Functions

LESSON 1 (Operations on Functions)

WEEK
1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Represent real-life situations using functions, including piece-wise functions
 Evaluate and perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and composition of function
 Solve problems involving functions and values the importance of functions in real-life scenarios

LESSON PROPER

WHAT IS A FUNCTION?

Before we define a function let us first define the word “relation”. A Relation is a set of ordered pairs that is
composed of domain and range to where the Domain is the set of first coordinates also known as the set of all
“x” and the Range is the set of second coordinates also known as the set of all “y”. Now let us define a
function, it is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one element of the range.
Meaning to say, a function has a domain and range. For you to clearly understand, below are some
illustrations that will help you understand a function.

The function here is the rule

f(x)=2x + 1
f(x) is read as “f of x”
Look at this machine, say that we
are going to input “2” it will be
processed inside the machine with
its rule (function) f(x)=2x +1, now
the output will be “5”. How did
that happen? here is how it is;

Input is 2, therefore x=2

We then substitute x by 2 in the
function. f(x)=2x + 1
f(2)= 2 (2) + 1
f(2)= 4 + 1
f(2)= 5

Therefore if we input 2 the output

will be 5.
And this is how a function works in
real life.

How do we know if it is a function

or not?
As you will notice, relation#1 is a
function because for every element
in the domain (x) there is a
corresponding element in the range
(y). Please do take note that the
x y x y values in the domain (x) CANNOT
BE REPEATED otherwise it is not a
function like what you see in
relation #2.

A function can be a one-to-one

relation or a many-to-one relation.
One-to-one relation is if all values
in the domain(x) and range (y)
were not repeated.
Many-to-one relation is when all
the valuesin the domain (x) were
not repeated and the corresponding
 values at the range (y) were
repeated. Like in the figure at the
left 2 is assigned to 4 (2,4) and -2 is
also assigned to 4 (-2,4).

The One-to-many and Many-to-one

relations are NOTFUNCTIONS
because the values in the domain
(x) are repeated. (The range (y) can
be repeated but NOT the domain (x).

Always remember that all functions are relations but not all relations are functions.

PIECEWISE FUNCTION

A piecewise function or a compound function is a function defined by multiple subfunctions, where each
subfunction applies to a certain interval of the main function’s domain. Meaning to say, if you see that are two
or more subfunctions in a function, it is a Piecewise Function.

Example 1. The image at the left is an example of a

piece-wise function. To solve a
piecewise function you have to look at
the given condition for each
subfunction.
What subfunction will you use if:
x=1 ?
Consider the piecewise function above,
which condition satisfies the given
x=1?
Here we are going to use the We use this subfunction because the
subfunction, f(x)=x2 condition tells us that f(x)=x2 if x<2.
Now let us evaluate: Since that 1 is less than two, therefore
Solution: x=1 we must use this subfunction.
f(x)=x2
f(1)=12
f(1)=1 Substitute the occurrence of x with 1
The answer is 1. Squared the 1

OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

Addition of Polynomials

Rule: To add two polynomials write the sum and simplify by combining like terms.

Example 2. Add 3x+4 and 7x-8

Solution: Step 1. Make sure that you only
3x + 4 combine like terms, it means those that
+ 7x – 8 have the same variable and same
Answer: 10x - 4 exponents only.
Step 2. Also, follow the rules on
(Only copy the variables (x), exponents are operation on integers.
not to be added.) Step 3. Be careful with the positive and
(Same sign combine, unlike sign subtract negative signs.
then follow the sign of the higher number.)

Example 3. Add 4x2 -2x + 5 and 2x2 – 1 *Look at these examples -2x has no like
Solution: 4x – 2x + 5
2
terms so we just have to bring it down.
+ 2x2 - 1
6x2 -2x + 4
 Answer:
(Only copy the variables (x), exponents are
not to be added.)
(Same sign combine, unlike sign subtract
then follow the sign of the higher number.)

Subtraction of Polynomials

Rule: To subtract two polynomials, you need to change the sign of the subtrahend then proceed to addition.

Example 4. Subtract 7x+2 from 5x+4

Solution:
5x + 4 Step 1.Combine like terms
- 7x + 2
-S Step 2.Change the sign of the
subtrahend.
5x + 4
+-7x - 2 Step 3. Proceed to addition
Answer: -2x + 2
(Only copy the variables (x), exponents are
not to be added.)
(Same sign combine, unlike sign subtract
then follow the sign of the higher number.)

Example 5: Subtract 7x2 -5x + 7 from

6x – 5  In this example the -7x2 has no
Solution: 6x- 5 like terms, so we just have to
- 7x2 – 5x + 7 bring it down.

(Only copy the variables (x), exponents are

6x- 5 not to be added.)
+-7x2 + 5x - 7 (Same sign combine, unlike sign subtract
Answer: -7x2 + 11x - 12 then follow the sign of the higher number.)

Multiplication of Polynomials

When multiplying monomials, you will often use the following laws of exponents.

Laws of Exponents

1. Product Rule for Exponents: To multiply powers having the same base, keep the base and add the
exponents. xm . xn = xm+n

Example 6. In this example, you will notice that

a) x3 . x2 = x3 + 2 = x5 you can only add the exponents if and
only if they have the same base.
b) y. y = y1 + 1 = y2
Take note that adding of exponents is
c) xy3 . xy2 = x1+1 y3+2= x2 y5 applicable only in multiplication.
d) x2 y3 . xy2 = x2+1 y3+2 = x3 y5
2. Power Rule for Exponents: To find the power of a power of a base, keep the base and multiply the exponents.
(xm)n = xmn

Example 7.
a) (x3 )2 = x3·2 = x6
b) (y)2 = y1 · 2 = y2
In this example, you will notice that the
exponent inside the parenthesis is
being multiplied by the exponent
outside the parenthesis.
3. Power of a Product Rule: To find the power of a product, find the power of each factor and then multiply the
resulting factor.

Example 8.
a) (xy3)2 = x1·2 y3·2= x2 y6
b) (x2 y3)2 = x2·2 y3·2 = x4 y6
Multiply Polynomial by a Monomial
This example shows that each variable
has an exponent and you are going to
multiply each exponent for each
variable with the exponent outside the
parenthesis.

Example 9. Step 1. Multiply 5x to x and the answer

Find the product of 5x and x + 4 will be 5x2
Solution:
5x ( x + 4) = 5x (x) + 5x(4) Step 2. Multiply 5x to 4 and the answer
will be 20x
Answer: = 5x2 + 20x (You can multiply only a number by a
number, the letter or variable is only
copied just make sure to follow the laws of
exponent mentioned above.)
The FOIL Method (First, In, Out, Last)

Example 10. Step 1. To multiply binomial with

Find the product of 2x + 3 and 5x -8 another binomial just follow the FOIL
Solution: method to where F stands for the First
term, then O for the Outer term, I for
the Inner term, and L for the Last term.

Step 2. After multiplying the terms

respectively, you have to arrange your
answer starting from the highest
degree down to the lowest degree.

Note that -16x and 15x are like terms so Step 3. You also need to combine like-
we have to combine them and it will terms if there are any.
now become -1x or simply –x

That is why the final answer is

10x2 –x -24
Division of Monomials

Rules of Division for Exponents: For every positive integer m, and n, and x ≠ 0:

x m m−n
n
=x , when m> n When they have the same base and the
x
exponent in the numerator is greater
Example 11. than the exponent in the denominator,
5 just copy the base and then subtract
x 5−3 2
their exponents.
3
=x =x
x
In this case, the exponent in the
x
m
1 numerator is less than the
n
= n−m , when m< n denominator, the rule says that we
x x
need to put 1 in the numerator and
Example 12. then copy the base in the denominator
3 to where we are going to subtract their
x 1 1 exponents.
5
= 5−3 = 2
x x x
Take note that if the exponent is 0, whatever the base is the answer is automatically 1. Also if you see that the
numerator is just the same as the denominator, then the answer will always be 1.
 2 2
x 2−2 0 x
Example 13. 2
=x =x =1 or simply 2 =1
x x
Composition of Functions

The composition of the function f with g is denoted by f◦g is defined by the equation: (f◦g) (x) = f(g(x))

The domain of the composition function f◦g is the set of all x such that x is in the domain of g, and;g(x) is in the
domain of f.

Example 14. Given f(x) = 4x – 5 and Because ((f◦g) (x) means f(g(x)), we
g(x)= x2 + 4 , find (f◦g) (x) must replace each occurrence of x in
the function f by g(x).
Solution:
f(x) = 4x – 5 Given equation for f
(f◦g) (x) = f(g(x)) = 4(g(x)) -5 Replace g by g(x)
= 4 (x2 + 4)-5 Replace g(x) by x2 + 4
=4 x2 +16 -5 Apply distribution law/Multiply
=4 x2 +11 Combine like terms

Thus, (f◦g) (x) =4 x2 +11

Example 15. Given f(x) = 5x + 2 and In this example, we must replace each
g(x)= x + 4 , find (g◦f) (x) occurrence of x in the function g with
f(x).
Solution:
g(x) = x + 4 Given equation for g
(g◦f) (x) = g(f(x)) = (f(x)) + 4 Replace f by f(x)
= (5x + 2) +4 Replace f(x) by 5x + 2
=5x + 6 Combine like terms

Thus, (g◦f) (x) =5x + 6

PROBLEMS INVOLVING FUNCTIONS

Example 16.

A proposed train fare would charge 20.00php for the first 5km of travel and 0.75php for each additional
kilometer over the proposed fare.

a. Find the fare function f(x) where x represents the number of kilometers traveled.

b. Find the proposed fare for a distance of 45km.

Solution:

a. find the fare function

f(x)=20 for 0<x≤5(20php for a travel that is more than 0km but less than or equal to 5km)

Let x = the number of kilometers travelled

x – 5 = number of kilometers travelled over and above 5km

f(x)=20 + 0.75 (x – 5) (20php plus 0.75 for each additional km. multiplied by x-5)

f(x)= 20 + 0.75 x – 3.75(combine like terms, 20-3.75= 16.25)

f(x)=16.25 + 0.75x (for x>5)

The fare function is f(x)=16.25 + 0.75x

b. proposed fare for a distance of 45km

We will use the function that we obtained above,

f(x)=16.25 + 0.75x

f(45)=16.25 + 0.75(45) Substitute the occurrence of x with 45

 f(45)=16.25 + 33.75 Perform the indicated operation

f(45)=50

The proposed fare for 45-km travel is 50.00php.

Rational Equations and

LESSON 2 Inequalities
WEEK 2

KNOWLEDGE
ENRICHMENT

A. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Represent real-life situations using rational functions and represent a rational function through its: (a)
table of values, (b) graph, and (c) equation.
 Distinguish and solve rational function, rational equation, and rational inequality
 Appreciate the inequalities not just in the subject but in the real-life

LESSON PROPER

RATIONAL EXPRESSION

A
A Rational Expression can be written in the form of where A and B are polynomials and B ≠ 0. A rational
B
expression is also called algebraic fractions.

Below are examples of rational expressions:

7 2
x −x−6
2
x −7 x +10
, ¿
ab x +2 x +5

RATIONAL EQUATION

A Rational Equation is an equation that contains one or more rational expressions.

Here are some examples of rational equations:

1 1 4 x
2
1
= x + =−5 =
x 5−x x x+1 x+1

RATIONAL INEQUALITY

A Rational Inequality is composed of rational expressions combined with a ≤, ≥, <, or > sign.

Some examples of rational inequalities:

1 1 4 x2 1
< x + ≥−5 <
x 5−x x x+1 x +1

Can you tell now the difference between the three? Can you distinguish a rational equation from rational
inequality?

At this juncture, let us proceed in solving a rational equation.

Steps in Solving Rational Equations

1. Eliminate the rational expressions in the equation by multiplying both sides of the equation by LCD (Least
Common Denominator).
2. Solve the equation.

3. Check your solution.

Example 1. Solve for x with the given Step 1. Look at their denominator, can
x 1 x you think of their Least Common
+ =
5 4 2 Denominator?
Solution:
Step 2. The LCD of the equation is 20.
20 ( 5x + 14 )=( 2x )20 Multiply both sides by the LCD, 20.

Step 3. Apply the Distributive Property,

( 20 x 20
5
+
4
= )( )
20 x
2
then simplify
Step 4. Combine like terms, so we need
to transpose 4x to the right which
4x + 5 = 10x makes it negative, then simplify
5 = 10x – 4x
5= 6x Step 5. We will solve for x that is why
we have to divide both sides by 6
5 6x
=
6 6 If the answer is not a whole number, just
leave it as a fraction
5
=x
6

Sample Problem

Example 2.

An express train travels 150 km at the same time that a freight train travels 100 km. If the express train goes 20
km per hour faster than the freight train, find the rate of each train.

Solution:

Let r = the rate of the freight train, and

r + 20 = the rate of the express train (express train goes 20 km per hour faster)

We will first construct a table.

distance rate time

Freight Train 100 km r 100
r
Express Train 150 km r + 20 150
r +20
Note: Distance is already given in the problem; Rate is what we’re going to find in this problem; and to get the
time, remember the formula of distance over rate.

Now let us have the equation;

100 150
The fact that travel time is the same, therefore this will lead to the equation = ; The LCD is (r)(r+20),
r r + 20
so divide both sides by the LCD,

( 100r = r150
+20 )
Step 1. To make it easier, simply cancel out
(r)(r+20) (r)(r+20) those that are the same and multiply what
remains for each side
100 (r+20) = 150r
100r + 2000 = 150r Step 2. Combine like terms, so we need to
2000 = 150r – 100r transpose 100r to the right which makes it
2000 = 50r negative, then simplify
Step 3. We will solve for r that is why we have
2000 50 r to divide both sides by 50
=
50 50
r= 40 is for the freight train
and
40 = r
r+20 = 60 is for the express train
 r+20
40+20 = 60
Therefore, the freight train’s rate is 40 km per hour and the express train’s rate is 60 km per hour.

Now that you know how to solve rational equations, let us continue to explore rational inequalities.

Steps in Solving Rational Inequality

Example 3. 2 x−5 Transpose 3 to the

≤3
2 x−5 x−5 left which makes the
Solve for ≤3
x−5 2 x−5 right side 0
−3≤ 0
Solution: x−5
Step 1. Write the Put 1 as the
inequality with a single 2 x−5 3 denominator of 3 to
rational expression on − ≤0 make it a fraction.
x−5 1
the left-hand side of the
inequality and zero on Do the cross-over
2 x−5 3
the right-hand side of the − ≤0 multiplication
x−5 1
inequality.
1(2 x−5) ( 3 ) (x−5) Combine like terms
− ≤0
x−5 1

2 x−5−3 x+ 15
≤0
x−5
x+10 Equate the numerator
≤0
Step 2. Get the x−5 to zero.
meaningful numbers. Solve for x
To get the meaningful Numerator: x+10 = 0
numbers, you need to set x = -10 Substitute the
both the numerator and Test x = -10: occurrence of x with -
the denominator equal to 2 x−5 10 to the original
≤3 inequality
zero, and then solve. x−5
Test for meaningful 2(−10)−5
numbers. ≤3
−10−5
−20−5 5
≤3 is less than3
(Note: If the numerator and
−15 3
denominator were both meaning to say it is
−25
negative, it will now ≤3 true
become positive.) −15
5 Equate the
≤3
3 denominator to zero.
True. Thus, -10 is a solution. Solve for x

Denominator: x–5=0 Substitute the

x=5 occurrence of x with
Test x = 5: 5 to the original
2(5)−5 inequality
≤3
5−5
2 x−5
≤3
x−5 5
denominator must
10−5 0
≤3
0 not be zero, meaning
5 to say it is false
undefined
0
False. Thus 5 is not a
solution.
Step 3. Separate the
number line into Meaningful numbers are:
intervals using the x = -10 and x = 5
meaningful numbers;
X = -10 and x = 5
Step 4. Get test values for A B C
intervals A,B, and C. Substitute the
occurrence of x with
 In this part, you will -10 5 -5 to the original
think of a number that inequality
you will test but make For A, let us try to test -5:
sure that it is within the 2 x−5
≤3
interval. x−5 3
is less than3
2(−5)−5 2
≤3 meaning to say it is
−5−5
−10−5 true
≤3
−10
−15
≤3
−10
3
≤3 Substitute the
2 occurrence of x with
True. Thus interval A is a 3 to the original
solution. inequality
For B, let us try to test 3: −1
2(3)−5 isless than 3
≤3 2
3−5 meaning to say it is
6−5 true
≤3
−2
−1 Substitute the
≤3
2 occurrence of x with
True. Thus interval B is a 7 to the original
solution. inequality

For C, let us try to test 7:

2(7)−5 9
≤3 is greater than 3
7−5 2
14−5 meaning to say it is
≤3 false
2
9
≤3
2
False. Thus, interval C is not
a solution.
To summarize the numbers in intervals A and B are solutions to the inequality, while the numbers lying from
interval C are not solutions to the inequalities.

Example 4.
x−5
Solve for ≤0
x+ 3
x−5
≤0
Solution: x+ 3 Already done.
Step 1. Write the
inequality with a single
rational expression on
the left-hand side of the
inequality and zero on
the right-hand side of
the inequality.
Equate the numerator to
Step 2. Get the Numerator: x-5 = 0 zero.
meaningful numbers. x=5 Solve for x
To get the meaningful Test x = 5:
numbers, you need to x−5 Substitute the occurrence
≤0 of x with 5 to the
set both the numerator x+ 3
and the denominator 5−5 inequality
equal to zero, and then ≤0
5+3
solve. Inequality suggest that
0
Test for meaningful ≤0 less than or equal,
8
numbers. 0 is equal ¿ 0 meaning to
0¿ 0
say it is true
True. Thus, 5 is a
 solution. Equate the denominator
to zero.
Denominator: x+3=0 Solve for x
x = -3
Test x = -3: Substitute the occurrence
x−5 of x with -3 to the
≤0
x+ 3 inequality
−3−5
≤0
−3+3
−8 −8
≤0 denominator must not
0 0
−8 be zero, meaning to say it
is undefined is false
0

False. Thus -3 is not a

solution.

Meaningful numbers
are:
Step 3. Separate the
x = 5 and x = -3
number line into
intervals using the
meaningful numbers;
A B C
X = -10 and x = 5

Step 4. Get test values for Substitute the occurrence

-3 5
intervals A,B, and C. of x with -2 to the original
For A, let us try to test inequality
In this part, you will
-2:
think of a number that
you will test but make
x−5
≤0
sure that it is within the x+ 3
−7 is lessthan 0 meaning
interval. −2−5
≤0 to say it is true
−2+3
−7
≤0
1
−7 ≤ 0

True. Thus interval A is Substitute the occurrence

a solution. of x with 3 to the original
inequality
For B, let us try to test 3:
x−5
≤0
x+ 3
3−5
≤0
3+3 −1
isless than 0 meaning
−2 3
≤0
6 to say it is true
−1
≤0
3

True. Thus interval B is a

solution. Substitute the occurrence
of x with 7 to the original
For C, let us try to test 7: inequality
x−5
≤0
x+ 3
7−5 1
≤0 is greater than0
7+3 2
2 meaning to say it is false
≤0
10
1
≤0
2
False. Thus, interval C is
 not a solution.
Interval A and B are solutions to the inequality, while the numbers lying from interval C are not solutions to
the inequality.

At some point, you may encounter a solution that you computed is right, or you follow the correct procedure
while solving but this apparent solution does not solve its equation, you don’t have to worry because it is
happening and this solution is called an Extraneous solution.

LESSON 3 Rational Functions

WEEK 3

KNOWLEDGE
ENRICHMENT

A. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Determine the: (a) intercepts; (b) zeroes; and (c) asymptotes of rational functions
 Solve problems involving rational functions
 Realize the importance of Rational Functions in real-life

B. INTRODUCTION
In our previous lesson, you have learned about the difference between rational equations and rational
inequalities as well as how a rational expression looks like and how to solve them. At this point, we will go
deeper into knowing about a rational function in which is defined as a function that is the ratio of two
polynomials. In this module, we will solve rational functions and we will learn how to apply rational functions
to different circumstances to provide a better understanding of a situation and what is needed to achieve the
desired results.

C. LESSON PROPER

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

N (x)
A rational function can be written in the form f ( x )= where N(x) and D(x) are polynomials and D(x) is
D( x )
not the zero polynomial.

N (x)
The domain of a rational function f ( x )= is all the values of x that will not make D(x) equal to zero.
D( x )
The following are examples of rational expressions;

1 The domain of f is a set wherein

f ( x )=
x elements are all the real numbers
except 0.

(0 is the restrictions on the x-values)

x The domain of g is all real numbers
g ( x )= 2
x −9 except 3 and -3
[x2-9 = (x+3)(x-3)]

(3 and -3 are the restrictions on the x-

values)
x2 +1 The domain of h can be all real
h ( x )= numbers except 1.
x−1
(1 is the restrictions on the x-values)
 3 x 2−5 x−2 The domain of the function i is all real
( )
i x= 2 −1
3 x +7 x+ 2 numbers except and -2, it is
3
because [3x2+7x+2=(3x+1)(x+2)]

¿ the restrictions on the x-values)

Notice that the domain of most rational functions of y includes all real numbers except x-values that make the
denominator zero. To get the values of x to exclude from the domain, you should set the denominator equal to
zero and solve for x.

Intercepts of Rational Functions

Intercepts are x- or y- coordinates of the points at which a graph crosses the x-axis or y-axis, respectively.

The y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the y-axis.

The x-intercept is the x-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the x-axis.

Take note that not all rational functions have both x and y-intercepts. If the rational function has no real
solution, then it does not have intercepts.

Example 1.Find the intercepts of the To find the y-intercept, substitute 0 for
given rational function. x and solve for y or f(x).
x +8
f ( x )=
x−2
Solution: Solve for y-intercept:
0+8 Step 1. Substitute x by 0.
f ( 0 )=
0−2
8 Step 2. Simplify.
f ( 0 )=
−2
f ( 0 )=−4
The y-intercept is -4
To find the x-intercept, substitute 0 for
y and solve for x.
Solve for x-intercept:
x +8
f ( x )= Step 1. Substitute y or f(x) by 0.
x−2 Step 2. Multiply both sides by x-2.
x +8
0=
x−2 Step 3. Simplify.

(
(x−2) 0=
x +8
x −2
(x−2)) (A number that is multiplied by zero, the
answer will always be 0.)
0=x+ 8
0−8=x
x=−8
The x-intercept is -8

Example 2. Find the intercepts of the To find the y-intercept, substitute 0 for
given rational function. x and solve for y or f(x).
x 2−5 x+ 6
f ( x )= 2
x −2 x+ 3
Solution: Solve for y-intercept:
Step 1. Substitute x by 0.
x 2−5 x+ 6
f ( x )= 2
x −2 x+ 3
02−5( 0)+ 6 (A number that is multiplied by zero, the
f ( 0 )= 2
0 −2( 0)+3 answer will always be 0.)
0−0+6
f ( 0 )= Step 2. Simplify.
0−0+3
6
f ( 0 )=
3
f ( 0 )=2
 The y-intercept is 2
To find the x-intercept, substitute 0 for
Solve for x-intercept: y and solve for x.
x 2−5 x+ 6
f ( x )= Step 1. Substitute y or f(x) by 0.
x 2−2 x+ 3
Step 2. Multiply both sides by
2
( x ¿¿ 2−2 x+ 3)¿ ¿)( x 2−2 x+3 ¿ x −2 x+3

0= x 2−5 x+ 6 Step 3. Think of the factor of

2
x −5 x+ 6,
(x - 2)(x - 3) then, get the roots.

x=2 and x=3 (to get the roots, simply change the sign of
the number)
So here, we have two x-intercepts,
which are 2 and 3.
Now that you know how to find intercepts of rational functions, let us now proceed to the zeros of rational
functions.

Zeros of Rational Functions

N 7 52 ,∧0
In the fraction , D must not be equal to zero since division by zero is undefined. For example, , ,
D 0 0 0
N
they are all undefined. However, in the same fraction , if N is equal to zero and D is not equal to zero, then
D
0 0 ,∧0
the fraction is equal to zero. Examples are , , they are all equal to zero.
7 52 12
Example 3. Find the zeros of the
2
x + 6 x+ 8
rational function f ( x )= 2
x − x−6

Step 1. Factor the numerator and 2

x + 6 x+ 8
denominator of f. f ( x )=
x2− x−6
Numerator: x 2+ 6 x+¿ 8
( x+ 2 ) (x+ 4)
Denominator: x 2−x−6 f ( x )=
( x +2 ) ( x−3)
Step 2. Identify the restrictions. The values x = -2 and x = 3 make the
denominator equal to zero and are
restrictions.
Step 3. Identify the values of x that x =-2 and x =-4 both make the
make the numerator equal to zero. numerator equal to zero.
Step 4. Identify the zero of f. But, x = -2 will not be a zero of f
because it is also a restriction.
x = -4 will be a zero of f.
Although we have identified the zeros of f, we still need to check the values of x that make the numerator
equal to zero.

Let us check x = -4 so that we can be assured that it is a zero of the function. We will just substitute the
occurrence of x in the rational function by -4.

(−4)2+ 6(−4)+8 0
f (−4 )= =
(−4) −(−4)−6 14
2

In this case, x = -4 makes the numerator equal to zero without making the denominator equal to zero.
Therefore, x = -4 is a zero of f.

Let us have another example.

Example 4. Find the zeros of the

x 2−4 x+ 4
rational function f ( x )=
x 2−4
 Step 1. Factor the numerator and x 2−4 x+ 4
denominator of f. ( )
f x=
x 2−4
Numerator: x 2−4 x+ 4
Denominator: x 2−4 ( x−2 ) ( x−2)
❑

Step 2. Identify the restrictions.
Step 3. Identify the values of x that
make the numerator equal to zero.
Step 4. Identify the zero of f.
f ( x )=
( x +2 ) (x−2)
The values x = -2 and x = 2 make the
denominator equal to zero and are
therefore restrictions.
x =2 makes the numerator equal to
zero.
The function has no zero because x=2,
although it makes the numerator equal
to zero, but is also a restriction.

x 2−4 x+ 4 x −2
Please take note that the function f ( x )= can be reduced to g ( x )= after canceling the like
2
x −4 x+2
factors x-2. Notice that the function g has only one restriction, x=-2. Further, x=2 makes the numerator of g
equal to zero and is not a restriction. Thus, x=2 is a zero of the function g but not a zero of the function f.

Example 4 demonstrates that before we cancel common factors, we must first identify the zeros of the rational
function.

Let us now move into finding asymptotes.

Asymptotes

An asymptote is a line or a curve that the graph of the function gets close to but does not touch. The three
types of asymptotes are:

1. Vertical Asymptotes
-They are the restrictions on the x-values of a reduced
rational function. The picture at the right is an
example of a vertical asymptote.
Example 5.
1
Find the vertical asymptote of f ( x )=
x +1

To find the vertical asymptote, set the denominator

equal to zero and solve for x.
x+1=0 *meaning to say the graph
x =-1 1
1 of f ( x )= can get
This means that the graph of f ( x )= has the line x +1
x +1 close to but will never
x = -1 as a vertical asymptote. touch -1 in the x-axis

Let us have another example,

Example 6.
4x
Find the vertical asymptote of f ( x )=
2 x+1
Set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x.
2x+1=0
2x =-1
2 x −1
=
2 2 *meaning to say the graph
−1 4x
x= of f ( x )= can get
2 2 x+1
−1
Thus, the graph of the line has x= as a vertical close to but will never
2 1
asymptote. touch - in the x-axis
2
2. Horizontal Asymptotes
- They are the restrictions on the y-values of a reduced rational function. The
horizontal asymptote is determined by comparing the degrees of N(x) and D(x).
To make it simpler just look at the exponents in the numerator and denominator
and consider the following conditions:
a. if the exponent of the numerator is less than the exponent of the denominator,
then, the horizontal asymptote will be zero or y=0.
b. if the exponent of the numerator and denominator are equal, then the line has
a
y= where a and b are the leading coefficients of the numerator and
b
denominator, respectively. (leading coefficients are the numbers beside its variable)
c. if the exponent of the numerator is greater than the denominator, then, the
graph has no horizontal asymptote. (if there is no horizontal asymptote then you
should determine its oblique asymptote)
Example 7.
1
Find the horizontal asymptote of f ( x )=
x +1

Look at the numerator, there is no variable x, we can

say that x0.
Now, look at the denominator the only variable is x
and the exponent is 1, x1. *meaning to say the graph
The degree of the numerator is less than the degree of 1
the denominator, so the graph has the line y=0 as a of f ( x )= can get
x +1
horizontal asymptote. close to but will never
touch 0 in the y-axis

Here’s another example,

Example 8.
4x
Find the vertical asymptote of f ( x )=
2 x+1

Look at the numerator and denominator; they both

have the same degree. The leading coefficient in the
numerator is 4x and the leading coefficient in the *meaning to say the graph
denominator is 2x, therefore the horizontal asymptote 4x
4 of f ( x )= can get
is y = 2 x+1
2 close to but will never
4 touch 2 in the y-axis
Simplify it if necessary, y = will be y = 2.
2
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is y = 2.
3. Oblique Asymptote
- It occurs when the exponent in the numerator is higher than the exponent in the
denominator. If you have this situation, simply divide the numerator by the
denominator. The oblique asymptote is the quotient with the remainder ignored
and set equal to y.

Example 9.
Find the oblique asymptote of f ( x )=
x2
x−1

Notice that the exponent in the numerator is higher than the exponent in the
denominator, therefore oblique asymptote occurs.

To get the oblique asymptote we need *First, divide x2 by x, the answer is x

to divide x2 by x-1. *Then, multiply the answer x by the
divisor x-1
x +1 *Next, subtract the product (x2-x) from
x – 1 √ x2 x2 the answer is x
x2 – x *The difference x will be divided by
x the divisor x, the answer is positive 1.
x–1 *The answer 1 will be multiplied by
 1 the divisor x-1 and the answer is also
(Remember that when we divide, we x-1.
subtract the exponents and when we *Subtract x-1 from x and the answer is
subtract we change the sign of the 1.
subtrahend then proceed in addition.) *We cannot divide 1 by x at this point,
thus 1 is a remainder.
The graph f ( x )=
x 2 has y = x+1 as an
x−1
oblique asymptote.

The picture at the right shows an

oblique asymptote.

PROBLEM-SOLVING (RATIONAL FUNCTIONS)

Example 10.

The concentration of a given substance in a mixture is the ratio of the amount of substance to the total
A
quantity. In symbols, we have C= where C is the concentration, A is the amount of substance, and T is the
T
total quantity.

If 8 ounces of a punch contains 4 ounces of pure pineapple juice, the concentration of pineapple juice in the
4
punch is or 0.5 or 50%. The punch is 50% pineapple juice.
8
Consider the problem where we begin the 8 ounces of punch that is 50% pineapple juice and want to write a
function that gives the pineapple juice concentration after x ounces of pure pineapple juice are added:

a. How much pineapple juice do you begin with? Write an expression for the amount of pineapple juice
present after x ounces have been added.

Answer: The amount of pineapple, in the beginning, is 4.

The expression for the amount of pineapple juice present after x ounces has been added is 4 + x

b. Write an expression for the total amount of punch present after x ounces has been added.

Answer: The expression for the total amount of punch present after x ounces has been added is 8 + x

c. Using the answers in (a) and (b), write a rational function defining the pineapple juice concentration as a
function of x.

4+ x
Answer: C(x)=
8+ x
d. Give the domain of the rational function in c.

Answer: The value of x = -8 makes the denominator equal to zero. Thus, the domain of the function is the set of
real numbers except -8.

e. What is the equation of the vertical asymptote and the horizontal asymptote?

Answer: To find the vertical asymptote, set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x. 8+x = 0

x = -8

The graph has the line x = -8 as a vertical asymptote.

The degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator. The leading coefficient of the
x
numerator is x or 1x and the leading coefficient of the denominator is also x or 1x. Therefore, is equal to 1.
x
So, the graph has the line y=1 as the horizontal asymptote.