The University of Sydney

MATH1002 Linear Algebra

Semester 1 Preparatory Exercises for Week 10 2023

Answers are provided below.

Important Ideas and Useful Facts:
(i) Let A be a square matrix, x a nonzero column vector, and λ a scalar such that

Ax = λx.

Then λ is called an eigenvalue of A, and x is called an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue

λ. An n × n matrix has at most n distinct eigenvalues.
(ii) A scalar λ is an eigenvalue of a square matrix A if and only if

det(A − λI) = 0.

(iii) The expression det(A − λI) is a polynomial in λ and is called the characteristic polynomial of A. The
equation det(A − λI) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of A. The eigenvalues of a matrix are
precisely the solutions to its characteristic equation.
(iv) The characteristic polynomial of an n × n matrix is a degree-n polynomial, and so it has at most n
distinct roots. Therefore, an n × n matrix has at most n distinct eigenvalues.
(v) Finding the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue λ of a matrix A is equivalent to solving the
homogeneous system with coefficient matrix A − λI. After the eigenspace has been found, substituting
in particular nonzero values of the parameters yields particular eigenvectors.
(vi) If A is a triangular matrix, in the sense that all of the entries above or below the diagonal are zero,
then det(A) is equal to the product of all of the diagonal entries of A. This implies that the eigenvalues
of a triangular matrix are simply the diagonal entries of the matrix.
(vii) The algebraic multiplicity of an eigenvalue of a matrix is its multiplicity as a root of the characteristic
equation. So, for instance, if the characteristic equation is (λ − 2)(λ − 5)4 = 0, then the algebraic
multiplicity of λ = 2 is 1, and the algebraic multiplicity of λ = 5 is 4.

(viii) The geometric multiplicity of an eigenvalue λ of the matrix A is the number of free variables in the set
of solutions of (A − λI)x = 0 (or equivalently the number of columns without leading entries in the
row echelon form of the augmented matrix [A − λI|0]).
(ix) The geometric multiplicity of each eigenvalue of a square matrix is less than or equal to its algebraic
multiplicity.

(x) Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix. The trace of A is defined by

n
X
tr(A) = a11 + a22 + · · · ann = aii .
i=1

In other words, the trace of A is the sum of all elements on the main diagonal.
(xi) Let λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn be a complete set of eigenvalues (repetition included) of the n × n matrix A, then

tr(A) = λ1 + λ2 + · · · + λn , and det(A) = λ1 λ2 · · · λn .

1
Preparatory Exercises:

1. For each of the following matrices A, find the characteristic polynomial det(A − λI) and its roots.
     
1 0 0 −1 −1 3
(i) A = (ii) A = (iii) A =
0 2 −1 0 2 0
2. Using your answers to question 1., write down the eigenvalues of A in each case, and then find the
corresponding eigenspaces.
     
1 0 0 −1 −1 3
(i) A = (ii) A = (iii) A =
0 2 −1 0 2 0

3. For each matrix A in question 2., calculate the trace of A (using the definition given in (x)) and the
determinant of A. Then compare the trace with the sum of all the eigenvalues (repetition included) of
A and compare the determinant with the product of all the eigenvalues (repetition included) of A.

2
Answers:

1. (i) Characteristic polynomial is det(A − λI) = (λ − 1)(λ − 2). Roots are λ = 1, 2.

(ii) Characteristic polynomial is det(A − λI) = (λ + 1)(λ − 1). Roots are λ = −1, 1.
(iii) Characteristic polynomial is det(A − λI) = (λ + 3)(λ − 2). Roots are λ = −3, 2.
     
1 0
2. (i) Eigenvalues are 1 and 2. Eigenspaces are E1 = t : t ∈ R and E2 = t : t∈R .
0 1
     
1 −1
(ii) Eigenvalues are −1 and 1. Eigenspaces are E−1 = t : t ∈ R and E1 = t : t∈R .
1 1
     
−3 1
(iii) Eigenvalues are −3 and 2. Eigenspaces are E−3 = t : t ∈ R and E2 = t : t∈R .
2 1
3. λ1 , λ2 are eigenvalues of A for each case in question 2.
(i) tr(A) = 3 = λ1 + λ2 , det(A) = 2 = λ1 λ2 .
(ii) tr(A) = 0 = λ1 + λ2 , det(A) = −1 = λ1 λ2 .
(iii) tr(A) = −1 = λ1 + λ2 , det(A) = −6 = λ1 λ2 .

Copyright © Some of these tutorial exercises have been adapted from A First Course in Linear Algebra by David Easdown
and from Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction, 4th Edition by David Poole.