
 Red lamp will be

illuminated.
Step 15
To Determine the Breakdown

Voltage
 Slowly raise kV & thump

(press blue button) until
Breakdown Voltage is
obtained.
 Record breakdown voltage
value.
 Reduce variac to “0”.
 Press blue button to
discharge capacitor of
thumper.
Page | 175
Step 16
 Press Red button to switch

OFF Thumper.
 White lamp will be

illuminated.
Step 17
Pre-location using “ARM” Method.
 Press white button to switch

“ON” LV main supply.
 Green indication will light

up.
Page | 176
Step 18
Selection of “ARM” Pre-location

Mode
 Turn the mode selection to

“ARM” (KLV).
 The green light at KLV

indication is lighted up.
Step 19
 Switch ON TDR Unit

(Teleflex).
Page | 177
Step 20
 Select ‘ARM’ mode by

rotating the Rotary Encoder

confirm.
Step 21
Phase Selection
 Select L1-N and press to

confirm.
 Move the Rotary Encoder to
the left to skip the Phase
selection.
Page | 178
Step 22
Display Gain Selection

to select ‘Gain – Y’ and
press to confirm.

to adjust the desired ‘Gain –
Y’ and press to confirm.
Page | 179
Step 23
Display Range Selection

to select ‘Range – X’ and
press to confirm.

to adjust the desired ‘Range
– X’ and press to confirm.
Step 24
Select Velocity of Propagation

to select the desired ‘Vp/2’
and press to confirm.
Page | 180
Step 25
To Obtain Initial Trace
 Press ‘Start’ to obtain the

initial trace.
Note:
 The first TDR measurement
trace will display the cable
end in blue line.
 The Cursor will
automatically move to the
positive pulse indicating the
total length of the cable.
 Check the measured total
length is the same as
recorded length.
Page | 181
Step 26
To Obtain Fault Trace Measurement
 Check the ‘REF’ wording is

in green colour.
Note: Indicating the measurement

mode is now in active mode.

activate the fault trace
measurement.
Note: The TDR is in standby mode to

capture the fault trace
measurement.
Page | 182
Step 27
Switch “ON” High Voltage Source
 Press the green button to

switch “ON” the High
Voltage.
Note: The Red button will light up

indicating high voltage is “ON”.
Step 28
Selection of Surge Voltage Value
 Turn Variac to raise the

surge voltage slightly above
the pre-determined
breakdown voltage.
Page | 183
Step 29
Perform “ARM” Fault Pre-Location
 Press blue button (Single

Shot) to obtain a fault trace
(displayed on TDR screen).
Note: Successful fault trace

measurement will be displayed in
red colour.
Step 30
Selection of Best Fault Trace Display
“ARM” Pre-Location Method

automatically stored 15 faults
measurement trace from one single
surge voltage discharge. To select
the best fault trace display, follow
these steps:-
Page | 184
 Select “Option”, rotate the

Rotary Encoder to view fault
measurement trace one by
one, choose the best display
 If initial surge voltage failed
to breakdown fault, repeat
the pre-location process by
slightly increasing the surge
voltage. Repeat Step 10 –
Step 14.
Step 31
Measurement of Fault Distance
 Return to Main Menu.

to select “Cursor” and press
to confirm.
Page | 185

to move the cursor to the
point of divergence
between the initial trace
and the fault measurement
trace.
 Read the distance value as
displayed at the cursor or at
the selection menu.
Step 32
To Turn “OFF” the TDR

and press until the
initial screen display
appears.
 Press “OFF” switch to turn
off.
Page | 186
Step 33
To Shut Down Thumper
 Reduce Variac to minimum

or zero.
 Discharge the stored charge

at the thumper by pressing
the “Single Shot” button.
 Press the red button to
switch “OFF” the Thumper.
Note:
 Switch OFF the LV main
supply at 13A Plug &
unplug it.
 Use the discharge rod to
connection point.
 With the discharge rod
touching the terminal
connection, the connection
can be disconnected.
Page | 187
APPENDIX VII – ICM HIGH VOLTAGE PRE-LOCATION METHOD
Step-By-Step Procedures for Impulse Current

Method (ICM)
Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform ICM High Voltage Pre-
location Method using Baur IRG 2000 & BAUR SSG 1500.
BAUR IRG 2000
BAUR SSG 1500
Page | 188
Page | 189
Step 1(a)

earthing bar.

chassis.
Test Van Chassis with

Clamped Equipment
Safety Earth Cable
Page | 190
Step 2(a)

to test van.
Rod.
Step 3(a)
Discharge Rod Connection – VCB

the substation earthing bar.

is free of rust/paint/oxide etc.
Page | 191
Step 4(a)

faulty core at VCB Spout.
VCB Spout
 Connect Operating Earth to

VCB Substation earthing bar.
VCB
Substation
Earth

Page | 192
Step 1(b)

earthing bar.

chassis.

Clamped Equipment
Safety Earth Cable
Page | 193
Step 2(b)

to test van.

Rod.
Step 3(b)

earthing bar.

is free of rust/paint/oxide etc.
Page | 194
Step 4(b)
Test Lead Connection

 Connect Operating Earth to

RMU Substation Earth.

Earth

Page | 195
Step 5(i)
Main Power Supply (230V AC)

the test van from 230V
main supply (13 Amp
Socket Outlet).
 Plug in the LV plug to the

test van’s Commando
Plug.
Page | 196
Step 5(ii)

Generator Set

the test van from portable
generator, via a
Distribution Board (DB).
Distribution Box (DB) with 13
Amp Socket Outlet Socket Outlet.
3-prong locking Generator

plug Safety Earth
Page | 197
Step 6
Determine Breakdown Voltage of

Fault
1 2 Preparation to Switch ON
Thumper / Surge Voltage
Generator:
1. Release Emergency Key-

Button.
3 4
2. Select RANGE Selector
(kV)
3. Set Variac to “0”
4. Turn Selector Switch to
“Single Shot”.
5
5. Ensure both Pull-Switch
(Test & SA32) are pushed
in.
Page | 198
Step 7
Switch ON LV Mains Supply
 Switch ON the LV Power

Supply from 3-pin plug
(13A/230V).
 Switch ON Toggle Switch

on Thumper.
Step 8
 Press ON Button [ ].
Page | 199
Step 9
 Press Button [1].
Step 10
Raise Voltage (kV) & Thump to

Obtain Breakdown Voltage
 Slowly raise kV & thump

(press Single Shot Button)
until breakdown voltage is
obtained.
 Observe kV collapse to
confirm breakdown
voltage.
 Record breakdown voltage
value.
 Press single shot button to
discharge capacitor.
Page | 200
Step 11
 Press Button [0] to switch

OFF Thumper.
Step 12
 Switch OFF Toggle Switch.
Step 13
Signal Cable Connections
 Ensure signal cable is

connected between the
Linear Coupler (SK1D) and
Signal Cable BNC Socket of ICM
ICM (BNC socket) of the
TDR.
Linear Coupler (SK1D)
Page | 201
Step 14
Pre-location using ICM
To Switch “ON” Thumper.
1
1. Switch ON Toggle Switch
2
on Thumper.
2. Press Button [O] – HV
Ready.
3. Press Button [ I ] – HV ON.
Step 15

 Press ON/OFF Key
Step 16
 Press “Menu” Button.
Page | 202
Step 17
 Rotate rotary knob to

“Mode” and press to
confirm.
Note: All available methods are

displayed.
Step 18
To Select “ICM”
 Rotate rotary knob to

“ICM” and press to
confirm.
Page | 203
Step 19

Parameter
To Set “Range”

move the red frame to
“Range” and press the
select the desired value
correspond to the cable
length and press to
confirm.
Note: Select a range of at least

twice the cable length.
Page | 204
Step 20
Parameter
To Set “Gain” (dB)

“Gain” and press the knob
once to activate.
select the desired gain
value and press to
confirm.
rotary once more,
(window display turns
yellow).
select the desired fine gain
value and press to
confirm.
Page | 205
Step 21
To Set “Velocity of Propagation”

(V/2)

“Velocity (V/2)” and press
the knob once to activate.
select the desired V/2
value.
the rotary knob once
more, (window display
turns yellow).
Page | 206
Step 22
To Conduct Pre-location by “ICM”
Method
To Start Measurement
 Refer to Step 2(a)/ (b).
 At the TDR Meter, press
the rotary knob for 2
seconds.
Note: A message “increase voltage

at thumper” appears on the screen
indicating ready for HV-impulse
from the surge generator.
Step 23
Selection of Surge Voltage Value
 Turn Variac to slightly

raise the surge voltage
above the pre-determined
breakdown voltage.
Page | 207
 Press the “Single Shot”

button to release the HV
voltage pulse.
 Typical Oscillating Impulse

Current Discharge Wave
trapped between the fault
point and the beginning of
cable is recorded by the
TDR meter.
Step 24
 Press the “Cursor” Key.
Page | 208
 Rotate the selection dial

to move the red frame to
“Cursor#0” and press the
Principle of Measuring
Identical Repetitive Wave

153.6 m
0m  Pick two most identical
repetitive wave for
measurement (do not
choose the initial pulse).
to move the “Cursor#0” to
Beginning to Beginning the start of the first
selected wave and press
the knob to confirm.
Page | 209

153.6 m to move the red frame to
0m
“Cursor#1” and press the
to move the “Cursor#1” to
the start of the second
selected wave and press
to confirm.
Peak to Peak
Note:
 The fault distance
measurement is as shown
at the top right-hand
corner of the TDR display.
 Alternatively, the fault
distance measurement can
be taken between the
peaks of two selected
adjacent waves (do not
choose the initial pulse).
 To select fine measurement
adjustment, press the
rotary selection dial 2nd
time at “Cursor#1”.
Page | 210
Step 25
To Shut Down TDR Meter
 Press the [0/1] button to
OFF the TDR Meter.
Step 26
To Shut Down Thumper and
Disconnect Test Lead
1. Reduce Variac to
minimum or zero.
1 2 2. Discharge the stored
charge at the thumper by
pressing the “Single Shot”
button.
3. Push the [0] button to
“OFF”.
3 4
4. Toggle the LV Switch to
“OFF” position.
Note: Use the discharge rod to

connection point. Only with the
discharge rod touching the
terminal connection, the
connection can then be
disconnected.
Page | 211
APPENDIX VIII – ICE HIGH VOLTAGE PRE-LOCATION METHOD
Step-By-Step Procedures for Impulse Current

Equipment (ICE)
Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform ICE High Voltage Pre-
location Method using Teleflex SX (Megger-Seba) and Surge Signal Generator
(SPG 32-1750).
SSG (SPG 32-1750) Teleflex SX (Megger-Seba)
Page | 212
Element Description
1 Display
2 Rotary encoder with function keys on the side
3 USB port for connecting a USB flash drive or a USB printer
4 ON/OFF button with charge state indication
Page | 213
CONNECTION ELEMENTS
The following connection elements are located at the rear of the Teleflex SX:
Element Description
5&7 BNC Socket connection to perform ARM Method
6 BNC Socket connection to perform ICE Method
8 & 10 BNC socket L1 & L2 connection to perform TDR Method
9 Socket for equipment protective ground connection
11 Service interface
12 Charging socket
13 CAN Interface for specific HV devices connection
Page | 214
SCREEN LAYOUT
Segment Description
1 Battery-status display
2 Date and time
3 Traces for current measurement or loaded measurements. The

display is split into a general overview (top) and the enlarged section
(bottom).
4 Current status messages and the required next step in the test
sequence.
Page | 215
Information on current phase selection.When the SPG 40 remote-

control mode is active, the symbol to the left of the current selected
phase indicates the SPG 40's operating state. The following states
can occur here:
5 High voltage generation is switched off and the HV output
on the SPG 40 is discharged and connected to earth through
a resistor.
The resistor discharge is not effective. High voltage is
present!
The display elements arranged in the lower area of the screen may
contain the following information:
• Set measurement parameters
• Current measurement values, which are continuously
6
updated as the measurement progresses
• Information (e.g. measurement values) which is applicable
for a particular trace only, is shown in the respective
colour.
7 Selection menu
Current device state:-
The device is currently in standby.
Pulse reflection measurement currently under way.
The measurement was stopped and the traces frozen.
The device is in measurement operational readiness and

waiting to be triggered.
8 The device is in the SPG 40 remote-control mode.
The FOHM safeguard of the SPG 40 has been deactivated in

the system settings.
The FU safeguard of the SPG 40 has been deactivated in the
system settings
The user operating the system has successfully logged into the
administration menu (see page 40) and identified himself /
herself as administrator.
9 Current operating mode
Page | 216
Direct Connection to Test Object
To enable the Teleflex SX-1 to be used to conduct ICE Method, the device must
be connected as shown in the figure below:
Note : For detailed operation refer to Teleflex SX User Guide.
Page | 217

Step 1(a)
 Connect equipment
safety earth cable to
Substation earthing
bar.
 Clamp equipment
the test van chassis.
Page | 218
Step 2(a)

inserted into ground
near to test van.
 Connect Auxiliary
Earth Lead to the
Auxiliary Earth Rod
Earth Lead to the
Auxiliary Earth Drum
(Spool) in the Test Van
Step 3(a)

earthing bar.
Note: Ensure the connection

point is free of rust/paint/oxide
etc.
Page | 219
Step 4(a)

 Connect HV Test Lead
to the faulty core.
 Connect Operating
Earth to VCB
substation earthing
bar.
 Connect HV lead to
Test Van HV socket
(male & female).
Page | 220

Step 1(b)
safety earth to Substation
earthing bar.

chassis.
Page | 221
Step 2(b)
near to test van.
Earth Leads to the
Earth Rod.
Earth Lead to the
Auxiliary Earth Drum
(Spool) in the Test Van.
Step 3(b)

earthing bar.

etc.
Page | 222
Step 4(b)

faulty core at RMU
bushing.
to RMU Substation Earth.

Earth
 Connect HV lead to Test

Van HV socket (male &
female).
Page | 223
Step 5(i)

13 Amp Socket Outlet

main supply (13 Amp
Socket Outlet).
 Connect LV lead to LV
Socket at drum.
Page | 224
Step 5(ii)

Generator Set
 Connect power supply

to the test van from
portable generator, via
a Distribution Board
(DB).
Socket Outlet  The DB comprises of
13A Socket Outlet.
3-prong locking Generator Safety

plug Earth
Page | 225
Step 6
 Ensure the “limit

switch” at the test
van’s rear access door
is functioning.
Step 7
 Ensure the test cables

are tidily arranged at
the test van’s rear
access door recess.
tightly to ensure the
“door closed” limit
switch is engaged.
Page | 226
Step 8
 Ensure the ”Main
Earth (F - Ω)” and
“Auxilliary Earth (F -
U)” connections of the
monitoring lamps are
not illuminated.
Step 9
 Check for improper
earthing connection if
the lamp is
illuminated.
Step 10
Set up the Megger Teleflex SX

 Plug in the connection
cable marked (I) to
BNC Socket U/I.
 Plug in the
green/yellow cable to
the protective ground
(GND) socket.
Page | 227
Step 11
 Release Emergency
Stop Button.
 Select RANGE Selector

(kV).
 Set Variac to “0”
Page | 228
Step 12
 Press White button to

Switch ON Thumper.
Green lamp will
illuminate.
Step 13
 Ensure selected to
“SWG” on the
Thumper.
Step 14
 Press Green button on

Thumper to switch ON
High Voltage.
 Red lamp will be

illuminated.
Page | 229
Step 15
To Determine Breakdown
Voltage
 Slowly raise kV &
thump (press blue
button) until
Breakdown Voltage is
obtained.
 Record breakdown
voltage value.
 Press blue button to
discharge capacitor.
Step 16
 Press Red button to

switch OFF Thumper.
Page | 230
 White lamp will be

illuminated.
Step 17
Pre-Location using “ICE

Method”
 Press white button to

switch “ON” LV main
supply.
 Green indication will
light up.
Step 18
 Ensure selected to
‘SWG Trigger’ mode.
Page | 231
Step 19
 Switch ON the HT
Source by pressing the
green button.
 RED light indicates HV
ON.
Step 20
To Switch “ON” Megger

Teleflex SX
 Press ON/OFF Switch.
Page | 232
Step 21
Mode Selection Displayed
To Select Mode
 Rotate the Rotary

Encoder to Select ‘ICE’
Mode on the Selection
Menu Display.
 Press the Rotary
Encoder to confirm.
Note: “ICE” Mode will be

displayed on the screen.
Step 22
Phase Selection
 Select L1-N and press
to confirm.
 Move Rotary Encoder
to left to skip the
phase selection.
Page | 233
Step 23
To Select Gain - Y
Encoder to select ‘Gain -
Y’ and press to confirm.
 Adjust the ‘Gain - Y’ by
turning the Rotary
Encoder clockwise or
anticlockwise and press to
confirm.
Step 24
To Select Range - X
Select ‘Range - X’ and
press to confirm.
 Adjust the ‘Range – X’ by
turning the Rotary
anticlockwise and press to
confirm.
Note: Ensure the range selected
is twice or more than the total
length of cable.
Page | 234
Step 25
To Set “Velocity of
Propagation” (V/2)
 Turn the Rotary
Encoder to Select
‘Vp/2’ and press to
confirm.
 Adjust the Vp/2 by
turning the Rotary
anticlockwise.
 Press to confirm once
Vp/2 is selected.
Step 26
 Press the Rotary

Encoder to activate the
mode.
 Teleflex menu will

show “Trigger Shot”.
Page | 235
Step 27
 Turn Variac to raise the

test voltage slightly
above the pre-
determined
breakdown voltage.
Step 28
 Press blue button

Single Shot to obtain a
breakdown waveform
(displayed on TDR
screen).
Step 29
Fault Distance Measurement

 Select Cursor and press
button to confirm.
Page | 236
Step 30
Beginning to Beginning
To Measure the Fault Distance
Note: Take the reading from
the start of two adjacent
repetitive waves or the peaks
of two adjacent repetitive
waves.
Peak to Peak  Select Cursor and

move to the start of
the measuring point.
 Press and Hold cursor
1 for a few sec. until
cursor 2 appears.
Encoder to move
cursor 2 to the second
measuring point of the
breakdown waveform.
 Record the fault
distance measured.
Page | 237
Option – Memory Function

 Go to ‘Teleflex Menu’
 Move the cursor by
turning left to select
“Memory”.
 Press button to
confirm.
 On the Memory menu,
choose ‘Save Current
Measurement’.
 Press to store the
trace.
 Current display will
show ‘Memory
Successfully Saved’
Step 31
To OFF TDR Meter
 Press the white
button.
Page | 238
Step 32
 Turn Variac to reduce

kV until minimum at 0.
Step 33
 Discharge the
Thumper by pressing
the blue button.
Step 34
 Press red button to

switch OFF the HV
Supply (red light “OFF”,
white light “ON”).
Page | 239
Step 35
Switch OFF Main Supply to the

SSG (White Light “OFF”)
 Switch OFF the LV

main supply at 13A
Plug & unplug.
 Use the discharge rod
to discharge the cable
at the connection
point.
 Only perform
disconnection with the
discharge rod touching
the terminal
connection.
Page | 240
APPENDIX IX – FAULT PIN-POINTING (MEGGER)
Step-By-Step Procedures for Pin-Pointing (Megger

digiPHONE+)
Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform Fault Pin-Pointing using
Megger (digiPHONE+).
CABLE ROUTE TRACING
Receiver
 Complete Cable Route
Tracing procedure
before marking pre-
located distance.
Transmitter
Page | 241
MEASUREMENT OF PRE-LOCATED DISTANCE
Measure the Pre-located

Distance
 Use a Distance
Measuring Wheels /
Roller to measure the
pre - located fault
distance.
Page | 242
Step 1(a)
Substation earthing bar.

earth cable to the test
van chassis.
Page | 243
Step 2(a)

van.
Lead to the Earth Rod
Van.
Step 3(a)

 Connect the Discharge Rod
to the Substation earthing
bar.

etc.
Page | 244
Step 4(a)

the faulty core at VCB
VCB Spout Spout.
to VCB Substation
earthing bar.
VCB Substation
Earth
 Connect HV Lead to Test

Female Socket Connection female).
Page | 245
Step 1(a)
Substation earthing bar.

earth cable to the test
van chassis.
Page | 246
Step 2(a)

near to test van.
Lead to the Auxiliary
Earth Rod.
Lead to the Auxiliary
Earth Drum (Spool) in
the Test Van.
Step 3(b)

 Connect the Discharge Rod
to the Substation earthing
bar.

etc.
Page | 247
Step 4(b)

faulty core at RMU
bushing.
 Connect HV Lead to Test

female).
Page | 248
Step 5(i)

13Amp Socket Outlet

main supply (13 Amp
Socket Outlet).
 Insert to LV Plug & Socket

of the drum.
Page | 249
Step 5(ii)

Generator Set

the test van from
portable generator, via a
Distribution Board (DB).
Socket Outlet.
Distribution Box (DB) with 13

Amp Socket Outlet
Step 6
 Ensure the “limit switch”
at the test van’s rear
access door is
functioning.
Page | 250
Step 7
 Ensure the test cables

are tidily arranged at the
test van’s rear access
door recess.
tightly to ensure the
“door closed” limit
switch is engaged.
Step 8
 Ensure the “Main Earth

(F - Ω)” and “Auxiliary
Earth (F - U)”
connections of the
monitoring lamps are
not illuminated.
Step 9
 Check for improper

earthing connection if
the lamp is illuminated.
Page | 251
Preparation & SWITCH ON Thumper (SPG 32-1750)
Step 10
Determine Breakdown Voltage
of Fault
 Connect the thumper to

the faulty cable.
o For 11 kV Cable –
select 8 kV range
select 16 kV range
select 32 kV range
 Turn Variac to Minimum
or Null.
 Ensure Auto Trip
Button/Knob is released.
Page | 252
Step 11
 Switch ON the Thumper

by pressing the white
button.
Step 12
 Press lighted white

button to ON LV (Green
lamp illuminate).
Step 13
 Select ‘SWG Trigger’

mode.
Page | 253
Step 14
 Press green button to

switch ON HV (Red lamp
will illuminate).
Increasing the Voltage (kV)
Step 15
 Turn variac to raise kV
(recommended
2kV/Sec.)
 Press Single Shot button
to ensure discharge is
successful.
Page | 254
Note:
 Change the kV range if
necessary.
 Select kV range that
gives a maximum
energy output for
normal circumstances.
 Ensure discharge
voltage is sufficient and
consistent (maintain at
least or > 5 kV
discharge. e.g. 12 kV - 6
kV = 6 kV).
 Select to Auto Pulse.

 Set timing to personal
preference (e.g. 3 sec
per impulse).
Page | 255
SETTING UP THE DIGIPHONE (PIN-POINTING SET)
Connections and Control of the Indicator/Receiver Unit
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
1 DISPLAY
2 KNOB
INDICATOR UNIT:
i. Unit ON/OFF (when pressed slightly
longer)
3 ii. Blacklight ON/OFF (when briefly pressed)
iii. LED for indicating that the device is
turned ON (green) or the batteries are low
(red)
4 MUTE ON/OFF
5 CONNECTION SOCKET FOR SENSOR
6 CONNECTION SOCKET FOR HEADPHONE
Page | 256
Component of the Megger digiPHONE +
1. Indicator/Receiver Unit
2. Headset
3. Sensor Unit / Ground
Microphone
4. Telescopic Handle
5. Connection Cables
③ ② ⑤ ① ④
Step 16
Preparing the Sensor Unit

 Attach telescopic handle
to Sensor Unit & twist to
tighten.
 Adjust the height of the
handle.
 Fix the 3-point foot &
sensor rod.
Page | 257
 Connect the Sensor Unit

to the Indicator/Receiver
Unit.
 Connect the Headphone

to the Indicator /
Receiver Unit.
 The complete assembly

of the Megger
digiPHONE +.
Page | 258
Turn On the Indicator/ Receiver Unit
Step 17
 Ensure Headphone and

Sensor Unit are
connected to the
Indicator/Receiver unit.
 Press the ON/OFF switch
button slightly longer to
Switch ON the Indicator
/Receiver Unit.
 Briefly press the ON/OFF
switch button to switch
ON backlight.
Page | 259
 The following will be

displayed:
 Headset status.
Amplification
setting (84dB)
 Filter Setting
 BNR (Status of
background noise
reduction)
 Battery status
 Time difference of
last position
 Cable position
below sensor (line
position)
 Indicator for arrival
of an acoustic
signal
 Bar graph for
magnetic pulse
with numerical
instantaneous
value.
Page | 260
 Indicator for arrival

of magnetic signal
 Level magnetic
channel
 Peak hold magnetic
channel
 Fault Indication ↑
Compass.
 Current time
difference.
Adjust the Receiver Setting
Step 18
 Press “Knob” to go to
Menu Screen
 Rotate & Press “Knob”
to select elements/
features.
Page | 261
 Select & adjust the

following:
 High pass filter
 Filter Off
 100 – 400 Hz
 150 – 600 Hz
 200 – 1500 Hz
 (_____) to
return
 BNR
 84dB
 Set up
 Language
 Fault direction
 Active APM
(Auto
Proximity
Mute)
 Measured
value (mSec,
m, ft)
 Factory setting
Page | 262
 Press “Return Key” on

the “Knob” to return to
Measurement Screen.
Adjusting the Volume Setting
Step 19
To mute the volume:

 Press the Key.
 Place hand on the
handle
 To increase/decrease
the Volume
 Turn the “Knob”
clockwise or counter
clockwise.
Page | 263
Start Pin-Pointing
Step 20
 Observe the green cable

symbol beneath the
sensor symbol in the
center of the digiPHONE
– Preferably at the
“centred” of the
Receiver Unit.
 Follow the fault
direction indication ↑
Off the cable On the cable (Compass) on the
Receiver Unit.
 Indication of Magnetic
pulse & Acoustic signal
on the display of the
Receiver Unit.
Page | 264
 Keep the “Arrow” on the

Sensor Unit is pointing
towards (Y-Axis) the cable
direction.
 Checking / setting the

Magnetic Signal at the
beginning of the faulted
cable (outside the
substation) before
advancing to the pre-
located distance.
Page | 265
Approaching The Fault
Step 21
When getting closer to the fault
point, the following indications
occur:
 The magnetic field detection
occurs at the same time with
the flash over or ignition at
fault point.
 The volume of the flashover
noise normally continues to
rise nearer to the fault.
 Another indicator for the
distance to the fault is the
transit time difference
between the magnetic
pulse and the acoustic
flashover signal which is
permanently shown on the
display.
Page | 266
 Upon approaching the fault

point the transit time
difference decreases.
FAULT INDICATION
Step 22
Indication of the fault transit

time:-
① No fault detected
② Approaching the fault
③ Directly above the fault
④ After the fault (U-Turn)
Page | 267
FAULT LOCATION MARKING
Step 23
 Mark the pin - pointed

fault location using spray
paint or other effective
method.
SWITCH OFF digiPHONE SET
Step 24
 Press the ON/OFF

button to Switch OFF the
Indicator / Receiver Unit.
Page | 268
SWITCH OFF THUMPER (SPG 32-1750)
Step 25
 Turn the Variac to

minimum or reduce the
kV.
 Press blue button

“Single Shot” to
discharge.
 Press red button to

switch OFF the Thumper.
Page | 269
 Press the Emergency

Stop Button to lock.
Note: Ensure circuit/cable is

discharged properly (Discharge
Rod) before removing the HV
Connection.
Step 26
 Switch OFF and unplug

the LV main supply
(230V) or Generator
supply.
Page | 270
APPENDIX X – FAULT PIN-POINTING (BAUR)
Step-By-Step Procedures for Pin-Pointing (Baur UL

30 & BM 30)
Following arethe step-by-step procedures to perform Fault Pin-Pointing using Baur
UL 30 and BM 30.
CABLE ROUTE TRACING
Receiver
 Complete Cable Route
Tracing before marking
pre-located distance.
Transmitter
Page | 271
MEASUREMENT OF PRE-LOCATED DISTANCE
 Use a Distance Measuring

Wheels / Roller to
measure the pre - located
fault distance.
Page | 272
Step 1(a)
Equipment Safety Earth Cable substation earthing

bar.
 Clamp equipment

Clamped Equipment Safety
Earth Cable
Page | 273
Step 2(a)

to test van.
Rod.
Step 3(a)

earthing bar.

etc.
Page | 274
Step 4(a)

faulty core at VCB Spout.
VCB Spout

to VCB Substation
earthing bar.
VCB Substation
Earth
 Insert HV Test lead plug

into HV Socket of the Test
Van.
Page | 275
Step 1(b)
Substation earthing
bar.
 Clamp equipment

Clamped Equipment Safety
Earth Cable
Page | 276
Step 2(b)

near to test van.
Earth Lead to the
Auxiliary Earth Rod.
Step 3(b)

earthing bar.
Note: Ensure the

connection point is free of
rust/paint/oxide etc.
Page | 277
Step 4(b)

faulty core at RMU
bushing.


Earth
 Insert HV Test lead plug

into HV Socket of the Test
Van.
Page | 278
POWER SUPPLY CONNECTION (230V)
Step 5(i)
Mains Power Supply (230V)
 Ready to plug in
(13A/320V) to main
switch socket outlet.
 Plug in the LV plug to

the test van’s
Commando Plug.
Page | 279
Step 5(ii)
Portable Generator Power

Supply
 Connect power supply

to the test van from
portable generator, via
a Distribution Board
(DB).
 The DB comprises of
13A Socket Outlet.

Socket Outlet
3-prong
locking plug Generator Safety
Earth
Page | 280
Step 6
To Switch ON the Thumper
Brand : Thumper SSG 1500

1 2
Preparation
1. Ensure Key-Lock /
Emergency “Off” is
not engaged
(released).
3 4 2. Ensure Variac is at
“0” or minimum.
3. Select relevant
“Range”: 8 / 16 / 32
kV.
4. Ensure both rods on
SA 32 are pushed in.
Page | 281
Step 7
Switch “ON” Thumper.
1. Switch ON LV Power
Supply from 3-pin
plug (13A/230V).
1 2
2. Switch ON main
switch (Toggle).
3. Press Button [O] –
HV Ready.
4. Press Button [ I ] –
3 4 HV ON.
Page | 282
Step 8
Raise Thumper Voltage
 Rotate the Variac clockwise

to raise kV.
 Select Mode to “Pin-

pointing” mode: 3 seconds
or 2 seconds per impulse.
Note:
 Ensure thump
voltage is sufficient
or discharge is
consistent
(preferably maintain
at least 5kV
discharge or more).
 Change range if
necessary.
 Select range that
give a maximum
energy output.
Page | 283
FUNCTIONAL PARTS DESCRIPTION
Parts / Features of Baur UL

30 Universal Receiver:
⑥
① ① Display Screen
② ② Keypad
③ Loudspeaker
④ Socket for BM30 Ground

③
Microphone
⑤
④ ⑤Headphone Outlet
⑥Input Socket for Sheath

Fault Stick
Component of Pin-Pointing
Set (BM 30 & UL 30)
 Receiver Unit (UL

30)
BM 30
 Ground Microphone
/ Sensor (BM 30)
 Headset (KH 30)

Receiver UL30
KH 30
Page | 284
SETTING UP THE PIN-POINTING SET
Step 9
Pin-Pointing Set Connection
 Connect the
following
components to the
UL 30 Universal
Receiver Unit:
o Head Phone
(KH 20)
o Ground
Microphone
(BM 30)
PIN-POINTING SET OPERATION PROCEDURE
Step 10
Switch ON Receiver Unit
 Press the ON button

on the Receiver Unit.
Note: Ensure battery strength

is sufficient.
Page | 285
Step 11
Select “Fault Location” Mode
 Select “Acoustic
Location” mode using
↓→← Arrows.
 Press OK to confirm.
Step 12
Adjust Magnetic Signal Level
 Select Magnetic Signal
adjustment using the
(←→arrows).
 Selection is highlighted
on the left side of the
display screen
 Press “OK” to confirm.
 Adjust the Magnetic
Signal level using the
(↑↓arrows).
 Press “OK” to confirm.
Page | 286
Step 13
Select Acoustic Signal Level
 Select Acoustic
Signal level using the
(←→arrows)
 Selection highlighted
on the right side of
the display screen.
 Press “OK” to
confirm.
 Adjust Acoustic
Signal level
(↑↓arrows).
confirm.
Page | 287
Step 14
Activate Filter
 Select FILTER level
using the
(←→arrows)
 Selection highlighted
on the middle of the
display screen.
confirm.
 Adjust the Filter

Frequency using the
(↑↓arrows) eg.
100Hz, 200Hz
confirm.
Page | 288
Step 15
Fast Changing Parameter
Configuration Plane  Use the “Switch-

Button” to select
Configuration Plane
from Working Plane.
Working Plane
Page | 289
Step 16
Checking / Setting the

Magnetic Signal at the start
of the faulty cable (outside
the Substation)
 Check the Magnetic

Signal level before
advancing to the Pre-
located distance (left
side bar indication).
Page | 290
APPROACHING THE FAULT
Step 17
During Pin-Pointing
 The Arrow / Mark on

the Ground
Microphone should
point towards the
cable route direction.
 Recommended
Magnetic Signal
should NOT be over
Acoustic Signal limit (about 70-80%).

Magnetic Signal
 When approaching
the fault (starting to
pick up Acoustic
Signal) lower the
acoustic signal level
to determine a more
exact fault point.
Page | 291
 Observe the
estimated distance
as indicated on the
display.
 Lowest number
indicates close
proximity to the fault
or ### symbol.
 The number will

increase as we
passed the fault
point, but the
magnetic signal may
decrease.
 Normally the
magnetic and
acoustic signal will
come simultaneously
when pick up is
directly above the
fault.
Page | 292
MARKING THE PIN-POINTED FAULT
Step 18
 Mark the pin -

pointed fault location
using spray paint or
other effective
method.
SWITCHING OFF
Step 19
To Switch OFF the UL30 Unit.
 Press the OFF button

to switch OFF the
Receiver Unit.
Page | 293
Step 20
To Shut Down the Thumper
1. Reduce Variac to
minimum or zero.
2. Discharge the stored

1 2 charge by pressing the
“Single Shot” button.
3. It is recommended that
kV to be zero or close to
zero.
3 4
4. Push the [0] button to

OFF.
5. Switch OFF the main
switch.
5
Note: Recommended to use a

proper Discharge Rod to
discharge the cable terminals
at VCB & RMU before
disconnection.
Page | 294
Step 21
 Switch OFF and unplug

the LV Mains (230 V) or
Generator supply.
Page | 295
APPENDIX XI – CABLE IDENTIFICATION
Step-By-Step Procedures for Cable Identification

Following are the step-by-step procedures to perform Cable Identification using
Cable Identification System.
CABLE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM COMPONENT
TRANSMITTER CI TX
RECEIVER CI RX
Page | 296
ACCESSORIES
Flexible
Identification Twisted Field Sensor Test Leads & Mains Supply
Clamp Earthing Lead Lead
PREPARATION ON EARTH CONNECTION
Open Earth Connection at Near End
Note: It is recommended to disconnect the near end earth connection and only
earth the corresponding core especially when the “signal” obtained is low.
Page | 297
A IDENTIFY USING FLEXIBLE CLAMP
Principle of using Flexible Clamp Method
Open Earth
Connection
Overall Connection of Current Pulse Method – Calibration
PREPARATION ON VCB / RMU (NEAR END)
a) VCB Preparation (Near End)

 Ensure VCB is in “OFF /
Open” position (Locked &
Tagged).
 Prove Circuit Dead.
 Do NOT Cable Earth.
Page | 298
b) RMU Preparation (Near

End)
 Ensure RMU switch is in

“OFF / Open” position
(Locked & Tagged).
PREPARATION ON VCB / RMU (FAR END)
a) VCB Preparation (Far End)
 Ensure VCB switch is in

“OFF / Open” position.
 Apply CME (Earth ON)
or loop the
corresponding phase to
earth.
Page | 299
b) RMU Preparation (Far

End)

 Apply CME (Earth ON) or
loop the corresponding
phase to earth.
IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE
1. CALIBRATION – Setting signal at near end

2. COMPARISON – Detecting signal at far end
3. IDENTIFICATION – Detecting signal at “joint-pit”.
Page | 300
1. CALIBRATION (AT NEAR END)

Step 1
Setting Up the Transmitter
 Red lead connects to the
RED Socket.
 Black lead connects to the
BLACK Socket.
 Green / Yellow lead
connects to the GREEN
Socket.
Step 2(a)
Connecting the Transmitter to VCB

Spout (Core to Sheath / Earth)
 Connect the Test Lead
(RED) to the test object (R
/ Y / B).
(BLACK) to the cable
Screen / Earth.
 Connect the Earthing Lead
(Green/Yellow) to the
substation earth.
Page | 301
Step 2(b)
Connecting the Transmitter to

RMU (Core to Sheath / Earth)

(RED) to the test object (R
/ Y / B).
(BLACK) to the main
substation earth.

(Green / Yellow) to the
substation earth.
Page | 302
Step 3
Switch ON the Transmitter (CI TX)
Transmitter – Battery Check
(Rechargeable)
 Press the ON / OFF button
 Green indication implies fully
charged.
 Yellow / amber indication
implies battery is getting weak.
 Red indication implies battery
requires immediate charging.
Transmitter – Signal Calibration

 Green indicate complete
circuit and can perform the
test.
 Yellow / amber indicate
weak signal but test can be
perform.
 Red indicate circuit is not
complete and test cannot be
perform.
Page | 303
Step 4
Identification Clamp Connection
 Connect the Identification

Clamp to the receiver (CI
RX) by plugging-in to the
socket.
 Clamp the Identification

Clamp to the cable needed
to be identified, below the
Earth Lead.
 Arrow on the
Identification Clamp
should point towards the
Far End (earthed end) of
the cable.
Page | 304
Step 5
Switch ON the receiver (CI RX) &

Battery Check
 Press the ON / OFF

button.
Step 6
Setting the “Gain”
 It is recommended to start
Green – point towards the
far end. from minimum gain and
slowly increase it.
 Press (+) and (-) button
until almost full deflection
Red – point towards the (green) is obtained.

near end (reverse  Do NOT adjust the gain
direction).
once it is set.
Page | 305
Step 7
Adjust Over Gain Signal
 If the signal level is too

high, the green & red LED
on the max deflection will
flash to indicate over gain.
 Reduce the gain to resolve
the problem and obtain
almost full reflection.
2. COMPARISON (AT FAR END)
Step 8
Detecting the Signal
 Clamp the Identification

Clamp to the cable needed
to be identified, below the
cable earth braid.
Page | 306
 Arrow on the
should point towards the
earthed end of the cable –
the direction of the signal
towards ground (Far End).
 Switch ON the Receiver CI
Rx.
 The Green LED will flash /
chase to indicate the
correct cable to be
identified.
 Record the signal level as
a reference for
identification at joint pit.
 Adjusting the “Gain” is
NOT ALLOWED.
Page | 307
3. IDENTIFICATION (AT JOINT PIT)
Current Pulse Method - Identification
Step 9
 Arrow on the
Cable should point towards the

Earth earthed end of the cable
OFF
Cable Looped (Far End).
to Earth
Page | 308
Step 10 (a)
Signal Indication – Correct Cable
 It should indicate good

green signal between far
end & near end signal
deflection (joint pit).
Step 10 (b)
Signal Indication – Wrong Cable
 Requires to repeat on
other cables. It should
show red signal or zero
signal.
Page | 309
Step 11
 If obtained “Signal” is low, it is recommended to disconnect the near
end earth connection and only earth the core in concern.
Disconnect Earth Connection at Near End
Page | 310
B IDENTIFY USING SENSOR COIL (TWISTED FIELD)
Principle of using Twisted Field Method
Move Sensor around the Cable
Page | 311
PREPARATION ON VCB / RMU (NEAR END)
a) VCB Preparation (Near

End)
 Ensure VCB is in “OFF /

Open” position (Locked &
Tagged).
b) RMU Preparation (Near

End)

“OFF / Open” position
(Locked & Tagged).
Page | 312
PREPARATION ON VCB / RMU (FAR END)
a) VCB Preparation (Far End)
 Ensure VCB switch is in

 Apply CME (Earth ON)

or loop the two phases
that are connected to
the transmitter.
b) RMU Preparation (Far

End)

 Apply CME (Earth ON) or
loop the two phases that
are connected to the
transmitter.
Page | 313
1. CALIBRATION PROCEDURE (AT NEAR END)
Step 1
Setting Up the Transmitter

 Red lead connects to the
RED Socket
 Black lead connects to the
BLACK Socket.
 Green / Yellow lead
connects to the GREEN
Socket.
Step 2(a)
Connecting the Transmitter to VCB

Spout - Core to Core for Twisted
Field (Sensor)
(Red) to one of the cores
(R / Y / B).
 Test Lead (Black) connects
to another core.
Page | 314
Step 2(b)
Connecting the Transmitter to

RMU.
Core to Core for Twisted Field
(Sensor).

(Red) to one of the cores
(R / Y / B).
 Test Lead (Black) connects
to another core.

Page | 315
Step 3
Switch ON the Transmitter (CI TX)
Transmitter – Battery Check
(Rechargeable)
 Press the ON / OFF button
 Green indication implies fully
charged.
 Yellow / amber indication
implies battery is getting weak.
 Red indication implies battery
requires immediate charging.
Transmitter – Signal Calibration

 Green indicate complete
circuit and can perform the
test.
 Yellow / amber indicate
weak signal but test can be
perform.
 Red indicate circuit is not
complete and test cannot be
perform.
Page | 316
Step 4
Identification Sensor Coil

Connection
 Connect the Identification

Sensor Coil to the receiver
(CI RX) by plugging in to
the socket.
Step 5
Switch ON Receiver (CI RX)
 Press the ON / OFF

button.
 Move the Identification
Sensor Coil around the
cable needed to be
identified, preferably
below the Earth Lead.
Page | 317
 It should indicate high

signal (Green) & high
signal (Red) alternately.
 Set the gain of the
receiver using (+) and (-)
buttons until obtain
almost full deflection.
 Receiver indication
o Green / Red
(Almost Full
Range).
Step 6
Setting the “Gain”
 Set the gain of the

Green – point towards the
receiver using (+) and (-)
far end.
buttons until obtain
almost full deflection
(green).
 Do NOT adjust the gain
Red – point towards the near once it is set.
end (reverse direction).
Page | 318
Step 7
Adjust Over Gain Signal
 If the signal level is too

high, the green & red LED
on the max deflection will
flash to indicate over gain.
 Reduce the gain to resolve
the problem and obtain
almost full reflection.
2. COMPARISON PROCEDURE (AT FAR END)
Step 8
Signal Detection
Sensor Coil around the
cable needed to be
identified, preferably
below the Earth Leads.
Note:
 It should alternately indicate
Green & Red Signal
 Record the signal level as a
reference for identification at
joint pit.
 DO NOT adjust the “Gain”.
Page | 319
3. IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE (AT JOINT PIT)
Step 9
Signal Detection

Sensor Coil around on the
cable needed to be
identified.
 Try on all other cables in
joint-pit.
Step 10(a)
Signal Indication - Correct Cable
 The signal should gradually indicate reasonably high signal (Green) &
high signal (Red) alternately and minimum / zero signal in between.
1 5
2 6
7
3
4 8
Page | 320
Step 10(b)
Signal Indication - Wrong Cable

 It should indicate “0” signal or minimum signal.
Step 11
Switch OFF Receiver (CI RX) &

Transmitter (CI TX)
 Switch OFF the Receiver

Unit.
 Switch OFF the
Transmitter Unit.
Page | 321
ADDITIONAL NOTE:
 Cable Looping
- Beware of “cable looping” which can cause confusion to the signal
direction.
Page | 322
APPENDIX XII – FAULT CONFIRMATION & RE–TEST (Baur)
Step-By-Step Procedures for Confirmation &

Re–Test (Baur)
Following are the step-by-step procedures for Confirmation & Re - Test using
Signal Generator (SSG 1500) / Thumper.
CONFIRMATION
Step 1
Cable Trench Excavation
 Expose the cable by excavating.
Step 2
 Prepare the connection of Surge Signal Generator (SSG 1500) /
Thumper.
Step 3
 Set the Surge Signal Generator (SSG 1500) / Thumper.
Step 4
Confirmation of Fault
 Observe the spark visually or by hearing the sound of the spark.
Before Thumping During Thumping
Page | 323
APPENDIX XIII – FAULT CONFIRMATION & RE–TEST (Baur)
Additional Note:
If sparking or flashing is not visible, steps should be taken to perform cable
tracing, identification and “spiking”.
Step 5
Switch OFF Surge Signal Generator (SSG) / Thumper

 Switch OFF the SSG / Thumper.
Step 6
Cut Off the Faulty Section

 Make arrangement to cut off the faulty cable section.
RE - TEST
Step 1
Re - Test
 Perform Insulation Resistance Test and Continuity Test to ensure
the correct cable and there is no multiple fault. Refer to Appendix I
and Appendix II.
Note: If multiple faults occurr repeat the entire fault locating process.
Page | 324
APPENDIX XIII – FAULT CONFIRMATION & RE – TEST (Megger)
Step-By-Step Procedures for Confirmation & Re–

Test (Megger)
Following are the step-by-step procedures for Confirmation & Re-Test using
Signal Generator (SPG 32-1750) / Thumper.
CONFIRMATION
Step 1
Cable Trench Excavation
 Expose the cable by excavating.
Step 2
 Prepare the connection of Surge Signal Generator (SPG 32-1750) /
Thumper.
Step 3
 Set the Surge Signal Generator (SPG 32-1750) / Thumper.
Step 4
Confirmation of Fault
 Observe the spark visually or by hearing the sound of the spark.
Before Thumping During Thumping
Page | 325
APPENDIX XIII – FAULT CONFIRMATION & RE–TEST (Megger)
Additional Note:
If sparking or flashing is not visible, steps should be taken to perform cable
tracing, identification and “spiking”.
Step 5
Switch OFF Surge Signal Generator (SSG) / Thumper

 Switch OFF the SSG / Thumper.
Step 6
Cut Off the Faulty Section

 Make arrangement to cut off the faulty cable section.
RE - TEST
Step 1
Re-Test
 Perform Insulation Resistance Test and Continuity Test to ensure the
correct cable and there is no multiple fault. Refer to Appendix I and
Appendix II.
Note: If multiple faults occurr repeat the entire fault locating process.
Page | 326
APPENDIX XIV – FAULT ANALYSIS TEST SHEET
INSULATION & CONTINUITY TEST REPORT
IR TEST FROM P/E … “A” ... IR TEST FROM P/E ….. “B” ……. CONTINUITY
NAME TO P/E ......” B” …… (MΩ) TO P/E ......” A” …… (MΩ) (Ω)

OF
FEEDER
R-E Y-E B- R- Y- B- R- Y-E B-E R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y Y-B B-R
E Y B R E
FEEDER
FEEDER
FEEDER
Page | 327
CABLE FAULT
LOCATION
MANUAL
june2021
ASSET MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT, TNB DISTRIBUTION NETWORK DIVISION

Cable Fault Location Manual - 2021

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Cable Fault Location Manual - 2021

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CABLE FAULT

Asset Management Department

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to

Special thanks to Ir. Ts. Tan Chow Heang, Mdm.

Ir. Ismail Bin Lam Din

Medium voltage underground cable is one of the important

TNB Distribution Network Division through its

Wan Nazmy Bin Wan Mahmood

H – Type Type of cable designed by M.Hochstadter. Each conductor in

CHAPTER 1 : OVERVIEW OF CABLE FAULT LOCATION ............................................1

1.3.3 Tool Box Talk .......................................................................18

CHAPTER 2 : FAULT DIAGNOSIS .............................................................................22

CHAPTER 3 : FAULT PRE-LOCATION.......................................................................28

CHAPTER 4 : CABLE ROUTE TRACING ....................................................................59

CHAPTER 5 : PIN-POINTING ...................................................................................73

CHAPTER 6 : CABLE IDENTIFICATION ....................................................................79

CHAPTER 7 : FAULT CONFIRMATION & RE-TEST ...................................................81

CHAPTER 8 : REPAIR, TESTING & RE-COMMISSIONING ........................................84

Figure 1.1 : Equivalent Circuit of Cable Fault .......................................................... 3

Figure 3.8 : 0 - 8 kV Range ..................................................................................... 41

Figure 4.6 : Maximum and Minimum Mode Illustrations ..................................... 63

Table 1.1 : Fault Characteristics .............................................................................. 3

Appendix I : Step-By-Step Procedures to Perform Insulation Resistance (IR) 88

CHAPTER 1 : OVERVIEW OF CABLE FAULT LOCATION

A fault is defined as any defect, weakness, inconsistency or non-homogeneity

1. Series Fault (Open Circuit)

However, in practice, the above-mentioned faults can occur singularly or in

1.1. Fault Characteristics

Shunt faults occur where the insulation of cable conductors is damaged.

Figure 1.1 : Equivalent Circuit of Cable Fault

Table 1.1 : Fault Characteristics

Fault Resistance Fault

𝑅𝑓 near 0Ω Bridged (Shorted)

Fault Resistance Fault Capacitance

1.2. Types of Fault

There are few types of fault such as :-

1. Series / Open Circuit Fault

1.2.1 Series / Open Circuit Fault

Figure 1.2 : Failure of Continuity in Conductors

1.2.2 Shunt / Short Circuit Fault

Figure 1.3 : Phase to Earth (Ø to E) Fault

Figure 1.4 : Phase To Phase (Ø to Ø) Fault

Belted Cable (PILC) H-Type (PILC) /

1.2.3 Low Resistance Fault

Table 1.3 : Cable Parameter

1.2.4 High Resistance Fault

Reflection Factor (r)

Figure 1.5 : Characteristic Impedance of Shunt Fault

Figure 1.6 : Characteristic Impedance of Series Fault

Table 1.4 : Characteristics of Pulse Reflection

Shunt Fault Series Fault

Relationship between Fault Resistance and Reflection Factor

Table 1.5 : Shunt Fault Example

Table 1.6 : Series Fault Example

1.2.5 Intermittent / Flashing Fault

1.3 Safety Requirement for Fault Location

1.3.1 Safety Requirement

Before commencing cable fault locating, all safety requirements in accordance

1.3.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Table 1.7 : List of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Type of PPE Remarks

Must be worn when

Safety Shoes Must be worn at all times

Must be worn at all times