Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Robust and flexible strategy for fault detection in grid-connected T

photovoltaic systems
⁎
Fouzi Harroua, , Bilal Taghezouitb,c, Ying Suna
a
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering (CEMSE) Division, Thuwal 23955-6900,
Saudi Arabia
b
Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables, CDER, Route de l’Observatoire, Bouzaréah, Algiers 16340, Algeria
c
Laboratoire de Dispositif de Communication et de Conversion Photovoltaique, Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Alger, Algeria

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Reliable and efficient detection of faults in photovoltaic systems provides pertinent information for improving
Robust approach their safety and productivity. However, data gathered from photovoltaic systems are generally tainted with a
Measurement noise large amount of noise, which can swamp the most relevant features necessary to detect faults, and ultimately
Single diode model degrades fault detection capability of the monitoring system. Therefore, it is crucial to design a robust fault
PV plant
detection approach to deal with the problem of measurement noise in the data. The purpose of this study is to
Multiresolution representation
design a robust fault detection scheme to monitor the direct current side of a photovoltaic system and able to
deal with the problem of measurement noise in the data by using multiscale representation. Towards this end, a
framework merging the benefits of multiscale representation of data and those of the exponentially-weighted
moving average scheme to suitably detect faults is proposed and used in the context of fault detection in pho-
tovoltaic systems. Here, multiscale representation of data using wavelets, an efficient feature/noise separation
technique, is used to enhance fault detection performance by reducing noise effect and false alarms. First, a
simulation model for the monitored photovoltaic array is built. Then residuals from the simulation model are
used as the input for the designed scheme for fault detection. A real data from a 9.54 kWp photovoltaic plant in
Algiers, Algeria is used to evaluate the effectiveness proposed method. Also, the performance of the proposed
chart to that of the conventional exponentially-weighted moving average chart has been compared and found
improved sensitivity to faults and robustness to noises.

1. Introduction In [5], a summary on different types of popular faults in PV systems has

With concerns about climate change to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and to meet environmental standards, the renewable energy
industry becomes more noticeable to cover the current electricity de-
mands. Solar-based energy presents a promising source of clean energy
[1]. As pointed out in [2], 100 GigaWatt (GW) of electrical power
produced using PV technology in Europe in 2012 permitted to save
more than 53 million tons of CO2. Consequently, greenhouse gas
emissions will decrease as the number of PV installations rapidly grows
[3].
Even with the advanced technologies in the PV power production,
PV systems are still subjected to faults that negatively influence their
efficiency and profitability [4]. In practice, however, there are different
unpredictable faults, such as partial shading, short circuits, and open
circuits that can affect the desired operating conditions of PV systems.
been provided. For instance, faults on the DC side of PV plants may
result in potential energy loss and even in catastrophic safety issue [6].
Efficient detection of faults in PV plants provides pertinent information
for improving their safety and productivity by alerting the operator to
abnormal events for rapid decision-making. In addition, it helps to
evaluate the PV systems operating conditions, inspecting power gen-
eration and reducing maintenance costs. Of course, monitoring of PV
plants is central for guaranteeing the optimal management and main-
taining the desired performances.
Fault detection and diagnosis of photovoltaic plants are essential
abilities for enhancing their reliability and improving their profitability
and efficiency so that accidents can be avoided. Over the past few
decades, increased attention to modeling and fault detection of PV
systems has led to the development of numerous monitoring methods
[7]. Furthermore, to protect PV plants from faults, numerous protection

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fouzi.harrou@kaust.edu.sa (F. Harrou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.11.022
Received 2 June 2018; Received in revised form 8 November 2018; Accepted 10 November 2018
0196-8904/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Harrou et al.
devices and technologies are integrated within PV systems including
overcurrent protection devices and arc-fault circuit interrupter [8].
Fault detection methods could be classified according to their de-
pendency on meteorological conditions. For instance, time domain re-
flectometry (TDR) [9] and earth capacitance measurements (ECM) [10]
based methods have been used in several research studies due to their
independence to weather conditions. Specifically, the TDR method is
used to detect PV string disconnection and degradation faults based on
the electrical characteristics of the transmission line, while the ECM
method is designed to localize PV module disconnections. Nevertheless,
the major drawback of the TDR approach is its need to turn off the PV
system, which results in decreasing the system’s energetic perfor-
mances. Also, this approach is performed using sophisticated tools to
investigate input and output reflected signals. On the other hand, the
ECM method suffers too from the need for additional and expensive
monitoring tools like LCL meter [10]. Moreover, this method is limited
by numerous drawbacks such as its inability to detect partially-shaded
PV module and disconnection due to the presence of bypass diodes.
Other researchers focused on using satellite observation based me-
teorological data instead of those based on onset measurements to es-
timate the PV energetic yield [11]. In this method, real measured en-
ergy yield was compared with the expected based satellite observation
data. Using such approach, three types of faults could be discriminated:
faults with constant loss of energy, faults with variable loss of energy
and finally energy losses due to snow presence (blackout case) [11].
Accurately detecting faults in PV systems is essential for improving
their safety and productivity. In [12], Vergura proposed a statistical
approach to monitoring the operating conditions of a PV plant without
the use of meteorological data. The detection is performed by analyzing
the output energy of the PV plant by using the analysis of variance
(ANOVA) test. In [13], Braun et al. proposed multivariate outlier rules
to detect faults in PV plants. In this work, the minimum covariance
determinant has been evaluated, and both current and voltage mea-
surements of each separate PV panel are used as data inputs. This
method requires current and voltage measurements values of each se-
parate PV module, and that is its main disadvantage. An approach
based on the three-sigma approach was developed for online fault de-
tection in PV systems in [14]. However, the main shortcoming of this
approach is its limitation in detecting incipient fault because it makes
decisions based only on the current observation. Furthermore, based on
climate data, in [15] Karatepe and Hiyama adopted a three-layered
feedforward neural network approach to perform an automatic detec-
tion of a location of short-circuited PV module in a string. Nevertheless,
this method requires a large number of historical data in the model
training phase, which make its implementation in online applications a
difficult task. Mekki et al. proposed a fault detection scheme based on
an artificial neural network (ANN) to detect partial shading faults in a
photovoltaic array [16]. In this approach solar irradiance, cell tem-
perature, photovoltaic current, and voltage are used as the input data to
ANN for fault detection. In [17], Zhao et al. introduced a graph-based
semi-supervised learning method to address the problem of fault de-
tection and classification in PV systems. This method uses only the data
collected from PV system sensors. Dhimish et al. suggested a PV fault
detector based on the combination of theoretical curves modeling and
fuzzy classification system [18]. In this two steps approach, the theo-
retical curves are used to detect potential faults and a fuzzy classifier is
employed to identify the type of faults. In [19], a fuzzy logic method
based on meteorological and satellite data is introduced to faults in PV
plants. In [20], authors suggested a method based on a probabilistic
neural network to identify and diagnose DC side faults. In [21], a fault
detection approach is introduced to monitor a PV system based on
voltage and current indicators. In this approach, an artificial neural
network algorithm is applied to classify eight types of PV array faults.
Likewise, in [16], a fault detection approach using an artificial neural
network algorithm for monitoring a photovoltaic module under par-
tially shaded conditions is proposed. Further, various data mining and
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Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166
machine learning approaches have been developed detect faults in PV
systems including decision tree [22] and Bayesian neural network [23].
However, such methods rely on the availability of quality input data,
and their implementation is no easy task, especially for real-time ap-
plications.
In other studies, wavelet-based multiresolution decomposition is
used for time-frequency detection and analysis of faults in PV systems.
For instance, [24] proposed an approach using multi-resolution signal
decomposition and fuzzy inference. In [25], Kim (2016) proposed a
fault detection approach based on wavelet transform. In this approach,
standard deviations of the wavelet coefficients are used as a fault in-
dicator. Also, [26] introduced an approach based on multiresolution
signal decomposition and SVM to enhance the efficiency of PV arrays by
detecting line-to-line faults. In that study, wavelet-based multi-
resolution is employed for feature extraction and SVM algorithm is
applied for fault detection. In [27], on the other hand, an optimized
exponential smoothing scheme has been applied to smoothed data with
wavelet filtering for detecting failures in a simulated PV array. In this
approach, principal component analysis has been used to model the
nominal operation of a PV system. However, when a principal com-
ponent analysis is applied to data collected from PV systems for fault
detection, it fails to capture the autocorrelation among the process
variables due to its static nature. Recently, [28] proposed a wavelet
packet-based approach to enhance fault detection in PV systems by
using the available data of array voltage and current. In another study,
[29] presented a DC side parallel arc fault detection by a wavelet
transform based on the current at the exit of PV panel.
Accurate detection of possible failures in PV systems has proven to
be particularly challenging. In [30], a statistical procedure for mon-
itoring temporary shading and faults occurred in the DC side of PV
systems has been developed. Specifically, this approach exploits the
greater ability of an exponentially-weighted moving average (EWMA)
approach in detecting faults and the flexibility of a one-diode model to
enhance monitoring the DC side of PV systems. In this approach, a si-
mulation model was employed for generating residuals and a multi-
variate EWMA approach was used to detect and identify the type of
faults in the monitored PV system [31]. However, EWMA-based ap-
proaches don’t consider the multiscale nature of data. In addition, the
quality of the detection approach degrades with noisy data because
faults and important features can easily get masked by the noise. The
measurement noise is spread in the time-frequency domain which needs
effective feature extraction from time as well as frequency scale [32].
The wavelet approach can provide effective noise/feature separation,
and decorrelate auto-correlated data [33]. In this paper, the objective is
to exploit the advantages of both a multiscale representation based on
wavelet and of an EWMA scheme to deal with the problem of mea-
surement noise in the data and to better detect faults in PV systems. To
this end, a framework merging the advantages of EWMA monitoring
scheme and the wavelet decomposition with the multiscale re-
presentation is proposed, and used in the context of robust fault de-
tection in PV systems. The novelty of the proposed approach is to de-
velop an integrated wavelet-based multiscale EWMA (WM-EWMA)
approach for monitoring the efficiency of PV systems. This approach is
applied to the residuals obtained from the simulated model to detect
faults in the DC side of the inspected PV array. Performance of the al-
gorithm is evaluated using real data from a 9.54 kWp grid-connected
plant in Algiers, Algeria. Results show that the proposed scheme suc-
ceeds to appropriately monitor the DC side of PV systems. Also, it is
robust to the noise measurements compared to the conventional EWMA
chart.
The studied PV system is briefed in the following section. Then the
one-diode model is introduced in Section 3. In Section 4, multiscale
representation of data and its use in fault detection are briefly in-
troduced, and the proposed monitoring approach is outlined in Section
5. In Section 6 the efficiency of the developed approach is assessed
using via real data, and conclusions are presented in Section 7.
F. Harrou et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166

Fig. 1. Synoptic scheme of Grid connected PV System.

Table 1 The main elements of the monitored PV sub-system are illustrated in

Main characteristics of the CDER PV array. Fig. 2. Global Inclined Irradiance (27°) and ambient temperature are
PV array
measured using, respectively, a Kipp & Zonen CM11 thermoelectric
Max. DC power 9.6 kWp. pyranometer and a K-type thermocouple (Fig. 2). Meteorological and
Geographical characteristics Latitude: 36.8°N Longitude: 03.03 °E electrical measured data (i.e., Global Inclined Irradiance, ambient
Altitude: 345 m temperature, DC current, DC voltage and DC power), which are used as
Tilt/azimuth 27°/+15°S.
the input by the developed fault detection approach, are acquired with
Number of PV sub-array & Inverter 3
a sampling rate of 1 min via Agilent 34970A data logger.
PV Sub-array
Max. DC power 3.2 kWp
Number of PV modules in series 15
3. Photovoltaic module modeling
Number of string in parallel 2

PV module ISOFOTON I-106/12

In the literature, a commonly used and also quite flexible model that
PV Cell Tech. Mono-crystalline Si describes the I-V characteristics of a PV cell/module is a single diode
Number of cell in series 36 model (Fig. 3) and the analytic expression that [34]
Number of branch in parallel 2
Peak power (Pmpp) 106 ± 5% Wp q (V + Rs I ) ⎞ V + Rs I
I = Iph − I0 ⎡exp ⎛
⎜ ⎟ − 1⎤ − ,
Current at maximum power point 6.1 A ⎢ nkB T ⎥
(Impp)
⎣ ⎝
 Id ⎠ ⎦ R
 sh
Ish (1)
Voltage at maximum power point 17.4 V
(Vmpp) where I0 is the dark saturation current, n is the diode’s ideality factor, kB
Short circuit current (Isc) 6.54 A is Boltzmann’s constant, and q is the electronic charge. The accuracy of
Open circuit voltage (Voc) 21.6 V the SDM given by Eq. (1) mainly relies on the determined values of the
Nominal operating cell temperature 47 °C
(NOCT)
five unknown parameters: Iph, I0, n, Rs and Rsh .
The simulation of a PV array is schematically illustrated in Fig. 4.
The implementation of the proposed method can be briefly sum-
2. The studied photovoltaic system marized as follows: (1) the parameters of SDM is determined, (2) a si-
mulation model of the entire PV system based on the determined
The developed method has been evaluated through real data from a parameters is constructed and evaluated and (3) the WM-EWMA
PV system located in Algiers, Algeria. The synoptic scheme of this grid- scheme is applied to residuals of the simulation model to check the
connected PV system is given in Fig. 1. operating status of the inspected PV array.
The Grid-Connected PV system (Fig. 1) consists of a PV array of 90
modules type Isofoton I-106/12 (Table 1) providing a total peak power Step 1: Determination of single diode model parameters
of 9.6 kWp. The PV array is made up of three identical PV sub-array of Here, an efficient heuristic algorithm is applied to determine
3.2 kWp. Each sub-array is comprised of 2 branches in parallel of 15 PV unknown parameters of the SDM by using (I-V) curve mea-
modules in series (Table 1). The PV sub-array is connected to a single- surements. To find these unknown parameters, minimization of
phase inverter Ingecon sun 2.5 (Table 2), the output of each inverter is the root mean square error (RMSE) between the measured and
connected to the three-phase assembly cabinet, and then the injection the predicted I-V curves by SDM is often used [20].
to the low-voltage distribution grid.

Table 2
Main characteristics of the inverter.
Inverter Ingevon Sun 2.5
AC nominal power 2.5 kW
MPP voltage range 125–450 V
Max input DC Current 16A
Max Efficiency 94%
Output nominal Voltage 220–230 V
Max output AC power 2.7 kW
Total harmonic distortion (THD) < 5%
Frequency range 49.8–50.2 Hz
Consumption in operation 10 W

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F. Harrou et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166

Fig. 2. Synoptic diagram of a one PV subsystem with data acquisition.

I m 4. Enhanced monitoring using the multiscale exponentially-

RMSE =
m
∑i =1 [fi (Imeas, Vmeas, θ)]2 , (2) weighted moving average algorithm

where This section introduces firstly an overview of the conventional

EWMA chart, together with wavelet-based multiscale representation.
⎛ ⎞ q (Vmeas + Rs Imeas ) ⎞ Then presents the proposed technique for fault detection in PV systems,
f ⎜Imeas , Vmeas, φ⎟ = Imeas − ⎧Iph − I0 ⎡exp ⎛ ⎜ ⎟
which integrates the EWMA technique with wavelet-based multiscale
⎨ ⎢ ⎝ nkB T ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎩ ⎣
representation.
V + Rs Imeas ⎫
− 1⎤ − meas
⎥ Rsh ⎬
⎦ ⎭ (3) 4.1. Exponentially-weighted moving average approach

where φ is a vector of unknown parameters [Iph, I0, n , Rs and
Rsh ], m is the number of the utilized real (I-V) curve measure-
ments in the parameters extraction process. Here, the PVPM
2540C device (Fig. 5) has been used to measure the I-V-curve of
a reference photovoltaic module, and Artificial Bee Colony
(ABC) procedure [31] is used to determine the SDM five un-
known parameters.
Step 2: Model validation
EWMA scheme is an important univariate quality control procedure,
which has been used in several disciplines to online monitor the mean
of production processes [35]. An advantage of EWMA scheme is ag-
gregating all available information from past and actual samples in the
decision rule. The EWMA fault decision statistic is computed as follows
[36]:
z t = λx t + (1 − ν ) z t − 1, (4)

where x t is the measurement at time instant t, the initial value, z 0 is the

The goal of this step is to design a model that describes theoretical fault-free mean of data, μ0 , and ν (0 < ν ⩽ 1) is a smoothing parameter.
characteristics of the real PV array, using a real dataset reflecting the For this chart, the general guidelines for selecting ν is: small ν values
nominal condition of the monitored PV system. This is done by a co- are appropriate for detecting small faults and large ν values are ap-
simulation between Matlab/Simulink™ and PSIM™ based on the de- propriate for detecting large faults. The upper control limit U, and the
termined parameters from step 1. After the simulation model is de- lower control limit L of the EWMA scheme can then be defined by
termined, its prediction quality can be evaluated by feeding the model
with real climate measurements, and compare the predicted peak of ν
U = μ0 + κσ0 ⎡1 − (1 − ν )2t ⎤ ,
power Pmppsim with the real one Pmppmeas . Model validity is usually (2 − ν ) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ (5)
evaluated using statistical metrics, such as the coefficient of determi-
nation, r 2 , the mean absolute percent error (MAPE) and RMSE.
ν ⎡1 − (1 − ν )2t ⎤ ,
L = μ0 − κσ0
(2 − ν ) ⎢
⎣
⎥
⎦ (6)

Fig. 3. Illustration of SDM of a PV cell.

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Fig. 4. A diagrammatic illustration of main steps for a simulation model of a PV array.

Fig. 5. PVPM devices utilized to measure the I-V-curve of PV modules.

1157
F. Harrou et al.
where σ0 is the standard deviation of the fault-free data, and κ is the
width of the control limits. The parameters κ and ν need to be set
carefully [37]. If z t is within the interval [L, U ], then the system is
considered normal up to the actual time point. Otherwise, a signal of a
fault is given.
4.2. Wavelet-based multiscale representation
Data from PV systems are generally autocorrelated and con-
taminated with noise. The presence of a large amount of noise in the
measurements can mask the important features and anomalies in the
data, which degrades the anomaly detection capability of a monitoring
system [38]. Wavelet-based multiscale modeling of data plays a key
role in extracting useful feature and reducing noise effect from the
contaminated data [39].
Generally speaking, by using the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)
a signal can be represented as a combination of approximation and
detail coefficients [40]. Towards this end, a set of scaling functions and
a set of wavelet functions, which are respectively associated with a low
pass filter H and high pass filter G, are utilized to approximate the
signal at various fine scales [41]. Approximation coefficients result
from a linear convolution between the signal and the low pass filter and
after performing downsampling by 2. In other words, approximation
coefficients are obtained from the projection of the original time series
a set of orthonormal scaling functions defined as,
ϕj, k (t ) = 2−j ϕ (2−jt − k ), j = 1, …, J , k ∈ .
Then, approximation signal, Dj (t ) at level j has the following expres-
sion,
n2−j
Aj (t ) = ∑ ajk ϕjk (t ),
k=1
where ajk is the wavelet coefficient, n is the number of observations in
the original signal, and j is the number of scale [42]. Similarly, detail
coefficients are obtained by performing downsampling of 2 of a linear
convolution between signal and a high pass filter. In other words, detail
coefficients are obtained by the projection of the original time series a
set of wavelet basis functions defined as,
ψj, k (t ) = 2−j ψ (2−jt − k ), j = 1, …, J , k ∈ ,
where the coarsest scale J usually termed the decomposition level.
Therefore, the detail coefficient at level j can be written as
n2−j
Dj (t ) = ∑ djk ψjk (t ),
k=1
where djk are the scaling coefficients. A signal can be expressed as [40]:
J Step 2 Decompose the testing data into multiple scales
x (t ) = AJ (t ) + ∑ Dj (t ).
j=1
The decomposition procedure of a signal based on DWT is presented
Fig. 6. Multilevel representation of a signal using DWT.
Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166
in Fig. 6. Fig. 6 shows a three-level DWT of the signal S, A1 and d1 are
respectively approximation and detail coefficients at level 1, A1 is fur-
ther represented by the summation of approximation and detail coef-
ficients at level 2, A2 and d3, respectively; and so on. A3 d2
For example, Fig. 7 illustrates the results of a decomposition of the
peak power measurements (Fig. 7(a)) with thee levels, which contains
the three-level approximations (Fig. 7(b), (d) and (f)) of the original
signal and three detailed coefficients in the right panel (Fig. 7(c), (e)
and (g)). In the next step, wavelet-based decomposition will be em-
ployed for fault detection.
Of course, wavelet-based filtering is a powerful tool for an effective
noise-feature separation in the data [43]. Here, this advantage is
exploited to develop a superior multiscale univariate anomaly detection
method and show how the method can be applied successfully to fault
detection.
4.3. Wavelet-based multiscale exponentially-weighted moving average
approach for photovoltaic system monitoring
Integrating the benefits of multiscale representation with those of
the EWMA approach should result in an enhanced monitoring system.
To achieve this integrated approach, the WM-EWMA-based fault de-
tection scheme based on the wavelet coefficients at different scales has
been developed.
The WM-EWMA anomaly detection method is applied to detailed
signals obtained using a multiscale representation of the data. A fault-
(7) free training data set was utilized to compute the control limits at
multiple scales, which were then applied to the detailed signals of the
testing data on multiple scales when these thresholds are surpassed, the
presence of a fault is indicated. This proposed monitoring scheme is
diagrammatically summarized in Fig. 8 and sketched in the following
steps.
(8)
1. Training stage:
Step 1 Collect the training data set (fault-free data), representative
of a nominal situation. This training data is necessary to set
the control limits.
Step 2 Normalize the data to get zero mean and unit variance,
Step 3 Decompose the scaled data into wavelet coefficients. This
changes the data set from a single scale set into a multiple
(9) scales set, which can allow for multiscale monitoring.
Step 4 Compute the EWMA statistic and the control limits U and L.
Step 5 Keep only scales that have threshold violations.
Step 6 Reconstruct data using only retained scales.
Step 7 Compute EWMA control limits for reconstructed data.
(10) 2. Testing stage (test the new data):
Step 1 Normalize the testing data with the mean and standard de-
viation of the training data.
Step 3 Compute the EWMA statistic and utilize the control limits for
(11)
each scale obtained in the training stage
Step 4 Retain only coefficients that violate the threshold; neglect
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F. Harrou et al.
Fig. 7. Wavelet decomposition and separation of stochastic and deterministic components of the peak power measurements.
other coefficients
Step 5 Reconstruct the signal using only retained coefficients
Step 6 Report a fault when the WM-EWMA statistic exceeds the
control limits obtained from training stage.
5. Proposed wavelet-based multiscale strategy for photovoltaic
system monitoring
The electrical data from a PV array (i.e., DC rated current, voltage,
and power) and the environmental data of the irradiation and the
temperature are required to ensure permanent monitoring of the op-
erating status of PV system. In real life systems, these data are usually
continuously collected through a data logger and external sensors
(thermoelectric pyranometer and a K-type thermocouple). The noise
contaminating the collected measurements could be due to sensors
degradation, disturbances, and manual errors. It should be pointed out
that the presence of highly noisy measurements negatively affects the
Fig. 8. Schematic illustration of WM-EWMA-based monitoring scheme.
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Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166
performance of a fault detection procedure. Therefore, it is crucial to
develop a robust approach that can handle noisy measurements. In this
paper, a robust fault detection approach for PV monitoring is proposed.
Here, the basic idea of the proposed approach is briefly described.
To monitor the operating conditions of the inspected PV array, first, the
simulation model based on the measured electrical and environmental
data is constructed and then the predicted from the model with mea-
sured data are compared. The proposed procedure is performed in three
main phases: (i) PV module parameters extraction, (ii) model simula-
tion of the PV array via a PSIM™/Matlab™ co-simulation, and (iii) fault
detection based on the WM-EWMA monitoring scheme. Fig. 9 sche-
matically presents the proposed approach.
As mentioned above, firstly, ABC procedure is employed to identify
unknown electrical parameters of the SDM of PV module. Then, the
model of the entire PV array under normal circumstances is simulated
and validated. The simulation model is then exploited to predict the
MPP variables (i.e., MPP power, current, and voltage). For every test
F. Harrou et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166

Fig. 9. A diagrammatic representation of the proposed procedure.

Table 3
Robust MW-EWMA monitoring approach for PV system supervision.
(1) Given:
• Real measurement of irradiance and module temperature
• Real measurement of maximum power point (MPP) values of current, voltage and
power collected from the PV plant under normal operating conditions.
• Module parameters obtained from the PV module datasheet (see Table 1).
(2) Build ODM using the fault-free training data
• Extract electrical parameters for the five-parameter model based on the measured
cell temperature and irradiance collected from the monitored PV system under
normal operating conditions (see Section 2) using the Artificial Bee Colony (ABC)
algorithm [44]. The extracted parameters are then used to simulate the PV
system.
• Compute the residuals between the measured and the predicted DC current, DC
voltage and DC power (Impp, Vmpp and Pmpp ) from the constructed model using
fault-free data.
• Decompose the scaled data into coefficients. Compute the EWMA statistic and the
control limits for each scale based on details signals.
• Reconstruct data using only retained scales that have threshold violations.
Compute EWMA control limits for reconstructed data (see Section 4.2). Fig. 10. Measured and estimated I-V curves from the selected SDM for ISOF-
(3) Test the new data OTON 106-12 PV module.
• ∼ ∼ ∼
Generate residual vectors, I , V and P , using the selected five-parameter-based
model,
• Decompose the testing data into multiple scales and reconstruct the signal using
only retained coefficients.
importantly in the presence of faults.

• Compute the EWMA monitoring statistic for the new data using Eq. (4).
(4) Check for faults
R It = It − It ,̂ t ,
RVt = Vt − V R Pt = Pt − Pt , t ∈ [1, n]. (12)

• Declare a fault when the WM-EWMA decision statistic for the new data exceeds
the control limits previously computed using the training data.
If the designed model describes the observed PV data adequately
and the PV system is operating correctly to the time point n, then re-
siduals should be approximately zero due to noise and measurement
uncertainties. Of course, after the simulation model is obtained, to
Table 4 check whether the PV array is operating normally or not, the WM-
Experimental weather conditions obtained from outdoor measurements of I-V
EWMA monitoring scheme (or other alternative control charts) is ap-
curves.
plied to the residuals (R It , RVt , and R Pt ) for fault detection. A signal from
PV module Temperature (° C) Irradiance (W/m2) the control scheme would detect a shift from the reference model (i.e.,
the simulation model constructed for describing the nominal observa-
ISOFOTON 27.2 755
tions of a PV system). The main steps of the proposed procedure are
outlined in Table 3.
Table 5
Computed module parameters of the SDM via the best-so-far ABC procedure. 6. Results and discussion

Iph [A] I0 [A] n Rs [Ω] Rsh [Ω] RMSE

ISOFOTON 106-12 6.54 1.11e−0.5 1.66 0.1474 202.6
sample, the actual measurements can be compared with those esti-
mated by the simulated model. To make sure that the monitored system
works stably, the residuals, which are the mismatch between the esti-
mated values of MPP variables (MPP current, It ,̂ MPP voltage, V t from
the simulation model and peak power, Pt ), and the measured (MPP
t , and peak power, Pt ) from the PV array using
current, It , voltage, V
measured temperature and irradiance, are evaluated. If the designed
model represents a collected data well, then the residual of a given
measure should provide a close to zero. Indeed, residuals described by
Eq. (12) are close to zero under normal operation and change
This section discusses PV module parameters identification, model
0.014
validation, and fault detection results. The performance of WM-EWMA
approach in detecting faults in the DC side of a PV system is demon-
strated. Real data from the CDER PV system described in Section 2 is
used to evaluate the performance of the WM-EWMA approach. Here,
also the impact of noise on the detection efficiency of the WM EWMA
and EWMA schemes is analyzed.
6.1. Identification of photovoltaic module parameters
Here, the effectiveness of PV module parameters identification
strategy has been experimentally assessed. Towards this end, real ex-
perimental (I-V) curve measurements from PV module type Isofoton I-
106/12, mono-crystalline technology, of the CDER PV system are used.

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Fig. 11. (a) Three-days profile irradiation and (b) three-days profile of temperature level.
Fig. 12. Comparison between the measured and estimated MPP current (a) and power (b) of the studied PV array.
Fig. 13. Considered faults in the CDER PV system.
Table 4 summarizes the irradiance and temperature conditions at which
the real measured (I-V) curves have been collected.
In the best-so-far ABC procedure, the parameters (food source
number, number of employed bees, number of onlooker bees, the so-
lution dimension and the maximum cycle number) are selected to be
(150, 75, 75, 5, 7500). The computed optimal values of the parameters
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Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166
∗
[I ph , I0∗, n∗, Rs∗, Rsh
∗
] of the one-diode model with the best-so-far ABC
optimization algorithm, which provides the appropriate fitting of the
measured (I-V) characteristics, are presented in Table 5.
The computed parameters values are utilized to predict (I-V) curve
of the SDM (Eq. (1)). Then, the measured (I-V) curves versus predict (I-
V) curve from the SDM (Eq. (1)) are shown in Fig. 10. The results show
that the predicted curve using the identified parameters match well
with the experimental curve. Furthermore, the lower value of root-
mean-square error (RMSE) (Table 5) indicates the good prediction
performance of the best-so-far ABC algorithm to determine the best
fitting parameters values.
6.2. Modeling of photovoltaic array
When SDM parameters are identified (Table 5), the computed
parameters values are used to construct the entire CDER PV array
during nominal conditions. In other words, the identified SDM para-
meters are used to estimate the dynamic evolution of MPP coordinates
of current and voltage under real operating conditions for CDER PV
plant. A co-simulation with Matlab/Simulink™ and PSIM™ has been
employed to simulate the studied PV array. Measurements of tem-
perature and irradiance are the inputs of the simulation model.
Here, the simulation model is evaluated using three real climate day
profiles of temperature (T) and irradiances (G) to feed the model
(Fig. 11(a-b)) and then compare their corresponding peak power
measurement (Pmppmeas ) with the estimated one (Pmppsim ). A compar-
ison of the MPP current and peak power from the simulation model and
the real measurements are respectively presented in Fig. 12(a-b). It can
be seen from Figure that the model outputs fit well the actual mea-
surements.
6.3. Detection results
After the model is determined, it can be used for fault detection
stage. Here, the detection capability of the WM-EWMA scheme to detect
faults in the DC of PV arrays is evaluated. Real data from the 9.54 kWp
GCPV system (Section 2) is used to demonstrate the efficiency of the
F. Harrou et al. Energy Conversion and Management 180 (2019) 1153–1166

Fig. 14. Monitoring results from EWMA scheme (a)

and WM-EWMA chart (b) in the case with three
short-circuited modules in a PV array.

Fig. 15. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of three short-circuited module, low
noisy data example.

Fig. 16. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of three short-circuited module, moderate
noisy data example.

Fig. 17. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of three short-circuited module, high
noisy data example.

Table 6 (FAR) [45]. For a given fault detection approach, the ideal situation is
FAR and MDR values of the EWMA and MW-EWMA schemes in various sce- that both its MDR value and its FAR value are small.
narios of noisy data.
EWMA chart WM-EWMA chart 6.3.1. Short-circuit fault
In this subsection, the effectiveness of the developed approach in
σ FAR MDR FAR MDR
detecting short-circuit faults in DC side of a PV array a PV system is
0.2 21.33 1.49 0.33 0.8 illustrated. The performance of the WM-EWMA algorithm is firstly
0.8 43.18 9.45 7.96 1.95 evaluated under normal circumstances (noiseless conditions). It should
1.6 76.07 17.91 10.44 6.95 be pointed out that the measured data from the PV system during
normal conditions are considered as noiseless measurements because,
in practice, it is difficult to quantify error measurements and sensor
developed approach. The proposed WM-EWMA algorithm is compared degradations. In the first scenario, three modules are short-circuited in
to the conventional EWMA algorithm under noisy environment. Four the second string (see faults #2 in Fig. 13) between sampling times
types of faults in PV systems namely, open-circuit, short-circuit, tem- ranging from 300 to 500. Then the EWMA chart with λ = 0.25 is applied
porary shading faults and degradation faults (Fig. 13) will be in- to the MPP power residuals from the simulation model using testing
vestigated here. In this study, fault detection performance has been dataset. In the WM-EWMA chart, the level of decomposition value is
characterized using missed detection rate (MDR) and false alarm rate chosen to be five using the Haar wavelet, and λ = 0.25. The monitoring

Fig. 18. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of an open-circuit fault, noiseless data
example. The red-coloured band indicates the area
where the fault is introduced.

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Fig. 19. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of an open-circuit fault, low noisy data
example.

Fig. 20. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of an open-circuit fault, moderate noisy
data example.

Fig. 21. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of an open-circuit fault, high noisy data
example.

Table 7 are investigated. The results of the two charts for testing data with
FAR and MDR values of the EWMA and MW-EWMA schemes in the presence of different noise levels, σ = 0.2 (low noisy data), σ = 0.8 (moderate noisy
open-circuit faults. data), and σ = 1.6 (high noisy data) are demonstrated in Figs. 15–17,
EWMA chart WM-EWMA chart respectively. The WM-EWMA chart provides a clear improvement over
conventional EWMA chart in term of FAR and MDR. It can be seen that
σ FAR MDR FAR MDR the detection capability of the EWMA scheme would decrease if the
data is noisy. Also, It can be pointed out that the WM-EWMA approach
0.2 11.34 0 4.10 0
0.8 34.33 0.98 4.70 0 is quite robust to the noise measurements compared to the conventional
1.6 66 0.5 5 0 EWMA chart. The detection results clearly indicate the superiority of
WM-EWMA approach in detecting short-circuit fault under noisy con-
ditions.
results based on EWMA and WM-EWMA algorithms based on MPP To make statistically valid conclusions on the efficiency of these two
power residuals are respectively demonstrated in Fig. 14(a-b). The blue- monitoring charts, a Monte Carlo simulation using 5000 realizations is
colored band indicates the area where the fault is introduced. It can be done in each situation. The average of FAR and MDR for EWMA and
seen from Fig. 14(a-b) that both algorithms show signs of a fault be- WM-EWMA schemes for different measurements noise level are pre-
cause the fault, in this case, is quite large. Also, this case study shows sented in Table 6. From the table, it can be seen that the highly noisy
the performance of the two techniques in detecting short-circuit faults data have a dramatic impact on the detection performance of the
under noiseless conditions is similar. This is as expected, the low noise conventional EWMA chart, and the impact seems less serious in cases
level has no important effect on the efficiency of both algorithms. If the with low noisy data. This case study shows that the noisy data would
noise variation is small, this improvement is not significant. have a substantial impact on the detection efficiency of the EWMA
Now, the performances of conventional EWMA chart and its mul- chart. When applying WM-EWMA chart, the false alarm rate is sig-
tiscale extension, WM-EWMA, in detecting a fault in PV array are stu- nificantly reduced (Table 6). This case study shows that the WM-EWMA
died under noisy environment. To do so, three scenarios are considered chart is more robust to noise measurements than the conventional
when the measurement sensors were corrupted by noise. The mea- EWMA scheme.
surement noise is modeled by Gaussian distribution with zero mean and
a standard deviation, σ , but this time different values of σ = 0.2, 0.8, 1.6

Fig. 22. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of 4 PV modules temporarily shaded,
noiseless data example.

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Fig. 23. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of 4 PV modules temporarily shaded, low
noisy data example.

Fig. 24. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of 4 PV modules temporarily shaded,
moderate noisy data example.

Fig. 25. (a) EWMA and (b) WM-EWMA approaches

in the case of 4 PV modules temporarily shaded,
highly noisy data example.

Table 8
FAR and MDR values of the EWMA and MW-EWMA schemes in the presence of
temporary shading.
EWMA chart WM-EWMA chart
σ FAR MDR FAR MDR
0.2 18.7 2.97 1.65 2.50
0.8 36.40 1 1.50 2.97
1.6 66.58 3 6.98 1.20
6.3.2. Open-circuit fault
This section is dedicated to an evaluation of the WM-EWMA ap-
proach in detecting open-circuit faults in a PV array under noisy en-
vironment. In the first scenario, the capacity of the WM-EWMA and
EWMA approaches in detecting open-circuit faults in a PV array is in-
vestigated. Generally speaking, open-circuit faults can happen when a
conductor is incidentally disconnected from the closed circuit. In this
experiment, an open-circuit fault in the CDER PV system has been in-
jected (see fault #1 in Fig. 13) for time instant 300 to 500. The mon-
itoring results of the two algorithms based on MPP power residuals are
demonstrated in Fig. 18(a-b). As expected, both EWMA and WM-EWMA
approaches indicate signs of an anomaly because the fault, in this case,
is quite significant. This is due to the introduced fault which makes the
MPP power residuals after the occurrence of the fault significantly
different from the normal MPP power residuals; then both algorithms
have suitable performance in detecting this open-circuit fault under
noiseless condition.
To show the robustness of the proposed approach to noise mea-
surements, in this scenario, random noise with different levels fol-
lowing the normal distributions has been added to measured data.
Monitoring results of EWMA and WM-EWMA charts are shown in
Figs. 19–21 for the cases of low (σ = 0.2), moderate noisy data (σ = 0.8)
and highly noisy data (σ = 1.6), respectively. From this scenario, it can
be seen that the detection capability of the EWMA scheme would de-
crease if the data is noisy (Figs. 20(a) and 21(a)). Also, It can be pointed
out that the WM-EWMA approach is quite robust to the noise
(Figs. 20(b) and 21(b)) compared to the conventional EWMA approach.
Table 7 summarizes the performance of both approaches in term of
FAR and MDR. It clearly confirms the superiority of WM-EWMA ap-
proach compared to conventional EWMA approach and shows that the
proposed approach results in lowest FAR and MDR compared to the
conventional one. Based on this result, the proposed WM-EWMA chart
is more robust to noise as compared to the conventional EWMA. In
other words, highly noisy measurements have an impact on the per-
formance of the EWMA chart, and the impact seems less serious for the
proposed MW-EWMA chart.
6.3.3. Temporary shading
The objective of this case is to evaluate the capability of the WM-
EWMA and EWMA schemes in detecting temporary shading faults in a
PV system and investigate the impact of the measurement noise on their
detection performances (in terms of FAR and MDR). In this scenario,
four modules of the CDER PV system are temporarily shaded (see fault
#3 in Fig. 13), from time instant 150 to 250, and all other setups remain
unchanged from those described in the previous case study. The results
of the two monitoring schemes for noiseless testing data are shown in
Fig. 22(a-b). A slight improvement is obtained with the WM-EWMA
approach compared to the use of the conventional EWMA chart
(Fig. 22(a-b)) by reducing the FAR form 9.97% to 1.2%.
Next, the impact of the noisy data on the detection capacity of the
two approaches in the presence of temporary shading faults is in-
vestigated. To do, cases of testing data with different measurement
noise levels are considered. The results of the two charts for testing data
with different noise levels, σ = 0.2 (low noisy data), σ = 0.8 (moderate
noisy data), and σ = 1.4 (high noisy data) are displayed in Figs. 23–25.
The WM-EWMA chart provides a clear improvement over conventional
EWMA chart in term of reducing the FAR and MDR. This is demon-
strated in Figs. 23–25 for the cases of low, moderate and height noisy
data, respectively. Of course, the WM-EWMA approach, that integrates
the conventional EWMA with advantages of multiscale representation
of data, performs much better than the conventional EWMA chart for

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F. Harrou et al.
detecting temporary shading in PV array. Results in Table 8 show that
highly noisy measurements would have a significant impact on the
detection performance of the EWMA scheme. Based on this result, the
WM-EWMA chart is more robust to noise measurement than the con-
ventional EWMA approach.
In conclusion, data contaminated with a large amount of noise can
result in loss of the important features in the noise and mask potential
faults. In other words, the measurement noise with high levels might
even swamp the most relevant features necessary to detect faults. It has
been shown that a high noise amount degrades significantly the fault
detection capability of the conventional EWMA approach. Noisy mea-
surements degrade the quality of the detector performance by in-
creasing the false alarms and missed detection. Fortunately, wavelet-
based multi-scale representation strategy is available for unmasking the
hidden features in noisy data by differentiating noise component from
useful data. The developed WM-EWMA scheme, which merges benefits
of multiscale representation with wavelet and sensitivity of EWMA
approach, improved significantly the detection quality and robustness
to noise compared to the conventional EWMA chart.
7. Conclusion
Fault detection is an essential element for improving safety and
productivity of PV systems. This article has focused on monitoring DC
side of PV systems under noisy environment. Data from PV systems are
generally tainted with noise, which masks important features in the
data and degrades the fault detection capability. In this paper, a sta-
tistical fault detection strategy is designed to be robust against noise
and uncertainties in data. This strategy integrates the multiresolution
representation of data using wavelets with the sensitivity to small
changes of EWMA scheme. To monitor the DC side of the PV system, the
WM-EWMA scheme has been applied to the uncorrelated residuals form
simulation model using one-diode PV model. The proposed method has
been evaluated using real data from a 9.54 kWp PV plant in Algiers,
Algeria. The efficiency of the WM-EWMA method is compared to that of
the conventional EWMA chart. This WM-EWMA scheme enjoys certain
robustness properties when detecting anomalies in noisy data compared
to the conventional EWMA scheme. Results show the efficiency of the
proposed scheme in reliably detecting faults in DC side of PV systems
even under noisy conditions. The approach showed good robustness
abilities to noise measurements in terms of false alarms while main-
taining good fault detection performances.
The proposed scheme can be easily extended to the design of mul-
tivariate multiscale FD scheme. This can be done by integrating mul-
tivariate charts such as multivariate EWMA and CUSUM with the
multiresolution representation of data. To further fault detection in a
PV system, in future works, an automated WM-EWMA approach can be
developed by determining the optimal number of decomposition in
DWT automatically that provides suitable fault detection performances.
Acknowledgement
This publication is based upon work supported by King Abdullah
University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Office of Sponsored
Research (OSR) under Award No: OSR-2015-CRG4-2582.
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