SET THEORY: Types of Functions

LOGIC & SET THEORY & Their

Graphs
In this text, functions will be explored ---the shapes of their
graphs, their unique characteristics, and their algebraic formulas. The
purpose of this discussion is to show you graphs of various types of
functions in order that you can become familiar with the types. You
will discover that each type has its own distinctive graph. By showing
several graphs, you will be able to see their common features. They
are easy to visually distinguish and by knowing how each looks, you
can get an idea of what a graph might look like just by analyzing the
function. 

At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:

1. Identify the different types of functions
2. Give the characteristics of the different types of functions
3. Determine the general equation of a given function
4. Sketch and describe the graph of a function
5. Find the domain and range of a given function

 Basic Concepts
 Types of Functions and their
Graphs
LEARNING CONTENTS  Domain and Range of a Function

LESSON 4:
Types of Functions, Their Graphs,
Domain and Range

TEACHING-LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Review the students on functions and how to determine whether a

relation is a function or not, and if it is a one-to-one function.

Also, ask students to plot points/graph relations that are functions

and let them describe the graph. (Make sure to record or write their
observations.)

Based from the students’ observations, the teacher can now ask the
students about what the new topic is all about.
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions &
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs
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Now, we need to discuss graphs of functions. The

graph of a function f is the set of all points in the
plane of the form (x, f(x)) which can also be defined
to be the graph of the equation y = f(x). So, the
graph of a function is a special case of the graph of
an equation. We graph functions in exactly the same
way that we graph equations.

1. INCREASING FUNCTION
A function is "increasing" when the y-value increases as the x-
value increases, like this:
It is easy to see that y = f(x) tends to go up as it
goes along.

Flat?
What about that flat bit near the start? Is that OK?
Yes, it is OK when we say the function is Increasing
But it is not OK if we say the function is Strictly
Increasing (no flatness allowed).

If this inequality is
strict, i.e. f(x1) <
f(x2), then the
function y = f(x) is said
to be strictly
increasing on the
interval (a, b).

Usually, we are only interested in some interval, like this one:

This function is increasing for

the interval shown (it may be
increasing or decreasing
elsewhere)

NOTE: Let y = f(x) be a differentiable function on an interval (a, b). If for any two
points x1, x2 ∈ (a, b) such that x1 < x2, there holds the inequality f(x1) ≤ f(x2), the function
is called increasing (or non-decreasing) in this interval.

INCREASING FUNCTION is a function on an open interval if for any choice of x1 and

x2 in that interval, with x1 < x2, gives f(x1) < f(x2). Its graph goes up from left to right.

Polynomial function
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

2. DECREASING FUNCTION
The y–value decreases as the x–value increases.

DECREASING FUNCTION is a function f is decreasing on an open interval if for any choice of

x1 and x 2 in that interval, with x1 < x2, gives f(x1) > f(x2). Its graph goes down from left to right
Let us try to find where a function is increasing or decreasing.
Example: f(x) = x3−4x, for x in the interval [−1, 2]

3. EVEN FUNCTION
A function is “even” when f(x) = f(–x) for all x. In other words, there is symmetry about
the y–axis (like reflection).

They got called "even" functions because the functions

x2, x4, x6, x8, etc. behave like that, but there are other
functions that behave like that too, such as cos (x):
This is the graph of f(x) = x2 + 1
SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

4. ODD FUNCTION
A function is “odd” when –f(x) = f(–x) for all x. And we get origin symmetry:

They got called "odd" because the functions x, x 3,

x5, x7, etc behave like that, but there are other
functions that behave like that, too, such
as sin(x):

REMEMBER…NEITHER ODD nor EVEN

Don’t be misled by the names “odd” and “even”…they are just names…and a function
does not have to be even or odd.
In fact, most functions are neither odd nor even. For example, just adding 1 to the curve
above gets this:

It is not an odd function, and

it is not an even
function either.

It is neither odd nor even.

NOTE…The only function that is even and odd is f(x) = 0.

Determine whether the given function is EVEN, ODD or NEITHER EVEN nor ODD.

1. f(x) = x3 + 2x Odd f(-x) = -x3 + 2(-x) f(-x) = –x3 – 2x

2. f(x) = x6 + 4x2 – 1 Even f(-x) = (-x)6 + 4(-x)2 – 1 = x6 + 4x2 – 1

3. f(x) = x3 + 2x2 – x Neither even nor odd f(-x) = (-x)3 + 2(-x)2 – (-x)
= -x3 + 2x2 + x
4. f(s) = s4 + 3s2 + 7 Even f(-s) = (-s)  + 3(-s)2 + 7 = = s4 + 3s2 + 7
4

5. f(e) = e7 – 5e5 + 2e3 – 6e Odd f(-e) = (-e)7 – 5(-e)5 + 2(-e)3 – 6(-e)

6. f(m) = x2 + x + 1 Neither even nor odd

TRY THESE….
1. f(x) = –3x2 + 4 3. g(x) = –4x5 – 3x3 + 6x

2. f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 4x + 4  4. h(x) = 7x8 – 4x2 + 11

 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

5. CONSTANT FUNCTION: A function f is constant on an open interval if for all choices of x in

that interval, the values of f(x) are equal
NOTE:
1. The graph of a CONSTANT FUNCTION remains at a fixed height known as horizontal
line whose y–intercept is b
2. A Constant function is a special linear function where the m = 0
3. The domain of a constant function is the set of real numbers and its range is the set
consisting of a single number b
4. A constant function is an even function whose graph is constant over its domain
General form of a CONSTANT FUCNTION: f(x) = b

DOMAIN: {x/x is a real number} or

Domain: (–,)

RANGE: {y/y = b} or
Range: [c, c]

Graph of f(x) = 2 Curve of f(x) = –2

6. IDENTITY FUNCTION is an odd function that is increasing over its domain
NOTE:
1. Its domain and its range are the set of real numbers
2. Its graph is a line whose m = 1 and whose y–intercept is 0 and the line consists of all
points for which the x–coordinate equals the y–coordinate.
General form of Identity Function: f(x) = x
DOMAIN: {x/x is a real number} Domain: (–,)

RANGE: {y/y is a real number} Range: (–,)

 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

7. SQUARE FUNCTION is an even function that is decreasing on the interval (, 0) and increasing
on the interval (0, ).
NOTE:
1. The graph of this function is a parabola, whose intercept is at (0, 0)
2. The domain is the set of all real numbers and the range is the set of non–negative real numbers
General Form: f(x) = x2
DOMAIN: {x/x is a real number} RANGE: {y/y > 0} or Range = [0, ]

8. LINEAR FUNCTION is a function in the form of a linear equation

In other words, a linear function is a function which forms a straight line in a graph. It is
generally a polynomial function whose degree is utmost 1 or 0. 
NOTE:
1. The domain and the range of this function consist of all real numbers
2. Its graph is a non–vertical line with slope m and y–intercept b
3. This function is increasing if m > 0 and decreasing if m < 0

General Form: f(x) = mx + b

DOMAIN: {x/x is a real number} RANGE: {y/y is a real number}

Graph of a linear function…

9. QUADRATIC FUNCTION is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are
numbers with a not equal to zero. The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a
parabola. Parabolas may open upward or downward and vary in "width" or "steepness",
but they all have the same basic "" or “” shape.

Quadratic
equations/functions
make nice curves
like this one:
REMEMBER…
 PARABOLA is the set of all points in the plane equally distant from a fixed line and a
fixed point on a line
 DIRETRIX is the fixed line and the fixed point is called the FOCUS
 The AXIS OF THE PARABOLA is the line drawn through the focus and perpendicular
to the directrix
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: QUADRATIC FUNCTION 

1. If the parabola opens upward it has a lowest point and if it opens downward, it has a
highest point
2. the lowest or highest point of a parabola is called the VERTEX, that is, it is the point
where the parabola intersects its axis and is by represented by (h, k)
3. the line passing through the vertex of a parabola is called the AXIS OF SYMMETRY,
defined by x = h

In graphs of quadratic functions, the

sign on the coefficient a affects whether
the graph opens up or down. If a < 0,
the graph makes a frown (opens down)
and if a > 0 then the graph makes a
smile (opens up). This is shown to the
Graphs of Quadratic Functions
f(x) = – x2 + 5x – 4
f(x) = x2 – 8x + 12

Parts of a parabola

Directrix

DOMAIN: {x:x is a real number} RANGE: if a > 0, then y:y > 4ac – b2
4a
if a < 0, then y:y < 4ac – b2
Given the function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c: 4a
VERTEX:  b , 4ac – b2 Axis of Symmetry: x =  b_
2a 4a 2a
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: QUADRATIC FUNCTION 

 The vertex is the highest point if a < 0, thus, f(b/2a) is called the MAXIMUM VALUE
 The vertex is the lowest point if a > 0, thus, f(b/2a) is called the MINIMUM VALUE

1. Find the vertex of the parabola y = x2 + 4x – 5.

a=1 b=4 c = –5
x = –b_ y = 4ac – b2
2a 4a
x = –4 _ = –2 y = 4(1)(–5) – (4)2 = –9
2(1) 4(1)

Therefore, the vertex of the parabola is at (–2, –9) which is the lowest (minima)

2. Give the axis of symmetry and the vertex of the quadratic function y = 6x2 + 11x.
a = –6 b = 11 c=0
x = –b_ y = 4ac – b2
2a 4a
x = –11_ = 11/12 y = 4(–6)(0) – (11)2 = 121/24
2(–6) 4(–6)
Therefore, the vertex of the parabola is at (11/12, 121/24) which is the highest (maxima)

3. Find the vertex and determine axis of symmetry of the function y = 2 + 3x – 9x2.
a = –9 b=3 c=2
x = –b_ y = 4ac – b2
2a 4a
x = –(3) = 1/6 y = 4(–9)(2) – (3)2 = –9/4
2(–9) 4(–9)
Therefore, the vertex of the parabola is at (1/6, –9/4) which is the highest (maxima)
The axis of symmetry is 1/6.

DOMAIN & RANGE of QUADRATIC EQUATION

Determine the domain & range of each function.

1. f(x) = x2 + 4x + 1
Domain: {x:x is any real number} or (–,)

Range: {y:y > –3}

Solve for y
a=1 b=4 c=1 Since a = 1 and a > 0, then
y > 4ac – b2
y > 4(1)(1) – (4) = –3
2

4a 4(1)
2. f(x) = –2x2 + 2x + 3
Domain: {x:x is any real number} or (–,)

Range: {y:y < 7/2}

Solve for y
a = –2 b=2 c=3 Since a = –2 and a < 0, then
y < 4ac – b2
y < 4(–2)(3) – (2) = /2
2 7

4a 4(–2)
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: DOMAIN & RANGE of QUADRATIC FUNCTION 

Determine the domain & range of each function.
3. f(x) = 3x2 –12x + 8
Domain: {x:x is any real number} or (–,)

Range: {y:y > –4}

Solve for y
a=3 b = –12 c=8 Since a = 3 and a > 0, then
2 2
y > 4ac – b y > 4(3)(8) – (–12) = –4
4a 4(3)
4. f(x) = – (2x – 3)2 – 6 f(x) = –(4x2 – 12x + 9) – 6 f(x) = –4x2 + 12x – 9 – 6
2
f(x) = –4x + 12x – 15
Domain: {x:x is any real number} or (–,)

Range: {y:y < –6}

Solve for y
a = –4 b = 12 c = –15 Since a = –4 and a < 0, then
y < 4ac – b2
y < 4(–4)( –15) – (12) = –6
2

4a 4(–4)

10. ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION is an even function which is decreasing on the interval
(, 0) and increasing on the interval (0, )
REMEMBER…
1. The domain is the set of all real numbers, its range is the set of non – negative real
numbers
2. The intercept of the graph is at (0, 0); if x > 0, then f(x) = x and the graph is part of the
line y = x; if x < 0, then f(x) = x and the graph is a part of the line y = x
3. The intercept of the graph is at (0, 0); if x > 0, then f(x) = x and the graph is part of the
line y = x; if x < 0, then f(x) = x and the graph is a part of the line y = x
 For the absolute value function f(x) = |x| there is no restriction on x. However,
because absolute value is defined as a distance from 0, the output can only be greater
than or equal to 0.
General Form: f(x) = /x/ DOMAIN: {x/x is a real number} or Domain: (,)
RANGE: {y/y > 0} or Range: [0, )
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: DOMAIN & RANGE of ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION 

Determine the domain & range of each function.
1. f(x) = |x + 5|
Domain: {x : x is any real number} or Domain: (–,)

Range: {y : y > 0} or Range: [0, )

2. f(x) = 2|–4x + 5| – 4
Domain: {x : x is any real number} or Domain: (–,)

Range: {y:y > –4} or Range: [–4, )

3. f(x) = – |7x + 1| + ½
Domain: {x : x  R} or Domain: (–,)

Range: {y : y < 1/2 } or Range: (–, ½]

4. f(x) = |–x – 8| + 5
Domain: {x : x  R } or Domain: (–,)

Range: {y : y > 5 } or Range: [5, )

5. f(x) = –3 |3x + 11| – 1

Domain: {x : x  R } or Domain: (–,)

Range: {y : y < –1 } or Range: (–1, ]

11. SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION is function which is neither even nor odd and is increasing at
interval (0, )
REMEMBER…
1. The intercept of its graph is at (0, 0)
2. Its domain and range are the set of non – negative real numbers
3. In general, a square root function is of the form f(x) =  g(x) where g(x) is a polynomial

Determine the domain & range of each function.

1. f(x) = 3x – 2 2. f(x) = – x + ¾
Solve for x: Solve for x:
3x – 2 3x = 2 x+¾ x = –¾
x = 2/3
Domain: {x : x > 2/3} Domain: {x : x > –¾}
Range: {y : y > 0} or Range: [0, ) Range: {y : y < 0} or Range: (–, 0]
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: DOMAIN & RANGE of SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION 

Determine the domain & range of each function.
3. f(x) = – 6 – 7x 4. f(x) = –x – 3
Solve for x: Solve for x:
6 – 7x 7x = 6 –x – 3 x=–3
x = 7/6
Domain: {x:x < 2/3} Domain: {x:x < –3}
Range: {y:y < 0} or Range: (–, 0] Range: {y:y > 0} or Range: [0, )

12. RATIONAL FUNCTION is a function of the form f(x) = p(x), where p(x) and q(x) are
polynomials in x q(x)
REMEMBER…
1. The domain of a rational function consists of the values of x for which the denominator is
not equal to zero [q(x) ≠ 0]
2. For rational function in lowest terms, the zeros, if any, of the numerator are the
intercepts of the graph the function
3. ASYMPTOTE of a GRAPH is a line to which the graph becomes arbitrarily close as /x/
or /y/ increases without no bound
4. Asymptotes of Rational Functions
A rational function has at most one horizontal or oblique asymptote, and possibly many
vertical asymptotes.
Vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero. In other words, vertical
asymptotes occur at singularities, or points at which the rational function is not defined.
Vertical asymptotes only occur at singularities when the associated linear factor in the
denominator remains after cancellation.

 HORIZONTAL and VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE

o the vertical asymptote, if any, of a rational function are found by factoring the
denominator q(x) and setting each factor equal to zero
 Suppose x – a is a factor of the denominator and x – a = 0, then x = a, which means that
the line x = a is a vertical asymptote.
 To find the horizontal asymptote, one need to find the behavior of the function as the
values of x becomes smaller or larger
 If a rational function is proper, i. e. the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator, then the values of the function approaches zero, consequently, the line
y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote
 If a rational function is improper, use the long division to write a rational function as the
sum of a polynomial f(x) plus a proper rational function r(x) that is, f(x) = p(x) = f(x) + r(x)
q(x)
where f(x) is a polynomial and r(x) is a proper rational function

Domain: {x:x ≠ 0}

Range: {y:y ≠ 0}
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: RATIONAL FUNCTION 

REMEMBER:
Existence of horizontal asymptote depends on the degree of polynomial in the numerator ( n)
and degree of polynomial in the denominator (m). There are three possible cases:

1. If n > m, then there is no horizontal asymptote (However, if n = m + 1, then there exists a

slant asymptote).
f(x) = x2 – x – 6 There is NO horizontal asymptote but
x–3 there is a slant asymptote

2. If n < m, then the x–axis is a horizontal asymptote (that is, the line y = 0 is a horizontal
asymptote)
f(x) = x + 1__ The horizontal asymptote is at y = 0.
x2 + x – 2

3. If n = m, then a horizontal asymptote exists, and the equation is: y = Coefficient of

highest power term in numerator (that is, the line y = an/bn is a horizontal asymptote)
f(x) = x + 4 The horizontal asymptote is y = 1.
x–4

4. When the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one greater than the
denominator, the function has an oblique (slant) asymptote. The asymptote is the
polynomial term after dividing the numerator and denominator, and is a linear
expression.

TRY THESE…
Determine the asymptote (if there is any) of each function below:

1. f(x) = 6x2 – 3x + 4 Since n = m (both on the 2 nd degree), then the asymptote is

2x2 – 8 at y = 6/2 = 3 (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE).

2. f(x) = x2 – 9_ Since n > m, then there is NO horizontal asymptote.

x + 10 There is an oblique/slant asymptote.

3. f(x) = x – 12___ Since n < m, then the horizontal asymptote is at y = 0.

2x3 + 5x – 3

4. f(x) = 5x3___
x – 4x + 2
2

5. f(x) = 3x2 – x + 12
2x2 – 6x + 7

6. f(x) = 7x – 2
x+3

7. f(x) = 4x – 7_
6x2 – 5

8. f(x) = 8x2 – 5x + 1
4x2 – 3
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: SKETCHING the GRAPH of a RATIONAL FUNCTION 

Sketch the graph of each function and determine its asymptote, if there is any.

EXAMPLE 1. f(x) = 3x + 6
x–1
So, we’ll start graph off with the intercepts.
The y–intercept is f(0) = 3(0) + 6 = –6 (0, –6)
0–1
The x–intercept is 3x + 6 = 0
3x = –6
x = –2 (–2, 0)

Now, we need to determine the asymptotes. Let’s first find the vertical asymptotes.
x–1=0 x=1

So, we’ve got one vertical asymptote. This means that there are now two regions of x’s.
They are x < 1 and x > 1.

Now, the largest exponent in the numerator and denominator is 1 and so by the fact that there
will be a horizontal asymptote at the line y = 3/1 = 3

Now, we just need points in each region of x’s. Since they y–intercept and x–intercept are
already in the left region, we won’t need to get any points there. That means that we need to get
a point in the right region. It doesn’t really matter what value of x we pick here, we just need to
keep it fairly small so it will fit onto our graph.
f(2) = 3(2) + 6 = 12 (2, 12)
2 – 1)

Putting all these together gives the following graph:

Note that the asymptotes are shown as dotted lines (BLUE LINES).
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: SKETCHING the GRAPH of a RATIONAL FUNCTION 

Sketch the graph of each function and determine its asymptote, if there is any.
EXAMPLE 2: f(x) = 9__
x2 – 9

We need to find the intercepts:

y–intercept: f(0) = 9__ = –1 (0, –1)
0–9
x–intercept: The numerator is a constant, so there won’t be any x–
intercepts since the function can never be zero.

We need to find the vertical asymptote:

x2 – 9 = x = +3

So, in this case, we will have 3 regions to our graph,

1. x < –3
2. –3 < x < x
3. x > 3

Also, the largest exponent in the denominator is 2 and since there are no x’s in the numerator,
the largest exponent is 0. So, the x–axis will be the horizontal asymptote.

We now need to find points. We use the following points:

f(–4) = 9/7 (–4, 9/7)
9
f(–2) = – /5 (–2, 9/5)
f(2) = – /5
9
(2, –9/5)
f(4) = 9/7 (4, 9/7)

Notice that along with the y–intercept, we actually have 3 points in the middle region. This is
because there a couple of possible behaviors in this region and we will need to determine the
actual behavior.

Here is the graph:

 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: SKETCHING the GRAPH of a RATIONAL FUNCTION 

Sketch the graph of each function and determine its asymptote, if there is any.
EXAMPLE 3: f(x) = x2 – 4_
x2 – 4x

We need to find the intercepts:

y–intercept: There is no y – intercept for this graph since if we let x = 0,
then we get an undefined result.

x–intercept: x2 – 4 = 0 x = +2 So we got 2 x–intercepts.

We must find the vertical asymptote:

x2 – 4x = x(x – 4) x = 0 and x = 4

So we’ve got two again and the 3 regions we’ve got are:
x<0 0<x<4 x>4

Now, the largest exponent on both numerator and denominator is 2, so the horizontal asymptote
on the line is y = 1/1 = 1.

Now, one of the x–intercepts is in the far left region, so we don’t need any points there. The
other x–intercept is in the middle region. So, we need a point in the far right region.
f(1) = 1 (1, 1)
f(3) = –5/3 (3, 5/3)
f(5) = /5
21
(5, 21/5)

So, here is the graph of the function:

Note that this time, the middle region doesn’t have the saw behavior at the asymptote as we
saw in the previous example. This can and will happen fairly often. Sometimes, the behavior of
the two asymptotes will be the same as in the previous example and sometimes it will have the
opposite behavior at each asymptote as we see in this example. Because of this, we will always
need to get a couple of points in these types of regions to determine just what the behavior will
be.
 SET THEORY: Types of Functions,
LOGIC & SET THEORY Their Graphs

CONTINUATION: DOMAIN & RANGE of a RATIONAL FUNCTION 

Find the DOMAIN & RANGE of each function.
EXAMPLE 1. f(x) = 2x + 5_
x–6
Solutions:
Solving for x
y = 2x + 5
x–6 Let x–6=0
x=6 DOMAIN = {x:x ≠ 6}
Solving for f(x):
y = 2x + 5
x–6
2x + 5 = y(x – 6) Determine f(x) using cross multiplication

2x + 5 = xy – 6x
2x – xy – 6x = 5 Transposition and combining similar terms
–xy – 4x = 5 Removing common factor
x(–y + 4) = 5
x= 5___ Dividing both sides by (–y + 4)
–y + 4
Solving for y:
–y + 4
y=4 RANGE = {y:y ≠ 4}

EXAMPLE 2: f(x) = 7___

2 – 1/5x

Solve for x: 2 – 1/5x = 0

1
/5x = 2
x = 10 DOMAIN = {x:x ≠ 10}

Find f(x):
y= 7___
2 – 1/5x
7 = 2y – 1/5xy
1
/5xy = 2y – 7
x = 2y – 7
1
/5y
1
Solve for y: /5y = 0
y=0 RANGE = {y:y ≠ 0}
TRY THESE…Determine the Range and the Domain
1. f(x) = 4__ 2. f(x) = x + 5
x+3 7 – 2x