CHATPER 1

INTRODUCTION

In daily life, plastics are used almost everywhere in the world for various purposes because
plastics are inexpensive, readily available, durable and versatile. However, the main raw material in
producing plastics derived from petroleum is declining and non-renewable. In addition, the plastics
cannot be destroyed quickly and naturally by destructive microbes in the soil. This causes the
accumulation of waste, pollution and environmental damage. The environmental, economic and safety
challenges have prompted many scientists to replace part of a petrochemical-based polymer with
another biodegradable type, called bioplastics. Bioplastics are a renewable type of plastics because its
constituents come from plants such as starch, cellulose, lignin, and animals such as casein, protein and
lipids. But there is still lack in the development of bioplastics as its high cost of production leads to
certain limitations. An alternative for a low cost and a renewable substrate has been proposed by using
agriculture waste (AW) One of the major components of bioplastics is starch. Starch is often used in the
form of biodegradable films in a variety of applications as they are renewable, abundant, and
inexpensive materials [6]. In jackfruit contains about 100-500 jackfruit seeds or about 8-15% by weight
of the jackfruit itself with a high starch content. In producing of bioplastics, the addition of fillers is
essential to increase the strength and toughness of the bioplastic products. The addition of fillers such as
cellulose has been shown to be a very promising material. One of the materials that have cellulose
potential is cocoa pod husk which is an agro-industrial waste produced from the cocoa plant (Theobroma
cacao L) Cocoa pod contains 74% fruit peel, 2% placenta and 24% seeds. Cocoa pod husk contains 11%
hemicelluloses, 35% cellulose, 15% lignin, 6% pectin, and other mineral elements such as K (3.18%). Ca
(0.32%) and P (0.15%). Also, the addition of plasticizer serves to increase the flexibility of bioplastic.
Glycerol is a good plasticizer to reduce the internal hydrogen bonds that will improve the intermolecular
distance.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The independent variable in the production of homemade biodegradable plastic materials from
jackfruit is the composition of the mixture used to make the plastic. This includes the amount and type
of jackfruit starch, glycerol, vinegar, and water used in the recipe.

The dependent variables in this process are the characteristics and properties of the resulting
biodegradable plastic material, such as its strength, flexibility, biodegradability, and other physical and
chemical properties. These properties are dependent on the composition of the mixture used to make
the plastic, as well as the processing conditions used during the production process.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Materials

2.1.1. Jackfruit Seed

Jackfruit seeds were obtained from a very popular variety, called Changai—originating from Thailand, in
the South of Vietnam. Analysis of the main components of jackfruit seeds detected the presence of

amylose or amylose in; moisture; total protein; lipids; ash; and

fibers. In the present study, it was important to consider the amount of ash, amylose, and lipid found as
these components influenced the formation of bioplastics. A low percentage of ash was indicated by a
low concentration of minerals in the jackfruit seed. Due to possible interactions between minerals with
amylose, amylopectin, and plasticizers, the high concentration of these compounds interfered with the
formation of bioplastics. The found lipid percentage in jackfruit seed starch was low. High lipid
percentage in starch might affect the color of the bioplastics. Furthermore, lipids could negatively affect
the water absorption stage of starch granules, change the plasticizing temperature, and limit the
amylose retrogradation, and therefore, the bioplastic becomes brittle. In previous studies, 30.08%
amylose was found in jackfruit seed starch, which could be considered as high amylose content. The
amylose content is an essential property for the formation of bioplastics because it is responsible for
gelatinization and retrogradation process. In other words, amylose is responsible for hydrogen bonding
between the hydroxyl groups of biopolymers that form intermolecular junctions and lead to film
production. The physical, chemical, and functional properties of the fabricated bioplastics depend on the
ratio between amylose and amylopectin.

2.1.2. Glycerol

A classical starch plasticizer is perhaps the thermoplastic starch’s most commonly investigated and
utilized plasticizer. This is due to its low price, nontoxicity for human food and biomedical applications,
and relatively high boiling point (292°C). Furthermore, the hydrolysis or conversion of lipids
(triglycerides) to fatty acids for the biodiesel industry produces glycerol as a by-product. This presents an
opportunity to improve the economics of both the biodiesel industry and the bioplastics industry.

2.1.3. Acid Citric

The adhesion between glycerol, water, citric acid, and starch in thermoplastic starch is strengthened by
the supplementation of citric acid [37, 38]. Citric acid can create stronger hydrogen bonding interactions
with starch than glycerol. Hence, citric acid can effectually inhibit starch recrystallization (i.e.,
retrogradation), due to its strong hydrogen bonding interaction with starch. Rheological investigations
demonstrated that citric acid can clearly reduce the shear viscosity and improve the fluidity of
thermoplastic starch. Citric acid can also enhance the elongation of glycerol-plasticized thermoplastic
starch and improve its water resistance at high relative humidity but reduce the tensile stress. Citric acid
and glycerol are utilized to enhance the flexibility and fluidity of the material to which they are
supplemented. Furthermore, citric acid is a potential cross-linking agent under low-cost, nontoxic
conditions.

2.1.4. Baking Soda

Baking soda, also known as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3), scientifically, is one of the preservatives and
plasticizer additives as the same as sodium metabisulfite (Na 2S2O5), glycerol, and sorbitol. These
additions strengthen bioplastics and make them more durable.

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Starch Extraction

First, starch was extracted to prepare raw materials for making bioplastics. The raw jackfruit seed has a
very pungent odor and hard outer shell and then needs to be deseeded for both the hard shell and the
brown premodern The deseeded seeds were then washed. The rotten seeds were discarded while the
good seeds were overnight soaked for latex removal. After that, the overnight soaked jackfruit seeds
were washed using pure water. Clean jackfruit seeds were then ground to obtain a slurry. The slurry was
filtered through a filter cloth to obtain a crude starch suspension while the sediment was discarded. The
filtrate was precipitated overnight for settlement and latex and minerals removal. The supernatant was
removed, and the crude starch was washed with distilled water. This step was reproduced three times,
and the starch cake was then dried naturally or by an oven. When using the sun-drying method, starch
could be discolored and became contaminated, forming a thin light brown layer. Instead, the starch
suspension was dried at 45°C for 24 hours in an oven dryer. It should be added that the proposed starch
extraction process is simple and easy to implement. It does not include a centrifugation step as in,
soaking in 2% NaOH and slicing as in, or cutting with the size of 1 cm 2 approximately before crushing as
in.

2.2.2. Bioplastic Fabrication

After extracting starch, bioplastic was fabricated. The proportions of ingredients were selected for the
production of bioplastics as shown in Table 1. These ratios were selected similarly to [24] for easy
comparison of results. From there, the specific weight of each material was calculated as shown in Table
2.

Table 1

The ratio of the raw material composition of plastic specimens.

Ingredients Starch : glycerol Citric acid : (starch+glycerol) Baking soda : (starch+glycerol) Starch : water

3.50 : 1
1 : 100
3.00 : 1
Ratio 5 : 100 12.5 : 100
2.75 : 1

2.50
 Table 2

The specific weight of each material.

Ingredients
Specimens
Starch (g) Glycerol (g) Citric acid (g) Baking soda (g) Water (g)

Ratio 3.5 : 1 20 5.71 0.25 1.28 160

Ratio 3.0 : 1 20 6.67 0.26 1.33 160

Ratio 2.75 : 1 20 7.27 0.27 1.36 160

Ratio 2.5 : 1 20 8.00 0.28 1.40 160

Bioplastics are prepared by mixing starch with glycerol with different starch : glycerol ratios by
mass (2.5 : 1; 2.75 : 1; 3.0 : 1; and 3.5 : 1) [2, 23] and by as shown in the flowchart in Figure 1. The
plasticization process was carried out by putting the liquid mixture with the ingredients in a given ratio
above a heated magnetic stirrer (SCILOGEX model MS-H-S) at a temperature of 95°C. The mixture was
stirred with a magnetic stir bar. When the temperature is higher, the process will go faster; however,
when the temperature is too high, the mixture can be thermally decomposed before being completely
converted into bioplastic.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The increasing use of synthetic plastics has led to significant environmental problems such as
pollution and the accumulation of non-biodegradable waste. As such, there is a growing interest in
developing biodegradable plastics as an alternative. This research aims to investigate the feasibility of
using jackfruit as a raw material in the production of homemade biodegradable plastic materials. The
study will focus on determining the optimal conditions for processing jackfruit into a biodegradable
plastic material, as well as evaluating its properties such as biodegradability, strength, and durability. The
findings of this research could have significant implications for the development of sustainable and eco-
friendly alternatives to synthetic plastics.
HYPOTHESIS

The effectiveness of the biodegradable plastic material produced from jackfruit seeds. While
jackfruit seed starch has been shown to have potential as a biodegradable plastic material, further
research and development is needed to optimize its properties and ensure that it can meet the
performance requirements of various applications.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study lies in its potential to provide a sustainable solution to the plastic waste problem,
while also creating economic opportunities and reducing environmental impact.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Homemade biodegradable plastic materials made from jackfruit have several potential
advantages over traditional petroleum-based plastics, including: 1. Biodegradability: Unlike petroleum-
based plastics, jackfruit-based plastics can biodegrade in the environment, reducing the amount of waste
that accumulates in landfills and oceans. 2. Renewable: Jackfruit is a renewable resource, meaning that it
can be replenished over time. This makes it a more sustainable option compared to petroleum-based
plastics, which are made from non-renewable fossil fuels. 3. Low-cost: Jackfruit is a relatively inexpensive
material, and making homemade biodegradable plastics from it can be a cost-effective alternative to
traditional plastics. However, there are also some limitations to consider when using homemade
biodegradable plastics made from jackfruit: 1. Durability: Jackfruit-based plastics may not be as strong or
durable as traditional petroleum-based plastics, making them unsuitable for certain applications. 2.
Consistency: The consistency and properties of homemade biodegradable plastics made from jackfruit
can vary depending on the recipe and process used, which can make it difficult to achieve consistent
results. 3. Scale: Homemade production of biodegradable plastics made from jackfruit may be difficult to
scale up for large-scale production, which could limit their commercial viability. 4. Recycling: While
biodegradable plastics made from jackfruit are designed to break down in the environment, they may
not be recyclable in the same way that traditional plastics are. This could limit their usefulness in
applications where recycling is necessary.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Here are some definitions of terms related to homemade biodegradable plastic materials
from jackfruit: 1. Biodegradable: Capable of being broken down naturally into harmless substances by
the action of living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae. 2. Plastic: A synthetic or semi-
synthetic polymer that can be molded into various shapes and used for a wide range of applications. 3.
Polymer: A large molecule made up of repeating subunits called monomers. 4. Monomer: A molecule
that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer. 5. Jackfruit: A tropical fruit that is
native to South and Southeast Asia, known for its large size and distinctive flavor. 6. Starch: A complex
carbohydrate that is commonly found in plants and used as a thickening agent in cooking. 7. Glycerol:
A colorless, odorless liquid that is used in a variety of applications, including as a solvent, sweetener,
and moisturizer. 8. Acetic acid: A colorless liquid with a strong, pungent odor, commonly used as a
solvent and in the production of various chemicals. 9. Sodium hydroxide: A highly caustic compound
that is used in a variety of industrial and laboratory applications, including as a cleaning agent and a
pH adjuster. 10. Extrusion: A manufacturing process in which a material is forced through a die to
create a specific shape or form