Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Advances
in Sport
and Exercise
Psychology
Fourth Edition
Thelma S. Horn, PhD

Miami University
Alan L. Smith, PhD

Michigan State University
Editors
HUMAN KINETICS
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Horn, Thelma S., 1949- editor. | Smith, Alan L., 1968- editor.
Title: Advances in sport and exercise psychology / Thelma S. Horn, Alan L.
Smith, editors.
Other titles: Advances in sport psychology.
Description: Fourth edition. | Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics, [2019] |
Preceded by Advances in sport psychology / Thelma S. Horn, editor. 3rd ed.
c2008. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017061427 (print) | LCCN 2017060802 (ebook) | ISBN
9781492559658 (e-book) | ISBN 9781492528920 (print)
Subjects: | MESH: Sports--psychology | Exercise--psychology | Physical
Fitness--psychology | Achievement | Goals | Sports Medicine
Classification: LCC GV706.4 (print) | LCC GV706.4 (ebook) | NLM QT 260 | DDC
796.01--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017061427
ISBN: 978-1-4925-2892-0 (print)
Copyright © 2019 by Thelma S. Horn and Alan L. Smith
Copyright © 2008, 2002, 1992 by Human Kinetics, Inc.
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any elec-
tronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and record-
ing, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
This book is a revised edition of Advances in Sport Psychology, Third Edition, published in 2008 by Human Kinetics.
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please visit our website: www.HumanKinetics.com E6768
To the memory of my father, Jerald John Sternberg, whose life ended much too soon.
Although he had only an eighth-grade education, my father’s lifelong interest in reading
and learning is something I can only hope I have inherited. And to the future promise
and potential of my daughters, Jocelyn Lou and Karolyn Sternberg Horn. Their interest
in, passion for, and enjoyment of sports of all sorts have continually refueled my desire to
study the sporting world within which they play.
Thelma S. Horn
To the memory of my parents, Carol and Lyle, and my great-aunt, Betty, who left this world
during the completion of this project. I miss them dearly. Yet they left much behind that
brings me comfort: the many lessons, encouragements, laughs, and acts of kindness and
love that I reflect upon daily.
Alan L. Smith
This page intentionally left blank.
Contents
Preface xi
PART I Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology 1

Chapter 1 The Nature of Sport, Exercise, and Physical Activity Psychology . . . . . . . . 3
Robert C. Eklund and Peter R.E. Crocker
Defining Sport and Exercise Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Disciplinary Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
History of Sport and Exercise Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Professional Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Knowledge Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Technology in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Chapter 2 Research Approaches in the Sport, Exercise, and Physical Activity Field . . 17
Martin S. Hagger and Brett Smith
Quantitative Research Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Qualitative Research Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Mixed-Method Research Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Future Research Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 3 Applied Sport and Exercise or Physical Activity Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Krista J. Munroe-Chandler and Michelle D. Guerrero
Defining the Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Psychological Skills Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Emerging Research Constructs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
PART II Individual Differences in Behavior 55

Chapter 4 Self-Perception in Sport and Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Catherine M. Sabiston, Jenna D. Gilchrist, and Jennifer Brunet
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Additional Self-System Constructs in Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
v
vi Contents
Chapter 5 Self-Presentation Concerns in Physical Activity and Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Jennifer Brunet and Catherine M. Sabiston
Self-Presentation Origins and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Self-Presentation Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Measurement of Self-Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Self-Presentation in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chapter 6 Perfectionism in Competitive Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Howard K. Hall
Debating the Meaning of Perfectionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Measurement and Classification of Perfectionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Influence of Perfectionism in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Future Research Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
PART III Socioenvironmental Factors 115

Chapter 7 Family Influences on Active Free Play and Youth Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Nicholas L. Holt, Shannon Pynn, Kurtis Pankow, Kacey C. Neely, Valerie Carson, and Meghan Ingstrup
Definitions of Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Foundational Theories and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Family Influence on Active Free Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Family Influence on Youth Sport Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Theoretically Driven Research Examining Parental Influence in Youth Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Chapter 8 Peers and Psychological Experiences in Physical Activity Settings . . . . . 133

Alan L. Smith, Kathleen T. Mellano, and Sarah Ullrich-French
Conceptualization of Peers in Physical Activity Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Theoretical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Research on Peers in Physical Activity Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Chapter 9 Leadership in Physical Activity Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Mark R. Beauchamp, Ben Jackson, and Todd M. Loughead
Major Theoretical Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Athlete Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
An Integrated Framework for Leadership in Physical Activity Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Contents vii
Chapter 10 Group Dynamics in Sport, Exercise, and Physical Activity Contexts . . . . . 171
Mark Eys and M. Blair Evans
Relevancy of Group Dynamics Across Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Frameworks for Group Dynamics in Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Critical Components of Group Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
PART IV Behavior and Performance 189

Chapter 11 Moral Behavior in Sport and Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Ian D. Boardley
Structural Development Versus Social Cognitive Perspectives on Moral Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Individual-Difference Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Contextual Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Consequences of Moral Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Contemporary Moral Behavior Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Chapter 12 Performance Anxiety, Arousal, and Coping in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Rich Neil and Tim Woodman
Defining and Operationalizing Anxiety, Arousal, and Coping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Models and Theories of Anxiety, Arousal, and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Coping Behaviors of Anxious Sport Performers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Chapter 13 Anticipation in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

A. Mark Williams, Colm P. Murphy, David P. Broadbent, and Christopher M. Janelle
Key Perceptual-Cognitive Skills Underpinning Anticipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Dynamic Interaction Among Perceptual-Cognitive Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Developing Anticipation and Facilitating Skill Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Chapter 14 Exergames to Enhance Physical Activity and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Deborah L. Feltz and Stephen Samendinger
Exergame Modalities and Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Increasing Physical Activity and Performance Through Exergames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
viii Contents
PART V Motivated Behavior 263

Chapter 15 Achievement Goals in Sport and Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Richard J. Keegan
History of Achievement Goal Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Nature of Scientific Advancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Attitudes That Enable Scientific Advancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Codependence of Theories and Questionnaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Chapter 16 Self-Determination-Based Theories of Sport, Exercise,

and Physical Activity Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Martyn Standage, Thomas Curran, and Peter C. Rouse
Self-Determination Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
SDT-Related Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Chapter 17 Developmentally Based Perspectives on Motivated Behavior

in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Thelma S. Horn and Jocelyn L. Newton
Theories on Motivated Behavior in Sport and Physical Activity Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Perceptions of Competence or Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Perceptions of Personal Autonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Motivational Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Perceptions of Performance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Chapter 18 Public Health Perspectives on Motivation

and Behavior Change in Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Stuart J.H. Biddle and Ineke Vergeer
Psychological Correlates of Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Individual Participation Motives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Theories of Physical Activity Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Behavior Change Wheel and COM-B Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Habits and Nudging in Behavior Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Contents ix
PART VI Health 351

Chapter 19 Physical Activity and Mental Health
in the Era of Evidence-Based Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Panteleimon Ekkekakis
A 50-Year Chronicle of Contrasting Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Appeal and Shortcomings of Evidence-Based Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Depression as an Illustrative Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Chapter 20 Disability, Physical Activity, and Psychological Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Jeffrey J. Martin
Athletic Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Wounded Warriors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Chapter 21 Sports Medicine Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Diane M. Wiese-Bjornstal, Andrew C. White, Kristin N. Wood, and Hayley C. Russell
Preinjury Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

Postinjury Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Psychological Interventions in Sports Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Refereneces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Chapter 22 Athlete Burnout in Competitive Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Alan L. Smith, Christine E. Pacewicz, and Thomas D. Raedeke
Defining and Measuring Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

Theoretical Perspectives on Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Recent Research on Athlete Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Chapter 23 Physical Activity and Self-Management of Chronic Disease . . . . . . . . . . 425

Nancy Gyurcsik, Christopher Shields, Miranda A. Cary, and Lawrence R. Brawley
Physical Activity as a Primary and Tertiary Prevention Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

Role of Health Care Providers in Chronic Disease Self-Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Knowledge, Skills, and Strategies for Self-Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Physical Activity and Psychological Aspects of Behavior Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
x Contents
PART VII Lifespan and Developmental Issues 445

Chapter 24 Physical Activity and Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Jennifer L. Etnier and Yu-Kai Chang
Theories for the Effects of Physical Activity on Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Physical Activity and Cognition in the General Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Physical Activity and Cognition in Special Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Mechanisms of the Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Chapter 25 Youth Talent Development in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

Jean Côté, Veronica Allan, Jennifer Turnnidge, Matthew Vierimaa, and M. Blair Evans
Developmental Systems in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Interest and Talent Development in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Chapter 26 Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity:

Progress, Puzzles, and Promise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Maureen R. Weiss
Historical Foundations of PYD in Youth Sport Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

Theoretical Perspectives Underlying the PYD Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Progress in Applying PYD to the Physical Activity Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Exemplar PA-PYD Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Index 503
About the Editors 512
Contributors 513
Preface
I
n its most generic sense, physical activity psy- appraisals of the world around them and the events
chology can be defined as the psychological that occur in that world.
study of human behavior across a range of Sport and exercise psychologists have used
physical activity settings. A close examination of these individual difference variables in an effort
the available literature in the field suggests that to explain and predict the behavior of individual
sport and exercise psychologists are particularly participants in physical activity contexts. Sport
interested in the variation that occurs in the behav- and exercise psychologists have also found that
ior of people in such contexts. This topic includes factors within the physical activity or broader social
the variation between individuals in the same environment can affect the participants’ behavior.
situation as well as the variation that occurs in the Specifically, characteristics of the sport or physical
behavior of the same individual across situations. activity group (e.g., size, cohesion, composition)
To illustrate variation between individuals, consider and the behaviors of group leaders (e.g., coach or
the case of two athletes from the same team who peer leaders, personal trainers) have been found to
are both performing in a crucial athletic contest affect the behavior of the group members. Similarly,
(e.g., a league, state, or regional championship). significant others in the physical activity partici-
Despite the fact that both athletes are performing pants’ social environment (e.g., parents, siblings,
in the same or similar context, their behavior in teammates, friends) can exert a strong influence on
this situation may differ. That is, they may vary the behavior and affective reactions of the partici-
considerably in anxiety, confidence, motivation, pants. In addition, the sociocultural or sociopolitical
and actual performance. Equally as interesting to context (e.g., perceived gender appropriateness of
sport and exercise psychologists is the variation activity) can determine or strongly affect not only
in behavior that occurs when an individual moves the observable behaviors of individual athletes,
from one situation to another. For example, exer- coaches, exercisers, and others in the physical activ-
cise psychologists have consistently noted that the ity environment but also their attitudes, beliefs,
amount of commitment that an individual exerciser cognitions, and orientations.
experiences depends at least partly on the situation Although much of the research in sport and
(e.g., group versus individual exercise context, exercise psychology has examined individual dif-
partner versus solo activity, virtual setting or real ferences and socioenvironmental factors separately,
life). Similarly, a middle school physical education it has long been believed that behavior is driven by
student may exhibit a high level of motivation in the interaction of features of the individual with that
a soccer-based unit but be considerably less moti- individual’s situation. Indeed, recent consensus in
vated to achieve in a conditioning-focused unit. the field suggests that these two entities exert an
Or a person who coaches both cross country and interactional effect. This text showcases our present
track and field teams at the same high school may understanding of the complexity of behavior that
exhibit significantly different leadership styles and occurs in physical activity settings and how such
behaviors in the two sporting contexts. understanding can be harnessed to the benefit of
To explain such behavioral variation, sport performance and well-being.
and exercise psychologists have identified and The first edition of this text, Advances in Sport
examined a number of factors that can be cate- Psychology, was published in 1992 with the express
gorized as either individual difference factors or purpose of summarizing the state of knowledge on
socioenvironmental factors. Individual difference research in sport psychology. That first edition con-
factors can be relatively stable traits, dispositions, tained 13 chapters and was divided into four parts.
or characteristics of the individual—such as age, The second edition (published a decade later in
trait anxiety, motivational orientation, self-esteem, 2002) was expanded to 17 chapters to reflect the pro-
or other personality characteristics—or differ- liferation of topics in the field but was still focused
ences that exist between people in their subjective predominantly on sport p sychology. The third
xi
xii Preface
edition was published in 2008 and contained 17 peers, while the third reviews the research literature
chapters, divided into four parts, and was published on the effects exerted by different types of leaders
under the same global purpose: to summarize the (e.g., coaches, exercise leaders, teachers). The
current state of knowledge in sport psychology and remaining chapter in this part of the book addresses
to provide cogent directions for future work. group factors (e.g., sport teams, exercise groups,
The fourth edition of this text was written to prosocial influences, collective group efficacy). In
vide a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the part IV, the focus is on select psychological factors
major issues that are of current research interest— that can affect behavior and performance in sport
not only in sport psychology but also in the psychol- and physical activity settings. Individual chapters
ogy of exercise and other physical activity settings. provide a discussion of morality, anxiety, anticipa-
As a result, the title of the text has been expanded tion, and the current use of exergames and virtual
from Advances in Sport Psychology to Advances in partners to enhance performance and behavior in
Sport and Exercise Psychology. Similar to previous sport, exercise, and physical activity contexts. The
editions, this fourth text combines discussion and four chapters of part V provide discussion con-
critical analysis of the current state of knowledge cerning the major (and more current) motivational
in each topical area with recommendations con- models and theories that have been developed to
cerning future research directions. The text is pri- explain individuals’ motivated behavior in sport,
marily directed toward graduate students enrolled exercise, and physical activity contexts. Specifically,
in research-oriented sport, exercise, or physical individual chapters in this section focus on achieve-
activity–based psychology courses and toward ment goal theories, self-determination conceptual
those currently conducting research in any of these frameworks, developmentally based theories of
scholarly areas. Although the book is not intended motivation, and public health–based models of
to serve as a how-to text for practicing sport psy- motivation. The five chapters in part VI address
chologists or to provide information oriented only the linkage between physical activity and health.
toward the enhancement of sport performance or Individual chapters focus on physical activity and
the promotion of exercise, the individual chapters mental health, injury and rehabilitation, athlete
should be useful to current or future practitioners burnout, and sport and physical activity in selected
who need to understand the factors that affect the populations (e.g., people with physical disabilities,
behavior of physical activity performers before they chronic disease). Finally, the three chapters in
can hope to effect behavioral change. part VII examine concepts related to lifespan and
Given the significant changes to the scope of this developmental issues. Individual chapters discuss
fourth edition (as indicated in the title), the content the research pertaining to physical activity and cog-
of the individual chapters and the organization of nitive abilities (e.g., the effects of physical activity
the text as a whole have been significantly revised. on children with ADHD, exercise and age-related
The number of chapters in this edition has been cognitive decrements), the development of sport
increased to a total of 26, and these are divided into talent and expertise (stages of play and skill devel-
seven parts. The three chapters in part I provide a opment), and positive youth development through
comprehensive overview of the field of sport and sport and physical activity participation.
exercise psychology (e.g., definitions, history of The substantial revision effort in this fourth edi-
the field, international perspectives, current con- tion results in a significantly different text from the
troversies, epistemological approaches, research previous three editions—not only in terms of chap-
methodologies, applied research and practices). ter topics and foci but also in terms of the chapter
The three chapters composing part II examine authors. This appropriately reflects the theoretical
characteristics of individuals (i.e., individual dif- and empirical advances that have occurred within
ference factors) that can affect their behavior and the last decade in the sport, exercise, and physical
psychosocial well-being in sport, exercise, and activity psychology field. We enlisted an interna-
physical activity contexts. These characteristics tionally leading group of authors representing a
include global, domain-specific, and situation-spe- broad range of expertise in generating this revision.
cific self-perceptions; self-presentation concerns; Despite the breadth of chapter topics represented
and perfectionism. In part III, four chapters discuss in this edited text, an attempt was made to use a
selected socioenvironmental factors that impinge on consistent format. Each chapter begins with an
participants’ behavior and psychosocial well-being abstract that provides a summary of the content.
in sport and physical activity contexts. The first two This is followed by a brief introduction to the topic
of these chapters discuss the influence of family and area, including definitions of terms, an explanation
Preface xiii
of the scope of the chapter, and a clear outline of and I are so grateful for the assistance we received
the sections of the chapter. In the main body of from the people at Human Kinetics that allowed
each chapter, the author or authors provide a brief us to get our ideas for the book from vision to an
overview of the early research and theory, followed actual document.
by a more comprehensive discussion of current Of course, we also need to acknowledge the con-
research issues, along with a synthesis of the state tributions of the authors who wrote the individual
of knowledge in the area. Finally, a section of each chapters for this text. A few authors (Deborah Feltz,
chapter is devoted to a discussion of the gaps that Maureen Weiss, and Larry Brawley) have been with
remain in our knowledge base on the topic as well me (Thelma Horn) since the first edition of this text.
as suggestions for future research. I appreciate their continuing loyalty to the field
The production of a textbook of this depth and and their ongoing contributions to this text, which
breadth requires the coordinated efforts of a number in all three cases involved writing within a new
of people. I wish at this time to recognize the major topic area. Notably, however, this fourth edition
contributors. First, I would like to welcome (and rec- includes a whole new cadre of primary authors.
ognize the contributions of) my coeditor, Al Smith. These authors include Robert Eklund, Peter Crocker,
The choice to expand this fourth edition beyond Martin Hagger, Brett Smith, Krista Munroe-Chan-
the competitive sport context and to include other dler, Catherine Sabiston, Jennifer Brunet, Howard
physical activity contexts was not taken lightly. Hall, Nicholas Holt, Mark Beauchamp, Mark Eys,
Much thought and effort went into the process of Ian Boardley, Rich Neil, Tim Woodman, Mark Wil-
deciding the specific chapter topics and the foci of liams, Richard Keegan, Martyn Standage, Stuart
the seven sections of the book. This process was Biddle, Panteleimon Ekkekakis, Jeff Martin, Diane
made considerably easier through the addition of Wiese-Bjornstal, Nancy Gyurcsik, Jennifer Etnier,
a coeditor. I (Thelma Horn) was the sole editor for and Jean Côté, each of whom agreed to take on
the first three editions of the text, but it became the task of being a lead author for a chapter new
clear to me that the expansion of the focus of this to this edition of the text. In addition, a very large
fourth edition as well as the addition of a number number of new coauthors were recruited to assist in
of new topics, authors, and sections would require writing each of the chapters. We are grateful for the
the expertise of a coeditor. My first choice was Al enthusiastic and expert participation of this broad
Smith, who has been a chapter coauthor for both group of authors in producing the substantially
the second and third editions of the text. Given the transformed current edition of this text.
research work he has completed and published in From our perspective as the book’s coeditors, the
the sport, exercise, and physical activity contexts, 58 authors and coauthors represented in this text
I anticipated that he would be very helpful in con- are, or will likely soon be, some of the most prolific
structing this new edition and in carrying out the researchers and scholars in our field. Despite their
work associated with producing such a product. extremely busy schedules, these 58 individuals
I am happy to report that it was a very effective invested considerable time and effort in writing
partnership and one that I hope to continue in the and rewriting their chapters. As several of them
future. noted, condensing the research and theory that
Second, we, the coeditors of this fourth edition, has been accumulated in each particular topic area
want to acknowledge the contributions of the sup- into a reasonable manuscript length was not an
port team at Human Kinetics. Three individuals easy task. In addition, each author was specifically
warrant specific mention. Myles Schrag and Bridget requested to go beyond writing a summary of the
Melton were the acquisitions editors for this text. In available research and theory in order to provide
this role, they both provided the technical, admin- a critical review of what we currently know and
istrative, and organizational support needed to get an outline of where we need to go in the future. In
the fourth edition of the text from conceptualization summary, the overall idea in writing the individual
to the publication stage. Their technical assistance chapters for this book was to push the boundaries
as well as their social support were greatly appre- that have defined and have, in many cases, limited
ciated. Judy Park, the developmental editor of our field since its inception. This task was certainly
this text, also provided considerable expertise in formidable, but each author accomplished this with
ensuring that each chapter followed a consistent distinction.
format, was structured to maximize readers’ ability In soliciting authors for the individual chapters
to follow the authors’ points, and was written in in the previous three editions of this text, I nat-
a clear and understandable, yet scholarly, style. Al urally generated many persuasive arguments for
xiv Preface
articipation. The one that was consistently the

p haps more important, to stimulate the interest and
most successful in persuading the participants was enthusiasm of current and future researchers. Our
the one that appealed to the authors’ commitment hope then is that this text will be of value to our
to the field of sport and exercise psychology. Our readers not only in furthering their understand-
experience was similar for this fourth edition. ing of the field but also in motivating continued
Therefore, Al and I are convinced that each author’s research work of quality. May our passion for sport,
primary motivation in writing her or his chapter exercise, and physical activity psychology continue
for this edition was to advance the field and, per- to burn brightly!
PART
I
Introduction to
Sport and Exercise
Psychology
Despite the early work of such individuals as conceptually positioning the term physical activity
Coleman Griffith, Norman Triplett, and Dorothy psychology as the broadest label for the field and
Yates (see the history provided by Eklund and then identifying sport and exercise psychology as
Crocker in chapter 1), sport and exercise psychol- two important subareas, each relating to a partic-
ogy as an area of academic research within the ular type of human movement. This explanation of
sport sciences did not really begin in earnest until the conceptual foundation of the field is followed
the mid-1960s. The field has grown considerably, by a section comparing and contrasting the various
becoming fully international in scope and accom- definitions of sport and exercise psychology, based
plishing much over the last six decades. As noted on perspectives from major scientific and profes-
in the preface, this edition has been expanded to sional practice organizations. The chapter ends
include research not only in the sport context but with a section on current issues in the field and
also in the broader physical activity context (e.g., challenges related to research as well as practice.
exercise, leisure, rehabilitation). This expansion is In chapter 2, Martin Hagger and Brett Smith
but a reflection of the changes that have occurred examine three types of research approaches that
within the scholarly field. Given such significant are central to researchers in sport and exercise psy-
changes, it seems particularly appropriate for this chology: quantitative designs, qualitative designs,
text to begin with three chapters that provide an and combined, or mixed-method, approaches.
overview of the area of study known as physical Within each of the three sections, the authors
activity psychology. identify issues that are important for ensuring
In chapter 1, Robert Eklund and Peter Crocker that the results of the research accurately reflect
describe the nature of sport, exercise, and physical the phenomenon under study. They also provide
activity psychology. They begin this overview by examples of research studies that illustrate each
1
2 Part I
approach, and they identify limitations to each Guerrero discuss several psychological strategies
approach, along with suggestions as to how such (e.g., self-talk, imagery, goal setting) that are
limitations may be minimized. The authors also frequently used in the applied setting, with their
identify critical issues that need to be considered effectiveness examined through applied research
as the field moves forward. studies conducted in competitive sport as well as
In chapter 3, Krista Munroe-Chandler and in exercise or physical activity settings. This is fol-
Michelle Guerrero provide readers with an over- lowed by a review of some contemporary research
view of the applied nature of sport and exercise and applied constructs. The chapter closes with the
psychology. They begin by pointing out that the identification of some gaps that exist in the applied
field includes both a research component and a field, along with recommendations for future work.
more applied component. They then describe the Collectively, the three chapters in this part of the
practitioners who work in the applied setting and book provide an introduction to, and overview of,
outline the responsibilities, ethical concerns, and sport and exercise psychology as a field of diverse
training for these practitioners. This is followed scholarship and as a practical or applied discipline.
by an exploration of the research component of The part I chapters establish a foundation for the
applied sport psychology. Munroe-Chandler and topical chapters that follow.
1
The Nature of Sport,
Exercise, and Physical
Activity Psychology
Robert C. Eklund, PhD  Peter R.E. Crocker, PhD
Abstract
This chapter focuses on providing information on the nature of sport, exercise, and
physical activity psychology as a backdrop for understanding advances in specific areas
of research that are presented in this textbook. We begin by conceptually situating
physical activity psychology as the broadest label of psychological endeavor relating to
human movement. We then identify sport psychology and exercise psychology as sub-
areas relating to specific types of human movement. Definitions of sport and exercise
psychology from major scientific and professional practice organizations are subse-
quently highlighted. Their commonalities and differences are considered to reveal both
the focus and breadth of the field, and to underscore evident underlying preferences,
tensions, and sensitivities. The psychology of sport, exercise, and physical activity has
been shaped by two parent disciplines—kinesiology and psychology. Both have been
tremendously important. The connections to kinesiology have ensured that sport and
exercise psychology remains grounded in scholarship on human movement, whereas
psychology has exerted a stronger influence on the nature of research and professional
practice activity. Observations on the period predating the emergence of a recognizable
academic field of inquiry and professional practice are provided for context to draw his-
torical links to current manifestations of research and practice activity. Finally, current
issues and challenges in the field are discussed relating to research and professional
practice competencies, knowledge translation, and responsible and ethical use of the
Internet and social media in the field.
3
4 Eklund and Crocker
H
istorically, the term sport psychology has as having evolved or emerged since the previous
been defined as the study and application edition of this text (Horn, 2008).
of knowledge of psychological aspects of
human movement, even though the broader and
more inclusive label physical activity psychology Defining Sport and Exercise
might be more apt (Gill & Reifsteck, 2014). Presently, Psychology
however, the labels sport psychology and exercise
psychology are regularly employed to make finer Definitions of sport and exercise psychology abound
distinctions regarding scholarly contributions to in the extant literature (Kontos & Feltz, 1988).
both the knowledge base and professional prac- Although some commonality is evident across most
tice contributions. Such distinctions are based on definitions, the variation across them is not entirely
the notion that important differences exist across trivial. It is worth considering a few selected defini-
the two physical activity subcategories (Eklund & tions provided by organizations active in sport and
Tenenbaum, 2014). Sport psychology, for example, exercise psychology to explore the matter.
tends to be focused on psychological factors that First, the American Psychological Association’s
are relevant to participation in competitive rule-gov- Society for Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psy-
erned physical activities involving athleticism or chology answers the question “What is exercise
physical skill. Exercise psychology, by contrast, psychology and sport psychology?” by indicating
tends to be focused on psychological factors impli-
Exercise psychology and sport psychology
cated in participation in regimented programs of involve the scientific study of the psychological
physical activity to improve or maintain health-re- factors that are associated with participation
lated physical fitness. Despite these distinctions, and performance in sport, exercise and other
sport psychology and exercise psychology are types of physical activity. Sport psychologists are
closely interrelated fields of scientific study and interested in two main areas: (a) helping athletes
professional practice, if only because of their shared use psychological principles to achieve optimal
history and their primary interest in human move- mental health and to improve performance
ment and physical activity (Gill & Reifsteck, 2014). (performance enhancement) and (b) under-
The broader label of physical activity psychology standing how participation in sport, exercise
and physical activity affects an individual’s psy-
remains relevant, however, because the categories
chological development, health and well-being
sport and exercise do not encompass the entirety throughout the lifespan.
of human movement possibilities that might be of
APA Division 47, 2016, paragraph 1
interest to researchers and practitioners. As one
example, people engaging in recreational physical The Association of Applied Sport Psychology
activity, with little or no regard for considerations provides a second definition worthy of consider-
of competition or fitness, also hold interest for sci- ation, albeit one that is somewhat more narrowly
entific study in psychology. focused—perhaps reflecting its primary orga-
The primary purpose of this chapter is to pro- nizational focus on “applied sport and exercise
vide a backdrop for understanding the advances psychology”:
in specific areas of research that are detailed in
subsequent chapters in this text. We begin with Applied sport and exercise psychology involves
comments on definitions employed to characterize extending theory and research into the field to
the field. In the second section, we provide a brief educate coaches, athletes, parents, exercisers,
overview of the history of the field, and we end the fitness professionals, and athletic trainers about
the psychological aspects of their sport or activ-
chapter with some observations regarding current
ity. A primary goal of professionals in applied
issues and challenges. Interested readers should sport and exercise psychology is to facilitate opti-
also see commentaries of greater depth that pro- mal involvement, performance, and enjoyment
vide a characterization of the field (e.g., Wylleman, in sport and exercise.
Harwood, Elbe, Reints, & de Caluwe, 2009) or that AASP Definition, 2016, paragraph 1
include discussion of related historical matters (e.g.,
Gill & Reifsteck, 2014; Gill, 1995; Kornspan, 2012; The British Psychological Society (BPS), as a third
Landers, 1995; Seiler & Wylleman, 2009; Weiss & example, approached the matter with a preamble
Gill, 2005; Wiggins, 1984). So, in this chapter, we that established psychology as “the scientific study
focus on the provision of contextual information of the mind and how it dictates and influences
and discussion of issues and challenges that we see behaviour, from communication and memory to
The Nature of Sport, Exercise, and Physical Activity Psychology 5
thought and emotion” (2017b). Characterization of tion the field as being scientific in nature. Second,
various areas of psychological practice represented although areas within physical activity psychology
by the Society in the United Kingdom—one of tend to be regarded as intimately interrelated, sport
which is the Division of Sport and Exercise Psy- psychology and exercise psychology, as the most
chology (DSEP)—occurs elsewhere by reference to prominent examples, should not be regarded as one
their clientele bases (British Psychological Society, and the same thing. This sentiment becomes even
2017b). DSEP is identified as a single area of prac- more obvious when considering other extant defini-
tice (British Psychological Society, 2017a) but then tions specific to exercise psychology (e.g., Rejeski &
characterized as involving two areas of practice Brawley, 1988) or “applied” sport psychology (e.g.,
(i.e., sport psychology, exercise psychology) with Anderson, Miles, Mahoney, & Robinson, 2002) that
some practitioners working in both: make the distinctions more emphatically evident.
Third, the highlighted definitions collectively
Sport psychologists aim to work with, and make apparent that sport and exercise psychology
improve the performance of both elite athletes
spans both research and professional practice roles.
and amateur participants in both team and
Less explicitly evident in the definitions provided,
individual sports. Exercise psychology is primarily
concerned with the application of psychology to although certainly implicated in their supporting
increase exercise participation and motivational commentaries, are related tensions about reg-
levels in the general public. Some psychologists ulation of professional practice in the field—an
work in both fields [emphasis added]. ongoing drama played out across the globe with
British Psychological Society, 2017a nontrivial implications for practitioners and service
recipients—that also have substantial implications
As a final example, the European Federation of for educational preparation of professionals for
Sport Psychology has a relatively longstanding 1995 careers as scientists or professional practitioners.
position statement addressing “What is sport psy- This matter is addressed more substantively later
chology?” that remains current and indicates that in this chapter.
The variation in available definitions may also
Sport psychology is concerned with the psy-
indicate underlying identity struggles in the field.
chological foundations, processes and con-
sequences of the psychological regulation of The differences, at least in part, are grounded in
sport-related activities of one or several persons efforts to differentiate and define niches of focus
acting as the subject(s) of the activity. The focus within the psychology of physical activity to pro-
may be on behaviour or on different psycho- vide clarity for colleagues and the broader world.
logical dimensions of human behaviour, i.e. This tendency appears to match, to some degree,
affective, cognitive, motivational or sensori-motor McFee’s (2004) suggestion that, philosophically, a
dimensions. The physical activity can take place definition should be individually necessary and
in competitive, educational, recreational, pre- jointly sufficient for understanding and recognition,
ventative and rehabilitation settings and includes and that definitions provide a powerful method to
health-related exercise. Subjects are all persons
aid recognition by affording the enumeration of
involved in the different sport and exercise set-
contrasts. The question arising for consideration
tings [emphasis added], e.g. athletes, coaches,
officials, teachers, physiotherapists, parents, is whether the array of definitions evident in the
spectators etc. literature serves as a facilitator or an impediment
for researchers and practitioners in the psychology
FEPSAC, 2016, p. 1
of physical activity. With this in mind, the array
Additional definitions of sport and exercise of definitions should be the subject of construc-
psychology exist in the literature, but the defi- tive criticism, further consideration, and perhaps
nitions provided by APA Division 47, AASP, BPS further refinement. As an example, we agree with
DSEP, and FEPSAC provide an adequate basis for Wylleman et al.’s (2009) assertion that the label
comment because the commonalities, as well as applied sport psychology involves unnecessary
the differences, that are evident across the sources redundancy (i.e., a pleonasm) because the simple
are quite revealing. The commonalities provide act of making sport the focus of psychological
a sense of the overall focus and breadth of sport inquiry or practice is already, in itself, inherently
and exercise psychology at present, whereas the an application of psychology. The utility of making
differences unmask some underlying preferences, the pleonastic distinction is a matter worthy of
tensions, and sensitivities. First, scholars in sport consideration if only because it may signal more
and exercise psychology generally prefer to posi- about struggles with identity (Wylleman et al.,
2009) than serve to define a specific niche in the influence on research on the psychology of physical
field. In any event, understanding of the nature of activity. The bases of human movement are not only
the psychology of physical activity, and perhaps psychological in nature but also biomechanical,
the associated underlying identity issues, can be physiological, developmental, sociological, and so
enhanced by consideration of its placement relative on. Therefore, knowledge from a variety of sub-
to other disciplines and subdisciplines. disciplines in kinesiology has been implicated in
research on the psychology of physical activity over
Disciplinary Links time. Even so, as discussed later in this chapter, an

extensive reliance on evidence and theorizing from
The psychology of physical activity has existing and disciplinary areas of psychology is evident in sport
historical disciplinary links to both kinesiology (i.e., and exercise psychology research. We now turn to
an academic discipline focused on the study of phys- a brief historical overview to add further context
ical activity and its influence on health, society, and to the psychology of physical activity.
quality of life; American Kinesiology Association,
2015) and psychology (i.e., the scientific study of
behavior and mental processes; Gerrig & Zimbardo, History of Sport
2002). The sidebar Areas of Specialization in Kine-
siology and Psychology presents an alphabetical
and Exercise Psychology
listing of areas of specialization within kinesiology Our comments on the history of the psychology of
alongside areas of professional practice in psychol- physical activity are not intended to be definitive
ogy as compiled from, respectively, commentaries or exhaustive, but rather to provide some context
provided by the National Academy of Kinesiology and a few defining events for understanding the
(2016) and the British Psychological Society (2017b). emergence of the recognized academic area. More
Although not exhaustive or definitive, the listings exhaustive commentaries should be considered by
highlight the psychology of physical activity as readers interested in perspectives extending beyond
being subsumed within two parent disciplines. our observations and into the maturational progres-
Even so, it is fair to say that the study of sport sion of the established field (e.g., Gill & Reifsteck,
or exercise psychology has more often been nur- 2014; Gould & Voelker, 2014; Kornspan, 2012; Seiler
tured at universities in disciplinary academic & Wylleman, 2009; Vealey, 2006). It is perhaps
units focused on kinesiology than in disciplinary unsurprising that concerns have been aired about
academic units focused on psychology. Despite some earlier historiographical accounts available
this positioning, both parent disciplines have had in the extant literature that relate to the relative
Areas of Specialization in Kinesiology and Psychology
Psychology Kinesiology
• Clinical psychology • Biomechanics
• Counseling psychology • Exercise physiology
• Educational psychology • History of physical activity
• Forensic psychology • Measurement of physical activity
• Health psychology • Motor development
• Neuropsychology • Motor learning and control
• Occupational psychology • Philosophy of physical activity
• Research and academic psychology • Physical activity and public health
• Sport and exercise psychology • Physical education pedagogy
• Psychology of physical activity
• Sociology of physical activity
• Sport management
• Sports medicine
absence or acknowledgment of historical events and characterize as sport psychology topics appeared
developments beyond North America (e.g., Seiler subsequent to the founding of the parent discipline
& Wylleman, 2009) and about the contributions of psychology and, moreover, that by the turn of
made by women (e.g., Gill, 1995; Vealey, 2006). the 19th century, some research publications result-
Those identified concerns were not unfounded, and ing from that interest can be identified. The early
commentaries emerging more recently have increas- years of the 20th century in Europe also featured
ingly become more well rounded and balanced. other gestational developments (e.g., conferences
More progress remains to be made, but gradually focused on sport psychology) that might arguably
the historical picture is being filled in. have served to coalesce and consolidate an iden-
Classical antiquity is typically used as a start- tifiable field at an earlier point than occurred had
ing point in historical commentaries on sport and World War I not interrupted the possibility (Seiler
exercise psychology. It is appealing on various & Wylleman, 2009).
accounts to link modern-day sport and exercise Despite the developmental interruption incurred
psychology back to the ancient Olympic Games by World War I, the initial decade of the inter–
and philosophical ponderings of ancient Greek or World War period featured a variety of important
Roman scholars (e.g., Hippocrates’ famous dictum developments foreshadowing today’s vibrant field
mens sana in corpore sano—a sound mind in a (Seiler & Wylleman, 2009). As examples, identifiable
sound body). But the link is tenuous at best because laboratories for sport-psychology-related research
the next major timeline entry typically occurs in appeared in various locations (e.g., Germany, Soviet
the 1850 to 1860 period, relative to the founding of Union, United States) as well as topically focused
psychology as a science through the contributions courses at universities. Coleman Griffith’s efforts at
of Gustave Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt. This the University of Illinois are often lauded as fore-
later linkage is probably more foundational if only shadowing what sport psychology would become
because psychology is typically regarded as a parent in the future. As described by Vealey (2006), he
discipline for the field—but, of course, that makes founded the Research in Athletics Laboratory at
the history of sport and exercise psychology far less the University of Illinois in 1925, published about
than thousands of years old! 25 sport-psychology-related papers, served as a
The reputed first sport psychology experiment (a sport psychology educator and consultant, and
foundational moment also shared in many historical wrote arguably the first two major textbooks in the
accounts of social psychology) is often identified field (Psychology of Coaching, 1926; Psychology and
as being Norman Triplett’s (1898) evaluation of the Athletics, 1928). Laboratories in the Soviet Union
social dynamogeny hypothesis that emanated from and Germany predated Griffith’s laboratory and
his observations on the performance of cyclists. university courses (Seiler & Wylleman, 2009), so
Perhaps unsurprisingly, claims about this exper- initial claims by North American authors that he
iment being the first have been disputed—and was the “father of sport psychology” are now delim-
not groundlessly (e.g., Seiler & Wylleman, 2009; ited to “in North America.” Nonetheless, Griffith’s
Stroebe, 2012)—but it is fair to say that a great deal contributions were nontrivial, and in some ways
of subsequent research on social facilitation topics his efforts as an administrator at the University of
has been inspired by his report. Of course, Max Illinois to reinstitute the Sport Psychology Lab in
Ringelmann’s efforts on individual productivity 1951 after its depression-era closure in 1932 might
and group size (now termed social loafing) have be regarded as one of his more important services to
also had a substantial influence on research in both the future of the field in North America (Kornspan,
sport and social psychology—whether or not recog- 2012).
nized as being conducted first but published after The closure of Griffith’s lab in 1932 was but a
Triplett (Stroebe, 2012). Focusing on Triplett (or single sport-psychology-related consequence of the
other potential individuals), however, is probably problems faced worldwide during the later depres-
too restrictive of a view of nascent sport psychology sion-wracked years of inter–World War period and
research activity in the period because, as noted by subsequently during World War II and its immedi-
Seiler and Wylleman (2009, p. 404), there were a ate aftermath. For the most part, research on the
“considerable number of [sport-psychology-related] psychology of physical activity was simply not a
publications appearing between 1894 and 1900” by priority during those years (Seiler & Wylleman,
authors in Germany, France, Italy and Hungary. 2009). Some research (e.g., on psychomotor coor-
More important than questions about who was first dination) and applied practice areas, however, did
is the fact that research interest in what we now not go dormant during that period but instead were
refocused on military and aviation applications. As psychology possible as it now exists. A nascent
one example of activity during that period, Dorothy but amorphous field started to emerge during that
Yates developed interventions for boxers that were period—one that is still growing and developing.
offered to aviators and athletes in a 1942 psychology As a sense of normalcy returned to the world, con-
course at San Jose State University—to some subse- vergences from relatively isolated activities within
quent acclaim in letters of testament received from and between countries emerged, resulting in the
aviators flying in World War II (Vealey, 2006). In creation of scholarly societies and, subsequently,
this light, present-day efforts to use sport psychol- journals for sport psychology that provided ave-
ogy to advance military training and performance nues for the expansion and sharing of research
(e.g., Arthur, Fitzwater, Hardy, Beattie, & Bell, 2015; and scholarship. The progression was sometimes
Ward, Farrow, Harris, Williams, Eccles, & Ericsson, halting and often uncertain, but the successive
2008) are simply the continuation of a legacy—as is widespread integration of coursework into degree
the Association of Applied Sport Psychology special programs at universities, primarily in kinesiology
interest group in military performance (AASP Mil- academic units, provided institutional anchors for
itary Performance SIG, 2016). Given this historical the subdiscipline as well as avenues for graduate
sport psychology–military nexus, perhaps the claim training. That progression is encapsulated in time-
in an APA Division 47 website document that “the lines of emergence for scholarly organizations (table
largest employer of people [in the U.S.] with applied 1.1) and journals (table 1.2).
sport psychology training is the United States Army Sport psychology is an area of scientific research
Comprehensive Soldier Fitness—Performance and and professional practice that has not only devel-
Resilience Enhancement Program” (Portenga et al., oped over the years but also expanded substantially.
n.d., p. 13) is not too surprising. In any event, the Consideration of the sidebar AASP Special Interest
seeds of sport psychology–military involvements Groups provides an illustration of the breadth of
can be traced back to events occurring during interests in this expansion. Perhaps more funda-
inter–World War and World War II periods. mentally, however, Lavallee, Kremer, Moran, and
As the “more vital problems” of the world Williams (2012) suggested that the expansion is
(Seiler & Wylleman, 2009) started to subside after exemplified in the widespread augmentation of “and
World War II, interests from earlier in the cen- exercise” in many, if not most, sport psychology
tury on psychological aspects of physical activity texts and journals, as well as in the fourth edition
were rekindled or refocused away from wartime of this text. Returning to a theme in our introduc-
applications. This shift made sport (and exercise) tory comments, the histories of sport psychology
Table 1.1 Sport and Exercise Psychology Organizations and Founding Dates
Organization Acronym Established
International Society of Sport Psychology ISSP 1965
British Society of Sport Psychology BSSP 1967
North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity NASPSPA 1967
Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology SCAPPS 1969
European Federation of Sport Psychology FEPSAC 1969
Japanese Society of Sport Psychology n/a 1973
Israeli Society for Sport Psychology and Sociology n/a 1974
Hellenic Society of Sport Psychology n/a 1978
British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciencea BASES 1984
Association for Applied Sport Psychologyb AASP 1986
American Psychological Association Division 47 APA Div. 47 1987
Australian Psychological Societyc APS 1988
Asian-South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology ASPASP 1989
British Psychological Society Division of Sport and Exercise Psychology BPS DSEP 2004
a
Including sport psychology
b
Formerly the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
c
Included sport psychology as a specialization
Table 1.2 Journals Focused on the Publication of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Journal name Society affiliation Established
International Journal of Sport Psychology Formerly ISSP 1970
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology NASPSPA 1979
The Sport Psychologist n/a 1987
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology AASP 1989
Psychology of Sport and Exercise FEPSAC 2000
International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology ISSP 2003
Sport and Exercise Psychology Review BPS 2005
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology n/a 2007
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology n/a 2008
Journal of Sport Psychology in Action AASP 2010
Frontiers of Movement Science and Sport Psychology n/a 2010
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology APA Div. 47 2012
AASP Special Interest Groups
• Adaptive Sport and Physical Activity • Performance Consulting in Collegiate Sport

• Anger and Violence in Sport • Performance Psychophysiology and Biofeedback
• Business Ownership in Sport Psychology • Performance Excellence
• Coaching Science • Positive Psychology for Sport and Exercise
• College/University Counseling Center • Positive Youth Development Through Physical
• Eating Disorders Activity
• Exercise Psychology and Wellness • Psychology of Sport Injury
• Fencing • Race and Ethnicity In Sport
• Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Intersex • Soccer
• International Olympic Sport Psychology • Teaching Sport and Exercise Psychology
• Media in Sport • Women in Sports
• Military Performance • Youth Sport
www.appliedsportpsych.org
and exercise psychology are intimately intertwined decades. Whether or not the present manifestation
(Gill & Reifsteck, 2014; Gould & Voelker, 2014) of the field is precisely what was envisioned by its
even though someone could mistakenly believe pioneers is debatable, but their vision certainly pro-
that their evolutionary paths were distinct. As a vided impetus to its present trajectory. This growth,
further example of the broadening of the field, the however, has been accompanied by unfolding issues
title of the new APA journal, Sport, Exercise, and and challenges, some of which we outline in the
Performance Psychology, highlights that the field following sections.
has also expanded to embrace performance psy-
chology—although many would suggest that the
title is more a matter of making finer distinctions Professional Competencies
than being something new. The competencies considered necessary or essential
In summary, the psychology of physical activ- for researchers and service professionals to possess
ity has grown immensely over time as a field of have proved to be major and longstanding issues
scientific inquiry and professional practice. The in sport and exercise psychology (see Fletcher
rate of growth has accelerated greatly over recent & Maher, 2013; Tenenbaum, Lidor, Papaianou &
amulski, 2003; Wylleman, Harwood, Elbe, Reints

S exercise psychology. Does this relatively limited
& de Caluwé, 2009). Establishing clear standards exposure to psychological knowledge limit sport
related to the knowledge requirements on theory, science students’ thinking and understanding of
measurement, and practice standards has impli- the potential intricacies of psychology in sport and
cations for developing effective and efficient edu- exercise settings? The answer to this question is not
cational and training programs in universities. obvious. Clearly, a double degree, which might not
Determining competencies, however, has always be practicable, would maximally benefit students
been controversial, perhaps especially in applied because such educational experiences would cover
sport psychology but increasingly so in all areas many different knowledge competencies.
related to sport and exercise (see Andersen, Van The selection of a graduate program is likely to
Raalte, & Brewer, 2000; Collins, Burke, Martindale, have a greater effect on the development of compe-
& Cruickshank, 2015; Ryba, Stambulova, Si, & tencies related to research and professional practice.
Schinke, 2013). To address all issues is beyond the In Australia, North America, the United Kingdom,
scope of this chapter, and the interested reader is and elsewhere, many sport science programs have
directed to the papers cited. We focus primarily on a strong research emphasis. Faculty members are
the university training of researchers and service charged with obtaining research grants, conducting
professionals. high-quality research, and producing high-caliber
In an ISSP positon stand, Tenenbaum and col- research papers describing the findings of those
leagues (2003) proposed a conceptual scheme for research efforts. Graduate students in these pro-
competencies that represented areas covering both grams are, therefore, often well trained on theory
research and professional practice relative to both and research methodology and are oriented toward
knowledge base and practice standards. General production of research output. Students in these
areas relating theories, research tools, measure- programs can be overwhelmed with learning
ment and statistics, and ethics were covered in the not only the theoretical models but also utilizing
knowledge-based standards. Practice standards sophisticated assessment and analysis techniques
addressed capacities relating to interventions and in both quantitative and qualitative methods. For
communications. More important than the spe- graduating PhD students, future employment in uni-
cific outlined details is the fact that the depth and versities typically requires knowledge of advanced
breadth of conceptual scheme, as acknowledged by analytic procedures such as multivariate analysis,
the authors, was such that no individual could meet structural equation modeling, and latent growth
all the competencies in all areas of the standards. modeling (Biddle et al., 2001; Ntoumanis et al.,
In North America, Europe, the United Kingdom, 2015). Students using qualitative methods also must
Australia, and New Zealand, researchers and ser- be aware of the tremendous growth in the field
vice professionals follow two primary educational of methods such as thematic analysis, grounded
tracks: sport sciences and psychology (McCullagh, theory, ethnography, interpretative phenomenologi-
Noble, & Portenga, 2014; Wylleman et al., 2009). cal analysis, and narrative analysis (Culver, Gilbert,
This setup will influence the choice of undergrad- & Sparkes, 2012; Sparkes & Smith, 2014).
uate and graduate degree programs. Many under- With much of the research in sport and exercise
graduate students inquire whether they should psychology being driven by evaluation of theoretical
obtain a psychology degree, a sport science degree models, relatively little consideration is given to
with a minor in psychology, or a double degree in professional development (Tod & Lavallee, 2011).
psychology and sport science. What about graduate Sport science programs differ widely in the number
school? Each track offers advantages. At the under- of required courses (primarily driven by individual
graduate level, psychology students receive educa- universities’ funding formulas). Sport and exercise
tional experiences across a variety of psychological psychology students are likely to have access to a
fields such as personality-social, developmental, limited number of courses oriented toward profes-
health, clinical and counseling, experimental, and sional practice. Therefore, relatively few of these
neural-biological. This broad-based education is students receive coursework that meaningfully
likely to increase awareness of the complexities of addresses competencies in, as examples, career
human functioning. In contrast, sport science stu- counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy, behavior
dents often obtain broad-based educational training modification, family-system therapy, and other
on exercise physiology, biomechanics, anatomy, intervention techniques. Students in sport science
growth and development, health, social-cultural programs may be more likely to receive some train-
studies, and a few specialized courses in sport and ing in such areas as performance enhancement
techniques, exercise behavioral change, motivation, exercise and wellness. There is also an empirical
and possibly skills related to personal development. literature that is specific to exercise psychology (see
Although these skills are recognized by scholarly Ekkekakis, 2013). Yet little attention has been paid
professional bodies (e.g., AASP, Canadian Sport to the specific competencies or levels of expertise
Psychology Association) for various forms of certi- required by professionals working with exercise
fication, they are considered inadequate by many clients. Considering that exercise psychology is
professional licensing boards. On this basis alone, growing rapidly in many countries, professional
Tod and Lavallee’s (2011) argument that many practice issues require additional thoughtful consid-
graduate students in sport psychology are receiv- eration and debate among professionals in the field.
ing inadequate professional training is difficult to
dismiss.
In contrast, accredited counseling and clinical Knowledge Translation
programs have a stronger emphasis on professional A series of intricately related issues connect
competencies. At the master’s level, basic course- research and professional practice competencies
work often includes ethics, interviewing skills, to continuing education, professional development,
counseling theory, group counseling, counseling knowledge translation, and evidence-based prac-
for specific groups (family, adolescents, adults), tice. A major gulf exists in health care between
assessment, and career programming. In most what we know and what we do (Davis et al., 2003).
cases programs also include supervised field place- The same case can be made in sport and exercise
ments and internships. Doctoral training in these psychology. The field is influenced by knowledge
programs involves more comprehensive training in developments across many fields, including, but
specific areas of counseling, advanced intervention not limited to, psychology, education, medicine,
techniques, assessment, research methods and sport sciences, sociology, and cultural studies. In
analysis, and supervised internships. Students grad- many cases systematic knowledge is not translated
uating from these programs typically apply for reg- to potential consumers in a way that can enhance
istration as a licensed psychologist. Unfortunately, effective evidence-based practice. How can we
many counseling psychology students will not take facilitate this process to keep researchers and pro-
specific courses in sport sciences, including sport fessional service providers informed?
and exercise psychology, or even the general area Surprisingly, few well-developed writings by
of performance psychology. Furthermore, given the scholars in sport and exercise psychology exist on
high demands of many counseling psychology pro- how to close the gap between knowledge and prac-
grams, only with difficulty can these students build tice. Professional organizations in sport and exer-
knowledge competencies in other areas of psychol- cise psychology have recognized that continuing
ogy that could facilitate their work with clients in education (CE) and professional development (CP)
sport and exercise settings. Nevertheless, training are key processes for researchers and practitioners
in counseling psychology and the affiliated area of (see AASP Continuing Education Committee, 2016;
clinical psychology allows students to acquire a set APA Division 47 Education Committee, 2016). Both
of professional competencies that are recognized by CE and CP are typically targeted at professionals
professional boards and health care systems. after initial postgraduate education. Many psycho-
Most writings on competencies related to logical licensing boards as well as certification
research and professional practice in sport and boards require psychologists to obtain CE credits
exercise psychology focus on sport psychology, after licensing or certification. Professional devel-
especially for professional practice. If we consider opment, although not required, involves develop-
knowledge base standards, sport psychology and ing skills outside typical university training and
exercise psychology are likely to overlap consider- includes such aspects as financial training, busi-
ably given their substantial interrelationships (Gill ness management, engagement with community
& Reifsteck, 2014). This correspondence might also organizations, and developing social, research, and
be true for professional practice standards (Hayes professional support systems (see Davis et al., 2003;
& Smith, 1995). Researchers in exercise psychology Hayes & Smith, 1996).
will likely require greater knowledge in exercise We can easily reach the false conclusion that the
physiology and neural-physiological processes to gap between research evidence and professional
investigate such issues related to exercise dose practice exists only because professional service
response, biomarkers of wellness, and physiological providers are not keeping abreast of recent theoreti-
mechanisms that mediate relationships between cal and intervention developments. Bridging the gap
goes beyond CE and CP to involve knowledge trans- provides psychology practitioners involved in
lation. This dynamic and iterative process includes the sport industry with sound information
all generators and users of knowledge to promote that is immediately applicable to their work.
ethical evidence-based application. It involves The journal also provides sport psychologists
synthesis, dissemination, exchange, and applica- with useful and sensible informed guidance
tion of knowledge. Unlike CE and CP, knowledge that will make a difference in the way they
translation targets all potential contributors in the practice. (paragraph 1, JSPA, n.d.)
system, including researchers, professional service
providers, students, clients, policy makers, athletes, Over the first six volumes (2010–2015) the jour-
coaches, parents, and administrators (Davis et al., nal has published many articles that do address
2003; Graham et al., 2006). Many major granting the application of sport psychology. Surprisingly,
agencies are strongly encouraging knowledge trans- however, none of the published articles specifically
lation as a necessary part of research. For example, addressed the complexities of knowledge translation
the Canadian Institutes of Health Research has and the use of KTS in sport and exercise psychology
adopted Graham and colleagues’ (2006) knowledge or the need for research that evaluates the effective-
translation model called knowledge to action. A ness of knowledge translation efforts.
key aspect of the model is that users of knowledge A key feature of effective knowledge translation
are actively involved in the process to determine is that it leads to evidence-based practice. Both the
whether their needs are being met. This interaction APA and Canadian Psychological Association (CPA)
between knowledge users and knowledge genera- state that evidence-based practice in psychology
tors can produce beneficial learning for both groups involves integrating best available research evi-
(Straus, Tetroe & Graham, 2007). dence with clinical expertise to inform decision
Effective knowledge translation in sport and making and service delivery (APA, 2016; CPA, 2012).
exercise psychology will require a concerted effort This process encompasses a clear consideration of
by professional and research bodies, as well as client characteristics, cultural background, and
universities. Some in the field have attempted to treatment preferences. Professional service pro-
develop knowledge transfer strategies (KTS). These viders need to engage in practices that maximize
strategies could include requiring delivery of post- benefits and minimize harm to their clients. Nev-
graduate university courses in KTS, requiring KTS ertheless, evidence-based practice is complex and
competence as part of certification or licensing, poses serious challenges because sport and exercise
asking keynote speakers at scholarly conferences to clients in modern societies are increasingly diverse
provide evidence for their practices, having scholars in terms of age, ethnicity, religion, culture practices,
write guidelines of evidence-based best practices in and sexual orientation.
accessible language for the lay reader, and promot- This recognition of diversity brings us full circle
ing journals that address knowledge translation in back to the competencies required by physical
sport and exercise psychology. Professional schol- activity psychology researchers and practitioners.
arly organizations have increasingly committed to Emerging theoretical, research, and professional
providing resources that provide evidence-based practice frameworks are critically challenging
information for athletes, coaches, parents, and the traditional ethnocentric ways of knowing in
exercisers (see AASP Professional Resources, 2016), sport and exercise psychology. Writers are advo-
but the field also needs research that evaluates cating new ways of thinking about and doing both
the effectiveness of knowledge translation. We research and practice based on a critical analysis
should be worried that such research will reaffirm of epistemological and ontological assumptions,
the findings of Reade and colleagues (2008), who as well as research methodologies, rooted in dis-
reported that Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) ciplines such as cultural studies, sociology, and
coaches ranked sport scientists and their research feminist theory (Gill, 2001; Kauer & Krane, 2011;
publications very low as a source of sport science McGannon & Smith, 2015; Ram, Starek, & John-
information. son, 2004; Ryba & Wright, 2005). These scholarly
The Association for Applied Sport Psychology movements have led to the development of position
sponsors the Journal of Sport Psychology in Action statements on culturally competent research and
(JSPA), a journal that has the potential to be an effec- practice in sport and exercise psychology (see Ryba
tive vehicle for knowledge translation. Although et al., 2013 for details). A key aspect of diversity is
never using the term knowledge translation in its based on the understanding that there is no uni-
scope, JSPA does state that it versal client or research participant and that people
exist in sociocultural contexts that shape how they technologies to enhance professional practice in
view themselves and others (Ryba et al., 2013). Such psychology-related areas (Watson, Tenenbaum,
viewpoints will likely have a significant influence Libor, & Alfermann, 2001; Zizzi & Perna, 2002).
on the knowledge translation process. Despite the potential tremendous payoffs of the
Internet and social media for sport and exercise
Technology in Practice psychology, many concerns require careful con-
sideration. These concerns include intellectual
A key matter in sport and exercise psychology is the property and copyright issues; confidentiality;
responsible and ethical usage of the Internet and professional competency; integrity in online rela-
social media for teaching, research, and professional tionships; equality of access; informed consent; eth-
practice (Watson, Lubker, Zakrajsek, & Quartiroli, ical recruitment of clients and participants; secure
2012). The last 40 years have been witness to mas- collection, storage, and transmission of information;
sive and dynamic technological and communication legal and regulatory matters; Internet and social
changes that affect every aspect of personal and media skills; evidence of quality and effectiveness
professional lives. The Internet involves the inter- of services; and maintenance of professional roles
connection of computer networks using both hard- (AoIR, 2012, McKee & Porter, 2009; Taylor, McMinn,
wired and wireless systems. But such a viewpoint is Bufford & Chang, 2010; Watson et al., 2012; Watson
limiting, because the Internet might be best thought et al., 2001). Another need is to separate professional
of as an umbrella term that includes all the tech- and personal social media sites. To a large extent,
nologies, communication devices, capacities, and universities and colleges provide guidelines and
social spaces that allow people to send or exchange establish review boards that help regulate the eth-
information through electronic means (AoIR, 2012). ical use of the Internet for teaching and research
Most sport and exercise psychology professionals purposes. Professional practice is another matter.
are aware of the use of the World Wide Web and Professional regulatory bodies place the onus of
some of the popular social media sites. But social responsibility squarely on the shoulders of the
media is exploding with the development of numer- professional. Dr. Stephen Behnke, then director of
ous communication forms that can be clustered APA’s Ethics Office, stated that APA’s ethics codes
into various categories, including blogging, social can help guide online professional practice because
networking, social bookmarking, video sharing, these codes govern all professional activities and
photo sharing, presentation sharing, professional communications (Martin, 2010). Nonetheless, many
networking, and podcasting (see www.onbloggin- interesting and complicating challenges have been
gwell.com for more details). This communication identified. For example, professionals need to con-
revolution poses many challenges. sider the laws and regulations of not only the locale
Internet-related technologies offer myriad bene- of the professional but also the locale of the client
fits to sport and exercise psychology. These benefits (American Counseling Association, 2014). Further-
include increasing awareness and access to knowl- more, because the Internet is unregulated, little
edge and services; allowing rapid communication can stop people from offering dubious services to
with students, clients, and collaborators; increasing unsuspecting clients. Several publications provide
efficiency in data collection and analysis; improving thoughtful treatment of the challenges relevant to
teaching effectiveness; creating new revenue gener- the ethical use of the Internet and social media for
ation; and enhancing continuing educational and teaching, research, and practice (e.g., AoIR, 2012;
professional development (Vandelanotte, Spathonis, Beetham & Sharpe, 2013; Taylor et al., 2010; Watson
Eakin, & Owen, 2007; Watson et al., 2012). Many et al., 2012).
universities now offer online courses, and some
universities deliver online graduate programs in
sport and exercise psychology. AASP identifies uni-
Summary
versity sites that allow students and professionals In this chapter we presented information on the
to complete courses that fulfill specific competency nature of sport, exercise, and physical activity psy-
requirements for AASP-certified consultants (AASP chology to provide a backdrop for u nderstanding
Online Courses, 2016). Researchers are increasingly advances in specific areas of research that are pre-
aware of online technologies that facilitate partici- sented in following chapters in this text. We have
pant recruitment and the secure collection, storage, conceptually situated physical activity psychol-
and transmission of data. Several publications have ogy as the broadest label of psychological endeavor
also addressed the potential for using online-related relating to human movement and identified sport
psychology and exercise psychology as subareas American Counseling Association. (2014). 2014 ACA
relating to specific types of human movement. code of ethics. www.counseling.org/docs/ethics/2014-
Consideration of commonalities and differences aca-code-of-ethics.pdf?sfvrsn=4
in definitions provided by major sport and exer- American Kinesiology Association. (2015). Position state-
cise psychology organizations was presented to ment #2: AKA clarifies the definition of kinesiology. www
reveal both the focus and breadth of the field and .americankinesiology.org/white-papers/white-papers
underlying preferences (i.e., to be situated as a part Andersen , M.B., Van Raalte, J.L., & Brewer, B.W. (2000).
of science), tensions (distinction between sport When sport psychology consultants and graduate stu-
psychology and exercise psychology; regulation of dents are impaired: Ethical and legal issues in training
professional practice), and sensitivities (identity and supervision. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
issues). The nature of the field is shaped by having 12, 134–150.
two parent disciplines. Although kinesiology has Anderson, A.G., Miles, A., Mahoney, C., & Robinson,
been tremendously important to the growth of the P. (2002). Evaluating the effectiveness of applied sport
field and in connecting its scholars with a human psychology practice: Making the case for a case study
approach. The Sport Psychologist, 16, 432-453.
movement basis, research and practice has been
more strongly influenced by psychology. The brief AoIR. (2012). Ethical decision-making and Internet
history that we provided was largely focused on the research. Recommendations from the AoIR Ethics Working
Committee (version 2.0). http://aoir.org/reports/ethics2.
period predating the emergence of a recognizable
pdf
academic field of sport and exercise psychology to
draw historical links to current manifestations of APA. (2016). Policy statement on evidence-based practice
in psychology. www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/evi-
activity (e.g., the sport psychology–military nexus).
dence-based-statement.aspx
Finally, we focused on current issues and challenges
in the field related to research and professional APA Division 47. (2016). What is exercise psychology and
sport psychology? www.apadivisions.org/division-47/
practice competencies, knowledge translation, and
about/resources/what-is.aspx
responsible and ethical use of Internet and social
media in the field. In short, significant challenges APA Division 47 Education Committee. (2016). Education
exist for the scientist-practitioner model of graduate Committee. www.apadivisions.org/division-47/leader-
ship/committees/education/
training in sport and exercise psychology and the
possibilities presented by modern technology. The Arthur, C.A., Fitzwater, J., Hardy, L., Beattie, S.J., &
extent to which these challenges are surmountable Bell, J. (2015). Development and validation of a military
training mental toughness inventory, Military Psychology,
and will change the field remains to be seen.
27(4), 232–241.
We thank Vista Beasley for her contributions in facilitating our efforts in Beetham, H., & Sharpe, R. (2013). Rethinking pedagogy
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York, NY: Routledge.
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2
Research
Approaches in the
Sport, Exercise, and
Physical Activity Field
Martin S. Hagger, PhD  Brett Smith, PhD
Abstract
Sport and exercise psychology is an evidence-based discipline. Practitioners rely on
knowledge generated in research studies to ensure that their practice is effective and effi-
cient. Researchers in sport and exercise psychology must adopt stringent methodological
standards. This chapter outlines the research approaches adopted by researchers in sport
and exercise psychology, including the two major methodological approaches, labeled
quantitative and qualitative, as well as the combined, or mixed-method, approach. The
section on quantitative approaches highlights the important issues of sampling, mea-
surement replication and converging evidence, and validity and reliability. The typical
research designs adopted in quantitative approaches are defined and discussed. Research
synthesis and meta-analysis are also highlighted as a means to summarize quantitative
findings. A final section discusses controversial issues in research methods, including the
lack of experimental and intervention designs and the replication “crisis.” The section
on qualitative designs initially outlines the importance of an interpretivist approach and
the way in which it influences the identification of research questions, study design,
sampling and data, and the validity and generalizability of research findings. Several
methodological traditions in qualitative designs are outlined: grounded theory, phenom-
enological approaches, community-based participatory action research, and narrative
inquiry. Typical and more novel qualitative data collection methods are identified and
discussed, including face-to-face, one-to-one, and focus group interviews, mobile and
online interviews, and autophotographic methods. Thematic analysis as the traditional
means to analyze qualitative data is outlined, as are innovative approaches such as
autoethnographies and ethnodrama. The advantages of the growing trend of adopting
mixed-method approaches to studying phenomena in sport and exercise psychology are
discussed. Finally, recommendations for best research practice in conducting research
in sport and exercise psychology using quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method
research approaches are provided.
17
18 Hagger and Smith
L
ike those in all disciplines in psychology, sport of research that illustrate the approach and serve as
and exercise psychologists are primarily inter- templates for the design of future research studies.
ested in behavior. Developing an understand- We also outline the potential limitations of each
ing of the psychological factors, or constructs, that approach and provide suggestions about how they
are related to behavioral phenomena is, therefore, may be counteracted or minimized.
paramount for sport and exercise psychologists.
Sport psychologists, for example, are principally
interested in what constructs and conditions lead Quantitative Research
to optimal performance in athletes, whereas exer-
cise psychologists want to understand the factors
Approaches
related to increased engagement in, and adherence Quantitative research designs are the dominant
to, physical activity to promote better health. As methodological form in sport and exercise psychol-
applied practitioners, sport and exercise psycholo- ogy. The quantitative approach is synonymous with
gists rely on evidence generated through research, the “scientific” approach advocated by empiricists
which provides essential knowledge on effective and research philosophers (e.g., Lakatos, 1978;
practices and strategies in behavioral phenomena in Meehl, 1990; Popper, 1959), in which knowledge
the field. And as an empirical discipline, knowledge is generated through the posing of a hypothesis,
in sport and exercise psychology is built up through or idea, about a behavioral phenomenon and then
systematic investigations that pose and respond to testing that idea against observation based on the
research questions in the field. Like researchers in principle of falsification. Researchers develop the-
all areas of science, sport and exercise psychologists ories, identify hypotheses derived from those the-
observe phenomena, develop ideas, or theories, ories, and then collect observations, or data, using
about how those phenomena might work, design relevant or valid measures to establish whether
and conduct investigations, or studies, to test key their hypotheses can be supported (confirmed)
questions, or hypotheses, relating to those theo- or rejected (falsified). The strength of a theory or
ries through systematic observation in sport and hypothesis depends on the quality of the observa-
exercise contexts, analyze data on those observations and on the frequency with which observations
tions, and draw conclusions based on the ideas or have supported the hypothesis. A series of null
research questions. A single study alone does not or disconfirmed findings may make a scientist
provide definitive evidence to support a question reevaluate and revise the theory. It is through this
or hypothesis because a single study is unlikely to process of evidence-based consensus and revision
encompass all the complexity and conditions that that theories are revised and modified and knowl-
affect a particular phenomenon. Instead, knowledge edge progresses (Biddle, Hagger, Chatzisarantis,
is built up over time and through the accumulation & Lippke, 2007). Theories in sport and exercise
of converging evidence. Researchers in sport and psychology are not infallible; nor are they set in
exercise psychology, therefore, need to design and stone. Rather, they are essentially living systems
conduct studies that are optimally effective in that evolve, change, and become more elaborate as
addressing the key question, or hypothesis. They new research and evidence becomes known.
want to select the appropriate method and design In the following sections of this chapter, several
to ensure that each study will be fit for purpose in issues or topics relevant to quantitative research
testing the predictions or exploring the phenome- approaches are identified and discussed, including
non in question. issues relating to sampling, measurement, repli-
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the cation and converging evidence, and validity and
methodological approaches that sport and exercise reliability.
psychologists have adopted to generate knowledge
and answer research questions. Our review is Sample Issues
divided into three major categories based on the
methodological approaches used in the research lit- Quantitative approaches rely on data collected
erature. These include quantitative (e.g., experimen- from and tested with research participants that
tal, intervention, correlational or survey, systematic represent a target population (e.g., athletes, sed-
reviews, and meta-analyses), qualitative (e.g., entary people). Given that collecting data from all
interviews, focus groups, ethnographies, autobi- people in a given population would not generally
ographies), and mixed-method approaches. Within be feasible, quantitative researchers must select a
each methodological section, we provide examples sample of participants that adequately represents
Research Approaches in the Sport, Exercise, and Physical Activity Field 19
the target population. The closer the sample reflects if the questions are developed to tap the construct
the population, the more able the researchers will of interest. Although psychological constructs
be to infer that their findings likely reflect the true can also be measured by other means such as
effect within the population (i.e., the study findings evaluations or proxy measures from others (e.g.,
can be generalized to the population as a whole). coaches, parents), self-reports are the most preva-
Researchers may employ sophisticated sampling lent. Measures of behavior or behaviorally based
strategies (e.g., random selection, stratification, or outcomes can also be measured by self-report, and
oversampling among particular groups) so that the survey measures have been validated to do so (e.g.,
characteristics of the sample closely represent those self-report measures of physical activity across a
of the target population. To do this, researchers specified period). Although such measures have
need to know the characteristics of the population been shown to be valid against more objective mea-
so that they can strategically recruit participants sures, they are subject to bias such as the inability
reflecting that population. A sport psychologist, for of the individual to recall his or her behavior or the
example, studying high school basketball players provision of socially desirable responses (i.e., the
would need to know the characteristics of the entire person provides the response that he or she believes
population (e.g., age range and gender distribution, corresponds with the researcher’s aim). Thus, the
income and education level of their parents, level of adoption of measures of behavior that do not rely on
experience) and would aim to recruit participants self-report are advocated because they provide tests
that reflect the overall population levels. This task that are less susceptible to bias. Examples include
presents a considerable challenge, and researchers accelerometers to measure physical activity and
often do not have the access or resources to recruit proxy measures that serve as an indirect indicator
the appropriate sample. Thus, they may recruit par- of such behavior (e.g., gym attendance to measure
ticipants based on some, but not all, of the criteria physical activity level or number of yellow cards
that define the population of interest. Therefore, received by sport participants as an indicator of
results must be interpreted in light of the fact that antisocial behavior).
the sample may not closely reflect the population
of interest. In this instance, converging evidence
from studies that test the same research question
Replication and Converging Evidence
or hypothesis across multiple samples that overall As with all evidence-based disciplines, knowledge
represent population of interest may allow for better about phenomena in any area of psychology is built
inference of generalizability. up through a number of studies confirming a partic-
ular effect. In fact, replication is a foundation stone
on which knowledge is built. Replication provides
Measurement Issues confirmatory evidence that tests of a particular
Another important feature of quantitative designs is effect have not arisen by chance and ensures that
the need to use valid and reliable measures of the the approach and method used to test the effect of
constructs or variables of interest (Hagger, 2014). interest produces similar findings across contexts
In quantitative research, two types of measure are and populations (Thompson, 1994), thus provid-
typically used: measures of psychological con- ing support that the effect is robust. The notion of
structs and measures of behavior and behavioral replication is closely related to that of reproduc-
outcomes. Psychological constructs are generally ibility. Reproducibility reflects the extent to which
measured through self-report surveys that include an experiment can be followed by researchers
questions or items relating to the construct of inter- independent of those who conducted the original
est and asking participants to provide a response research. Published research articles in sport and
to the question using a graduated scale. The scales exercise psychology should, therefore, provide
usually have a fixed range (e.g., between 1 and 7), comprehensive descriptions of the study methods
the scale values represent a degree of agreement so that others can reproduce the study accurately
or affirmation with the question or item, and the and possibly replicate the effects.
points on the scale are assumed to have an interval Stanovich (2009) advocates the principle of
quality (i.e., the difference between each of the converging evidence to evaluate the worth of
points is equal). The use of scaled survey items or evidence in psychology. Multiple studies provide
questions to measure psychological constructs has a robust evidence for the existence of an effect if
long history in psychology based on the assumption they converge on the same conclusion or finding.
that people can reliably report their internal states In the context of developing an evidence base for
20 Hagger and Smith
an effect, converging evidence usually refers to a tial to research quality, and researchers in sport
number of independent studies that adopt different and exercise psychology must provide evidence
methodological approaches to test the effect and to support the validity of their measures, either
then arrive at the same conclusions. As we shall by analyzing their own data or by citing previous
see in the next section, studies of phenomena in supporting research (see Tenenbaum, Eklund, &
sport and exercise psychology can adopt multiple Kamata, 2012 for a detailed treatment of validity
methods and study designs to study the same effect issues in sport and exercise psychology). Confirming
and, to the extent that these studies provide support the validity of measures of psychological constructs
for a particular effect, the body of work lends robust enables researchers to test hypotheses accurately
support for the effect according to the principle of and minimize the noise in their data.
converging evidence. Another important means to evaluate the quality
of research in sport and exercise psychology is the
reliability of measures. A measure is considered
Validity and Reliability reliable if it measures a particular construct or
Although replicating a particular finding may osten- variable consistently over time and across contexts.
sibly provide converging evidence for the robustness If a particular instrument produced inconsistent
of a particular effect, results should also be evaluated measurements, then a researcher could not draw
in light of the quality of the measures used to tap the reliable conclusions when using it. Any variability
psychological and behavioral constructs of interest. in measures due to the social context or other vari-
In other words, an effect might be replicable, but if able of interest would probably be lost because of
the measures used were flawed in some way, ques- the variability attributed to this measurement error.
tions might arise about the value of the reproduced Researchers must therefore demonstrate that their
effect. The measures need to be sufficiently precise measure is reliable. They can do this in many ways,
and accurate in measuring the construct of interest. including test-retest reliability and tests of the inter-
In other words, measures have to measure what they nal consistency of survey or self-report measures
are supposed to and be fit for purpose. This concept of psychological constructs (e.g., generating alpha
is known as validity, and much attention is paid to reliability coefficients). Although reliability and
validity within experimental psychology (Bagozzi, validity are often mentioned in the same sentence,
1981). Various forms of validity are relevant to sport they are independent features of measures in sport
and exercise psychology: face, construct, concurrent, and exercise psychology. Although a measure may
predictive, and nomological validity (see table 2.1 be found to be reliable, it may not be valid. In fact,
for definitions of each type and suggested methods the measure may still be measuring the wrong
to support them). These forms of validity are essen- thing reliably!
Table 2.1 Forms of Validity and Methods to Support Them

Type of validity Definition or explanation Methods used to confirm or support validity
Face validity Evaluation of whether measures appear to Obtaining consensus from experts in the area
reflect the psychological construct of interest who are told the purpose of the measure and
accurately asked to provide opinions about whether the
measure reflects that purpose
Construct validity Reflects whether the components of a mea- Evaluating whether responses to the instru-
sure (e.g., item in a questionnaire) capture the ment tend to cluster about a single construct
essence of the construct of interest in analyses testing relationships between the
different components (e.g., factor analysis)
Concurrent validity Tests whether a measure of interest is related Examining tests of relations between the
to measures of like constructs measure of interest and similar measures (e.g.,
correlations)
Predictive validity Reflects whether a construct of interest is Evaluating whether the construct of interest
associated with a behavior or an outcome to follows theoretically predictable patterns of
which it should be theoretically related relations with key related constructs or out-
comes (e.g., using multiple regression)
Nomological validity Closely related to predictive validity, reflecting Testing whether the construct of interest
whether a measure is related to multiple con- follows a specified pattern of relations or
structs within a theoretically defined network differences with multiple variables within a
or pattern of relations nomological network
Research Designs measures of performance (e.g., time spent on a task)

but can also be measures of psychological responses
Within the sport and exercise research literature, a (e.g., scaled measures of attitudes or beliefs).
variety of research designs have been used. These Another strength of the experimental method
can be classified into groups or categories that is that it permits researchers to examine causal
include experimental, intervention, correlation or relationships between variables. Sport and exer-
survey designs, and research synthesis or meta-an- cise psychologists are often interested in how one
alytic approaches. These designs are described in variable (often a psychological construct) causes
the following sections. an outcome (often some measure of behavior or
variable that reflects behavior). Consistent with
Experimental Designs the scientific method and empirical approach, the
Experimental methods are central to the empirical researcher should specify an effect or relationship
scientific method because they focus directly on between the independent and dependent variables
changing or manipulating factors, or variables, as a hypothesis derived from psychological theory.
to examine their causal effect on outcomes. In an This aspect is one of the key advantages of the
experiment, the researcher systematically manipu- experimental method; it provides the most effective
lates a variable or variables of interest while keeping means to demonstrate a causal effect by systemati-
all other extraneous variables constant and then cally changing one variable and observing change
measures changes in an outcome or outcomes of in another while controlling for other variables.
interest (usually behavior) as a result of the manip- In some designs, other variables (e.g., identified
ulation. The advantage of an experiment is the care- as extraneous ones) may be measured so that the
ful control of the conditions under which the exper- researcher can examine if and how the effects of
iment is carried out, thus permitting researchers to the independent variable on the outcome variable
isolate the effect of interest. The researcher must, are changed as a consequence of the extraneous
therefore, maintain strict control of experimental ones. This approach, known as a test of interaction
conditions to minimize confounding influences of or moderation, is important because it provides an
extraneous variables. One way of doing this is to indication of specific conditions that might magnify
conduct the experiment in an extremely controlled or diminish the hypothesized effect. The researcher
environment free of external distractions or stimuli can therefore be more specific regarding the con-
(e.g., a laboratory). The manipulated variables are ditions or contexts in which the effect holds and
called independent variables, and they represent the modify her or his hypothesis or theory accordingly.
key factor or factors (e.g., psychological constructs, Experimental designs adopted by researchers in
conditions, training methods) that the researcher sport and exercise psychology are illustrated in the
predicts will affect the target behavioral or outcome sidebar Types of Experimental Design.
variables (also known as the dependent variable A key challenge in the design of any experi-
or variables). Dependent variables often center on ment is the potential for the researcher to cause
Types of Experimental Design
Various types of experimental designs are available to researchers. A full-factorial design tests the effect of inde-
pendent variables on behavior or outcomes in a single experiment. The defining feature of the full-factorial design is
that the experimental condition reflects the presence or existence of the independent variable of interest, whereas
the control or comparison condition reflects the absence of that variable. Comparing the observation or measure of
the behavior or outcome-dependent variable across the two conditions constitutes the test of the hypothesis. The
independent variable may have two or more levels, reflecting the types of comparisons in which the researcher is
interested. The researcher also needs to decide whether the different levels of the independent variable will reflect
different groups of participants (a between-participants design) or whether all participants will receive all levels (a
within-participants design), or a combination of the two (a mixed design). Alternatively, a researcher many adopt a
quasi-experimental design in which naturally occurring differences between groups on a variable of interest allow the
researcher to examine the effect of that variable on a dependent measure. For example, a researcher investigating
the effects of a rule change, such as banning a particular class of substances, on a key outcome, such as athletes’
attitudes toward doping in sport, before and after the program, would constitute a quasi-experimental design.
22 Hagger and Smith
an unintentional influence on the responses of the tasks to participants), thus preserving a lack of bias
study participants. How can a researcher prevent in the obtained results. Examples of experiments
biasing the outcome of an experiment? The answer in the sport and exercise domains are illustrated
is through blinding. As the term implies, blinding in the sidebar Experiments in Sport and Exercise
procedures mean that the researcher designs the Psychology.
experiment so that he or she is unaware of, or
“blind” to, the experimental manipulations that Intervention Designs
participants receive. This method is used to control Interventions share many of the defining features
for the possibility that the researcher’s expecta- of experimental designs in that they aim to eval-
tions might unwittingly affect the participants’ uate the effectiveness of a treatment, training, or
responses. In practice, implementing this method behavioral strategy on selected outcomes. Like
can be a challenge because experimental manip- experimental designs, they involve the system-
ulations in sport and exercise psychology may be atic administration of the treatment to a sample
quite elaborate, which would make it difficult to of participants and an evaluation of the effect of
conceal the experimental condition of each partic- the treatment on a target outcome or dependent
ipant. This difficulty can possibly be overcome by variable. The prototypical form of an intervention
employing other researchers (or data collectors) is the randomized controlled trial, or RCT, which
who are unaware of the true purpose of the exper- had its origins in medical and pharmaceutical
iment to conduct key aspects of the experiment research and has the design features of a control or
(e.g., administration of the manipulations and comparison group and randomization to conditions
Experiments in Sport and Exercise Psychology
A classic experiment in sport and exercise psychology that provides a good illustration of key features of the design
was conducted by Weinberg, Gould, and Jackson (1979). Weinberg et al. examined the effects of self-efficacy on
sport performance using a novel motor task to minimize the effects of experience. They proposed that positive
feedback gained from successfully doing the task would increase sport participants’ confidence and increase their
motivation toward doing the task in the future. Bogus feedback was used to manipulate participants’ success on the
task, regardless of their performance. Participants were assigned to either a high self-efficacy condition, in which
they were provided with positive feedback emphasizing their successful performance, or a low self-efficacy position,
in which they were provided with negative feedback emphasizing poor performance. The researchers also included
gender as an additional condition to control for sex differences. The experiment used a full between-participants
design, meaning that each condition was administered to separate groups of participants. Results indicated that
participants in the high self-efficacy condition performed better on the second leg-extension task than those in the
low self-efficacy conditions. Gender did not affect the results, meaning that both male and female participants were
similarly affected by the feedback. Weinberg et al.’s experiment paved the way for many other experiments that tested
the effects of self-efficacy on sport performance as well as other experimental research that tested the predictions
of social cognitive theory in sport and exercise contexts.
In another good example of an experimental design, Martin Ginis and Bray (2011) examined the effect of self-control
on exercise intensity and actual future behavior. In particular, they explored the effect of reducing people’s self-con-
trol on exercise behavior using a laboratory experiment. They randomly assigned half of the participants to a high
self-control condition in which they engaged in a demanding task that required them to suppress their impulses and,
therefore, demanded their self-control. The remaining half of the participants were assigned to the control condition
in which they engaged in a task that did not require self-control. All participants then completed a 10-min cycling
task on a stationary bike (cycle ergometer), and they were given the option to increase or decrease the intensity.
Participants also self-reported their intention to exercise in the next 8 weeks. The researchers then contacted the
participants again 8 weeks later to get self-report measures of physical activity. Results indicated that participants
assigned to the high self-control condition did less work on the cycling task, reported lower intentions to exercise in
the following weeks, and reported doing less physical activity at follow-up relative to participants in the no-depletion
condition. This research provides good evidence for the importance of self-control in influencing physical activity
and is an excellent example of a laboratory-based experiment that also demonstrates effects in a real-world setting
by measuring physical activity outside the lab.
in common with experimental designs. A number manipulations. Many interventions tend to focus on
of different types of RCT exist, but these are the treatments that are likely to have effects on multiple
most common. Other designs are also used, such dependent variables and change multiple media-
as pre- and postintervention designs in which the tors. Interventions, therefore, tend to be broader
researcher takes baseline measures of the target in their expected effects than experiments. Again,
outcome variable or variables of interest at a given the extent to which an intervention has effects on
point in time followed by the administration of multiple outcomes and mediators varies from study
the treatment. Changes in the outcome variable to study, and some interventions aim to change a
are evaluated at a subsequent point in time and single outcome or a very narrow set of related out-
compared with baseline values with no control comes and individual mediators. In this case, if an
group. Although pre- and postintervention designs RCT design is used, such interventions are closely
produce useful data that is informative of changes aligned with experiments. Interventions, therefore,
in the outcomes because of the intervention over differ from experiments in degree rather than kind.
time, RCTs are often viewed as providing the most Key features of intervention designs are illustrated
robust means to evaluate intervention effects and in Chatzisarantis and Hagger’s (2009) intervention
thus are identified as high quality in intervention study (see the sidebar Interventions in Sport and
quality assessments. Exercise Psychology).
There are two main differences between an RCT Critical to intervention designs is the need to
and an experimental design. First, intervention include adequate procedures to evaluate their
designs are likely to have less strict control over effectiveness, to test for mechanisms and process,
extraneous variables. Because interventions are and to ensure high methodological quality. Cen-
often carried out in real-world contexts outside tral to tests of effectiveness is the need to adopt
a laboratory, participants are more likely to be appropriate measures of key outcome or dependent
exposed to extraneous variables in the environ- variables. Researchers need to be aware of the
ment and context that may change the dependent same considerations as experimental designs when
variable or even interact with the intervention, selecting target outcome variables and identifying
potentially leading to bias in the evaluation of its appropriate measures. For behavioral outcomes,
effect. Strictly speaking, an intervention could have objective measures of actual behavior or proxy
the same level of stringency as an experiment, measures are considered high quality and likely
and some researchers refer to their designs as field provide the most appropriate means to test the
experiments that aim to replicate as closely as effectiveness of the intervention. Researchers also
possible the strict control over the manipulations need to consider how their intervention works (e.g.,
and the context found in experiments conducted what factors are responsible for changes in the
in a laboratory. Second, interventions differ from outcome variables). These mediating variables are
experiments in the level of stringency over the likely to be psychological factors that are changed
Interventions in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Chatzisarantis and Hagger (2009) report an intervention study that provides an apt illustration of the features of this
research design applied in a sport and exercise psychology context. Chatzisarantis and Hagger developed a school-
based intervention to promote autonomous or intrinsic motivation in high school children toward physical activity
in school and actual physical activity outside school. The researchers developed an autonomy supportive training
program (cf., Koka & Hagger, 2010) to train physical education (PE) teachers in key behaviors that foster autonomous
motivation (e.g., providing choice, acknowledging conflict, providing meaningful rationales and practice, providing
positive feedback, avoiding controlling language). High school physical education teachers in the experimental group
received a two-week autonomy supportive training, and those assigned to the control group received instruction on
promoting physical activity using neutral language. After the training program, the teachers continued to teach their
classes for a further 4 weeks after which the motivation and extracurricular physical activity of the children in their
classes were measured using self-reports. Results indicated that the intervention led to significant increases in the
children’s motivation toward physical activity in school and outside school. Furthermore, the effects of the intervention
on physical activity outside school were mediated by autonomous motivation and intentions, providing support for
the hypothesis that the intervention was making changes in the theory-based psychological factors.
24 Hagger and Smith
because of the intervention and reflect the pro- Correlational Designs

cess by which the intervention effects changes in An alternative method adopted by sport and exer-
outcomes. Such process evaluations are important cise psychologists to investigate effects in social
because they provide researchers with information contexts is to adopt a correlational design. A
on how the intervention works, enable subsequent number of correlational designs exist. Prominent
refinement and replication efforts, and facilitate among these are cross-sectional survey designs in
the development of interventions that are optimally which the researcher administers a questionnaire
effective. Researchers also need to put checks in containing validated measures of a number of
place to ensure that the intervention is carried out constructs of interest to a sample and then uses the
in the manner specified, known as intervention data to test hypotheses by examining the patterns
fidelity. For example, if the intervention is deliv- of relationships among the constructs. Research-
ered by a practitioner (e.g., a coach or an exercise ers undertake extensive development work before
specialist), the researcher could conduct a series conducting research by using surveys to ensure
of observations of the practitioner delivering the that the survey measures are valid and reliable.
intervention and evaluate whether the practitioner The process of survey development is described in
has provided the salient information, or displayed detail in the sidebar How Psychologists Develop
the salient behaviors, outlined in the intervention Surveys. The advantage of adopting a correlational
method. The fidelity checks are highly dependent survey design is that it is relatively easy to conduct
on the clear specification of the intervention itself, because it does not require the elaborate designs
and the researcher needs to ensure that all the and manipulations of conditions used in experi-
required information and steps are outlined in an mental or intervention research. But this design
intervention manual or protocol before the interven- has a substantive disadvantage in that it puts limits
tion begins. Additionally, the researcher needs to on the extent to which the researcher can infer
ensure that any practitioner involved in delivering causality. Even though psychological theory may
the intervention is trained or familiarized with the dictate that a particular variable will influence or
protocol before the intervention begins (Michie et “cause” another, the data from a cross-sectional
al., 2012). survey really reflect only a snapshot of an individ-
How Psychologists Develop Surveys
As with all psychological research, the measures used must be valid and reliable (see table 2.1) and researchers
typically undergo extensive development work to ensure that their surveys are fit for purpose. The surveys adopted
by sport and exercise psychologists contain carefully developed questionnaires that include questions, or items,
specifically designed to capture a psychological construct of interest. Questionnaires are usually developed using
classical test theory in which questions are specifically designed to capture the “essence” of the psychological con-
struct of interest (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The construct itself does not exist; it is an unobserved entity that must
be inferred based on people’s responses to questions that incorporate the defining characteristics of the constructs.
For example, suppose a researcher wants to measure people’s attitudes toward performance-enhancing drugs in
sport. She or he must know the features of attitudes and identify the important aspects that comprise attitudes toward
performance-enhancing drugs in sport (e.g., Chan, Hardcastle, et al., 2015; Lentillon-Kaestner, Hagger, & Hardcastle,
2011; Lucidi et al., 2008). This step is frequently accomplished through the use of open-ended questions administered
to a small sample to elicit those aspects. Based on a content analysis of the responses to the elicitation questionnaire,
items are developed that capture attitudes toward performance-enhancing drugs in sport. The questionnaire can then
be administered to a larger sample. Responses are quantified on measurement scales that enable participants to rate
their degree of agreement with each item. The data can then be subjected to sophisticated statistical analyses, such
as factor analysis, to establish whether people tend to respond to the items in a consistent manner. This process will
provide evidence that the set of items is sufficiently representative of the construct of interest. Of course, a researcher
does not have to go through this rigorous questionnaire-validation process every time he or she wishes to measure
a psychological construct because a vast array of published measures of various attitudinal constructs is available.
Thus, researchers are often able to select or adapt the appropriate measure for use in their surveys.
ual’s responses to the measures of the constructs all variables are administered at both points in time.
of interest at that particular point in time (Biddle et Extending this design to the previous hypothetical
al., 2007). The data contain no information about study, the researcher would measure both attitudes
whether a change in one variable causes a change and behavior at the first point in time and then
in another. Such cross-sectional survey data is measure the behavior at a second point in time. This
therefore said to be correlational in nature, and, design is much more powerful because it provides
as a consequence, the researcher does not know better scope to establish the direction of an effect
whether one variable causes the other, whether (Hertzog & Nesselroade, 1987). The design permits
the cause is in the opposite direction, or whether relationships to be computed between attitudes
the variables affect each other in a reciprocal way, measured at the first time point and behavior mea-
a third possibility. Therefore, although research sured at the second time point as well as the reverse
using cross-sectional survey designs will provide a effects. The size of the effect for the relationships
test of whether two variables are related, it cannot provides data on the strength and directionality
address or resolve the pattern of causation in that of the effect. It would also provide information to
relationship. test the hypothesis that the relationship between
Survey-based studies can also adopt a longitudi- the variables was reciprocal. The panel design also
nal design by collecting survey measures at two or enables the researcher to control for changes in the
more points in time with initial (baseline) and sub- variables over time by studying the relationship
sequent (follow-up) data from the same sample of of a variable with itself over time. Any effect of a
participants. Responses to the survey items across variable on another can therefore be evaluated in
the time points are then matched and compared. light of whether that variable had changed between
The value of the time gap is to provide a better the times of measurement. In this way, the panel
understanding of the nature of a relationship. For design can model longitudinal change, but it must
example, if a researcher was interested in the link be stressed that this is a change in a variable over
between attitudes and exercise behavior, a correla- time and not a change in a variable because of the
tion between a measure of attitudes and a measure manipulation of the variable that ostensibly causes
of behavior taken concurrently in a cross-sectional it, as would happen in an experiment (Hagger
study provides only a limited test of the relationship & Chatzisarantis, 2016; Hagger, Chatzisarantis,
because a behavioral measure will typically reflect Biddle, & Orbell, 2001; Sarrazin, Vallerand, Guillet,
behavior at that specific point in time, and is, in Pelletier, & Cury, 2002).
effect, a measure of past behavior. If behavior is Aside from the inference of causality, survey
measured after a time gap, then it reflects behavior designs have other problems, including character-
that had occurred since the measure of attitude. The istics inherent in survey methods such as social
study is therefore able to evaluate whether attitude desirability and response acquiescence. One of
can explain variation in subsequent behavior. Even the problems inherent in survey methods is that
with this time lag, however, tests of the effects do people tend to provide responses that they think
not provide an effective evaluation of the causal the experimenter desires. Therefore, rather than
link between the variables because the variables true responses, a person’s scores on the question-
are still snapshot measures of people’s perceptions naire items may be biased. Ironically, this issue is a
at a particular time and do not take into account psychological phenomenon in itself. People tend to
any changes in the variables that might have complete questionnaires in the implied presence of
occurred since they were measured. For example, the researcher, which will influence their behavior.
new information may come to light that leads to Researchers therefore design questionnaires and
changes in attitudes after measurement, but the studies to minimize social desirability, such as by
survey measures do not account for these changes emphasizing to participants that their responses
(Gollob & Reichardt, 1987). will be anonymous and that there are no correct
The two types of longitudinal design are prospec- or incorrect responses. Measures of social desir-
tive and panel. In prospective designs, the measures ability can be administered to provide a check on
at the different time points differ. The hypothetical whether respondents tend to answer questionnaire
study in which measures of attitudes and behav- items in a socially desirable manner (Reynolds,
ior were administered at two points in time is an 1982). Response acquiescence reflects the extent
example of a prospective study. A panel design is to which responding to items on a questionnaire
somewhat more sophisticated in that measures of subsequently affects responses on other items on
26 Hagger and Smith
a questionnaire. Because questionnaires often significance, because statistical significance of an

contain many items measuring a multitude of con- effect depends on a number of factors, including
structs, this problem could lead to systematic bias the size of the effect and, critically, the sample
in questionnaire responses. Researchers therefore size. In meta-analysis, studies with larger sample
suggest arranging the order of items in the ques- sizes are considered more representative given that
tionnaires accordingly to minimize the bias (Chan, their sample is closer to the population sample size.
Ivarsson, et al., 2015). A final problem is associated Meta-analysts, therefore, correct the effect sizes of
with response burden and questionnaire fatigue. each study included in the analysis by weighting
Completing multi-item surveys can be fatiguing it by its sample size before averaging. Weighting
and can lead to bias in questionnaire research. by sample size means that the researcher gives
Providing participants with regular breaks or filler greater weight to studies with larger sample size
tasks may help minimize this problem. because they are likely to be closer to an estimate
of the real population effect size. The outcome,
Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis therefore, is an averaged corrected estimate of the
Knowledge of effects in sport and exercise psychol- effect across studies that better reflects the true
ogy is developed over time based on the converg- effect size based on the data available. The analysis
ing evidence from multiple studies. Researchers also provides the distribution or variability in the
are, therefore, often interested in quantifying effect size represented by the confidence intervals of
the strength of a particular effect that has been the averaged corrected effect size. This information
measured or tested in multiple studies. Although is essential for the researcher to establish whether
a cursory glance at the weight of evidence for the effect across studies is homogenous, that is, the
some tests may appear consistent across studies, variability observed across studies is largely due
in some cases there is considerable variability in to methodological factors, or heterogeneous, that
the effect size. Researchers may look at the weight is, substantial variability remains after correction.
of the evidence through the number of statisti- In such cases, the researcher should investigate
cally significant tests of the effect, but that, too, the potential of other factors that caused that vari-
is inadequate because some studies may not be ability (i.e., search for moderators). In such cases
conducted on samples that are sufficiently large a researcher would see whether groups of studies
to find the effect even though the effect may be or tests of the effect of interest differ on a variable
a real one (e.g., a type II error). Meta-analysis is or set of variables that would, conceptually or the-
a powerful analytic tool that a researcher uses to oretically, influence the effect. Such moderators
synthesize research findings while correcting for could be design features of the study such as the
sources of methodological bias (Hunter & Schmidt, types of measure used to capture the dependent
2004; Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001). This method is variable (e.g., objective vs. self-report) or the type
extremely valuable to researchers because it may of design used (e.g., experimental vs. correlational),
provide useful information about whether the effect or could be theoretical such as research that used
is a true or real one in the population and, most different types of intervention or manipulation.
important, the extent to which the effect may vary Examples of application of meta-analysis in sport
across important extraneous variables (e.g., sample and exercise psychology research are illustrated in
characteristics, contexts, and psychological factors, the sidebar Meta-Analytic Research in Sport and
known as moderators). Exercise Psychology.
A meta-analysis focuses on estimating the
size of the effect of interest, which could be the
effect of an independent variable on a dependent Qualitative Research
variable, such as a manipulation in an experi-
ment or intervention, or a relationship between
Approaches
two variables. In a meta-analysis, the researcher Qualitative research focuses on the ways people
seeks to identify all possible tests of a particular interpret and make sense of their experiences and
effect across studies and synthesize them into a the world in which they live (Smith & Sparkes,
single averaged test of the effect. Unlike primary 2016b). Qualitative designs focus on understanding
research in sport and exercise psychology, the meaning, such as what a sporting injury means to
unit of analysis in meta-analysis is the research an athlete or the meaning that postpartum women
study providing the test of the effect. Furthermore, give to physical activity. But qualitative researchers
meta-analysis is not concerned with the statistical rarely believe that they can objectively find the truth
Meta-Analytic Research in Sport and Exercise Psychology
The use of meta-analysis to make sense of findings in sport and exercise psychology has proliferated in recent years
(Hagger, 2006). Meta-analytic studies not only have been aimed at resolving inconsistencies in important effects
across research in sport and exercise psychology but also have provided researchers with the opportunity to test
the effects of potential moderators that may influence the findings and test theoretical predictions (Hagger, Chan,
Protogerou, & Chatzisarantis, 2016). In the area of sport psychology, Hatzigeorgiadis et al.’s (2011) meta-analysis
of self-talk interventions to promote better performance is a good example of an application of meta-analysis. The
researchers found a medium to large effect of self-talk on sport performance, but that the effect had a high level
of variability that was not attributable to sampling error; in other words, the effect size was heterogeneous. The
researchers found that training was an important moderator of the effect, such that studies in which the participants
had received some sort of training on self-talk reported stronger effects of self-talk on sport performance than stud-
ies on participants that received no training. In an exercise context, Bélanger-Gravel et al.’s (2013) meta-analysis of
interventions using a planning technique known as implementation intentions, or “if-then” plan, in promoting physical
activity provides a good example. The researchers found a small to medium effect of “if-then” planning on physical
activity behavior. The overall effect size was also found to be highly variable, and moderator analyses were found to
be more effective in student and clinical samples (e.g., cardiac, orthopedic rehabilitation), but they found no differ-
ences for study design and length of time between the intervention and the follow-up measure of physical activity
behavior. Both meta-analyses were highly influential in providing detail on the effectiveness of the interventions on
behavioral outcomes and the circumstances that determine the strength of the effect. They illustrate the potential of
meta-analysis to synthesize research findings to inform practice.
of meaning through the application of method. Nor traits (Sparkes & Smith, 2009). Such criteria might
do they think that the reality of psychological phe- include the substantive theoretical contribution of
nomena can be discovered independent of human the research, width (evidence provided), and an
ways of knowing it. Instead of being subject to the audit trail in which colleagues, acting as “critical
assumptions of positivist or neorealist traditions friends,” independently scrutinize data collection
on knowledge and evidence, qualitative research to encourage reflection on, and exploration of,
is more often informed by interpretivism of some alternative explanations and interpretations as
form (e.g., social constructionism). Interpretivism these emerged in relation to the data. Additional
assumes that there are multiple mind-dependent examples of criteria that researchers might choose
realities (ontological relativism) and that knowledge to judge the quality of research, as part of an ongo-
is constructed and subjective (epistemological con- ing list, can be found in Smith and Caddick (2012)
structionism). These assumptions have important and Burke (2016).
implications for the identification of research ques-
tions, study design, sampling and data collection,
data analysis, reporting of results, and the validity
Qualitative Traditions
and generalizability of findings. Various approaches fall under the umbrella of
For example, rather than seeking statistical gen- qualitative research. For example, some qualitative
eralizability, as in quantitative research, qualitative researchers in sport and exercise psychology use
researchers often seek different types of general- a variant of a grounded theory approach to gener-
izability. This outcome might include naturalistic ate theory from data, rather than impose theory
generalizability, which occurs when research on data (see Holt, 2016). Qualitative researchers
results provide people with a vicarious experience might also use the tradition of ethnography. This
that resonates with readers who are in similar approach involves immersing oneself in a culture
situations or know of people like the participants. for a significant period (often years) to gain an
Validity is also treated differently in qualitative understanding of the culture of a particular group
research (Burke, 2016). Rather than import forms from the perspective of the group members (see
of validity from quantitative research and seek to Krane & Baird, 2005). Phenomenological research
mimic what is done to achieve valid results, crite- is another option for qualitative researchers. Among
ria for judging the quality of qualitative research its various forms are transcendental or descriptive,
are drawn from an ongoing list of characterizing existentialist, and empirical phenomenology (see
28 Hagger and Smith
Allen-Collinson, 2016). Perhaps the most popular Collecting and Analyzing

form of phenomenological research in sport and
exercise psychology at present is interpretative phe- Qualitative Data
nomenological analysis (IPA; J. Smith, 2016). IPA is a The interview is the most widely used qualitative
qualitative approach that draws on phenomenology data collection method in sport and exercise psy-
to examine cases of personal lived experience and, chology. To help collect data, researchers use a
moving from case to case, requires the researcher preplanned interview guide that contains a range
to make sense of the participant making sense of of carefully created and arranged open-ended ques-
a particular phenomenon (e.g., mental toughness tions to ask the participant (for a practical how-to
or an exercise intervention). Despite the diversity, interview, see Smith & Sparkes, 2016a). Interview-
what each phenomenological approach aims to do ing in qualitative research typically involves the use
is examine ideographically lived experience and of semistructured interviews or unstructured inter-
study things as they present themselves to, and viewing. In practice, interviewing often operates
are perceived in, consciousness. Community-based on a continuum, moving between being relatively
participatory action research is a further tradition. semistructured to relatively unstructured as talk
What distinguishes it from the other traditions is ebbs and flows over time.
that the researcher works with, not on, people in the A lthough the inter viewing process of ten
community to deliver useful solutions to problems takes place in a one-to-one fashion (between the
that communities themselves originally identified researcher and the participant), another option is
(Schinke & Blodgett, 2016; Schinke, McGannon, & focus group interviewing. Focus groups involve
Smith, 2013). multiple participants at the same time. Ideally, a
Another qualitative tradition is narrative inquiry. study has at least three focus groups, each con-
Narrative inquiry is concerned with gathering taining between 4 and 10 participants. The prime
stories that people tell and analyzing these stories reason for using focus groups is that this type of
through a type of narrative analysis (B. Smith, interviewing can stimulate talk and different views
2016). Stories are considered vital to focus on for through interactions among group participants. The
several reasons. People are storytelling creatures researcher takes on the role of moderator whose
who communicate and make sense of their lives task is to create a supportive atmosphere in which
through narratives that society and culture provide interaction occurs between participants so that
(Papathomas, 2016). Thus, analyzing stories that the expression of personal, multiple, and some-
people tell can reveal a great deal about meaning times conflicting viewpoints on the topic of focus
making and the sociocultural landscapes that shape are elicited (Sparkes & Smith, 2014). This point is
their lives. In addition, echoing classic formulations important because too often the interactions that
of philosophical speech-act theory, stories are not occur between group members are disregarded in
passive but do things. Stories act on, in, and for the the analysis and reporting of data in research using
audience (“us”), affecting our emotions, thoughts, focus groups in sport and exercise psychology.
attitudes, and actions. As such, stories become an Specifically, the published article often includes
important resource to help understand the mean- no trace of the interactions that occurred between
ing of experience. They affect what people think, the group participants to produce what is presented
how people act, and why they do certain things in the final report. One minimum way to remedy
while avoiding others. Furthermore, recently in this deficiency is to include detail of how one per-
sport and exercise psychology it has been argued son’s talk helped shape what another person said.
that stories are useful for communicating research An example of this can be found in the study on
and can be important in the process of knowledge parental stressors in professional youth football by
translation and generating influence (Kay, 2016; Harwood, Drew, and Knight (2010).
Smith, Tomasone, Latimer-Cheung, & Martin Ginis, Most typically, one-to-one and focus groups
2015). Examples of narrative research in sport and interviews are done face to face within an indoor
exercise can be found in Busanich, McGannon, space chosen by the participant or the researcher
and Schinke’s (2016) work on disordered eating (e.g., the participant’s home or a dedicated inter-
and Papathomas, Williams, and Smith’s (2015) view room at a university). Interviews can also be
narrative study of physical activity participation conducted through other mediums and in other
among disabled people. Another example can be places. Although rarely used in sport and exercise
found in Fasting and Sand’s (2015) work on sexual psychology, these methods include mobile inter-
harassment in sport. views and online interviews. The mobile interview,
also referred to as the go-along or walk-along inter- subjects, because the participant may be more
view, is a means of interviewing participants as willing to discuss personal matters and emotions.
they move through space (Smith & Sparkes, 2016a). As noted previously, interviews are the dom-
Rather than two or more people sitting down in inant way to collect qualitative data in research
one inside space as is often done when conducting on sport and exercise psychology. But researchers
a face-to-face interview, in mobile interviewing the might also consider other data collection methods
researcher interviews the participant as they move that would allow a more complete understanding
together through contextually meaningful spaces of the complexity of people’s lives. For example,
that either the participant or researcher chooses. researchers in sport and exercise have occasionally
When they are in the spaces, the participant walks used or advocated the use of observation (Smith,
or wheels the researcher through the space, and, Bundon, & Best, 2016), media (Oghene, McGannon,
by asking questions and observing, the researcher Schinke, Watson, & Quartiroli, 2015), autobiogra-
examines the participant’s practices and interpreta- phies (Sparkes & Stewart, 2016), diaries (Day, 2016),
tions within a place of interest. Mobile interviewing and vignettes (Blodgett, Schinke, Smith, Peltier,
can provide multisensorial data (Sparkes, 2016). & Pheasant, 2011). Another way to collect data is
Another strength is that, as shown in the work through visual methods, such as autophotography
by Bell, Phoenix, Lovell, and Wheeler (2015) in a (Phoenix & Rich, 2016). Autophotography, some-
physical activity context and Palmer (2016) in a times called photovoice, refers to a method in which
sport performance context, the mobile interview the participants take photographs that represent
can provide highly contextualized understandings their senses of self, emotions, or, for example,
of behavior, emotion, and feeling. who they are in relation to a given phenomenon or
Online interviews refer to interviews conducted topic (e.g., “What self-compassion in sport means
using computer-mediated communication. Such to me”). The photographs produced can be used
interviews, sometimes referred to as e-interviews, as data in their own right, which means that the
are used primarily to gather data virtually or researcher can analyze each photograph taken.
digitally through the Internet (Bundon, 2016). Alternatively, as in the work by Strachan and Davies
For example, conducted in accordance with eth- (2015) on positive youth development in sport, pho-
ical guidelines, researchers may interview people tographs can be used as a photo-elicitation device.
using text messaging, immersive virtual games or This method involves using the photographs that
worlds, video conferencing that has the ability to participants have taken to elicit additional informa-
see people, and web conference meeting spaces that tion, deeper thoughts, and more immediate feelings
allow text, video conference, and visual interactions about a certain topic.
with shared applications, documents, or virtual Just as multiple traditions and data collection
whiteboards (Salmons, 2015). Although online strategies have been used, a qualitative researcher
interviews are typically divided into two main might analyze qualitative data in various ways.
types according to the ability to send, receive, and Methods include an analysis of data based on phe-
respond to messages at the same time (i.e., syn- nomenology (Ravn, 2016; J. Smith, 2016), grounded
chronous communication) or at different times (i.e., theory (Holt, 2016), narrative inquiry (B. Smith,
asynchronous communication), we can now talk of 2016), critical discourse work (McGannon, 2016),
online interviews as moving between synchronic- and conversation analytic research (LeCouteur &
ity (i.e., focused real-time dialogue), synchronous Cosh, 2016). Another analysis, which has become
(i.e., exchange in real time), near-synchronous (i.e., popular within sport and exercise psychology,
near-immediate post and response), and asynchro- is known as a thematic analysis. As described
nous communication (i.e., time lapses between in an updated version of this analysis by Braun,
message and response). Although a researcher can Clarke, and Weate (2016), a thematic analysis is
never assume that people will have the technology a method that researchers use to identify patterns
available to participate and will have to forgo the (i.e., themes) within data. The analysis involves
subtleties of body language that may not be cap- several phases:
tured in some online interviewing, this type of
interview can be useful to choose when participants 1. Familiarization
are geographically dispersed, hard to reach, or 2. Initial code generation
located in settings where the physical presence of a
researcher would not be allowed. Online interviews 3. Searching for and identifying themes
are also a good choice when dealing with sensitive 4. Reviewing themes
30 Hagger and Smith
5. Defining and naming themes between researchers in these disciplines, both of

6. Writing up whom tend to cite flaws and limitations in each oth-
er’s methods rather than see the potential comple-
In addition to using these types of analyses, mentarity of each to understanding their research
researchers in sport and exercise psychology have question (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2011). But there
begun to explore the idea that writing is a method are increasing instances of research studies that
of analysis (Sparkes & Smith, 2014). For exam- have adopted both qualitative and quantitative
ple, researchers might legitimately make sense methods to understand phenomena and processes
of sport and exercise now in a variety of ways in sport and exercise psychology. The advantage of
through creative nonfiction (Smith, McGannon, & the mixed-method approach lies in its diversity and
Williams, 2015), autoethnographies (McGannon & potential to shed light on the processes and mech-
Smith, 2015), and ethnodrama (McMahon, 2016). anisms involved when trying to make sense and
As shown in the work on the effect of doping in meaning of phenomena in sport and exercise psy-
sport by Erickson, Backhouse, and Carless (2016), chology. Qualitative approaches enable researchers
creative nonfiction is a genre of representation in to identify and explore key experiential aspects of
which the researcher tells a story that is grounded the subject in detail and perspective, and the quan-
in research data and draws on literary conventions. titative approach allows the researcher to explore
Broadly speaking, autoethnographies refer to a specific aspects of the phenomenon in a controlled,
highly personalized form of qualitative research systematic manner. Mixed-method approaches
in which researchers tell stories that are based on require considerable time investment in planning
their own lived experiences and interactions with the course of the research, a clear vision of how
others within social contexts, relating the personal each aspect will be informative of the question at
to the cultural in the process and product. As used hand, and a commitment to the principle of con-
in the work by Cassidy, Kidman, and Dudfield verging evidence. Good examples of mixed-method
(2015) on coach development, ethnodrama is the research include using qualitative approaches to
analytical practice of turning collected data into provide rich, in-depth, experiential data on the
a theoretical script. Numerous benefits of doing meaning of particular constructs or ideas in sport
creative nonfiction, autoethnographic research, or and exercise contexts and using that data to inform
ethnodrama have been identified. These advan- the development of psychological measures that are
tages include the ability to capture, weave together, subsequently administered to a larger sample using
and communicate a wide range of theories in one a survey design (cf., Hagger et al., 2001).
text, translate research in highly accessible ways In the future, as highlighted by Sparkes (2015)
to diverse audiences, and produce personal and and Gibson (2016), researchers need to attend more
social change. carefully to the epistemological and ontological
assumptions that underpin all research and then
Mixed-Method identify how these can be coherently and respect-
fully operated within a mixed-methods study.
Research Approaches Because research validity and generalizability are
conceptualized differently in qualitative research
Researchers have only recently recognized the than they are in quantitative research, future
value of integrating different approaches to provide mixed-methods researchers will need to attend to
robust, rich, and converging evidence for a specific how the different ideas on validity and generaliz-
phenomenon or effect in sport and exercise psy- ability can be appreciated and used productively,
chology. In many instances, researchers have used rather than eliminated or ignored.
mixed methods from within a particular category
of methods, such as the use of survey and exper-
imental methods in a similar study to test a given Future Research
effect. But when researchers refer to mixed-method
designs, they usually mean the adoption of both
Recommendations
qualitative and quantitative designs in the same Methodological issues are often the subject of sub-
study. Perhaps not surprisingly, few researchers stantial debate in psychology. In previous sections
have adopted methods from each of these traditions of this chapter, we have identified a number of
given the divergent underlying research philos- controversies in the use of various methods and
ophies and foci, as well as the historic tensions suggested possible solutions. But two remaining
issues warrant special attention given their poten- and experiments that will provide an evidence base
tial to influence research practice and the integrity of the strategies that practitioners may use to change
of evidence in sport and exercise psychology, and the psychological factors related to behavior and, as
psychology in general. These are identified and a consequence, actual outcomes that are desirable
discussed in the following sections. in sport and exercise contexts.
Experimental and Intervention Designs Replication Crisis

The dominance of correlational designs in sport and The subject of replication of results in psychology
exercise psychology reflects a proliferation of inter- has received considerable attention. Researchers
est in research in the discipline and has provided a have reported difficulty in replicating some major
large body of evidence on the correlates of behav- effects that, until recently, were important contribu-
ioral phenomena in sport and exercise psychology. tions to the field and considered robust. Examples
The number of interventions and experimental include experiments on precognition (Bem, 2011),
studies in the field has also increased, but the social priming (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996), and
number adopting those designs is, by comparison, ego depletion (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, &
much smaller. The main reason for this disparity is Tice, 1998). Each of these effects has been subject
likely the substantive costs and resources needed to large-scale experiments using the same or sim-
to develop, implement, and evaluate interventions ilar methods to those used by the original experi-
and experiments relative to survey designs that ments, but each replication revealed that the effect
tend to be less resource intensive. As outlined ear- was far smaller than originally reported or even
lier, however, survey designs have shortcomings no different from zero (Galak, LeBoeuf, Nelson,
when it comes to the inference of causal effects & Simmons, 2012; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, et al.,
in the field. Although correlational data informs 2016; Harris, Coburn, Rohrer, & Pashler, 2013). As a
on possible related factors, these designs do not consequence of these high-profile cases, researchers
model changes in salient outcomes, particularly in psychology have expressed concerns over the
behavior relevant to effective performance in sport robustness of research findings in psychology and
and uptake and maintenance of physical activity. have highlighted some of the typical practices in
Therefore, many of the psychological factors that the collection, analysis, and reporting of data in
account for variance in sport performance and the field that may have contributed to the crisis of
physical activity behavior have not been manipu- confidence in psychological research (Open Sci-
lated and their effects on outcomes have not been ence Collaboration, 2012; Pashler & Harris, 2012;
studied systematically. The correlations imply that Pashler & Wagenmakers, 2012; Spellman, 2012). For
changes in the variable will lead to a change in the example, chance findings and selective reporting
behavior, but the evidence is insufficient to draw of studies may have been responsible for effects
such a conclusion. For example, other unmeasured that have proved difficult to replicate. Researchers
variables may be responsible for the relationship. may have unwittingly reported effects that fit with
Furthermore, researchers may have ideas on the their paradigm and suppressed those that did not.
strategies and manipulations that might be used The researchers were not necessarily obscuring
to change the psychological variables found to findings; rather, they may have attributed their null
be correlated with key outcomes in sport and findings to other problems such as methodolog-
exercise psychology, but without a systematic test ical flaws. The result has been improbably large
the researcher will be unable to conclude that the effects in experimental tests of hypotheses, much
strategies will be effective in changing behavior. larger than would be expected for the sample sizes
In fact, the process of designing interventions that collected. Other practices that have been noted as
match strategies that may lead to changes in sport problematic and that have contributed to replication
performance, physical activity behavior, and other problems include “p-hacking” in which researchers
salient outcomes is essential not only to the develop- tend to be selective in the data and analyses they
ment of research that examines the effectiveness of report so as to highlight statistically significant
those strategies but also to the development of good results. The problem is confounded by journal
practice that uses evidence and theory as a basis for editors and peer reviewers who tend to favor sta-
psychological interventions in the field. Researchers tistically significant results and prioritize novelty
in sport and exercise psychology, therefore, need over methodological rigor. Overall, researchers in
to consider conducting well-designed interventions the open science movement have called for drastic
32 Hagger and Smith
action to improve the robustness and confidence in opportunity to researchers to have their research
research in psychological research (Giner-Sorolla, proposal and protocol peer reviewed and accepted
2016; Open Science Collaboration, 2015), and such for publication before data are collected, ensuring
action must apply to all areas of psychology, includ- that the research will be published regardless of the
ing sport and exercise psychology. results. Currently, these practices are the exception,
Recommendations to improve the quality of but they likely will become increasingly common
data in psychology and to reduce problems with and may, in time, become the norm. Researchers in
replication include sport and exercise psychology should consider these
steps to maximize the integrity of their research
• preregistration of research studies, and the robustness of their findings. This way,
• precise reporting of methods, researchers in the field will be ahead of the game
• making data widely available to the research as the science of sport and exercise psychology
community, moves toward more stringent standards in research
• ensuring that data are sufficiently powered, quality. Finally, teachers, research mentors, and
and supervisors have an obligation to ensure that new
practices of conducting research and greater trans-
• publication of rigorously designed and exe- parency are communicated to student researchers.
cuted studies that focus on replication of This approach will ensure that the new practices
effects, including those with null findings. become the norm and that students will gain full
Study preregistration is a relatively new practice in understanding of research integrity and open sci-
psychology, although it has been occurring in the ence.
medical sciences for some years. The idea is that
researchers publish their precise hypotheses and
study protocol including all dependent variables,
Summary
predictions, and proposed analyses with a centrally The aim of this chapter was to provide an over-
managed open-access registry before the research view of the approaches used by researchers in
is conducted. The goal is to prevent p-hacking and sport, exercise, and physical activity psychology
post hoc searches for statistically significant find- to develop a knowledge base for understanding
ings. Post hoc analyses are still possible, but the phenomena in sport and exercise psychology and
researcher has to label them as such because they to provide evidence to inform the practice of sport
deviate from the registered protocol. In addition, and exercise psychology. We have outlined the
calls have also been made to ensure accurate report- major methodological approaches that have been
ing of manipulations and intervention methods so adopted in sport and exercise psychology and
that subsequent researchers can replicate findings. subsumed them under the headings of quantitative
Similarly, requiring raw data to be posted on a com- (e.g., experimental, intervention, survey designs)
monly managed repository for others to scrutinize and qualitative (e.g., ethnography, focus groups,
and conduct secondary analyses is important to interviews) approaches. For each methodological
ensure transparency and for researchers to con- approach, we discussed its prevalence, key fea-
duct additional checks on the data if necessary. tures, contributions, and controversies, and we
Researchers have also been advised to use sample provided recommendations for future research.
sizes that are sufficiently large so that they have Clearly, the diversity of methods adopted to study
adequate power to test the effect of interest and so sport and exercise psychology is a strength of the
that the sample more closely represents the pop- discipline, and sport and exercise psychologists
ulation. Finally, researchers need to be confident have been at the forefront of adopting the most
that null findings from research studies that were innovative methods to provide high-quality evi-
well conducted and that used a sufficiently large dence, particularly through research conducted in
sample will be publishable, because such studies the field, to inform practice. But research methods
(despite the null finding) also make a valuable used in the field still have limitations, including
contribution to knowledge. Many of these practices a preponderance of survey designs and fewer
have begun to be implemented by researchers in studies that adopt experimental, intervention,
psychology with trial and study registrations advo- and qualitative approaches. Better practices are
cated in some psychology journals. Registries now needed to maximize replicability and ensure the
exist for researchers to register their hypotheses transparency and openness of study findings for
and protocol, and some journals even offer the researchers and practitioners.
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3
Applied Sport
and Exercise
or Physical Activity
Psychology
Krista J. Munroe-Chandler, PhD  Michelle D. Guerrero, MHK
Abstract
Sport and exercise or physical activity psychology is an applied discipline with extensive
scientific activity as well as the application of scholarly knowledge to practice. The pur-
pose of this chapter is to provide an overview of this applied discipline. In particular,
we identify the people who deliver sport and exercise or physical activity psychology to
clients and the psychological strategies most often used with athletes and exercisers.
Then, we identify emerging constructs as well as noted gaps in the field of applied sport
and exercise or physical activity psychology. To highlight the established and emerging
research surrounding applied practice, we focus our attention on self-talk, imagery, goal
setting, and arousal regulation, as well as self-compassion, mindfulness, and mental
toughness, respectively. After overviewing this work, we highlight important future
directions for enhancing sport and exercise or physical activity practice.
37
38 Munroe-Chandler and Guerrero
S
ince the inception of the field of sport and exer- is to facilitate optimal involvement, performance,
cise or physical activity psychology, interest and enjoyment in sport and exercise.” Further,
has focused on both the research and applied AASP defines sport and exercise or physical activity
components. Applied sport (and exercise or physical psychology practitioners as
activity) psychology is differentiated as
those who are trained in sport and exercise and
1. the practice of applied sport (and exercise or who are not licensed psychologists or counselors;
physical activity) psychology and those known as sport and exercise psychology
consultants or mental coaches; those who pro-
2. the research of applied sport (and exercise or
vide individual or group counseling focused on
physical activity) psychology.
performance-related issues.
Some have noted that the goal of applied practice is
to improve client performance (Moore & Gardner, The title sport and exercise or physical activity
2011), whereas the goal of applied research is to psychology practitioner is used throughout this
generate theory-based knowledge and to respond chapter as an all-encompassing title given the var-
systematically to applied problems (McCullagh, ious educational paths in which these individuals
1998). More specific to the former point, and from are trained (sport science, counseling, clinical
a more holistic view, the general field of applied psychology, or medicine). This title is not to be con-
practice is largely focused on the application of the- fused with the title sport and exercise or physical
ories, principles, and techniques from psychology to activity psychologist because the latter infers that
enable change in clients, thus resulting in enhanced the person is licensed by a psychological association
performance, improved quality of their experience, (e.g., American Psychological Association) and is
and personal growth of the client (Vealey, 1994). legally protected. Although both practitioners and
The focus of this chapter is to identify and link psychologists focus on the enhancement of perfor-
the extensive research literature with the practice of mance and the teaching of psychological strategies,
sport and exercise or physical activity psychology. the clinical sport and exercise or physical activity
This chapter contains four main sections. In the first psychologist has the ability to go well beyond this
section, we define the practice of sport and exercise scope (e.g., marital issues, addictions, mental dis-
or physical activity and discuss important consid- orders). Accordingly, the ethical issues faced by
erations for a practitioner working with clients. In sport and exercise or physical activity psychology
the second section, we offer a broad overview of practitioners may differ from those who practice
the established research evidence supporting the more traditional psychology (Brown & Cogan,
utility of a set of psychological strategies in both 2006). For example, sport and exercise or physical
sport and exercise or physical activity settings. activity psychology practitioners may meet a client
The third section discusses emerging research in in a hotel or fitness club lobby, on the bus, or on the
the areas of applied sport and exercise or physical practice field. They may eat dinner with coaches
activity psychology. The fourth section identifies and athletes, carry equipment to the field, help
noted gaps in the existing literature and provides with timing on a pool deck, and fill water bottles.
suggestions for advancing sport and exercise or These activities are not often done by clinical psy-
physical activity practice. We conclude the chapter chologists. Regardless of the title, however, both
with a brief summary of the key takeaway points. practitioners and psychologists are similarly bound
by ethical guidelines.
Although not an exhaustive list, ethical issues
Defining the Practice such as confidentiality, consent, maintaining
The field of sport and exercise or physical activity boundaries when working in nontraditional clinical
psychology includes both a research and an applied settings, and competency are important to the prac-
component. In this first section of the chapter, we titioner. Despite the multiple roles often assumed by
identify and discuss several elements that are rele- the sport and exercise or physical activity psychol-
vant to the practitioner when working in the field. ogy practitioner (e.g., coach, timer), professional
boundaries are to be maintained. Andersen, Van
Raalte, and Brewer (2001) outline various cues that
Practitioners may indicate a practitioner who is overstepping his
According to the Association for Applied Sport or her professional boundaries. Some of those cues
Psychology (AASP, n.d.), “A primary goal of pro- include lingering emotional reaction to the person’s
fessionals in applied sport and exercise psychology successes or disappointments, name dropping to a
Applied Sport and Exercise or Physical Activity Psychology 39
colleague, and finding reasons to meet more fre- Behavior was devoted entirely to ethics in sport and
quently with the client. Brown and Cogan (2006) exercise psychology (Etzel & Watson, 2006). Two
discussed the importance of maintaining boundar- governing bodies for the applied practice of sport
ies. They noted the frequent occurrences that sport and exercise or physical activity psychology in
psychology practitioners have with atypical ethical North America are the Canadian Sport Psychology
dilemmas (e.g., eating with the team, staying in the Association (CSPA) and AASP. Both organizations
same hotel as the athletes). Given that some situa- highlight the ethical guidelines on professional
tions are unavoidable in the sport domain, Brown conduct of a practitioner (for more information see
and Cogan suggest focusing on the importance of CSPA, www.cspa-acps.ca/ethics, and AASP, www
knowing how to handle those situations. Extend- .appliedsportpsych.org/about/ethics/).
ing beyond boundaries could negatively affect the
clients’ performance, personal growth, and quality Training and Effectiveness
of their experience.
In instances when issues are beyond the scope of Organizations such as AASP, CSPA, and the Inter-
a person’s practice, referrals are necessary. When national Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) have
referring clients, two questions should be asked established criteria for certification and the duties
(Stainback, Moncier, & Taylor, 2007): and competencies of a sport psychology practitioner
(see the sidebar AASP Certification Criteria Exam-
1. Do I have the knowledge to provide the nec- ples). Although much of the research on effective
essary intervention? practitioners has been conducted with the athlete
2. Do I have the skills to provide the necessary as the client, these competencies are arguably also
intervention? applicable to the exercise and physical activity area.
Despite what may be viewed as a narrow scope of
Developing a referral network is a dynamic process practice, practitioners working with clients do more
that may encompass a team of professionals who than teach positive thinking, arousal management
are experienced in working with the clients and through deep breathing, or the proper use of imag-
who are licensed or accredited to do so. National ery. Although these cognitive behavioral techniques
Sport Organizations (e.g., Swimming Canada) do help clients, many other duties and competencies
often have a myriad of experts, including athletic are involved in the effective practice of applied sport
trainers, massage therapists, coaches, physiologists, and exercise or physical activity psychology (Tod
nutritionists, primary care physicians, and applied & Andersen, 2005).
sport psychology practitioners. But anyone working In an attempt to increase the understanding of
as a sole practitioner with his or her own business the components of an effective practitioner, 30 elite-
needs to develop a personal network of experts to level athletes were interviewed (Anderson, Miles,
provide adequately for her or his clients. Mahoney, & Robinson, 2002). Key themes for the
Several studies have examined the ethical beliefs practitioner included being personable, delivering
and behaviors of sport and exercise or physical good practical service, being a good communicator,
activity psychology practitioners (Etzel, Watson, & having knowledge and experience about sport and
Zizzi, 2004; Petitpas, Brewer, Rivera, & Van Raalte, sport psychology, exhibiting professional skills (e.g.,
1994), and a special issue in the journal Ethics and approachable, perceptive), and being honest and
AASP Certification Criteria Examples
The following present a summary of criteria for candidates with a PhD degree. For full criteria see the AASP website
at www.appliedsportpsych.org/certified-consultants/become-a-certified-consultant/.
Educational Requirements
Professional ethics and standards; skills and techniques within sport and exercise; cognitive affective bases of behavior
Mentored Experience
Minimum of 400 hr of mentored experience spent in preparation and delivery of sport psychology or performance
enhancement services
trustworthy. Several of these themes speak to the humanistic approaches are most often employed
importance of the relationship between the client (Cropley et al., 2007). Behavior change that stems
and the practitioner. Research consistently shows from psychological skills training (PST) as a model
that the personality of practitioners and their ability of practice emphasizes personal growth from learn-
to develop a working relationship with their clients ing about and developing psychological skills. PST
have a profound influence on practice (Andersen, is defined as a “systematic and consistent practice
2000; Poczwardowski, Sherman, & Henschen, 1998). of mental or psychological skills for the purpose
of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment,
Evaluation or achieving a greater sport and physical activity
self-satisfaction” (Weinberg & Gould, 2007, p. 250).
A coach’s lack of confidence in the practitioner and As noted in the literature, however, PST might
perceived lack of practitioner effectiveness results result in a dangerously narrow approach to the prac-
in negative attitudes toward this service (Wrisberg, tice (Thompson, 1998). Other approaches such as
Loberg, Simpson, Withycombe, & Reed, 2010). Thus, the application of a feminist (Gill, 1994) or cultural
the effectiveness of the practitioner is paramount in perspective (Ryba, Stambulova, Si, & Schinke, 2013)
the relationship between the coach and the practi- to applied sport psychology practice has emerged
tioner (and the athlete and the practitioner), and as throughout the literature. Drawing on the counsel-
such, appropriate evaluation tools are necessary. ing and psychotherapy literature, Poczwardowski et
One means by which to evaluate a practitioner’s al. (2004) have suggested that eclecticism, or devel-
effectiveness is the Consultant Evaluation Form (CEF, oping a unique approach to working with clients,
Partington & Orlick, 1987). The CEF has been used is another legitimate approach to enact behavior
regularly in practice and is recognized as a valuable change. Perhaps this type of eclectic approach can
and appropriate means of evaluating practitioners help move clients beyond just an improved mental
(Poczwardowski et al., 1998). The CSPA also provides game by addressing other issues that may affect
a client appraisal form on its website in which the their behavior.
client (e.g., athlete) as well as the coach can complete
an assessment of the practitioner.
An evaluation of practitioner effectiveness could Psychological Skills Training
also be undertaken by the practitioners themselves. A role for many applied sport and exercise or phys-
One way of achieving this is to become more ical activity psychology practitioners is education
self-aware through reflective practice. Anderson, with a focus on strategy development. The educa-
Knowles, and Gilbourne (2004) define reflective tion and development of psychological strategies
practice as adopting an approach to practice that often takes the form of PST programs, a collection of
requires practitioners to be open and questioning. stress management and cognitive behavioral tech-
Many practitioners have advocated the use of niques. Programs are based on the assumption that
reflection in their own evaluation of their practices a person’s thoughts and feelings can impede peak
(e.g., Anderson et al., 2004; Cropley, Miles, Hanton, performance and, likewise, that certain mental
& Niven, 2007). Further, the British Association strategies, used effectively, can enhance optimal
of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) has made performance (Hays, 1995).
reflective practice a requirement for professional In this section, we present a brief overview of the
qualifications (www.bases.org.uk). Through psychological strategies that are frequently applied
reflective practice, practitioners identify areas for in sport and exercise or physical activity settings
improvement and change but can also explore best and that have received research attention. The
practices. A practitioner’s ongoing self-reflection strategies implemented in both sport and exercise
may facilitate the understanding of his or her or physical activity settings include self-talk, imag-
personal and professional philosophy approaches ery, goal setting, and arousal regulation. Specific
to practice (Poczwardowski, Sherman, & Ravizza, to exercise or physical activity, however, one type
2004). of counseling technique that will be addressed is
motivational interviewing.
Approaches to Psychological Skills A substantial amount of evidence indicates
the effectiveness of psychological strategies that
Training athletes can use to improve, or maintain, their
The approaches used in the applied practice of athletic performance. Although these results are
sport and exercise or physical activity psychology promising, the implementation and evaluation of
have been varied, but cognitive behavioral and PST programs is certainly not limited to the sport
context. Some have noted that the application of 1977), athletes are encouraged to use frequent self-
psychological interventions in the exercise domain talk. With respect to an athlete’s verbalization of
is often overlooked (Hall, Duncan, & McKay, 2014). self-talk, research has yet to determine whether
Yet emerging work shows clear applicability to overt or covert verbalization is more effective for
exercise and physical activity promotion. performance (Hardy, 2006).
As with physical skills, the aforementioned psy- Although few empirical studies have investi-
chological strategies require systematic practice. gated self-talk in the exercise domain, the concept
Often, PST programs involve a variety of strategies. that exercisers, similar to their athlete counter-
This packaged approach to the delivery and study parts, could reap the benefits of self-talk has been
of psychological strategies is appealing to per- proposed by several researchers. Anshel (2006)
formers and researchers alike, given the multiple noted that exercisers could benefit greatly from
strategies required for success. A concern with the self-talk because it builds confidence, which in
packaged approach, however, is the uncertainty turn increases effort and exertion. He also noted
around the sequence in which strategies should that using self-talk could potentially lead to greater
develop and how the strategies interact with each concentration and enjoyment. Similarly, Hall et al.
other to provide an additive effect toward improved (2014) argued that self-talk might be advantageous
performance (Thelwell, 2008). Regardless of the for exercisers through its influence on variables
individual or packaged approach to PST, interven- such as attentional focus, informational processing,
tions with athletes must be grounded in scientific motivation, and self-efficacy. Some research has
evidence (Thelwell, 2008). shown encouraging findings for the influence of
self-talk on endurance performance. Specifically,
self-talk has been shown to reduce perceived effort
Self-Talk and increase endurance performance (Blanchfield,
Self-talk is defined as verbalizations or statements Hardy, De Morree, Staiano, & Marcora, 2014) as well
directed to the self that are multidimensional and as increase work output (Hamilton et al., 2007).
dynamic and serve both instructional and moti- Self-talk use is influenced by the age of exercisers
vational purposes (Hardy, 2006). Research shows (Gammage, Hardy, & Hall, 2001; O’Brien Cousins &
that instructional self-talk can improve sport per- Gillis, 2005), the specific time during the workout
formance (Landin & Hebert, 1999; Theodarakis, (Gammage et al., 2001), and the intensity of exer-
Weinberg, Natsis, Douma, & Kazakas, 2000) and cise (Schomer & Connolly, 2002). More research is
that motivational self-talk can benefit endurance, needed to determine the effectiveness of self-talk in
strength, and other forms of motor performance exercise, but preliminary findings appear to show
(e.g., Chang, Ho, Lu, Ou, Song, & Gill, 2014; Ham- that frequent and nonfrequent exercisers could
ilton, Scott, & MacDougall, 2007; Hatzigeorgidis benefit from using this psychological technique.
& Theodorakis, 2004; Ming & Martin, 1996). A
recent review found that motivational self-talk
generally had a stronger positive influence on the
Imagery
performance of gross motor skills than instructional In its most basic form, imagery is defined as the
self-talk did, and the opposite was true for the per- creation and re-creation of experiences in the
formance of precision-based tasks (Tod, Hardy, & mind (Vealey & Greenleaf, 2010). Researchers and
Oliver, 2011). athletes alike have long been interested in imagery
Six self-talk dimensions can be used as a guide and its effect on performance. Most of the recent
when developing a self-talk intervention for ath- imagery research has stemmed from Paivio’s (1985)
letes: valence (positive or negative), verbalization analytic model, which suggests that imagery has
(overt or covert), self-determination (assigned or cognitive and motivational functions that operate
freely chosen), directional interpretation (motivat- on either a specific or a general level. Later, Hall,
ing or demotivating), directional intensity (not at Mack, Paivio, and Hausenblas (1998) identified five
all or very much so), and frequency (often or never; functions of imagery: cognitive specific (images
Hardy, 2006). Athletes should practice positive related to specific sport skills), cognitive general
self-talk (Tod et al., 2011), and they should freely (images related to sport strategies and routines),
choose to do so, because this is believed to have a motivational specific (images associated with goal
greater motivational influence than assigned self- attainment), motivational general mastery (images
talk (Hardy, 2006). Finally, given that research has associated with mental toughness and confidence),
found that successful athletes use more self-talk and motivational general arousal (images linked to
than unsuccessful athletes do (Mahoney & Avener, arousal and stress).
Numerous studies conducted in a wide variety 7. The function of imagery employed should
of contexts have shown that the use of cognitive align with the athlete’s desired outcome
specific imagery is advantageous for the learning (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999).
and performance of motor skills (see Driskell,
Copper, & Moran, 1994, for a review). Several Two decades of research have explored the use-
studies have revealed that cognitive general imag- fulness, importance, and application of imagery
ery is related to several sport-related variables, in exercise. Similar to self-talk, exercise imagery
including confidence, self-efficacy, and cohesion use is influenced by the age of exerciser (Kim &
in team sports (see Westlund, Pope, & Tobin, 2012, Giacobbi, 2009), the specific time during the work-
for review). But a limited number of studies have out (Hausenblas, Hall, Rodgers, & Munroe, 1999),
examined the effects of cognitive general imagery and the status of the exerciser (e.g., regular vs.
on performance, and these studies have led to irregular; Hall, Rodgers, Wilson, & Norman, 2010).
equivocal findings (Westlund et al., 2012). In terms With respect to the status of the exerciser, frequent
of goal-oriented images, research has revealed that exercisers were found to use imagery more often
motivational specific imagery is related to athletes’ than less-frequent exercisers did and to use imagery
achievement goals, confidence, and self-efficacy for appearance reasons (e.g., imagine being leaner)
and has improved golfers’ sport performance (see most, followed by technique (e.g., imagine correct
Cumming & Ramsey, 2009, for review). Motiva- form and position), and energy (e.g., imagine feeling
tional general mastery imagery has been found to energized; Gammage, Hall, & Rodgers, 2000).
improve self-efficacy and predict mental toughness Intervention studies have revealed that across
and self-confidence in athletes (Mattie & Mun- a diverse range of populations, imagery has been
roe-Chandler, 2012; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & found to increase task, coping, and scheduling
Fishburne, 2008; O, Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Hall, self-efficacy (Duncan, Rodgers, Hall, & Wilson,
2014). Lastly, with respect to motivational general 2011); barrier self-efficacy (Weibull, Cumming,
arousal imagery, images of the emotions associated Cooley, Williams, & Burns, 2015); self-determined
with competitive performance (e.g., anger, anxiety, motivation (Duncan, Hall, Wilson, & Rodgers, 2012;
excitement, fear, pressure, psyched up) are related Guerrero, Tobin, Munroe-Chandler, & Hall, 2015);
to increased levels of state anxiety (Strachan & revitalization and postexercise valence (Stanley &
Munroe-Chandler, 2006), whereas images of per- Cumming, 2010); implicit attitudes toward exercise
forming in a relaxed and calm state are related to (Markland, Hall, Duncan, & Simatovic, 2015); lei-
decreased levels of state anxiety (Murphy, Woolfolk, sure-time exercise behaviors (Kim, Newton, Sachs,
& Budney, 1988). Giacobbi, & Glutting, 2011); levels of physical activ-
Based on extensive empirical work on imagery ity (Guerrero et al., 2015). Together, these findings
in sport, imagery recommendations for athletes support imagery as a useful psychological strategy
include the following: for increasing exercise behavior and exercise-re-
lated cognitions.
1. Images should be positive rather than negative
(Hall, 2001).
Goal Setting
2. Athletes should be in a good mood when using
imagery (Gregg, Hall, & Hanton, 2007). A goal is defined as “what an individual is trying
3. Athletes need to be encouraged to use imagery to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action”
when such use is typically less frequent, such (Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981, p. 126).
as in the off-season and early competitive Goal setting is one of the most frequently used
season (Munroe, Hall, Simms, & Weinberg, performance enhancement techniques (Burton
1998). & Weiss, 2008). Athletes can set three types of
goals, and they should incorporate all three into a
4. Less-skilled athletes need to be encouraged
goal-setting program (Filby, Maynard, & Graydon,
to use imagery (Hall, 2001).
1999): performance goals (improving and attaining
5. Athletes of all ages should be encouraged to personal performance standards), process goals
use imagery interventions (Munroe-Chandler, (specific behaviors that an athlete must engage
Hall, Fishburne, & Strachan, 2007). in throughout a performance), and outcome goals
6. Slow-motion imagery is best employed when (social comparison and competitive results). Setting
the goal is to enhance the learning, devel- multiple-goal strategies provides the athlete a sig-
opment, review, or refinement of skills and nificant advantage when compared with setting a
strategies (O & Munroe-Chandler, 2008). single-goal strategy (Filby et al., 1999).
The positive effect of goal setting on performance tion analyses were revealed (McEwan et al., 2016).
is a robust finding in sport (Burton, Naylor, & Hol- For example, significant positive effects of goal
iday, 2001; Kingston & Wilson, 2009; Weinberg, setting on physical activity emerged irrespective
1994). This conclusion has been substantiated in a of numerous factors, including delivery modality
variety of tasks and populations as well as in both (e.g., in-person vs. with technology), intervention
laboratory and field settings. Besides influencing duration (e.g., 1 week vs. 1 year), research setting
athlete performance, realistic goals help athletes (e.g., home vs. fitness facility), goal specificity (e.g.,
manage stress and remain optimistic when faced specific, such as reaching 10,000 steps per day vs.
with adversity (Burton & Weiss, 2008). Further, vague, such as becoming more active), and person
team goal setting can be an effective team-building prescribing the goal (e.g., participants themselves
tool for enhancing group cohesion (Senécal, Loug- vs. interventionists). Goal-setting interventions
head, & Bloom, 2008). were found to be most effective when goals were
Although goal setting is one of the most exten- set in relation to daily physical activity or a combi-
sively employed and supported interventions in nation of daily and weekly physical activity, rather
sport psychology, athletes themselves rate goals than in relation only to weekly physical activity.
as being only moderately effective (Burton et al., Lastly, the results showed that to maximize the
2001). Athletes likely make this judgment because effects of goal setting on physical activity behav-
they are not certain how to set goals effectively. iors, interventions should provide participants with
Therefore, they require the assistance of a sport feedback regarding their performance, appropriate
psychology practitioner or other informed support task strategies, and behavior-contingent rewards
person (e.g., coach). Based on extant evidence, the (McEwan et al., 2016).
following guidelines are recommended:
1. Goals should be moderately difficult (Kyllo & Arousal Regulation

Landers, 1995).
Arousal regulation encompasses a compilation of
2. Process goals should be flexible and serve as techniques aimed either to enhance (“psyching
an initial step to achieving performance and up”) or to reduce (“psyching down”) an athlete’s or
outcome goals (Kingston & Wilson, 2009). exerciser’s arousal level. Some sports require the
3. Short- and long-term goals should be set to athlete to be calm and relaxed (e.g., pistol shoot-
maintain motivation over time (Weinberg, ing), whereas others require a more highly aroused
Butt, & Knight, 2001). state (e.g., weightlifting). Performance fluctua-
4. Athletes who are members of a team should tions in sport are often the result of being over- or
set both individual and team goals (Locke & underaroused relative to the contextual demands.
Latham, 1990). Empirical work shows that arousal regulation can
be as important to performance as technical skill
Similarly, findings from a number of research and tactical decision making (Jensen, Roman, Shaft,
studies have shown that goal setting is an effective & Wrisberg, 2013).
strategy for enhancing physical activity behaviors in Given the strong relationship between arousal
both adults (Pearson, 2012) and adolescents (Shilts, and performance, it is not surprising that athletes
Horowitz, & Townsend, 2009). In a recent system- use arousal regulation techniques. In table 3.1,
atic review and meta-analysis, the effectiveness of we have outlined various techniques to reduce or
multicomponent goal-setting interventions in pro- increase arousal that have been identified in the
moting physical activity behavior was noted, and literature through either descriptive or experimen-
a number of noteworthy findings through modera- tal research. The effectiveness of these techniques,
Table 3.1 Techniques to Reduce or Increase Arousal

Techniques to reduce arousal Techniques to increase arousal
Breathing (Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier, 1998) Pep talks, bulletin boards, and precompetition workouts (cf. Mun-
roe-Chandler & Hall, 2016)
Progressive muscle relaxation (Hashim, Hanafi, & Yusof, 2011) Verbal cues and self-talk (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2007)
Meditation and hypnosis (Pates, Oliver, & Maynard, 2001) Breathing (Whelan, Epkins, & Meyers, 1999)
Autogenic training (Spigolon & Annalisa, 1985) Imagery (Cumming, Olphin, & Law, 2007)
Biofeedback (Daniels & Landers, 1981) Music (Terry & Karageorghis, 2011)
however, depends on an athlete’s ability to recog- seling intervention (see the sidebar Motivational
nize arousal level, identify what constitutes opti- Interviewing Rapport) and has been shown to be
mal arousal, and learn to regulate arousal. A sport a promising framework for enhancing lifestyle
psychology practitioner can facilitate this capacity behavioral changes. Practitioners employ four
by attending to the following evidence-based key elements of MI with their clients to facilitate
guidelines. behavior change:
As in the sport context, not all forms of exer-
cise require the same level of arousal (e.g., yoga 1. Express empathy (demonstrate understanding
vs. high-intensity interval training). A substantial and acceptance to the client)
amount of research has investigated the effects of 2. Develop discrepancies (identify gaps between
psyching up on various types of exercise perfor- the client’s current and desired behaviors)
mance (i.e., maximal strength, muscular endur- 3. Roll with resistance (avoid confrontation by
ance, and power; Tod & McGuigan, 2006). Among responding to the client’s resistance with
the studies that have been conducted, researchers reflective statements)
have employed various psyching up strategies,
4. Support self-efficacy (demonstrate belief that
including self-talk, self-efficacy statements, imag-
the client has the ability to change)
ery, focused attention, preparatory arousal, and
self-selected psyching up strategy. Overall, the A growing body of research supports the utility
results reveal that psyching up may help untrained of MI in a variety of health domains. In a recent
or novice participants improve their maximal review, people who received MI reported higher
strength and muscular endurance during simple diet and exercise-related self-efficacy, increased
dynamic tasks (e.g., leg extension and bench press; physical activity, and decreased weight than those
Tod & McGuigan, 2006). In a more recent study, who did not receive MI (Martin & McNeil, 2009).
martial artists who performed a kiap (an exha- Similar outcomes of MI have also been noted with
lation of air in the form of a yell or grunt) during people living with type 1 or type 2 diabetes (Martin
a handgrip strength test did significantly better & McNeil, 2009). Furthermore, MI interventions
than those who did not perform a kiap (Welch & appear to increase physical activity participation in
Tschampl, 2012). No research, to our knowledge, people with chronic health conditions (O’Halloran
has examined the effect of psyching down on exer- et al., 2014) and adolescents who are obese (Gour-
cise performance or exercise-related cognitions. lan, Sarrazin, & Trouilloud, 2013).
But techniques for reducing arousal in sport (e.g.,
breathing, progressive relaxation, autogenic train-
ing, and meditation) can certainly be employed by
frequent and nonfrequent exercisers and may lead
Emerging
to similar benefits (e.g., reduced anxiety). Of course, Research Constructs
only experimental studies will determine the effec-
tiveness of such techniques in the exercise domain. Self-compassion, mindfulness, and mental tough-
ness are novel constructs that are beginning to be
examined within the applied sport and exercise
Motivational Interviewing or physical activity psychology literature. In the
Besides teaching people psychological strategies, following section, we provide a brief description of
practitioners have also used counseling interven- these constructs, followed by a review of the extant
tions with their clients. Motivational interviewing research that has attempted to answer specific
(MI; Miller & Rollnick, 2009) is one type of coun- questions related to each.
Motivational Interviewing Rapport
One way to build rapport between the practitioner and the client is motivational interviewing, defined as “a collabo-
rative, goal-oriented method of communication with particular attention to the language of change. It is intended to
strengthen personal motivation for and commitment to a specific goal by eliciting and exploring an individual’s own
arguments for change” (Miller & Rollnick, 2009, p. 137).
The recent growing body of research on self-com- self-compassion intervention in a group of female
passion, mindfulness, and mental toughness is varsity athletes found that the intervention led to
promising. The development of self-compassion can significantly higher levels of self-compassion and
potentially help athletes cope with negative cogni- lower levels of state self-criticism, state rumination,
tions and emotions during difficult events, whereas and concerns over mistakes in women who received
for exercisers, self-compassion might act as a the intervention, compared with a control group
buffer against the negative effects of self-conscious (Mosewich, Crocker, Kowalski, & DeLongis, 2013).
emotions and body dissatisfaction. Furthermore, Other studies in sport and exercise psychology
practicing mindfulness may have a positive effect have examined the relationship between self-com-
on performance in athletes and on health-related passion and self-conscious emotions (e.g., shame
behaviors and cognitions in nonathletes. Lastly, and guilt). In a study with young female athletes,
adopting a mentally tough mind-set could have self-compassion was negatively related to shame
positive effects on sport performance and exercise proneness, guilt-free shame proneness, fear of fail-
behavior. The findings from the studies discussed ure, and fear of negative evaluation (Mosewich,
in the following sections shed light on the import- Kowalski, Sabiston, Sedgwick, & Tracy, 2011).
ant role these novel, fresh constructs may have on Albertson, Neff, and Dill-Shackleford (2015) found
the psychological well-being of both athletes and that women who completed self-compassion med-
exercisers. itation for 3 weeks reported greater increases in
self-compassion and body appreciation and greater
Self-Compassion reductions in body shame, body dissatisfaction,
and contingent self-worth based on appearance
Self-compassion has been defined as “being touched than did their control group peers. Future research
by and open to one’s own suffering, not avoiding should examine the link between self-compassion
or disconnecting from it, generating the desire to and athletic performance in athletes.
alleviate one’s suffering and to heal oneself with
kindness” (Neff, 2003, p. 87). Self-compassion has
three basic components: self-kindness, common
Mindfulness
humanity, and mindfulness (Neff, 2003). Self-kind- The concept of mindfulness has garnered much
ness involves being accepting and understanding to attention among sport and exercise or physical
oneself during times of personal failures, adversity, activity psychology researchers and practitioners.
and pain, rather than being highly judgmental and Mindfulness has been defined as “paying attention
harsh. Common humanity is the perception that in a particular way: on purpose, in the present
one’s experiences are shared by all humans rather moment, and nonjudgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994,
than isolating and separating. Lastly, mindfulness p. 4). The foundation of mindfulness is premised on
involves being aware of one’s painful thoughts and a different perspective than traditional PST models,
feelings rather than avoiding, repressing, or ove- which aim to achieve enhanced performance
ridentifying with them. Self-compassion has been by controlling one’s emotions, cognitions, and
identified as a healthier conceptualization of the self physiological sensations (Gardner & Moore, 2012).
as compared with self-esteem. Self-compassion is Mindfulness requires an individual to connect with
premised on self-acceptance, whereas self-esteem internal and external states in a nonjudgmental and
is based on social comparison and self-evaluation accepting fashion, without attempting to change the
(Neff, 2003). Thus, people in pursuit of high self-es- states’ form and frequency (Gardner & Moore, 2012).
teem are more likely to put others down or perceive Mindfulness-based interventions in sport have
others as worse off so that they feel more favorably adopted one of two approaches. The first is Gardner
about themselves (Neff, 2003). Being self-compas- and Moore’s (2007) mindfulness-acceptance-com-
sionate allows people to experience positive cogni- mitment (MAC) approach, which emphasizes
tions and emotions about themselves without the mindful attention, accepting internal states, and
need for self-deprecation and self-enhancement. commitment to achieving valued goals. Since
Sport and exercise settings offer ample opportu- its development, a number of empirical studies
nity to engage in social comparison and self-eval- have provided support for the efficacy of the MAC
uation. Thus, it is not surprising that researchers approach. For example, a nonrandomized trial
have begun to highlight the potential advantages conducted with female collegiate athletes found
of practicing self-compassion in such contexts. that those who received MAC training reported
An examination of the effectiveness of a 1-week improvements in both self and coach ratings of
athletic performance, compared with those with no odds of being obese for men (Camilleri, Méjean,
intervention (Wolanin, 2005). Additionally, a large Bellisle, Hercberg, & Péneau, 2015).
randomized controlled trial with college athletes Research has examined the effectiveness of mind-
showed that those in the MAC condition, compared fulness-based interventions in clinical populations
to the PST condition, demonstrated a significant and to a lesser extent in nonclinical populations.
increase in athletic performance, along with self-re- In a recent systematic review and meta-analysis,
ports of mindfulness awareness and attention, expe- mindfulness-based therapies were found to result
riential acceptance, and overall flow (Lutkenhouse, in a significant reduction of symptoms of anxiety
Gardner, & Moore, 2007). Other mindfulness-based and depression among cancer patients and survi-
interventions that did not explicitly adopt MAC vors (Piet, Würtzen, & Zachariae, 2012). In another
protocols but were theoretically and procedurally systematic review and meta-analysis, Vollestad,
similar to MAC have reported significant improve- Nielsen, and Nielsen (2011) examined the utility
ments in athletic performance (Bernier, Thienot, of mindfulness- and acceptance-based interven-
Codron, & Fournier, 2009) and dimensions of flow tions for patients suffering from anxiety disorders.
(Aherne, Moran, & Lonsdale, 2011). Results from their study showed that mindfulness-
The second approach in cultivating mindfulness and acceptance-based interventions were associated
in athletes is mindful sport performance enhance- with substantial reductions in symptoms of anxiety
ment (MSPE; Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2009). and in comorbid depressive symptoms, both at post-
MSPE targets mindfulness with exercises such as treatment and follow-up. Additionally, a systematic
sitting meditation, body scan, mindful yoga, and review provided evidence for the application of
walking meditation. Using a sample of recreational mindfulness-based interventions as a treatment
long-distance runners, participants who attended for various eating disorders, including anorexia
4 weeks of MSPE workshops reported fewer orga- nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating (Wan-
nizational demands (an aspect of perfectionism) den-Berghe, Sanz-Valero, & Wanden-Berge, 2011).
compared with participants in the waitlist group Although these findings are not specific to sport
(De Petrillo, Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2009). and exercise or physical activity settings, they do
MSPE with golfers and archers found that their state provide some evidence that mindfulness-based
flow increased over time (Kaufman et al., 2009). interventions might have similar, positive effects
Recently, a 1-year follow-up of the participants with populations such as athletes and exercisers.
who attended De Petrillo et al. and Kaufman et al.’s For example, eliciting mindfulness in athletes might
(2009) MSPE workshops showed that trait mind- lead to lower risks of eating disorders. Alternatively,
fulness increased for all athletes from pretest to mindfulness-based interventions might be effective
follow-up (Thompson, Kaufman, De Petrillo, Glass, in helping frequent and nonfrequent exercisers
& Arnkoff, 2011). Athletes also showed a significant reduce their social physique anxiety. Preliminary
decrease in task-related worries, task-irrelevant support for the applicability of mindfulness in phys-
thoughts (aspects of thought disruption), and sport ical activity domains can be gleaned through the
anxiety. Additionally, although the quantitative work of Bryan, Zipp, and Parasher (2012), in which
data in the original studies (De Petrillo et al., 2009; a 10-week yoga intervention with a mindfulness
Kaufman et al., 2009) showed no improvements in component had a positive influence on exercise
athletes’ performance, results from Thompson et adherence in a sample of sedentary adults. Future
al.’s (2011) study revealed performance improve- experimental research should examine the effects
ments for both runners and golfers. of mindfulness in an exercise setting.
Correlational research has shown that mindful-
ness is positively associated with exercise mainte- Mental Toughness
nance (Loucks, Britton, Howe, Eaton, & Buka, 2015)
and negatively associated with body mass index Mental toughness is a term regularly used by
(Moor, Scott, & McIntosh, 2013). Other studies have coaches, athletes, and practitioners. In a recent
found that higher levels of mindfulness are related study, Gucciardi, Hanton, Gordon, Mallett, and
to greater levels of moderate and vigorous physical Temby (2015) defined mental toughness as “a per-
activity, exercise self-efficacy, fruit and vegetable sonal capacity to produce consistently high levels
intake, dietary self-efficacy, and lower levels of fat of subjective (e.g., personal goals or strivings) or
intake (Gilbert & Waltz, 2010) as well as lower odds objective performance (e.g., sales, race time, GPA)
of being overweight and obese for women and lower despite everyday challenges and stressors as well
as significant adversities” (p. 28). In addition to

providing a guiding definition, Gucciardi et al.
Future Research
conducted a series of studies across various achieve- Recommendations
ment contexts (e.g., sport and education) and found
that mental toughness Throughout this chapter we have presented the vast
research findings pertaining to the application of
• may be better understood as a unidimensional sport and exercise or physical activity psychology.
construct (vs. multidimensional); Yet, despite the progress made, some gaps in the
• is positively associated with performance, literature remain. We now present several areas
goal progress, and thriving during stressful where we believe future research may wish to focus.
situations; and These include measurement and evaluation of psy-
• can change depending on contextual or social chological strategies, knowledge translation, diverse
factors. populations, and technology-mediated practice.
Typically, psychological strategies are measured
Cross-sectional research shows that athletes’ per- with questionnaires. Problems with subjective
ceptions of autonomy-supportive coach behaviors measures are consistently noted in the literature
were indirectly associated with mental toughness (e.g., validity and reliability). In 1998, Strean noted
through psychological needs satisfaction (Mahoney, the need for effective evaluation (measurement) in
Gucciardi, Ntoumanis, & Mallet, 2014). Experimen- applied sport psychology. We argue that this need
tal research has examined the effect of two different is mirrored in applied exercise or physical activity
PST programs on young male Australian football psychology. In the years since Strean’s suggestion,
players’ mental toughness (Gucciardi, Gordon, & the need remains. Both the knowledge of and
Dimmock, 2009). Australian football players were attitude toward the psychological strategies are
divided into one of three groups: a general PST necessary measures. Indeed, interventions cannot
group, a mental toughness training group, or a be successful if the client has not improved his or
control group. Both the PST group and the mental her knowledge of the said psychological strategies.
toughness group reported significant improve- Additionally, some measurement of the client’s
ments in mental toughness, flow, and resilience. In adherence to the use of the psychological strategies
another study, cricket players who received mental is valuable. As noted by Anderson et al. (2002), if
toughness training over a 2-year period reported the client is not using the strategy, the intervention
higher scores on mental toughness and performance will likely be ineffective. A systematic evaluation of
compared with those who did not receive the inter- the PST program, using a variety of tools (subjective
vention (Bell, Hardy, & Beattie, 2013). and objective) is highly recommended for work in
To date, only two studies have examined mental the applied setting.
toughness in an exercise setting. One showed that Knowledge translation is a dynamic process
adolescents who achieved current physical activity involving the dissemination, exchange, and appli-
recommendations reported higher levels of mental cation of knowledge and is therefore fundamental
toughness (Gerber et al., 2012). The other used phe- in the field of applied sport and exercise or physical
nomenological interviews to ask qualified and expe- activity psychology. Given that most successful
rienced exercise leaders, as well as regular exer- interventions are derived from sound theory and
cisers, about their perceptions and experiences of evidence, we need to bridge the gap between theory
mental toughness (Crust, Swann, Allen-Collinson, and application. Anshel (2012) advocated for more
Breckon, & Weinberg, 2014). Ten general dimensions field-based studies to strengthen the link between
were identified as important to mental toughness in theory and practice. In addition, further elabora-
the exercise domain: motivation to achieve, goals tion on existing theories is necessary to improve
and sense of purpose, focus, reinforcement from understanding of client behavior, thus allowing for
hard work or sweating and aching, commitment, rigorous testing and more effective interventions.
overcommitment, learning and growth orientation, Indeed, the practice and research of applied sport
resiliency, control over emotions and stability, and and exercise or physical activity psychology has
challenge appraisal. Overall, addressing some of evolved over the years. Several journals now focus
these components of exercise mental toughness on advancing thought, theory, and research on
may be helpful in eliciting exercise maintenance applied aspects of sport and exercise or physical
and adherence. activity psychology (e.g., Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, Sport Psychology in Action, The Sport munication with the client. Further, as mentioned
Psychologist). These outlets effectively reach the aca- previously, practitioners who expand their services
demic community, but more can be done to inform to reach a broader community will no doubt become
the nonacademic community such as coaches (e.g., more culturally competent.
workshops), athletes (e.g., blogs), fitness centers A final area for future direction is technology-me-
(e.g., brochures), and policy makers (e.g., commu- diated practice. Recently we have seen applied
nity partnerships). sport psychology services delivered online. The
Applied sport psychology has generally targeted importance of online services is that clients have
elite able-bodied athletes, but the field needs to greater access to PST. No longer is PST only for
expand its application to other populations. Given elite funded athletes. Athletes with a disability or
the effectiveness of PST with athletes and exercis- those who are nonelite, recreational, or remotely
ers, similar research should continue to evolve with located can now reap the same benefits. The use
populations such as those in cardiac rehabilitation of technology in applied practice is not exclusive to
programs, elderly, pregnant women, and those with the sport domain. Practitioners working with clients
mental and physical disabilities. Further, Anshel to enhance their physical activity participation
(2012) predicted that youth sport participants, and might consider employing similar technology-based
their parents, would be a population of interest for modalities successfully noted in sport. For instance,
applied sport psychology practitioners and research- Weinberg et al. (2012) describe an online platform
ers. Well-planned psychological skill programs focusing on mental training for athletes. Through
(such as positive youth development; e.g., Gould & PowerPoint presentations, interviews with sport
Carson, 2011) provide an opportunity to encourage psychology professionals, simulation training, and
the psychological development of youth athletes coach and parent education programs, this online
within the sport environment. Through the transfer mental training tool can reach the masses at a cost
of psychological strategies that youth learn in sport, far less than that for extended one-on-one sessions.
personal growth in other areas of life (e.g., school) Practitioners could also use social media platforms,
can be attained. The importance of parent education such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, to pro-
in the delivery of these psychological strategies to vide services to their clients. This type of technology
youth athletes was further noted (Weinberg, Neff, & is especially relevant to the youth population given
Jurica, 2012). Given the role that parents play in the the high rate of cellphone ownership. Similarly, the
development of their child’s sport skills, educating explosion of cellphone applications (“apps”) target-
the parents is a logical step toward enhancing their ing mental skills training and fitness and health
support for the program. behaviors are avenues worth exploring. Future
Cultural diversity is integral to sport and exer- research should determine whether the use of these
cise or physical activity psychology, yet it is rarely technologies is effective. See chapter 14 for more
addressed in the literature. Ryba et al. (2013), in information on the use of technology in sport and
their ISSP position stand, noted the changing land- exercise or physical activity settings.
scape of sport and physical activity. Contemporary
sport and exercise or physical activity psychology
is multicultural. As such, researchers and practi- Summary
tioners should be culturally competent. A revision
of the approach may be the result: Throughout this chapter, we have provided the
reader with an overview of research supporting
One which stresses the diversity and complexity practice in sport and exercise or physical activity
of sport and exercise participants’ behaviours psychology. Besides identifying key components of
and motivations through an enhanced under- an effective practitioner, we have synthesized the
standing that their experiences are always
literature regarding the traditional psychological
contextually contained within socially and cul-
turally available resources to make sense of the
strategies often reported (i.e., self-talk, imagery,
surrounding reality, including who they are and goal setting, and arousal regulation). Because of the
how they relate to others. dynamic nature of research, we have identified sev-
Ryba et al., 2013, p. 124
eral emerging areas in our field (i.e., self-compas-
sion, mindfulness, and mental toughness) as well
One way that a practitioner may become more as gaps in the literature; thus providing direction
culturally understanding is to learn about the world for both scholars and practitioners.
in which the client behaves. This goal could be We have attempted to provide a clearer under-
achieved through education, observation, and com- standing of the issues facing applied sport and exer-
cise or physical activity psychology researchers and psychology practice: Making the case for a case study
practitioners. Specifically, our chapter highlights approach. The Sport Psychologist, 16, 432–453.
the following: Anshel, M.H. (2006). Applied exercise psychology: A
practitioner’s guide to client health and fitness. New York,
1. Ethical issues and competencies are important NY: Springer.
to practitioners even though they often work Anshel, M.H. (2012). From theory to practice (5th ed.). San
in nontraditional clinical settings. Francisco, CA: Pearson, Benjamin Cummings.
2. Clients and coaches need to evaluate the Association for Applied Sport Psychology. (n.d.). About
practitioner’s effectiveness. Further, the prac- applied sport psychology. www.appliedsportpsych.org/
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to self-evaluate. Bell, J.J., Hardy, L., & Beattie, S. (2013). Enhancing
mental toughness and performance under pressure in
3. In both the applied sport and exercise or
elite young cricketers: A 2-year longitudinal intervention.
physical activity settings, the psychological Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 2, 281–297.
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Bernier, M., Thienot, E., Codron, R., & Fournier, J.F. (2009).
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PART
II
Individual
Differences
in Behavior
A major focus of early sport psychology research selected individual-difference factors and indi-
was on the identification of particular characteris- viduals’ subsequent behaviors, attitudes, values,
tics of individuals that could explain and predict perceptions, and psychoemotional responses in
sport and physical activity behavior. Such individ- physical activity contexts. Chapter 4 by Catherine
ual-difference factors were defined as consisting Sabiston, Jenna Gilchrist, and Jennifer Brunet opens
of relatively stable traits, dispositions, or charac- this section, focusing on individuals’ perceptions
teristics of individuals. More recently, however, of their own traits, beliefs, roles, identities, and
researchers have emphasized differences between self-descriptions in sport and physical activity
people in their subjective appraisals of the world contexts. These self-perceptions can have import-
around them. These appraisals may be somewhat ant implications in physical activity contexts. The
less stable in nature than the aforementioned chapter authors begin by reviewing the research
traits and dispositions, but the research reveals and theory on the broadest constructs of the self—
significant variability between individuals in the self-esteem and self-concept—with a particular
ways they process, analyze, interpret, and evaluate focus on how these self-perceptions are related
events that occur in physical activity environments. to physical activity. As part of this review, the
Furthermore, such interindividual variability in authors provide a summary of, and commentary
subjective appraisal processes has been linked to on, several related but also competing theories on
subsequent differences in the performance and the relationship between these broad constructs
behavior of physical activity participants. and individuals’ behaviors across contexts. They
The three chapters contained in part II of this text then review self-system constructs that have been
examine the theoretical frameworks and research examined within the physical activity psychology
studies addressing the relationship between field, including physical self-discrepancies, exercise
55
56 Part II
and athletic identity, self-schemata, and possible the construct as a “complex multidimensional
selves. Despite the relatively consistent interest personality characteristic that reflects an irratio-
in self-perceptions among researchers in the field nal way of thinking about achievement.” Over the
across the past several decades, there are a number course of the chapter, Hall challenges the dualistic
of limitations to the knowledge base. Thus, the conception of perfectionism that is often advanced
authors end their chapter by providing directives and suggests that perfectionism is best seen as a
for future research as well as practice. source of vulnerability that can lead to negative
Jennifer Brunet and Catherine Sabiston again consequences (e.g., performance debilitation,
collaborate to coauthor chapter 5, which focuses burnout, maladaptive psychological processes) for
on self-presentation, a process that occurs when sport performers. The chapter provides readers with
people try to monitor and regulate the impressions a review of the theoretical and empirical research
of them that others form. Their chapter begins that has been conducted to date, especially within
by defining the self-presentation construct and the competitive sport setting. Importantly, it also
reviewing theoretical frameworks and models offers a critique of this knowledge base along with
that have been used to investigate it within sport, suggestions for future research that could help
exercise, and other physical activity contexts. resolve issues surrounding the hypothesized dual
They then share specific tactics that individuals nature of perfectionism.
attempt to use to manage other people’s impres- Although the three chapters in part II are writ-
sions of them in physical activity settings. An ten from the perspective that individual-difference
important dimension to research in this area is factors can serve as predictors of sport and exercise
the way in which the construct is measured or behavior, the authors clearly recognize that such
assessed. Therefore, Brunet and Sabiston review factors must be considered along with situational
the instruments that have been developed and or contextual factors for an adequate understanding
used for this purpose. Following this critical dis- of sport behavior. Thus, the three chapters in part
cussion, they provide an overview of the research II complement the four chapters in part III that
literature and then identify important knowledge focus on socioenvironmental factors. The overrid-
gaps, along with questions or issues that warrant ing theme of the collection of chapters is that an
further attention. interactional approach to the study of behavior in
In chapter 6, Howard Hall provides a current and physical activity contexts is essential to advancing
critical perspective on perfectionism. He defines knowledge and practice.
4
Self-Perception
in Sport and Exercise
Catherine M. Sabiston, PhD  Jenna D. Gilchrist, MA  Jennifer Brunet, PhD
Abstract
Self-perceptions can be defined as the way that people think about their traits, beliefs,
roles, identities, and descriptions. In this chapter, we present an overview of existing
work on the multidimensional and hierarchical structure of the self. Within the context
of sport and exercise, the physical self and related physical self-perceptions are the pri-
mary focus of attention. Specifically, sport and exercise situations provide opportunity
for the development and evaluation of the self and a forum for the physical self to be
on display and judged by others. Competing theories exploring the development of
the self and the way in which the self relates to outcomes such as physical activity are
discussed. An integrative perspective is presented pertaining to the associations within
the self-perception system and the way in which the self relates to engagement in, or
avoidance of, physical activity. Limitations of existing work are highlighted throughout
the chapter, and suggestions for future research are identified and discussed to inform
theory, research, and practice.
57
58 Sabiston, Gilchrist, and Brunet
S Self-Esteem and Self-Concept

elf-perceptions can generally be defined as the
way that people think about themselves—their
traits, beliefs, roles, identities, and descrip- Self-esteem can be defined as the evaluative feel-
tions (Leary & Tangney, 2003). As implied by this ing that a person has about him- or herself. This
definition, self-perception infers an ability for relatively broad construct has been explored from
reflexive thinking that is important for people as multiple perspectives such as explicit self-esteem
they interpret their social, physical, and emotional (conscious, controlled, and reflective self-apprais-
circumstances and regulate their behaviors (Leary als), implicit self-esteem (a predisposition to eval-
& Tangney, 2003). Furthermore, people’s sense of uate oneself in a spontaneous and unconscious
self is defined not only by their knowledge of them- yet automatic way; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995),
selves (i.e., self-awareness) and reflection of that stable and true self-esteem (intrapsychic feelings
knowledge (i.e., self-reflexivity) but also by their of personal worth and autonomy), and unstable
interactions with others. The processes that people and contingent self-esteem (based on outcomes
use in the development of their self-perceptions and achievement and inter- or intrapersonal stan-
include self-comparison (e.g., comparing actions dards; Deci & Ryan, 1995). Although self-esteem
and behaviors with current personal standards or has commonly been studied as the way that an
across time), social comparison (e.g., comparing individual thinks about her or his own value or
actions and behaviors with those of significant or worth as a person (i.e., self-worth), self-concept is
relevant others), and evaluations from significant broadly defined as a person’s self-description based
others such as positive and negative feedback on her or his experiences and interpretations of
from peers, family, coaches, trainers, and teachers the environment (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton,
(Harter, 2012; Stets & Burke, 2003). Together, these 1976). The main difference between self-esteem
processes lead to the development of a multidimen- and self-concept is that self-esteem takes into
sional self-concept. account how people feel about their sense of self,
Topics related to the development, structure, and whereas self-concept focuses more on how a person
role of self-perceptions have been the focus of much describes himself or herself. One other term that
research in sport and exercise contexts. The rele- has been used in the literature to refer to a person’s
vance of the self in sport and exercise should not be sense of self is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy describes
surprising given that the fundamental features that people’s beliefs in their capabilities to organize and
define and shape the self, including self-awareness execute actions needed to produce specific out-
and comparison and feedback, are made salient comes (Bandura, 1997). In this way, self-efficacy is
in these contexts (Sabiston, Pila, Pinsonnault-Bi- not a reflective description or evaluation of the self
lodeau, & Cox, 2014). Much of the research on the but rather a more situation-specific self-assessment
self has centered on developing an understanding of of perceived ability.
the content and structure of the self-system. Within Although self-esteem, self-concept, and self-effi-
the sport and exercise psychology field, researchers cacy have often been studied as either interchange-
have also examined whether participation in phys- able or unitary constructs, these self-perceptions
ical activity enhances people’s self-perceptions and clearly function in complementary yet unique
whether people who have positive self-perceptions ways and yield distinct outcomes related to health,
are more apt to participate in physical activity. well-being, achievement, and relationships. To
The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide examine antecedents and outcomes of people’s
a review of the theoretical and empirical research self-perceptions, a variety of theoretical frameworks
of the main constructs related to the self that are have been proposed. The most enduring of these
studied in physical activity contexts. The broadest models have been those that incorporate multidi-
constructs of the self (e.g., self-esteem and self-con- mensional or hierarchical structures of the self.
cept) and relationships to physical activity are first These models are briefly reviewed in the following
presented. In the second section of this chapter, section.
additional components of the self-system within the
sport and exercise psychology field are reviewed, Multidimensional
such as physical self-discrepancies, athletic identity,
self-schemata, and possible selves. In the final sec- and Hierarchical Self-Structure
tion of the chapter, limitations of the current work Early models of the self were primarily unidi-
and directions for future research are discussed. mensional (e.g., one self-concept representing
Self-Perception in Sport and Exercise 59
the entirety of the person’s roles, responsibilities, are considered subdomain levels, and, with greater
beliefs, and feelings). But prominent work by differentiation and specificity, these subdomains
self-concept theorists, including Coopersmith are further conceptualized into facets (e.g., sport
(1967) and Fitts (1965), demonstrated that the self competence in softball) and subfacets (e.g., throw-
is multidimensional in nature and composed of a ing a ball). An example of the hierarchical struc-
number of domain-specific self-concepts that have ture of the physical self is presented in figure 4.2.
roots in social connections and relationships (i.e., A more complete discussion and detail regarding
social or relational self), education and pedagogy the development and testing of these theoretical
(i.e., academic self), work and employment (i.e., models has been provided by others (see reviews
employment self), morality (i.e., moral self), and by Crocker, Kowalksi, & Hadd [2008]; Fox [1997];
physical functioning and appearance (i.e., physical Marsh & Cheng [2012]).
self). The multidimensional nature of the self has
received considerable support (Hattie & Fletcher, Measurement of Physical Self-Concept
2005; Marsh & Craven, 2006) (see figure 4.1 for an Consistent with the development of the multidi-
example). mensional theories, researchers have also designed
In addition to having a multidimensional nature, and tested instruments to measure constructs of
the self-concept has a hierarchical structure that the self. In particular, four main measurement
can be described as a sort of layering of self-percep- tools have been developed to assess the multidi-
tions within a person’s self-concept and self-esteem mensional nature of physical self-concept. The
(Sonstroem, 1976). Specifically, global self-esteem Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP; Fox &
is the top layer; it sits at the apex of the self-per- Corbin, 1989) was developed with data collected
ception hierarchy, and the multiple domain-specific from university students. It assesses body attrac-
self-concepts (e.g., social, academic, physical) tiveness, sport competence, physical strength, and
are situated under this global overarching entity. sport conditioning subdomains of the physical
Each of these domain-specific self-concepts is then self. In the PSPP, global physical self-worth can
defined by a number of subdomain self-percep- also be assessed. The Children/Youth Physical
tions. For example, the social self-concept might Self-Perception Profile (CY-PSPP; Whitehead,
be defined as having perceptions of relationships 1995) was designed for younger samples to assess
with parents and peers, as well as perceptions global self-worth and physical self-worth along
of social connections with teammates. The aca- with subdomain measures of sport or athletic
demic self-concept is driven by self-perceptions of competence, strength competence, adequacy of
math, linguistics, and art (among other academic physical condition, and body attractiveness. The
topics). And of most relevance to sport and exer- Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ;
cise psychology, the physical self-concept is tied to Marsh, Richards, Johnson, & Roche, 1994) was
self-perceptions that are broadly related to what the developed initially using samples of adolescents
body can do (e.g., sport competence, endurance, and comprised items assessing appearance, body
strength) and what the body looks like (e.g., body fat, physical activity, endurance and fitness, sports
fat, appearance). These physical self-perceptions competence, coordination, strength, flexibility,
Self-concept
Social Academic Employment Moral Physical

self-concept self-concept self-concept self-concept self-concept
Figure 4.1 The multidimensional structure of the self.

Based on Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976).
E6768/Horn/F04.01/565529/mh-R2
Physical
self-worth
Appearance Body shape Conditioning Strength

self-perceptions self-perceptions self-perceptions self-perceptions
Facial Weight Aerobic Leg-strength

perceptions perceptions perceptions perceptions
Figure 4.2 The hierarchical structure of the physical self.

Based on Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976).
E6768/Horn/F04.02/565531/mh-R2
and health subdomains of the physical self. The sented in figure 4.2) are more stable (or trait-like),
PSDQ also measures global perceptions of physical whereas self-constructs are expected to become
self-concept and self-esteem. The fourth tool is a less stable (and more transient) as one descends
measure specific to athletes and has been termed the hierarchy toward situational constructs such
the Elite Athlete Self-Description Questionnaire as perceptions of fatness presented as subsumed
(EASDQ; Marsh, Hey, Johnson, & Perry, 1997). under body shape self-perceptions (Shavelson et al.,
This instrument includes items that assess an elite 1976). These general perspectives can be described
athlete’s perceptions related to overall performance within bottom-up and top-down approaches to the
(e.g., skill, body, aerobic fitness, anaerobic fitness, self. Horizontal effects are also possible such that
and mental competence). All four of these physical specific self-perceptions and self-concepts are most
self-measures have been translated into a number affected by previous levels of the same self-percep-
of languages, and shorter versions of the PSPP and tions (see further detail and examples in the sidebar
the PSDQ have been developed (Maïano, Morin, Approaches to the Self System).
& Mascret, 2015; Marsh, Martin, & Jackson, 2010;
Tomás, Marsh, González-Romá, Valls, & Nagengast, Linking Physical Activity
2014; Vlachopoulos, Leptokaridou, & Fox, 2014).
Further details on the measures, response options, and Self-Esteem
and psychometric evidence are presented elsewhere The bottom-up and top-down approaches offer
(see Lindwall, Rennemark, Halling, Berglund, & frameworks for understanding the association
Hassmén, 2007; Sabiston, Whitehead, & Eklund, between physical activity and constructs related to
2012; Wilson, Mack, & Sabiston, 2012). the self. Overall, few unique theoretical integrations
explain these associations, yet constructs related to
Bottom-Up and Top-Down the self are often integral to, or included as adjuncts
Approaches to the Self in, motivation and behavior change theories. The
Although the physical self-perceptual system is research on these various approaches is summa-
specified as hierarchical (Fox & Corbin, 1989), little rized in the following paragraphs.
consensus has emerged about whether a hierarchi-
cal structure exists and, if it does, on the particular Skill Development Hypothesis
direction of influence (Hattie & Fletcher, 2005; The exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM; Son-
Kowalski, Crocker, Kowalski, Chad, & Humbert, stroem & Morgan, 1989) is an example of a skill
2003). Those who argue for a hierarchical structure development hypothesis (i.e., bottom-up approach)
suggest that global self-constructs (i.e., those resid- whereby physical activity participation is proposed
ing at the top of the model such as self-worth pre- to influence global self-esteem by affecting contex-
Approaches to the Self System
Bottom-Up Approach to the Self

In adopting a hierarchical view, researchers have proposed a bottom-up approach whereby contextual and situational
aspects affect the self-perceptions at higher levels of the hierarchy (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989). For example, a
physical activity intervention would be designed to improve lower-level self-perceptions such as competence in
strength or perceptions of body fat. In turn, improvement in these self-perceptions are hypothesized to improve
physical self-concept, and ultimately, global self-esteem. This pathway from behavior to self-esteem has also been
labeled the skill development hypothesis (Marsh, 1990; Sonstroem, 1997).
Top-Down Approach to the Self
Other researchers have proposed a top-down influence whereby global aspects of the self (e.g., global self-esteem,
global self-concept) affect aspects of the self at lower levels (Brown, 1993). Using this top-down perspective, an
intervention could aim to improve global self-esteem because this upgrading would then lead to improvement in the
lower-level contextual aspects of the self (e.g., perceived competence in one or more domains), which in turn should
have an effect on situational aspects of the self (e.g., increases in physical activity). This top-down approach has also
been labeled the self-enhancement hypothesis (Marsh, 1990; Sonstroem, 1997).
Horizontal Approach to the Self
Evidence also suggests that the effects of developing self-perceptions (or self-concept or self-esteem) are simply
reflected in past self-perceptions. These more stable features of the self are defined as horizontal effects (Crocker et
al., 2003; Kowalski et al., 2003; Marsh & Yeung, 1998). Specifically, self-perceptions reported at one point in time
exert a highly influential effect on the same self-perceptions measured at later time points, and these effects are
stronger than relationships to other self-perceptions or behavior.
tual aspects of the self. Within the EXSEM, physical Support for the general tenets of the EXSEM has
activity behavior is proposed to change physical been demonstrated in samples ranging from chil-
outcomes (e.g., muscular strength, aerobic condi- dren and adolescents to older adults. In a physical
tioning), which then enhances perceptions of phys- activity (walking or yoga) randomized control trial
ical activity self-efficacy and self-perceptions such (RCT) conducted with middle-aged women, one of
as sport competence, conditioning, and strength. the findings presented by Elavsky and McAuley
Following the presentation of these self-perceptions (2007) was that improvements in physical condi-
(as illustrated in figure 4.2), increases in these tion and strength self-perceptions were related to
self-perceptions are then expected to result in improvements in global self-esteem. In a follow-up
higher physical self-concept and, ultimately, higher to this study, Elavsky (2010) reported additional
self-esteem (Sonstroem, Harlow, & Josephs, 1994; findings consistent with the bottom-up hypothesis.
Sonstroem, 1997). Of importance to understanding Increases in physical condition and attractive body
the EXSEM tenets, physical activity self-efficacy self-perceptions were significantly associated with
relates to judgments of a particular skill or ability increases in physical self-worth and global self-es-
in a specific situation (e.g., successfully making a teem. In an exercise RCT among older adults over
free throw shot in basketball), whereas perceptions 65 years (Awick, Ehlers, Fanning, Phillips, Wojcicki,
of competence are more general judgments (e.g., Mackenzie, et al., 2016), those assigned to a workout
perception that one is good at sports). Physical DVD used in the home experienced greater self-ef-
competence perceptions are directly related to ficacy and physical conditioning self-perceptions,
physical self-concept and self-esteem but are also and these were the strongest predictors of self-es-
proposed to have an effect through physical accep- teem during the 6-month intervention and 6-month
tance (i.e., the extent to which a person accepts follow-up period.
his or her physical strengths and weaknesses or Evidence also supports the general associations
satisfaction). In this way, physical competence within the EXSEM among youth samples. In school-
and physical self-acceptance are both amenable to aged children, Slutzky and Simpkins (2009) found
change through physical activity, and both alter that team sport participation predicted sport compe-
global sense of self. tence perceptions and improved self-esteem as mea-
sured 1 year later. Other researchers have also found competence and physical activity behavior (Fox &
sport participation to be predictive of self-esteem Wilson, 2008) and has been largely modeled within
among youth (Barber, Eccles, & Stone, 2001; Findlay theories of motivation (e.g., competence motivation
& Bowker, 2009; Fredricks & Eccles, 2006; Slutzky & [Harter, 1978]; self-efficacy [Bandura, 1997]; self-de-
Simpkins, 2009). In a 6-month randomized control termination [Deci & Ryan, 2002]; expectancy-value
trial using a resistance-training intervention for [Eccles & Wigfield, 2002]). In a top-down model
overweight and obese adolescent males, Schranz, perspective, people are hypothesized to be highly
Tomkinson, Parletta, Petkov, and Olds (2014) found motivated to engage in tasks and behaviors in which
a moderate to large effect of exercise engagement they can demonstrate their abilities and in which
on trained participants’ exercise self-efficacy, they feel capable of achievement (e.g., Harter, 2012).
resistance-training confidence, self-esteem, and For example, a person who reports high self-esteem
strength relative to the control group. Schmidt, and high perceptions of competence in the sport
Blum, Valkanover, and Conzelmann (2015) report domain would be likely to seek out opportunities
further support for the hierarchical nature of the for participation in such activities.
EXSEM and for the skill development hypothesis in Although evidence suggests that people who
that physical self-concept mediated the relationship report greater perceptions of competence and
between motor ability and self-esteem in children. self-efficacy engage in more physical activity
In this study, social acceptance was also a signifi- (Babic et al., 2014; Bauman et al., 2012), providing
cant mediator among boys but not girls. support for the self-enhancement perspective, most
Overall, then, there appears to be general support of the research has been cross-sectional in nature.
for the bottom-up perspective that is characteristic As such, although theoretically grounded to test
of the EXSEM. Specifically, engagement in physical the top-down effect in principal, the study design
activity programs has been shown to effect change cannot preclude the possibility of support for the
in participants’ contextual perceptions, which skill development perspective. Longitudinal and
in turn result in changes at the higher levels of experimental evidence is needed to confirm direc-
the self-perceptual system. Despite these positive tional effects.
findings, a few caveats should be noted. The effect Lindwall, Asci, and Crocker (2014) found some
of physical activity on self-esteem is small to mod- support for the self-enhancement hypothesis in sup-
erate, in line with the conclusions of meta-analy- plementary analyses with longitudinal data explor-
ses examining the association between physical ing associations of change in self-esteem, physical
activity and self-esteem (Babic et al., 2014; Spence, self-perceptions, and physical activity. Specifically,
McGannon & Poon, 2005). Also, some evidence people who had greater self-esteem were more likely
indicates that self-efficacy and changes in physical to engage in physical activity, and there was no evi-
activity outcomes (e.g., fitness) co-occur at the same dence that greater participation in physical activity
time rather than in a sequential or hierarchical enhanced people’s self-esteem. Further support for
manner (Babic et al., 2014; Dishman et al., 2006; the unidirectional relationship between self-esteem
McAuley, Blissmer, Katula, Duncan, and Mihalko, and physical activity has been noted in prospective
2000; McAuley et al., 2005). Finally, few researchers studies with multiple time points. Lemoyne, Valois,
have examined the EXSEM with the inclusion of and Guay (2015) recruited a sample of college stu-
the physical acceptance construct. As such, there dents to examine reciprocal relationships between
is limited evidence of the strength and direction of multiple types of physical activity (cardiovascular
effects between physical self-perceptions, physical exercise, sport participation, and weight training)
acceptance, and self-concept. More research is and self-perceptions of endurance, sport compe-
needed to establish support for the hierarchical tence, strength, and bodily attractiveness. Measures
bottom-up links specified in the EXSEM. were taken 3 months apart. The self-enhancement
hypothesis was supported in that higher perceptions
Self-Enhancement Hypothesis of competence in a given dimension (e.g., sports
In contrast to the bottom-up directional effect, the competence) were associated with higher participa-
self-enhancement hypothesis proposes a top-down tion in the corresponding physical activity behavior
effect by suggesting that more global aspects of the (e.g., playing sports), and weaker associations were
self influence more specific self-perceptions that found across domains (e.g., between perceived
then influence outcomes such as physical activity. sports competence and the behavior of lifting
The research to support this effect has primarily weights). Although their work was not directly
focused on the relationship between perceptions of related to physical activity behavior, Garn and
Shen (2015) reported a unidirectional relationship women and found support for both directional
between physical self-concept and psychological effects. Wagnsson, Lindwall, and Gustafsson (2014)
need satisfaction in exercise among undergraduate also found support for both the skill development
students participating in exercise classes over the and self-enhancement models in a sample of school-
course of one semester. Findings provide support aged children. Overall, more research is needed to
for the self-enhancement hypothesis in that physical test competing approaches using longitudinal and
self-concept may be best situated as an antecedent experimental designs in people across the lifespan.
of physical activity rather than an outcome. Finally, Taken together, research offers considerable
evidence supports the self-enhancement approach information on the relationship between physical
among primary school youth. Specifically, measures activity and people’s overall perceptions and eval-
of body fat self-perceptions, physical self-concept, uations of themselves that is often framed within
and school-based moderate to vigorous physical the multidimensional and hierarchical models of
activity were taken at the beginning and end of the self. Several other self-oriented constructs,
a school year, and body fat perceptions predicted however, provide context to physical activity beliefs,
future physical self-concept and physical activity attitudes, and behaviors. These constructs, as well
(Garn et al., 2016). The authors suggest that these as the ones previously discussed, are illustrated
self-enhancing effects can be used to foster health in figure 4.3. This figure is not a model to be
and well-being among youth in a school setting. tested; rather, it provides a heuristic depiction of
In spite of the evidence presented in the preced- the breadth of constructs making up the overall
ing studies, longitudinal evidence offers ambig- self-system. In the following sections of this chapter,
uous support for either top-down or bottom-up the research corresponding to the self-perceptual
approaches. For example, Elavsky (2010) tested the system constructs of physical self-discrepancies,
competing models with a sample of middle-aged exercise and athletic identity, physical activity
Self-esteem
Physical
self-concept
Physical Possible
Self-schemata Identity
self-perceptions selves
Exerciser Ability Appearance Self-

Exercise Feared
schematic competence competence discrepancies
Nonexerciser Strength Body size Actual

Athletic Hoped for
schematic
Endurance Body shape Ideal

Aschematic
Ought
Physical
activity
Figure 4.3 An illustration of the physical self-system in connection with physical activity.
E6768/Horn/F04.03/565533/mh-R2
self-definition, exercise self-schemata, and possible motivational regulations that are outlined in the
selves is reviewed. The initial understanding of organismic integration theory of self-determina-
these additional constructs is primarily the result tion theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002, 2008). Agreements
of more recent research and theory extension in among physical self-perceptions (e.g., a person
sport and exercise psychology. reporting that her or his actual and ideal percep-
tions of physical strength were congruent) were
Additional Self-System correlated with more autonomous motivation and
physical activity, whereas greater discrepancies
Constructs in Physical Activity among physical self-perceptions predicted greater
extrinsic motivation and lower physical activity.
Self-esteem and self-concept are arguably the Overall, the results from this study show a con-
primary foundations for all constructs related to nection between physical self-discrepancies and
the self. The additional self-system constructs physical activity and further demonstrate the value
that are discussed in the following sections have of integrating motivation or behavior change theo-
unique operationalizations, features of stability ries into the study of the physical self and related
and specificity, theoretical foundations, and behav- constructs. With the development of the Physical
ioral, affective, and cognitive antecedents and Self-Discrepancy Scale (Brunet et al., 2012) and
consequences. As is discussed in the next several advances in measurement and methodologies used
sections, many of these self-constructs have been, to assess discrepancies more generally (see Cafri,
and can be, explored within existing theories of van den Berg, & Brannick, 2010; Morin, Scalas, &
motivation and achievement to facilitate under- Marsh, 2015), researchers in sport and exercise psy-
standing of their association with physical activity chology are encouraged to explore the associations
participation, persistence, and effort. between physical self-discrepancies and behavior.
Physical Self-Discrepancies Exercise and Athletic Identity

Higgins (1987) introduced the notion of self-discrep- Identities are integral components of self-concept
ancies by suggesting that people hold two self-per- and are often challenging to discern in practice
spectives (other and self) and three types of beliefs: (Brettschneider & Heim, 1997; Stryker, 1987; Stryker
& Burke, 2000). Researchers have defined identity
• who they actually are (i.e., actual self), as unique and distinctive self-descriptions situated
• who they would like to be (i.e., ideal self), and in the context of a particular role such as the role of
• who they should be (i.e., ought self). an exerciser or athlete (Anderson & Cychosz, 1995;
Brettschneider & Heim, 1997; Brewer, Van Raalte, &
The ideal and ought selves correspond to self-eval- Linder, 1993; Cardinal & Cardinal, 1997; Hardcastle
uative standards or self-guides, whereas the actual & Taylor, 2005; Strachan, Woodgate, Brawley, &
self is a current self-evaluation. An actual–ideal Tse, 2005; Whaley & Ebbeck, 2002). Similar to the
discrepancy occurs when people perceive that their development of self-concept, identity is through
current state is discrepant from their ideal state one’s interactions with others and by self- and
(e.g., “I am not strong, but I would ideally like to other evaluations and comparisons. The result is a
be strong”). An actual–ought discrepancy occurs clearly delineated and important self-definition that
when people perceive that their current state is is meaningful and to which the person is commit-
discrepant from the state they feel they should be ted (Anderson & Cychosz, 1995; Brettschneider &
(e.g., “I am not strong, but I should be strong”). Heim, 1997).
These self-discrepancies result in specific emotional Based on identity theory (Burke, 2006; Stryker,
and motivational states that, in turn, may trigger 1987; Stryker & Burke, 2000), identity salience (e.g.,
self-regulatory behaviors such as physical activity “running is important to my identity as a runner”)
aimed at decreasing the discrepancy between the will lead to behavioral choices (e.g., go for a long
self-state and self-guides (Higgins, 1987). run) that are in accordance with the expectations
In a study with a sample of young women, Brunet attached to that identity. Identity congruent behav-
and colleagues (Brunet, Sabiston, Castonguay, Fer- ior, defined as behaviors that match a person’s iden-
guson, & Bessette, 2012) examined the association tity, leads to positive affective states and increased
between physical self-discrepancies and physical confidence for the behavior (Stryker & Burke, 2000).
activity behavior both directly and as mediated by Alternatively, incongruent behavior (e.g., an athlete
who identifies as a soccer player who doesn’t go tity). This challenge intensifies when athletes face
to practice) leads to negative emotions, and this career-ending injuries, get cut from teams, or age
affective state is thought to motivate changes to the out of their sport. The loss of identity or sense of
situation (e.g., engage in the congruent behavior) self is experienced as highly traumatic, and athletes
to reduce the mismatch (Burke, 2006). In sport and report difficulty adapting to contexts outside sport
exercise psychology, researchers have identified (Lavallee & Robinson, 2007; Sparkes, 1998; Warriner
separate identities that are important aspects of a & Lavallee, 2008).
person’s self-concept: exerciser identity and athletic As with other research focused on self-con-
identity. structs, the bulk of existing literature examining
athlete (and exercise) identity has sampled primar-
Exercise Identity ily adolescent and college-aged elite athletes. Older
The exerciser identity helps gives meaning and adults may come to internalize existing societal
salience to past exercise behavior and directs future attitudes around aging and physical activity and
behavior (Anderson & Cychosz, 1995; Anderson, consequently avoid engaging in exercise or ath-
Cychosz, & Franke, 1998). Hence, it offers poten- letics altogether (Baker, Fraser-Thomas, Dionigi,
tial utility for understanding exercise adherence & Horton, 2010). The traditional lack of alternative
and maintenance (Miller, Ogletree, & Welshimer, narratives for older adults may prevent them from
2002; Strachan et al., 2005). Exercise identity in exploring sport and exercise (the physical domain)
people has been positively associated with their as important to their identity. Thus, this topic is an
exercise behavior (e.g., number of exercise ses- important direction for future research.
sions per week, minutes of exercise per session,
intensity levels, levels of perceived exertion, and Exerciser Self-Schemata
exercise intentions) (Anderson & Cychosz, 1994,
Exerciser self-schemata are underlying cognitive
1995; Anderson, Cychosz, & Franke, 2001; Strachan
systems about the self that are a result of experience
& Brawley, 2008) as well as with injury tolerance
and reflected appraisal (Kendzierski, 1988, 1990).
(Lantz, Rhea, & Mesnier, 2004) and fitness markers
For example, a person’s experiences associated with
such as muscular endurance and maximum oxygen
exercise (e.g., thoughts, feelings, motor and auto-
uptake (Anderson et al., 1998).
nomic responses to exercise) would constitute her or
his exercise self-schema because those experiences
Athletic Identity are stored in long-term memory (Kendzierski, 1988,
Athletic identity is the degree to which a person 1990). Three predominant types of people have been
invests in his or her role as an athlete (Brewer et identified, and each type is based on the importance
al., 1993), and it serves a role in self-enhancement and descriptiveness of the person’s self-schema.
and self-protection in particular during career The first type includes exerciser schematics (i.e.,
transitions, team selection, and sport participation people who consider the attribute of exercising to be
continuance (Grove, Fish, & Eklund, 2004; Laval- extremely descriptive and important to their sense
lee, Gordon, & Grove, 1997; Munroe, Estabrooks, of self). The second group consists of nonexerciser
Dennis, and Carron, 1999). Athletic identity is schematics (i.e., people who do not describe them-
associated with a number of positive outcomes, selves in terms of exercise attributes but consider
including a strong sense of self, enhanced perfor- exercising to be important). Members of the third
mance, and increased commitment to sport (Brewer group are identified as aschematics (people who do
et al., 1993; Horton & Mack, 2000; Porat, Lufi, & not consider exercise attributes extremely descrip-
Tenenbaum, 1989). But researchers have reported tive or extremely important to self-image). Some
that maintaining an exclusive athletic identity (an people cannot be classified into a group based on
identity based solely on the athlete role) may also either the importance or descriptiveness of their
be associated with a host of negative outcomes, self-schema (Kendzierski, 1990; Markus, 1977). The
including illness, identity foreclosure, and overall presence of a self-schema for a behavior is import-
social and emotional adjustment issues as athletes ant to future participation in that activity (Cross &
transition out of sport (Beamon, 2012; Good, Brewer, Markus, 1994).
Petipas, Van Raalte, & Mahar, 1993; Sparkes, 2000; According to Kendzierski (1988), schemata act
Warriner & Lavallee, 2008). Maintaining an exclu- as impetus to initiate an exercise program and
sive athlete identity may preclude the exploration enhance motivation to continue to exercise. As with
of other identity salient roles (e.g., student iden- many self-constructs, the behavioral outcomes of
schemata are often explored within established control strategies for achieving goals (Aloise-Young,
frameworks of motivation and behavior such as Hennigan, & Leong, 2001; Whaley & Redding, 2001).
the theory of planned behavior and social cognitive As such, they may serve as incentives for future
theory (Estabrooks & Courneya, 1997; Kendzierski, behavior in the way that they represent the self to
1990, 1994; Yin & Boyd, 2000). Exerciser self-schema be approached or avoided (Oyserman & Markus,
may also mediate the intention to behavior relation- 1990). Based on Markus and Nurius’ (1986) propo-
ship (Banting, Dimmock, & Lay, 2009). Nonetheless, sition, the desired or hoped-for self and the feared
research exploring the relationship between exer- possible self organize, provide meaning, and direct
ciser self-schema and physical activity behavior has cognition and behavior toward (in the case of the
consistently revealed a positive direct association hoped-for self) or away from (in the case of the
within college-aged and adult samples. Specifically, feared self) the pursuit of the end-state. Within
exerciser schematics participate in more activities, larger frameworks of motivation that are frequently
exercise more frequently, report past experiences used in sport and exercise psychology, possible
with exercise, report greater self-efficacy and more selves lead to feelings of self-efficacy (Bandura,
intention and commitment to exercise, and set 1997), effectance and competence (Eccles & Wig-
more appropriate goals as compared with nonex- field, 2002; Harter, 1978), and control (Carver &
erciser schematics and aschematics (Estabrooks Scheier, 1982), as well as physical activity.
& Courneya, 1997; Kendzierski & Sheffield, 2000; The area of physical self-related possible selves
Kendzierski, 1988; Kendzierski, Sheffield, & Mor- has yet to be extensively researched. Nonetheless,
ganstein, 2002; Sheeran & Orbell, 2000; Yin & Boyd, initial studies in this area have shown potential
2000). In addition, health promotion messages may value for the field. Whaley (2003), for example,
be less effective for aschematics and nonexerciser found that inactive women had more hoped-for and
schematics because exerciser schematics may have feared selves for body image and lower physical
an attentional bias for exercise-related words (Berry, activity participation as compared with exercising
2006; Kendzierski, 1990). women. In an interesting study with aging athletes,
As the research studies cited in the previous Phoenix, Faulker, and Sparkes (2005) found that the
paragraph show, the three groups (exercise sche- narratives told by masters athletes run counter to
matics, nonexerciser schematics, aschematic) do the prevailing assumptions about what it means to
appear to differ in various exercise-related cogni- be old and to negotiate an aging body and reframe
tions, affects, and behaviors. Nonetheless, in most accomplishment and success (Dionigi, Horton, &
studies, a group of people (usually 18 to 45%) do not Bellamy, 2011; Phoenix & Smith, 2011). Such narra-
meet any exerciser self-schema criteria (Berry, 2006; tive maps may influence the ways in which young
Estabrooks & Courneya, 1997; Kendzierski, 1988, athletes and inactive peers relate to their own future
1990; Yin & Boyd, 2000). One possibility would be and possible selves (Phoenix et al., 2005). Thus, by
to combine these people with the aschematics and providing a preview of what is possible, masters
nonexerciser schematic groups to form a reclassi- athletes have the potential to shape the possible
fied group of “no exerciser self-schematics” (e.g., selves and actions of younger people and peers.
Kendzierski et al., 2002). Future work is certainly A possible selves manipulation was used among
needed to understand the group of people who do college-aged students to change exercise behav-
not have an exerciser schema and the resulting ior (Ouellette, Hessling, Gibbons, Reis-Bergan,
implications for sport and exercise psychology & Gerrard, 2005). Specifically, scenarios about
research and practice. future-oriented selves in exercise were read and
actual behavior was measured before and following
Possible Selves the manipulation. People who were concerned with
their future selves were influenced by the possible
Possible selves are self-schemata subcomponents selves manipulation, and they increased their exer-
(Markus & Nurius, 1987) that are future-oriented cise behavior over the 4 weeks of the study. The
self-perceptions. They include both positive and study also focused on prototypes, which are current
hoped-for selves (e.g., the attractive, fit self) and self-descriptors rather than future-oriented images
negative or feared selves (e.g., the self as failure, (Ouellette et al., 2005). The findings generally sug-
the unhealthy self). Possible selves are mental rep- gest that design interventions can be focused on
resentations that may include plans and behavioral physical activity possible selves.
Future Research or they may be based on other constructs related

to the self, such as possible selves, identities, and
Recommendations self-schemata. Drawing from the broader domains
of psychology, intervention strategies such as psy-
As is evident from the research summarized in pre- cho-education, biofeedback, desensitization, and
vious sections of this chapter, tremendous advance- cognitive dissonance training may be valuable in
ment has occurred in the study of the self-system, sport, exercise, and clinical settings (Sabiston et
specifically physical self-processes, over the last al., 2014).
few decades. Consistent findings support the mul-
tidimensional structure of the self, and, at least Self-Esteem Threats
to this point, research supports the bidirectional
nature of the relationship between physical activity and Self-Enhancement Strategies
experiences and the overall constructs of self-con- An understudied yet likely tenable theory is the
cept and self-esteem. Furthermore, many physical “individual importance hypothesis,” whereby
self-concept constructs are receiving increasing self-esteem is seen as a function of a person’s
attention for their relationships to physical activity. perceived competence in relation to his or her
Across all research findings, self-esteem and related perceived importance of each competence (Harter,
constructs have been found to be important to 1986; Lindwall, Asçi, Palmeira, Fox, & Hagger, 2011).
people’s development, functioning, and well-being. The ascription of low importance to self-domains
Nonetheless, this area of research has a number in which people hold low levels of perceived com-
of limitations. Thus, further work is needed. The petence has been termed discounting, and it acts
following directives for future research and practice as a self-enhancement strategy to support higher
should be considered. levels of self-esteem (Fox, 1997; Harter, 1986). When
perceptions of importance cannot be discounted in
Diversification of Study Samples areas of low competence, discrepancies between
importance and competence may negatively influ-
and Study Design ence self-esteem. For example, a young adult who
Although sociodemographic factors (e.g., sex, age, perceives that he has low competence in sport
culture and ethnicity, development and cognition) activities such as dribbling a basketball can still
have been found to affect a person’s self-concept have high self-esteem if he discounts the value of
(Asçi, Eklund, Whitehead, Kirazci, & Koca, 2005; such activities (i.e., if he believes that competence
Biddle & Armstrong, 1992; Cross & Gore, 2003; in basketball dribbling is not important). If, how-
Hagger, Biddle, Chow, Stambulova, & Kavussanu, ever, he cannot discount the importance of sport
2003; Harter, 2012; Marsh & Yeung, 1998; Whitehead competence, then his low perception of his abilities
& Corbin, 1997), some of the main limitations evi- in sport will be detrimental to his overall self-es-
dent in the sport and exercise psychology research teem. Alternatively, he may be highly competent
on the self-system center on the lack of sample in kinesiology-related academic courses yet not
diversity. Conclusions have been based on small perceive these courses as important. This example
samples of participants with heterogeneous char- of a devaluation strategy also protects his self-es-
acteristics. Most studies have focused on samples teem. Substantial debate has occurred about the
representing small age ranges and either males or validity of this discounting hypothesis (Lindwall
(more predominantly) females. Few have included et al., 2011; Scalas, Morin, Marsh, & Nagengast,
people of divergent cultures and ethnicities. Greater 2014). Thus, more research is needed to explore
consideration must be given to how these and other this issue further.
participant characteristics (e.g., weight status, ill- Other strategies that people use to protect or
ness history) affect people’s sense of self. enhance their self-esteem are also highly tied to
Besides the need for more diversified samples importance and competence perceptions yet are
to be included in research on the self-system, rarely studied comprehensively or simultaneously.
study designs need to be expanded to incorpo- First, people may use self-presentation strategies to
rate experimental and intervention work. These portray a desirable image to others (Leary, 1995). For
interventions may be developed using hypotheses example, they can say things or act in a manner that
related to self-enhancement and skill development, gives others the impression that they are p hysically
fit or physically competent. Second, people may use Mack, & Sabiston, 2014; Mosewich, Kowalski, Sabis-
self-handicapping techniques by attributing success ton, Sedgwick, & Tracy, 2011). Thus, theoretical and
to ability and failures to luck and lack of control practical value may result from continued research
(Blaine & Crocker, 1993). Third, people may make in this area to test competing or complementary
downward social comparisons (e.g., compare them- models linking physical activity to self-esteem with
selves with others who are perceived worse based the incorporation of physical acceptance and related
on certain characteristics, behaviors, or attributes; constructs such as self-compassion.
Taylor & Lobel, 1989) to protect themselves from
threats associated with failure (Tice & Baumeister, Sedentary Behavior and Physical
1990). Fourth, Leary (2005) also proposes the sociom-
eter perspective to describe self-esteem as a gauge of Self-Concept
social effectiveness and in particular the acceptance This chapter has focused on reviewing research on
and rejection from others. Finally, frame of reference self-constructs as they relate to engagement in phys-
effects could be associated with enhanced or threat- ical activity. Recent research, however, has demon-
ened self-esteem. The match between a person’s strated utility in distinguishing between physical
competence and the social context is important in activity behavior and sedentary behavior, in which
the development of self-concept because self-judg- one is not simply the inverse of the other and both
ments are made against internal (own) and external lead to distinct health and well-being outcomes
(others) frames of reference (see Marsh, Morin, & (Ekelund, Steene-Johannessen, Brown, Fagerland,
Parker, 2015; Nagengast & Marsh, 2012). For exam- Owen, Powell, et al., 2016; Faulkner & Biddle, 2013;
ple, positive self-concept is developed when people Tremblay et al., 2011). Given recent insight into the
make positive social comparisons and have positive association between sedentary behavior and self-es-
assessment of their self-perceived capability. Taken teem (Owen, Healy, Mathews, & Dunstan, 2010;
together, these diverse potential self-enhancement Tremblay et al., 2011), the relationship between
or protection strategies require further attention sedentary behavior and physical self-concept and
to understand the contexts in which they are most related self-perceptions should also be considered.
useful and productive and the potential unique out- Initial research in this area has demonstrated
comes pertaining to the self. inverse relationships between sedentary behavior
and moderate to vigorous physical activity behavior
Inclusive Test of Model Tenets on self-worth and perceptions of sport competence,
physical conditioning, and physical strength among
An argument could be made that the EXSEM is adolescent females in a cross-sectional study of
the only model that has been specifically devel- self-report perceptions and behaviors (Webb, Benja-
oped to understand the effects of physical activity min, Gammon, McKee, & Biddle, 2013). Researchers
on self-concept and self-esteem. Considerable tested the relationship between sedentary behavior
research has been done using the model, yet the and physical self-perceptions and the role of physi-
physical acceptance construct is rarely included cal activity in mediating the relationships. In their
or is operationalized as unique constructs such findings, Webb and colleagues (2013) reported that
as self-compassion (Kowalski & Ferguson, 2014). higher sedentary behavior was related to lower
Self-compassion is an extension of compassion that perceptions of sport competence, physical condi-
is directed toward one’s self during times of failure tioning, and strength. Only the latter relationship
or inadequacy (Neff, 2003) and is composed of was mediated by physical activity. These results
self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. offer preliminary evidence of the potential value
In this way, self-compassion has been discussed as of teasing out the relationships between physical
positive and unconditional self-regard that may be activity and sedentary behavior and the physical
related to physical acceptance. self-perception constructs. In line with the growing
One of the challenges of incorporating self-com- literature on sedentary behavior, researchers are
passion within the EXSEM is the distinction with encouraged to explore the associations between
self-esteem. Broadly, self-compassion does not sedentary behaviors and the physical self.
relate self-affect to self-appraisals and therefore the
worth, or value, piece of self-esteem is not part of
self-compassion. Emerging research among athletes
Stability and Variation in Self-Concept
has demonstrated unique associations between The majority of extant research examining relation-
self-constructs, affect, and behavior with self-es- ships between self-esteem, physical self-concept,
teem and self-compassion (Ferguson, Kowalski, and physical self-perceptions has been cross-
sectional in nature and has primarily focused on self-concept is. People whose self-concept fluctuates
between-person differences. Another way to assess are said to have a highly labile self-concept. More-
this relationship is by using within-person analy- over, such changes are unstructured in relation to
ses (examining changes that occur within people time. Thus, investigations of dynamic characteristics
over time). Although studies using this approach are focused on the possible range of experiences, not
are emerging in the literature (e.g., Lindwall et necessarily with the progression of self-concept over
al., 2014; Noordstar, van der Net, Jak, Helders, & time. Researchers may adopt a multivariate approach
Jongmans, 2016; Raustorp & Lindwall, 2015), more and examine how such lability of self-concept is
sophisticated study designs and analytic techniques related to variation in other important outcomes.
that allow researchers to investigate questions per- Moreover, between-person differences in dynamic
taining to the stability and variation of self-esteem characteristics can also be computed (e.g., differ-
and the physical-self are needed (see, for example, ences in self-concept lability as a function of age
arguments by Lindwall et al., 2014). Specifically, or gender). Dynamic processes, on the other hand,
results from existing within-person change studies reflect time-structured intraindividual variability
have certainly advanced our understanding of the whereby systematic changes occur in the construct
physical self-system with a focus on the stability of of interest. That is, dynamic processes are necessar-
the self over relatively longer periods (i.e., years). ily time structured in terms of their changes (e.g.,
In contrast, it is also important to consider intrain- maintaining stability across time). Control theory
dividual variability, a term that refers to changes (Carver & Scheier, 1982) may provide a theoretical
that occur more rapidly, occur over shorter periods, basis for tests of dynamic processes (see the sidebar
and are reversible. This distinction is important Control Theory). In sum, the increasing ability to
to highlight because most of the within-person monitor people’s behavior and experiences as they
research presented within this chapter has exam- unfold in real time through the use of intensive
ined intraindividual change in self-concept whereas methods such as experience sampling presents an
intraindividual variability has received relatively opportunity to address Lindwall et al.’s (2014) call
little attention (Amorose, 2001; Fortes, Ninot, & for increased research on the stability and variation
Delignières, 2004). Investigations of within-person of self-esteem and the physical self. Thus, this topic
variability are characterized by repeated measures should be a clear direction for further study.
using a micro time scale (e.g., seconds, hours, days,
weeks) rather than a macro time scale, which pro- Operationalization and Differentiation
ceeds at a much slower scale (e.g., years, decades).
Multiple-time-scale designs (see Ram et al. [2014] of the Self-System Constructs
for an example) are useful for examining change As alluded to throughout this chapter, it is at times
and variability because they support investigations difficult to differentiate self-concept and self-es-
of both slower (change) and faster (variability) teem, identity and self-definition, and self-schema
processes examined simultaneously. and possible selves. Many of these terms are used
Researchers interested in self-concept variability interchangeably and often remain indistinguish-
should also consider the difference between dynamic able in research reports. Furthermore, physical
characteristics as compared with dynamic processes. self-perception constructs such as body image and
Specifically, questions concerning a person’s inher- body self-esteem also confound the general under-
ent capacity for change refer to the dynamic char- standing of terminology distinctions that may stall
acteristics of self-concept (Ram & Gerstorf, 2009). advancements in the area. Leary and Tangney (2003,
For example, we might ask how labile a person’s 2011) also identify the challenges and confusion
Control Theory
A central tenet of control theory posits that people who receive feedback indicating that they are not meeting their
current goals will subsequently revise their behavior to get back on track. For example, if a person training for a race
does not feel proud of her or his abilities after going for a training run, this feedback (low pride) may lead to expend-
ing increased effort during the following training session (i.e., the idea of returning to equilibrium). Alternatively, if
a person feels proud of his or her abilities, this feedback may signal agreement between a current state and a goal
state and suggest that increased effort in the future is not needed.
that emanated from the use of so many self terms. research in this area is warranted, especially in
At this point in the research and theory, we do not contexts related to sport and exercise because these
know whether constructs like physical self-concept, are the main forums for the self being developed
physical self-worth, exercise or athletic identity, and on display.
and exerciser schemata can be subsumed within a
broader integrated theory. And if they can be, which
theory could or should be used? A new nomological references
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5
Self-Presentation
Concerns in Physical
Activity and Sport
Jennifer Brunet, PhD  Catherine M. Sabiston, PhD
Abstract
Self-presentation, a process that occurs when people actively try to monitor and regulate
the impressions others form of them, is relevant to understanding people’s behavior and
performance in physical activity and sport contexts. It also has broad implications for
understanding people’s well-being in these contexts because people’s well-being may
suffer when they find inconsistency between their desired impressions and the actual
impressions that others may have formed of them. Several years of research support these
contentions. In this chapter, we provide a review of the research and theory on the topic
of self-presentations in sport and physical activity contexts. We begin by defining the
construct itself and discussing models that have been used to guide the research process.
We then note that people can use various tactics to create desired impressions, and we
discuss and provide examples of some of these tactics. Following this section, we look
more closely at the measures that have been developed and used to assess self-presen-
tation in physical activity and sport contexts. Then, we review the research focused on
self-presentation in physical activity and sport contexts. Specifically, we explore the extent
to which people’s behavior, performance, and well-being are associated with self-presen-
tation. We conclude the chapter by noting important gaps in the current knowledge base
and identifying particular questions or issues that warrant further attention.
77
78 Brunet and Sabiston
When an individual appears in the presence In physical activity and sport contexts, people
of others, there will usually be some reason for may adopt self-presentation intrapersonal goals
him to mobilize his activity so that it will convey (e.g., wanting to appear physically attractive, good
an impression to others which it is in his interests looking, physically fit, and competent to others) or
to convey.
interpersonal goals (e.g., wanting to appear warm,
Goffman, 1959 caring, kind, supportive, compassionate, and lik-
able). Several reasons govern these self-presentation
S
elf-presentation is a ubiquitous aspect of social goals. These can be instrumental such that people
life because people are generally motivated to want to influence others and gain rewards like
make good impressions. Physical activity and being given more responsibility, becoming team
sport contexts provide a strong backdrop for study- captain, or reaching starter status. These can also
ing the phenomenon of self-presentation because be social such that people want to gain approval
many people try to portray themselves as phys- from others, build friendships, and get assistance
ically attractive, fit, and competent. Particularly from others. To this end, self-presentation generally
in Westernized societies, they may do so because involves selectively presenting personal attributes
active persons are generally presumed to be fitter, that will help create the desired impression or com-
kinder, happier, neater, more intelligent, sociable, municate the attributes to others, while selectively
and friendly. They are also generally presumed to omitting those that are not conducive to the desired
be self-confident, have good self-control, and be impression (Leary, 1992; Schlenker & Leary, 1982).
hard workers. Correspondingly, many wish to avoid In this sense, people can be motivated to manage
giving others the impression of being physically impressions for image enhancement (i.e., by trying
inactive because inactive persons are believed to to improve others’ positive evaluation) or for image
possess less of these desired physical and person- protection (i.e., by trying to protect their public
ality attributes (Lindwall & Martin Ginis, 2006). image from negative evaluations and trying to avoid
For the most part, people attempt to make positive making undesirable impressions).
impressions on others to gain social approval or In social situations, most people are at least acutely
avoid social disapproval. The possibility of obtain- aware of being observed by others. Thus, self-presen-
ing rewards might also motivate people to consider tation occurs in most, if not all, social situations. Not
the impressions they make on others because these surprisingly, then, self-presentation has been studied
impressions can have a substantial effect on their in a number of contexts such as leadership, social
career success, productivity, social relationships, media use, social interactions, health behaviors,
and other valued outcomes. Thus, self-presentation organizational management, and job performance. In
often serves as the basis for people’s goals and this chapter, we focus on self-presentation as it occurs
behaviors. in physical activity and sport contexts.
Self-presentation (used synonymously with The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide
impression management) refers to the efforts that a summary and critical review of the overall topic
people exert to control or manipulate how they of self-presentation as it applies to the degree to
are perceived and evaluated by others (Schlenker, which people monitor and control the impressions
1980). Leary and Kowalski (1990) described self- others form of them in physical activity and sport
presentation as the “process by which individuals contexts. We begin with a general overview of the
attempt to control the impressions others form of construct of self-presentation. This section includes
them” (p. 34). The degree to which self-presentation is a summary of its historical roots and conceptual
a conscious or subconscious process can vary (Leary, models that researchers have used to examine
1992; Schlenker & Weigold, 1992). In some situations, self-presentation issues in physical activity and
self-presentation is done consciously whereby people sport contexts. We also consider the various ways
actively monitor or regulate the impressions others in which self-presentation has been measured in
form of them (i.e., self-presentation requires some the field. In the second section of this chapter, we
deliberate modification of behavior to make a desired present a current and critical review of selected
impression). In other situations, self-presentation studies on self-presentation as they relate to physical
takes place more on a subconscious level because activity and sport. Finally, in the third section of
information is conveyed to others using familiar, the chapter, we identify limitations that currently
well-learned, and habitual patterns of behaviors. exist in the field and draw on these to make some
Accordingly, self-presentation in these situations may recommendations for future research on self-presen-
not require much conscious attention. tation within physical activity and sport contexts.
Self-Presentation Concerns in Physical Activity and Sport 79
Self-Presentation athlete (who wants to be perceived as highly

competent) might routinely boast about recent suc-
Origins and Models cessful performances. Leary and Kowalski argue
that considering these two processes can lead to
The study of self-presentation had its beginning in
better understanding about why people wish to
the 20th century as shown in the work of several
create certain impressions and what strategies or
sociologists and social psychologists (Baumeister,
behaviors they might choose to use to convey these
1982; Cooley, 1902; Goffman, 1959; Jones, 1964;
desired impressions.
Mead, 1934; Schlenker, 1980; Schlenker & Leary,
Besides specifying the two components of
1982; Schneider, 1969). For instance, Goffman (1959)
self-presentation, Leary and Kowalski (1990) also
argued that people are performers whose main goal
identified several factors that can influence when
is to manage their social interactions and construct
people are most likely to engage actively in the
a self-identity. He claimed that even mundane
self-presentation process. As shown in figure 5.1,
social behaviors are designed to show a person in
they stipulate that impression motivation will be
a favorable manner. Stimulated by Goffman’s (1959)
elevated if people
philosophies, Jones and Pittman (1982) focused
on the self-presentation tactics people use to help • believe that the impressions others form of
them create, maintain, protect, or alter their image them will help them achieve a desired goal
in the eyes of others. Following the introduction such as social approval (i.e., high goal-rele-
of the construct itself, several models were devel- vance of impressions);
oped to provide a framework for the examination • place a high value on their desired goals; and
of self-presentation in various contexts, including
physical activity and sport contexts. Two of the • perceive that the discrepancy between their
more prominent models are described in the fol- desired and current image is considerable.
lowing sections. Thus, Leary and Kowalski propose that impression
construction is influenced by
Two-Component Model • how people see themselves (i.e., self-concept),
of Self-Presentation • how they would like to be perceived by others
One model of self-presentation that has been used (i.e., desired or undesired identity images),
by many physical activity and sport psychology • their social expectations for the image to be
researchers was developed by Leary and Kow- presented (i.e., role constraints),
alski (1990). Leary and Kowalski theorized that • the target audience’s values, and
self-presentation involves a mix of motivation to • the discrepancy between how people are cur-
make a particular impression and the selection of rently viewed by others and how they want to
strategies needed to make that impression. Accord- be viewed by others (i.e., current or potential
ingly, Leary and Kowalski differentiate between social images).
two discrete sets of self-presentation processes in
their two-component model of self-presentation, In essence, the impressions that people decide to
namely impression motivation and impression convey to others and the particular strategies used
construction. Impression motivation refers to the are a function of a mix of dispositional and situa-
degree to which people are motivated to control tional factors.
how others perceive them in a particular social Despite the popularity of Leary and Kowalski’s
encounter. For example, one athlete might have (1990) model of self-presentation and its potential
interest in being perceived as likable by others, value to understanding self-presentation, little
whereas another athlete might have interest in research has been conducted to develop and test
being perceived as highly competent. Impression hypotheses from the model that might explain
construction involves deciding which impression self-presentation as it occurs in physical activity
to convey to others and the particular strategies and sport contexts. Thus, much works remains to
in which people engage to create this impression. be done to offer empirical support for the two-com-
So for the athlete that wants to be perceived as ponent model. One possibility for future research
likable, he or she might compliment teammates would be to generate new insight into the structure
or do favors for teammates (e.g., offer to drive of self-presentation. Although impression motiva-
them home after practice), whereas the second tion and impression construction are conceptually
Self-presentation
Impression motivation Impression construction
Goal-relevance
Self-concept
of impressions
Desired and undesired

Value of desired goals
identity images
Discrepancy between desired

Role constraints
and current image
Target’s values
Current or potential
social image
Figure 5.1 A two-component model of self-presentation.

Adapted from Leary and Kowalski (1990).
E6768/Horn/F05.01/565534/mh-R2
distinct, they may not be mutually exclusive. model is long overdue to establish its usefulness in
As such, researchers could further examine the relation to self-presentation.
structure of self-presentation to determine whether
self-presentation would be best represented by a 2 × 2 Model of Self-Presentation
combination of specific (i.e., impression motivation,
impression construction) and general self-presen- Motives
tation processes (i.e., general tendency to monitor More recently, Howle, Dimmock, Whipp, and
and regulate impressions) and understand how Jackson (2015) proposed a more complex model for
they might modulate one another. Another way examining the interplay between different reasons
that the two-component model could be used is that motivate people to regulate the impressions that
as a predictive model to examine the unique and others form of them in physical activity contexts
joint effects of the eight factors Leary and Kowalski (e.g., exercise, physical education). Specifically, the
propose as factors affecting self-presentation on the model endorses the multidimensional structure of
specific and general self-presentation processes. A self-presentation, but it presents an expanded view
third application for the two-component model is as of impression motivation. Although it focuses on
a framework for changing self-presentation under impression motivation only, the development of
circumstances where constantly striving to monitor the 2 × 2 model of self-presentation is significant
and regulate the impressions others form has detri- because it offers a means of moving beyond the
mental effects on people’s behavior, performance, examination of impression motivation generally and
and well-being. Specifically, the two-component instead offers the ability to focus on the unique and
model could be used to determine which factors joint effects of different dimensions of impression
should be targeted to change self-presentation. At motivation. It also offers a number of theoretically
minimum, empirical testing of the two-component driven expectations regarding the outcomes of each
dimension of impression motivation and thus has represent a person’s focus on avoiding social dis-
the potential to contribute to the understanding of approval regarding others’ perceptions of their
how self-presentation can contribute to a range of interpersonal qualities.
positive and negative outcomes in physical activity Additionally, Howle et al. (2015) contended that
contexts. One of the hallmarks of the 2 × 2 model of the four dimensions of impression motivation have
self-presentation is the introduction of four dimen- different (or opposite) relationships with outcomes.
sions of impression motivation that can coexist to Specifically, using prior theory (Elliot & Church,
varying degrees within each person (see figure 5.2). 1997; Elliot, Gable, & Mapes, 2006), they suggested
Subsumed under the established acquisitive-protec- that people who adopt more acquisitive motives
tive motives (Arkin, 1981) and agentic-communal should engage in more assertive self-presentation
motives (Bakan, 1966) paradigms, Howle et al. acts (e.g., self-promotion), approach-oriented behav-
(2015) stipulated that acquisitive-agentic motives, ior (e.g., being socially proactive and persistent),
acquisitive-communal motives, protective-agen- and task-related engagement and effort (e.g., greater
tic motives, and protective-communal motives physical activity). As an example, people who are
represent the four dimensions of impression motivated to have others admire them for their
motivation. They suggest that acquisitive-agentic physical activities (i.e., acquisitive-agentic motive)
motives capture those aspects of self-presentation may exert greater effort and persistence while
associated with a person’s concerns over obtaining executing physical tasks, whereas people who are
social approval in terms of others’ perceptions of motivated to have others view them as friendly (i.e.,
their physical qualities and task ability, whereas acquisitive-communal motive) may show greater
acquisitive-communal motives represent a person’s enthusiasm and enjoyment. In contrast, people
focus on gaining social approval in terms of others’ who adopt more protective motives should engage
perceptions of their interpersonal qualities. In terms in avoidant and defensive self-presentation acts
of protective motives, Howle et al. (2015) suggest (e.g., social withdrawal and self-handicapping),
that protective-agentic motives represent a person’s and avoid group-based activities (or physical activ-
focus on avoiding social disapproval regarding ity altogether). People who are motivated to avoid
others’ perceptions of their physical qualities and having others view them as an incompetent exer-
task ability, whereas protective-communal motives ciser (i.e., protective-agentic motive) may withdraw
Be viewed as athletic, fit, Be viewed as friendly,

and physically competent helpful, and likable
Acquisitive- Acquisitive-
agentic communal
motives motives
Protective- Protective-
agentic communal
motives motives
Desire to avoid being
seen as physically Desire to avoid being
incompetent or seen as offensive,
athletically inferior unfriendly, or unlikable
Figure 5.2 2 × 2 model of self-presentation.

Adapted from Howle et al. (2015).
E6768/Horn/F05.02/565539/mh-R2
or give up easily on physical tasks, whereas people

who are motivated to have others view them as
Self-Presentation Tactics
someone who is unkind (i.e., protective-communal As specified by Leary and Kowalski (1990), one
motive) may take self-blame for poor performance of the main reasons that people are motivated
or be more passive. to manage impressions is to obtain valued and
Because the 2 × 2 model of self-presentation desirable outcomes. Beyond these general motives,
has only recently been published, few studies however, Jones and Pittman (1982) proposed five
have been done to determine its value to the study main reasons that people are motivated to manage
of self-presentation in physical activity contexts impressions: ingratiation, self-promotion, exempli-
(Howle, Dimmock, & Jackson, 2016; Howle et al., fication, intimidation, and supplication. Whatever
2015). Further, and perhaps more important, there the reasons that people have to manage impressions
is some reason to believe the outcomes that were within social situations, a variety of tactics to do
specified to be associated with acquisitive-agentic, so have been identified (see table 5.1).
acquisitive-communal, protective-agentic, and Within physical activity and sport contexts,
protective-communal motives, which were put people might use any or all of the verbal or non-
forward based on prior theory (Elliot & Church, verbal tactics presented in table 5.1 to manage
1997; Elliot et al., 2006), might need to be recon- impression. In the case of verbal tactics, people
sidered. This reappraisal is needed because the make statements about their personal attributes,
four different dimensions of impression motiva- traits, motives, intentions, or accomplishments.
tion were associated with variables of theoretical Most often, these self-relevant statements are
and applied interest (e.g., impression motivation, positive. That is, people make positive verbal
impression construction, social anxiety, social and statements to draw others’ attention toward their
achievement goals, efficacy beliefs, and behavioral positive attributes, traits, motives, intentions, or
and emotional engagement) in ways that are not accomplishments. For example, an athlete may tell
consistent with the links hypothesized by Howle et his new teammates that he won a gold medal at
al. (2015). Consequently, more research is needed the Olympic Games. Another example is a young
before conclusions regarding the value of the 2 × 2 woman who tells her coworkers that she went to the
model of self-presentation for predicting outcomes gym three times during the past week. At the same
can be drawn. Furthermore, research is needed to time, people might also omit giving information
determine the validity of the model in regards to to others to steer their attention away from their
the understanding of self-presentation as it occurs negative attributes, traits, motives, intentions, or
in sport contexts. accomplishments. In the case of the Olympic ath-
Self-Presentation Can Be Harmful
Just as self-presentation can influence physical activity and sport behavior, concerns with creating, maintaining, or
restoring a positive impression can lead people to engage in health-damaging behaviors, such as dieting, disordered
eating behavior, and smoking (Leary et al., 1994). Self-presentation has been used to inform and enrich research-
ers’ understanding of various health behaviors besides physical activity (Gomes, Martins, & Silva, 2011; Lamarche
& Gammage, 2010; Mack, Strong, Kowalski, & Crocker, 2007; Martin Ginis & Leary, 2004; Martin & Leary, 2001;
Martin, Leary, & O’Brien, 2001). For example, focusing on eating behavior, Mack et al. (2007) found self-presentation
motivation to be higher among women who were at risk of developing an eating disorder as compared with women
who were not considered at risk for an eating disorder. Martin, Leary, and colleagues (Martin & Leary, 2001; Martin
et al., 2001) investigated the relationship between self-presentation motives and various risky health behaviors (i.e.,
smoking, drinking, exercising, dieting, and using drugs) among adolescents and college freshmen. In one study, they
found that 75% of freshman students performed at least one of the 10 risky health behaviors, specifically because
of self-presentation reasons, within the first 3 months of starting college (Martin & Leary, 2001). Conversely, self-pre-
sentation concern has also been shown to facilitate people’s attempts to quit health-damaging behaviors, such as
alcohol consumption and use of tobacco and other drugs (Leary et al., 1994). Taken together, these studies and reviews
demonstrate the complex influence of self-presentation across different health behaviors and different populations.
Table 5.1 Self-Presentation Reasons and Example national champion. Doing so might potentially elicit
Tactics to Achieve Desired Impressions compliments from others. Likewise, people might
Self-
use expressive behaviors such as smiling, crying,
presentation Desired and frowning to help make a certain impression,
reason impression Example tactics especially in regards to their emotional state. For
Ingratiation Likable • Do favors for others. example, a soccer player might smile after missing
• Offer to do something for someone a soccer goal to give the impression that she or he is
that you are not required to do. not affected by missing the goal. Alternatively, the
• Give compliments. player might cry to show that she or he is affected.
• Agree with others’ ideas.
• Listen to others’ problems even if
The self-presentation tactics presented in table
uninterested. 5.1 can be either assertive or defensive. Assertive
Self-promo- Competent • Promote engagement in certain
tactics refer to tactics wherein people actively try
tion activities. to construct a positive image and prompt inter-
• Make people aware of accomplish- personal liking by presenting or communicating
ments. their positive attributes, traits, motives, intentions,
• Let others know you have a reputa- or accomplishments to others. Thus, such tactics
tion for being competent.
• Omit mentioning defeats.
could be regarded as entitlement, self-promotion,
• Do more than is necessary to enhancements, and ingratiation. Defensive tactics
appear superior. are tactics used to protect or repair one’s image
• Make best characteristics salient (e.g., provide excuses, apologies, and justifications).
to others. Many defensive tactics could be compared with
Exemplifica- Morally • Present as honest, disciplined, self-handicapping tactics, which people commonly
tion worthy or self-sacrificing. use to manage impressions. Self-handicapping
honest • Arrive early or stay late to look
dedicated.
refers to any action taken to excuse (or externalize)
• Act like a role model. failure and to accept credit for (or internalize) suc-
• Volunteer to help. cess (Shepperd & Arkin, 1990). Self-handicapping,
Intimidation Tough, • Try to lead others. however, is mainly motivated by the desire to reduce
powerful, or • Yell at others. the probability that others will hold negative per-
ruthless • Threaten others. ceptions of a person’s poor performance. According
• Let others know you can control to Leary and Shepperd (1986), people can engage
things that matter to them.
• Insult or put down others.
in two types of self-handicapping: behavioral and
• Try to embarrass someone in front self-reported. Behavioral self-handicapping refers to
of others. actions that people take to construct impediments
Supplication Helpless • Intentionally do poorer than you that would be expected to reduce the odds of per-
are capable of. forming well on a task, thus providing people with
• Act as if you need assistance. a plausible excuse should they fail. Examples would
• Downplay accomplishments. be to withhold effort while performing or to assist
• Emphasize weaknesses.
a competitor during a performance. Self-reported
handicapping, on the other hand, refers to instances
when people make claims that some handicapping
lete, he might not tell his new teammates that he conditions exist but then do not proactively take
lost every competition since the Olympics. Similarly, action to set up handicaps (Snyder & Smith, 1982).
the young woman might not tell her coworkers that An example of this type of self-handicapping is
she had not been to the gym the month before. claiming that one was ill and thus did not perform
Self-presentation tactics can also be nonverbal. as well as expected.
For example, people might engage in physical Despite the widespread recognition that most
activity with others to convey the impression of people engage in self-presentation at one point or
being physically active. People might display their another, we know little about when specifically
achievements and possessions to influence other people consciously use self-presentation tactics to
people’s impressions of them. They might post convey a favorable impression in physical activity
pictures of themselves on Facebook after winning and sport contexts. The influence of individual
a race, display trophies in visible locations, or wear difference variables on the use of self-presentation
a letterman (sports) jacket as a visual cue of a tactics and the effectiveness of different types of
self-presentation tactics is also not well known. Pos- impressions. Self-presentation tactics may also
sibly, underlying individual differences promote or reflect preexisting perceptions that others have of
impede the use of specific self-presentation tactics. the person trying to make the impression. If people
Indeed, Leary and Kowalski (1990) suggest that the have decided that the basketball player mentioned
way in which people see themselves (e.g., somewhat in the example is arrogant, they might interpret
athletic), the way in which they would like to be the player’s demonstration of dribbling skills as
perceived by others (e.g., physically fit), their social another example of self-promotion. Alternatively,
expectations for the image to be presented (e.g., if people have pegged the basketball player as a
expect to gain social approval), target audiences’ competent player who will play professionally, they
values (e.g., value physically active people), and may decide that this behavior is another example
the discrepancy between how they are currently of competence. Thus, for the same tactic, different
viewed by others and how they want to be viewed people on the receiving end may form different
by others would influence which self-presentation interpretations.
tactics they choose to use (e.g., consider themselves In addition, the relative effectiveness of the
slightly physically active but want to be viewed as various self-presentation tactics has not been inves-
a very active person). Additionally, other disposi- tigated in sufficient detail to enable a judgment
tional characteristics (e.g., personality traits, locus to be made about the most effective tactics. For
of control, gender, age) and situational factors (e.g., example, researchers cannot determine whether
setting, audience) could affect which self-presen- wearing exercise attire is as effective in making
tation tactics are used. Therefore, gaining a better others believe that one is a physically active person
understanding of when and why people use dif- as is engaging in physical activity with others on
ferent self-presentation tactics in physical activity a regular basis. This question cannot be answered
and sport contexts requires greater consideration because, in most studies, the overall frequency of
of people’s dispositional characteristics and situa- self-presentation tactics has been assessed, which
tional factors. makes it impossible to isolate the effectiveness of
Another issue that has been largely ignored in each specific tactic or group of tactics (i.e., verbal,
physical activity and sport contexts is how suc- nonverbal, assertive, protective, self-handicapping).
cessful the various self-presentation tactics are. Presumably, the tendency by researchers to use
Undoubtedly, people can try to give the impression an overall frequency score is due to issues related
that they are physically active by telling others they to the assessment of self-presentation, which are
just completed a spin class, but sharing this infor- discussed in the next section.
mation with others may or may not be effective in
changing other people’s impression of them as an
active person. Moreover, some evidence suggests Measurement
that self-handicapping can lead others to form
negative impressions (Levesque, Lowe, & Menden-
of Self-Presentation
hall, 2001; Luginbuhl & Palmer, 1991). Luginbuhl Instruments that can be used to obtain valid and
and Palmer (1991) reported that awareness of a reliable scores of the construct of self-presentation
self-imposed handicap made observers less likely to are necessary to enable researchers to
attribute athletes’ poor performance to a lack of abil-
ity but more likely to make more negative attribu- • document the frequency and distribution of
tions about athletes’ personal character. Similarly, self-presentation in various populations;
whereas people often use self-presentation tactics • determine the frequency, intensity, and dura-
to create a favorable impression, observers may tion of physical activity and sport participa-
interpret the use of certain self-presentation tactics tion needed to influence self-presentation
negatively. For example, a basketball player might related outcomes;
show off dribbling skills in the hopes that doing so
• identify environmental, physical, and psycho-
will lead to some desired inference about personal
social factors that influence self-presentation;
qualities, but others might judge the player’s per-
sonality rather than analyze the skill level (i.e., per- • monitor changes in self-presentation across
ceive that this behavior reflects arrogance). If this the lifespan; or
assumption is correct, it follows that we should not • evaluate the effectiveness of self-presentation
assume that self-presentation tactics always lead to interventions that are designed to influence
intended desirable impressions. Rather, they could physical activity and sport outcomes (e.g.,
lead to unanticipated, unwelcome, and undesirable behavior, performance).
Several questionnaires have been developed and Martin (2004) noted, the impression construction
used by researchers to understand self-presenta- subscale assesses only a few strategies that people
tion in physical activity and sport contexts. Six of can use to create the impression that they are fit,
these questionnaires are described in the following healthy, and active. But many other strategies could
paragraphs: be considered. Thus, further refinements of the
SPEQ are warranted because the various versions
1. Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire of this questionnaire still lack content validity (i.e.,
(SPEQ) scales do not measure all facets of impression con-
2. Self-Presentation Motives for Physical Activity struction). Clearly, an important step in this regard
Questionnaire (SMPAQ) would be to develop and test additional items to
3. Self-Presentation in Sport Questionnaire help establish that the SPEQ is a sound measure
(SPSQ) of self-presentation tendencies in physical activity
contexts.
4. Competitive Self-Presentation Concerns In response to the continuing measurement
Inventory (CSPCI) concerns with the SPEQ (Conroy et al., 2000),
5. Physical Activity and Sport Anxiety Scale Howle et al. (2015) recently developed another
(PASAS) self-presentation measure that coincides with their
6. Impression Motivation in Sport Questionnaire 2 × 2 model of self-presentation. It is known as
(IMSP) the Self-Presentation Motives for Physical Activity
Questionnaire (SMPAQ). In contrast to the SPEQ,
Conroy, Motl, and Hall (2000) developed the which assesses general impression motivation ten-
Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire (SPEQ) dencies and impression construction, the SMPAQ
to assess individuals’ tendencies to self-present measures the four context-specific self-presenta-
themselves as exercisers (i.e., fit, healthy, and tion motives in physical activity contexts (i.e.,
active). The SPEQ was based on Leary and Kowal- exercise, physical education) that are delineated
ski’s (1990) two-component model of self-presenta- in the 2 × 2 model (i.e., acquisitive-agentic,
tion and thus includes two subscales. The first is acquisitive-communal, protective-agentic, pro-
an impression motivation subscale that assesses a tective-communal motives). Howle et al. admin-
person’s motivation to be perceived as an exerciser, istered the SMPAQ to a sample of group exercise
and the second is an impression construction sub- class participants as well as high school students.
scale that assesses the degree to which people use a Analyses of these data revealed that all items in
specific set of strategies to convey such impressions. each subscale address the same underlying con-
The latter deals with verbal and nonverbal tactics. cept and that scores on the SMPAQ were correlated
Guided by experts’ opinions and statistical testing, with scores on other measures thought to assess
Conroy and colleagues proposed the 11-item SPEQ similar or related concepts such as impression
and provided evidence of reliability and validity. motivation and construction, social anxiety,
They also demonstrated that scores from the SPEQ social and achievement goals, efficacy beliefs,
were associated with theoretically relevant con- and engagement, supporting the reliability and
structs (e.g., physical self-presentation confidence, convergent validity of SMPAQ scores. But because
social physique anxiety [SPA], body surveillance, they found that SMPAQ scores were correlated
perceived physical ability). with scores on measures meant to measure differ-
But some concerns have been raised regarding ent concepts, further statistical testing is needed
the SPEQ (Conroy et al., 2000) because some sta- to continue the evaluation of the psychometric
tistical testing has failed to support the validity of quality of the SMPAQ.
its scores (see, for example, Conroy & Motl, 2003; The Self-Presentation in Sport Questionnaire
Gammage, Hall, Prapavessis, Maddison, Haase, (SPSQ; Wilson & Eklund, 1998), the Competitive
& Martin, 2004; Lindwall, 2005). Consequently, Self-Presentation Concerns Inventory (CSPCI; Wil-
researchers have resorted to deleting items to liams, Hudson, & Lawson, 1999), and the Physical
improve the reliability and validity of scores, Activity and Sport Anxiety Scale (PASAS; Norton,
resulting in the use of shorter versions of this ques- Hope, & Weeks, 2004) have been developed to
tionnaire. Despite seeing some improvement in the assess self-presentation concerns in sport contexts.
psychometric properties of these shorter versions, The SPSQ taps into people’s concerns regarding
a continuing problem exists with regard to the
impression construction subscale. Specifically, as • performance or composure inadequacies,
Gammage, Hall, Prapavessis, Maddison, Haase, and • appearance of fatigue or lack of energy,
• physical appearance, and • avoidance of negative outcomes (e.g., “I am

• appearance of being perceived as athletically motivated to create a good impression on my
untalented. coach, so that he/she doesn’t demote me”),
and
A sample item from the SPSQ is “During competi- • avoidance of damaging impressions (e.g., “I
tion I worry that other people may perceive me as am motivated to create an impression to avoid
appearing nervous under pressure.” Similarly, the embarrassment”).
CSPCI assesses people’s concerns regarding
As with the CSPCI (Williams et al., 1999), the SPSQ
• others’ impressions, (Wilson & Eklund, 1998), and the PASAS (Norton
• fear of appearing incompetent, et al., 2004), research is still needed to evaluate the
• fear of appearing unable to cope with pres- quality of the IMSP.
sure, and Irrespective of these measurement challenges
regarding self-presentation, a body of research has
• concern over current form.
provided some interesting and relevant information
A sample item from the CSPCI is “When compet- on self-presentation within physical activity and
ing I am concerned with others seeing me make sport contexts. Several reviews of this research
mistakes.” The PASAS assesses social fear and have been published (see, for example, Hausenblas,
avoidance of physical activity and sport situations. Brewer, & Van Raalte, 2004; Martin Ginis & Leary,
Two scoring procedures are proposed: One involves 2004; Martin Ginis, Lindwall, & Prapavessis, 2007).
calculating all 16 items, and the other involves sum- In the following section of this chapter, the results
ming physical activity and sports items separately. of this knowledge base are summarized generally,
Sample items from the PASAS that represent social and more current or unique topics are highlighted
fear and avoidance of physical activity and sport in detail.
situations, respectively, are “Sometimes I think I
am too concerned with what other people think
about my performance while exercising/working
Self-Presentation in Sport
out,” and “I am usually worried about what kind and Physical Activity Contexts
of impression I make while playing sports.” Unfor-
The often public nature of physical activity and
tunately, little work has been done to test the psy-
sport raises the possibility that people’s behaviors
chometric properties of the SPSQ, the CSPCI, or the
will be driven, in part, by a desire to manage the
PASAS. Therefore, additional testing is warranted
impressions that others form of them. Self-presen-
to ensure that these questionnaires can be used to
tation—a multidimensional construct—is clearly
answer research questions pertaining to self-pre-
relevant to understanding people’s behavior, per-
sentation concerns in sport contexts.
formance, and well-being in physical activity and
Because the SPSQ (Wilson & Eklund, 1998), the
sport contexts. A large number of studies have been
CSPCI (Williams et al., 1999), and the PASAS (Norton
published that examine self-presentation in physical
et al., 2004) were created to assess self-presentation
activity and sport contexts. Most of these studies
concerns in sport contexts (but not impression moti-
were conducted within specific contexts (e.g., phys-
vation or impression construction), Payne and col-
ical activity, sport) and examined links between
leagues developed the Impression Motivation in Sport
self-presentational constructs and a range of out-
Questionnaire (IMSP; Payne, Hudson, Akehurst, &
comes. As such, rather large gaps in the knowledge
Ntoumanis, 2013) to measure athletes’ self-presen-
base hinder understanding of self-presentation in
tation motives. They proposed a 15-item, multidi-
these contexts. The results are summarized in the
mensional scale that assesses the extent to which
following sections.
respondents are motivated to use self-presentation
to achieve four distinct interpersonal objectives:
Self-Presentation and Physical Activity
• self-development (e.g., “I am motivated to In physical activity contexts, many researchers have
create a good impression because I wish to focused on understanding a potential association
be respected by my teammates”), between self-presentation and physical activity
• social identity development (e.g., “I am moti- (Brunet, Sabiston, & Gaudreau, 2014; Gammage,
vated to create an impression of an athlete Hall, & Martin Ginis, 2004; Longbottom, Grove, &
who is fair and a good sport”), Dimmock, 2012; Thogersen-Ntoumani & Ntouma-
nis, 2007). This research is generally based on the may engage in physical activity for self-presenta-
notion that people’s motives to engage in physical tion reasons, self-presentation may also discourage
activity often mirror self-presentation motives, people from participating in physical activity if
namely the desire to improve or maintain physical they are concerned about their ability to convey an
appearance and to obtain or preserve a desired attractive image in front of others, which may lead
social identity (Ingledew & Sullivan, 2002). Thus, to lower levels of physical activity and eventual drop
it seems that many people view physical activity out. This idea would be in line with Leary’s (1992)
as a means to alter their physical appearance (e.g., suggestion that people who are concerned about
regulate weight, tone muscles, improve fitness) or being perceived as incompetent, unfit, or unskilled
to develop a fit, healthy, strong, physically com- might avoid physical activity because participation
petent, or athletic image, which together reflect could highlight their undesired attributes. Extrap-
self-presentation intentions. From this perspective, olating from this proposition, self-presentation can
we may be led to believe that people who report have either positive or negative effects on physical
high self-presentation are more likely to engage in activity. Further research on these divergent paths
physical activity. is certainly needed.
Some research supports this proposition in that
higher levels of impression motivation have been Self-Presentation, Self-Presentation
associated with more physical activity (Brunet et
al., 2014; Conroy et al., 2000; Lindwall, 2005). For Efficacy, and Physical Activity
example, Conroy et al. (2000) explored this link in Considering that self-presentation has the potential
a sample of college students and found that greater to affect participation in physical activity either
impression motivation was positively associated positively or negatively, it is necessary to consider
with a higher number of self-reported days per factors that might help in determining which out-
week of exercise, and greater impression construc- come will occur. Drawing on social cognitive theory
tion was associated with a higher percentage of (SCT; Bandura, 2004), researchers have suggested
time spent exercising. Similarly, in a study with that self-presentation might have a different influ-
university students, Lindwall (2005) demonstrated ence on people’s participation in physical activity
that higher impression motivation and impression depending on whether they believe that they have
construction were associated with greater exercise the ability to create a desirable impression (Brunet
frequency and duration. Besides being associated & Sabiston, 2011b; Gammage, Hall, & Martin Ginis,
with physical activity, self-presentation is asso- 2004; McAuley, Bane, & Mihalko, 1995; Woodgate,
ciated with people’s physical activity motivation Martin Ginis, & Sinden, 2003). As a result, the
(Leary, Tchividjian, & Kraxberger, 1999), activity concept of self-presentation efficacy has gained
choice (Sadalla, Linder, & Jenkins, 1988), location increasing attention because it may influence
and social context preferences (Leary, 1992; Spink, whether or not people engage in physical activity.
1992), level of effort (Boutcher, Fleischer-Curtian, & Self-presentation efficacy reflects the perceived
Gines, 1988; Rhea, Landers, Alvar, & Arent, 2003), probability of successfully conveying the desired
and affective responses to physical activity (Focht impressions to others (Leary, 1983). Maddux,
& Hausenblas, 2003; Frederick & Morrison, 1996). Norton, and Leary (1988) extended Leary’s (1983)
Despite the consistency in findings across the view of self-presentation efficacy by suggesting that
studies cited in the previous paragraph, note that it consists of three beliefs, namely self-presentation
the associations between self-presentation and efficacy expectancy (i.e., the belief that the person
physical activity have typically been weak and have is capable of conveying a desired impression or
varied considerably depending on which measure performing the desired behavior), self-presenta-
was used to assess physical activity. Furthermore, tional outcome expectancy (i.e., the belief that the
some researchers have reported nonsignificant conveyed impression and behaviors will lead to the
associations between self-presentation and physical desired outcome), and self-presentational outcome
activity. For example, one study found that low-fre- value (i.e., importance placed on the outcome).
quency exercisers (i.e., those who exercised once Self-presentation and self-presentation efficacy may
or twice per week) and high-frequency exercisers interact to determine people’s tendency to engage in
(i.e., those who exercised three or more times per or avoid physical activity. Presumably, people will
week) did not differ significantly on their reported engage in physical activity as a self-presentation
levels of impression motivation (Gammage, Hall, & strategy only if they have high self-presentation
Martin Ginis, 2004). Thus, although many people motives and high self-presentation efficacy.
To test this proposition, Gammage, Hall, and The direct relationship between SPA and phys-
Martin Ginis (2004) developed the Self-Presenta- ical activity behavior has also been examined,
tion Efficacy Scale (SPES), an instrument that can but the research has yielded equivocal results
be used to assess people’s perceived probability of suggesting that SPA could be either be a motivator
successfully conveying their desired impressions or a deterrent to engagement in physical activity.
to others. The SPES is a 15-item questionnaire For example, Frederick and Morrison (1996) found
that measures the three facets of self-presentation that university fitness center participants who
efficacy for exercise as outlined by Maddux et al. reported higher levels of SPA engaged in exercise
(1988). An example self-presentation efficacy expec- more often than those who had lower levels of SPA.
tancy item is “How confident are you that other Eklund and Crawford (1994) found no significant
people will think that you are in good shape?” An relationship between SPA and physical activity
example self-presentational outcome expectancy behavior (i.e., number of days per week, minutes
item is “By exercising regularly, other people will per day exercised, minutes per week exercised)
see that that my body looks fit and toned.” An among college-aged women. In contrast, Lantz,
example self-presentational outcome value item is Hardy, and Ainsworth (1997) showed that adults
“I place a lot of value on being known as someone who reported higher levels of SPA were less likely
who is in good shape.” Using the SPES, Gammage to engage in physical activity. Similarly, Ransdell,
and colleagues found that low-frequency and Wells, Manore, Swan, and Corbin (1998) found that
high-frequency female exercisers did not differ older, postmenopausal women who reported higher
significantly on their reported levels of impression SPA engaged in less leisure-time physical activity.
motivation. High-frequency exercisers, however, Also among older women, Woodgate et al. (2003)
reported stronger perceptions in their ability to found that SPA was a significant negative correlate
convey the desired impression and placed more of physical activity. Finally, Brunet and Sabiston
importance on portraying the desired impression (2009) reported that higher scores of SPA were
than females who exercised less frequently. These associated with lower levels of physical activity in
findings suggest that levels of self-presentation a sample of young women and men. These studies
efficacy may determine whether impression moti- collectively show the complexity of the association
vation translates to engagement in or avoidance of between SPA and physical activity and highlight the
physical activity. need to consider moderating or mediating variables
to further our understanding of the association.
Social Physique Anxiety
and Physical Activity Self-Presentation and Sport
A considerable amount of research in the physical Given that sport contexts can be classified as
activity context has focused on the construct of social settings where athletes of all levels interact
social physique anxiety (SPA). SPA, defined as the on a regular basis with one another, coaches, and
anxiety that people experience when they perceive fans, a number of studies have been conducted to
that others are negatively evaluating their physique explore self-presentation in sport contexts (Howle &
or appearance (Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989), is Eklund, 2013; Lorimer, 2006; McGowan, Prapaves-
clearly rooted in the process of self-presentation. sis, & Wesch, 2008; Mesagno, Harvey, & Janelle,
Researchers investigating the links between SPA 2011; Podlog et al., 2013; Prapavessis, Grove, &
and physical activity motivation have generally Eklund, 2004). To begin with, self-presentation
found that people who report higher levels of SPA might influence the particular sport in which people
participate in physical activity for self-presentation choose to participate. One reason is that athletes
motives (e.g., manage appearance, control weight, within certain sports (e.g., racers, tennis players,
tone body), whereas people who report lower basketball players) are rated more positively than
levels of SPA participate in physical activity for others (e.g., bowlers) in terms of athleticism and
non-self-presentation reasons (e.g., health, pleasure; attractiveness. Thus, people may be more likely to
Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Frederick & Morrison, choose to participate in a sport that allows them
1996; Gillison, Standage, & Skevington, 2006; to make a desirable impression. In addition, people
Markland & Ingledew, 1997; Sabiston, Crocker, may be sensitive to the gender-based stereotypes of
& Munroe-Chandler, 2005; Strong, Martin Ginis, certain sports (Koivula, 2001). Sports have become
Mack, & Wilson, 2006). stereotyped as masculine, feminine, or gender neu-
tral (Koivula, 1995). Accordingly, people may prefer evaluative concerns were associated with cognitive
gender-congruent sports to avoid being negatively state anxiety, whereas general, nonperformance
judged by others for engaging in gender-incongru- evaluative concerns were associated with somatic
ent sports. This idea is in line with the proposition state anxiety. Because choking and anxiety can
suggested by Leary (1992) that people will select negatively affect sport performance, these studies
activities that are consistent with their roles, values, indicate that self-presentation concerns are relevant
or social norms. to sport contexts. Indeed, Mesagno et al. (2011)
Self-presentation can also affect athletes when provided clear evidence that self-presentation con-
they are involved in sport. Athletes’ fear of being cerns decrease performance outcomes in sport. In
negatively evaluated by coaches, other athletes, summary, although some evidence suggests that the
spectators, and the media can help to improve their effect of self-presentation on performance may be
sport performance or hinder it (Prapavessis et al., positive in nature, the bulk of the evidence supports
2004). Athletes may push themselves harder during a negative influence.
practice or competition to impress others. This extra Finally, self-presentation concerns can also lead
effort can subsequently enhance others’ impression athletes to engage in behaviors that enhance the
of them if performance improves. Alternatively, in impressions that others form of them but that may
response to self-presentation concerns, some ath- threaten their physical well-being (e.g., failing to
letes may decrease their level of effort. By doing so, wear protective gear, avoiding medical attention
they protect themselves against the risk of public when injured, using performance-enhancing drugs
humiliation because any performance failure would like steroids, diuretics, and creatine; Leary, Tchi-
be attributed to a lack of effort rather than to a lack vidijian, & Kraxberger, 1994; Martin Ginis & Leary,
of ability. Self-presentation can hinder performance 2004). For example, some athletes may be inclined
for other reasons. Athletes have concerns about to take steroids to make their muscles bigger and
their physical appearance, performance or compo- stronger to maximize the favorable impression by
sure inadequacies, appearing fatigued, or appear- boosting their appearance and performance. This
ing athletically untalented (Williams et al., 1999; practice is troubling because steroids come with
Wilson & Eklund, 1998). In turn, these self-presenta- serious physical side effects (e.g., severe acne,
tion concerns can lead to choking and substandard liver abnormalities and tumors, high blood pres-
performance (Mesagno et al., 2011). Researchers sure). In other instances, when athletes believe
have also shown that self-presentation concerns that their image is threatened, they may engage in
can increase performance anxiety (Bray, Martin, & defensive, reactive, or protective behaviors (e.g.,
Widmeyer, 2000; Hudson & Williams, 2001; James rationalizing their failures, generating excuses for
& Collins, 1997; Lorimer, 2006). In one study, James failure) to escape negative evaluations. Clearly,
and Collins (1997) found that self-presentation con- more research is needed at this point to understand
cerns were one of eight general dimensions related to what extent and in which ways self-presentation
to sources of competitive anxiety. In another study, leads to high-risk behaviors in physical activity and
Bray et al. (2000) reported that performance-specific sport contexts.
Controlling Self-Presentation
Owing to the potential negative effect of self-presentation, an important topic is how people’s motivation to monitor and
control the impressions others form of them can be managed. In certain physical activity and sport situations, various
stimuli in the environment such as the presence of mirrors and the presence of others can increase the perceived
evaluative threat of the environments and, in turn, arouse self-presentation concerns. This effect has been shown in
previous studies (Focht & Hausenblas, 2003; Gammage, Hall, Prapavessis, Maddison, Haase, & Martin Ginis, 2004;
Katula, McAuley, Mihalko, & Bane, 1998; Martin Ginis, Latimer, & Jung, 2003; Raedeke, Focht, & Scales, 2007). Thus,
although physical activity and sport facilities often have mirrors to allow people to observe their technique, altering the
physical environment may help to reduce self-presentation concerns. From the results of prior studies (Bray, Millen,
Eidsness, & Leuzinger, 2005; Martin & Fox, 2001; Raedeke et al., 2007), the characteristics of the physical activity
leader (e.g., gender, clothing, leadership style, physical appearance) are also important to consider when trying to
limit negative manifestations of self-presentation.
Future Research self-presentation remains stable over time. Corre-

spondingly, most self-presentation questionnaires
Recommendations were designed to assess dispositional self-presenta-
tion. But there is no persuasive evidence confirm-
First, relatively few of the research studies in this ing or disconfirming the stability of impression
area have been underpinned by theory. Certainly, motivation and impression construction in the
this shortcoming may be explained by the lack of general population (see Brunet et al., 2014 for evi-
theoretical models relating to self-presentation as dence in breast cancer survivors). In recent years,
it occurs in physical activity and sport contexts some researchers have argued for a more state-like
(Martin Ginis et al., 2007). As evidence of this, the approach (Brunet & Sabiston, 2011a; Brunet et al.,
theoretically based studies on self-presentation in 2014; Howle et al., 2015) and have suggested that
physical activity and sport contexts (e.g., Brunet & the effort that people exert to control or manipu-
Sabiston, 2009, 2011b; Gammage, Hall, & Martin late how others perceive and evaluate them could
Ginis, 2004; Latimer & Martin Ginis, 2005; McAu- fluctuate across time and situations. Preliminary
ley, Marquez, Jerome, Blissmer, & Katula, 2002; support exists for the notion that self-presentation
Thogersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis, 2007; Woodgate may vary on the basis of situational factors such
et al., 2003) have depended on theories from other as whether the setting is a same-sex environment
literature sources, such as the theory of planned (Kruisselbrink, Dodge, Swanburg, & MacLeod,
behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1991), SCT (Bandura, 2004), 2004), whether others are present (Carron, Burke,
and self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, & Prapavessis, 2004; Rhea et al., 2003), and whether
1985). Given the evidence that constructs embedded mirrors and large windows are present (Hausenblas
within these theories have been associated with et al., 2004). The combined results of these studies
broad measures of self-presentation, these theories appear to be incompatible with the notion that
may be valuable to advance the understanding of self-presentation is a trait characteristic. Given the
antecedents and outcomes of self-presentation in important theoretical and practical implications of
physical activity contexts. Nevertheless, we also this issue, additional research investigating both
encourage the development or specification of stable and variable aspects of self-presentation,
a self-presentation model that offers formalized as well as the relative contribution of trait versus
hypotheses regarding the antecedents of self-pre- state self-presentation as determinants of physical
sentation, the structure of self-presentation, and the activity and sport appears warranted.
unique and joint effects of impression motivation Third, based on Howle et al.’s (2015) work show-
and impression construction on a wide range of ing that people have different self-presentation
outcomes in physical activity and sport contexts. motives, researchers should move beyond study-
A second limitation relates to study design. ing impression motivation generally (i.e., using a
Most of the studies conducted to date have used composite score) and examine the specific impres-
correlational study designs to offer support for the sions that people wish to make when investigating
hypothesized links between self-presentation and a antecedents and outcomes of impression motiva-
variety of outcome variables that are of theoretical tion. Note that the four dimensions of impression
and practical relevance. Correlational study designs, motivation proposed by Howle et al. were based
however, cannot establish whether a causal link on existing research paradigms. To validate these
exists and in what direction it lies. On one hand, we four dimensions, additional evidence using differ-
have reason to believe that self-presentation influ- ent methods (e.g., qualitative studies) is needed to
ences physical activity and sport outcomes. On the confirm or add to the proposed dimensions. The
other hand, participation in physical activity and same level of specificity should be followed with
sport may elicit changes in the self-presentation pro- impression construction because we do not know
cess (Pearson, Hall, & Gammage, 2013). Thus, more the relative effectiveness of different self-presenta-
experimentally based studies are necessary to test tion tactics. For example, the relative effectiveness
whether reciprocal and causal relationships exist of verbal self-presentation tactics may be trivial
between self-presentation and physical activity and compared with the effectiveness of nonverbal
sport outcomes. Few longitudinal studies include self-presentation tactics (or vice versa). In this line
the use of more than two measurement occasions. of research, another interesting approach would be
Consequently, to this point, self-presentation pat- to examine factors that lead people to use verbal or
terns have not been thoroughly examined over time. nonverbal self-presentation tactics. In other words,
Many researchers in this area have postulated that the influence of dispositional and situational factors
on impression motivation and on the use of self-pre- self-presentation influences physical activity and
sentation tactics should be explored. sport outcomes. Another primary need for the field
Fourth, many of the studies that have examined involves establishing appropriate questionnaires
the relationship between self-presentation and phys- to assess self-presentation in physical activity and
ical activity have used college or university student sport contexts. Although the SPEQ has dominated
samples (e.g., Conroy et al., 2000; Gammage, Hall, the literature over the past 15 years, we believe
Prapavessis, Maddison, Haase, & Martin, 2004; that increasing attention will be paid to other mea-
Lindwall, 2005) and have primarily focused on sures such as the SMPAQ or alternative measures.
female samples. Thus, current findings may lack Finally, we hope to see greater use of longitudinal
generalizability to other populations. Indeed, only and experimental study designs in future research
a few studies have investigated the associations to determine how self-presentation evolves and
between self-presentation and physical activity in develops over time, to establish how self-presenta-
diverse populations, such as breast cancer survivors tion affects physical activity and sport outcomes (or
(e.g., Brunet & Sabiston, 2011b; Brunet et al., 2014), vice versa), and to identify the causal mechanisms
overweight women (e.g., Pearson et al., 2013), and that link self-presentation to outcomes. Given that
older adults (e.g., McAuley et al., 2002; Woodgate self-presentation is omnipresent in physical activity
et al., 2003), and none have compared the predicted and sport contexts, the next decade of research will
values across different populations to confirm likely yield important knowledge on the topic.
whether the patterns are different or similar. More
of these types of research studies are needed.
Last, some of the difficulty in advancing the
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6
Perfectionism
in Competitive Sport
Howard K. Hall, PhD
Abstract
Recently, claims have been made that multidimensional perfectionism exhibits a dual
nature because the two higher-order dimensions, which many consider to reflect the
construct most accurately, tend to be associated with either positive or negative outcomes.
This chapter seeks to challenge arguments that have been put forward to support the
dual nature of perfectionism. It begins by explaining that perfectionism is a complex
multidimensional personality characteristic that reflects an irrational way of thinking
about achievement. It argues that although perfectionism may energize motivation and
bring about exceptional accomplishments, under adverse conditions it is likely to trigger
dysfunctional cognition that may contribute to performance impairment and emotional
distress. The discussion suggests that perfectionism is best thought of as a source of vul-
nerability in sport participants. The chapter reflects on the apparent paradoxical effects
of the personality characteristic and challenges arguments put forward to suggest that it
is best considered as two higher-order dimensions reflecting different core components.
It also refutes ideas that perfectionism may manifest in either adaptive or maladaptive
forms. The chapter argues that rather than consisting of two unrelated dimensions, per-
fectionism comprises multiple core-defining qualities, all of which must be exhibited to
depict the characteristic accurately. The chapter further challenges whether perfectionism
is capable of evoking universally adaptive qualities that will facilitate either sustained
performance or psychological well-being in athletes performing at any level. The chapter
presents a critical evaluation of the emerging research base in sport to explain what
is known about the influence of perfectionism and why it is likely to render athletes
psychologically vulnerable. Finally, it suggests some new research directions that have
the potential to offer further challenge to arguments put forward in support of the dual
nature of perfectionism.
95
96 Hall
P
erfectionism is considered a personality char- Conversely, others argue that vulnerability
acteristic that reflects compulsive striving should not be considered an inevitable conse-
for flawlessness. It manifests as both a cog- quence of perfectionism because the psychological
nitive and behavioral commitment to excessively construct has been found to exhibit a hierarchical
high and frequently unrealistic goals, recurrent structure, comprising two higher-order dimensions
thoughts about goal achievement, and a tendency that reveal differential associations with various
to engage in harsh, excessively critical self-evalu- cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes
ation (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost, Marten, Lahart, (Jowett et al., 2016; Stoeber & Otto, 2006). These
& Rosenblate, 1990; Stoeber, 2011). Perfectionism is associations emerge because each of the dimensions
believed to have an important influence on motiva- is underpinned by a distinct and fundamentally dif-
tional processes in athletes, and it is through these ferent constellation of core perfectionism qualities
processes that it is considered to have an indirect that regulate perfectionistic thought. As a result,
effect on sport performance (Stoeber, 2012; Hall, this approach maintains that a focus on either
2016). The performance enhancement effects of perfectionistic striving or perfectionistic concerns
perfectionism undoubtedly occur because of its will act either to sustain or to undermine adap-
capacity to energize people to strive compulsively to tive motivation, thus illustrating the dual nature
reach extraordinarily high performance standards, of perfectionism (Stoeber, 2011, 2012). Recently,
employ behavioral strategies that promote sustained however, researchers have questioned whether
achievement striving, and adopt a mind-set that either conceptual rationale or empirical evidence
reflects an enduring commitment to exceptionally is sufficient to claim that perfectionism, with its
demanding goals (Hall, Hill, & Appleton, 2012; distinctive tendency to energize compulsive striv-
Hill, 2016). ing and evoke excessively critical self-evaluation,
In a 2002 study, Gould, Dieffenbach, and Mof- is capable of sustaining a pattern of achievement
fett noted that these characteristics appeared to be striving that promotes adaptive motivation and
common among Olympians, thus concluding that fosters psychological well-being, especially when
perfectionism may be an inherent feature of elite people encounter adversity (Flett & Hewitt, 2016;
sport performers. Certainly, there is indisputable Hall, 2016).
evidence to confirm that the motivational quali- The primary purpose of this chapter is to exam-
ties of perfectionism can and do lead to successful ine the evidence in support of the dual nature of
goal-accomplishment and contribute to numerous perfectionism by conducting a critical review of the
positive performance-related outcomes (Jowett, theoretical and empirical research that has been
Mallinson, & Hill, 2016). In contrast, however, evi- conducted to date. The chapter begins with a sum-
dence also shows that the performance-related cog- mary and analysis of differing perspectives regard-
nition and harsh self-critical evaluation reflective of ing the construct of perfectionism and then provides
perfectionism elicits a wide variety of outcomes that a conceptual challenge to recent arguments that
may undermine motivation, disrupt performance, support the dual nature of perfectionism (Stoeber,
and diminish both psychological well-being and 2011, 2012). Next, the chapter offers a review of
physical health (Sirois & Molnar, 2015). the research that has examined how perfectionism
The seemingly paradoxical effects of perfection- affects those performing in competitive sport. This
ism have been noted by numerous sport researchers review critically examines the strength of empirical
(e.g., Flett & Hewitt, 2005, 2014, 2016; Gotwals, evidence in support of competing views about the
Stoeber, Dunn, & Stoll, 2012; Hall & Hill, 2012; nature and influence of the construct. Finally, the
Hall, 2016; Stoeber, 2011), and these effects remain chapter concludes by offering specific directions
a source of considerable debate in the field. On one for future research that may help to resolve current
side of this argument is a view that despite its ability differences of opinion.
to energize achievement striving and bring about
positive outcomes, perfectionism ought to be con-
sidered a multidimensional characteristic that will Debating the Meaning
invariably render people psychologically vulnera-
ble. The suggestion is that perfectionistic thinking
of Perfectionism
always carries the potential to distort performance The debate about whether perfectionism may be
appraisal, undermine self-worth, and disrupt the seen to have enduring positive consequences or
motivational processes that sustain achievement reflect a latent source of vulnerability emanates
striving (Flett & Hewitt, 2016; Hall, 2013, 2016). from longstanding disagreement among research-
Perfectionism in Competitive Sport 97
ers about whether all the core-defining qualities of self-deprecating appraisal processes that delineate
this disposition are germane when suggesting that it as a form of psychological maladjustment (see
people exhibit this personality characteristic (see table 6.1). It captures a person’s irrational concerns
Hall, Hill, & Appleton, 2012, for a review). The dis- about making mistakes, worries about discrep-
agreement centers on whether people must display ant performance, fears about receiving negative
both a tendency for compulsive striving and harsh evaluations from those whose opinion is valued,
self-critical appraisal, or whether either tendency and a tendency to react negatively to imperfection
is, in isolation, sufficient to denote perfectionism. (Stoeber & Madigan, 2016). Stoeber (2011, 2012) has
Understanding the nature of this debate will enable argued that only by differentiating perfectionistic
readers to comprehend the seemingly contradictory strivings from perfectionistic concerns does it
literature about the influence of perfectionism in become possible to recognize the dual nature of
sport. perfectionism, in which the psychological processes
originating from this characteristic reflect either an
Perfectionism as a Dual Construct instrumental source of achievement and adaptive
motivation or a pervasive source of psychological
Those arguing in support of the dual nature of dysfunction.
perfectionism favor a view that perfectionism may Attempting to understand how perfectionism
be represented by two explicit dimensions. These influences motivational processes, performance
are labeled as perfectionistic strivings and perfec- outcomes, and psychological well-being by dif-
tionistic concerns (Stoeber, 2011, 2012; Stoeber & ferentiating the two dimensions is controversial,
Madigan, 2016), and they are considered to reflect however, because the approach neither satisfactorily
distinctly different approaches to the processing acknowledges the overlapping nature of the two
of achievement information. Thus, they result in dimensions nor recognizes the fact that, when asked
contrasting outcomes. The first dimension, perfec- to speak about the significance of perfectionism,
tionistic strivings, is largely considered an energiz- athletes exhibiting this personality characteristic
ing factor. It leads people to impose exceptionally appear to make no differentiation between the two
high standards on themselves and to attain nothing dimensions. Rather, they indicate that perfection-
less than perfection. Although it is maintained that ism has a pervasive influence that not only contrib-
self-critical evaluation remains a defining feature utes to positive performance effects but also gives
of perfectionistic strivings, evidence to support this rise to debilitating patterns of cognition, affect,
view appears sparse beyond the variance it shares and behavior (Wilkinson, 2008; Pendleton, 2012).
with perfectionistic concerns. This viewpoint suggests that the two dimensions
Moreover, little evidence exists to demonstrate do not function in isolation but seem to operate in
that harsh critical analysis features prominently in tandem to regulate the psychological processes gov-
the performance appraisals of those who appear erning behavior. Moreover, while recognizing that
high in this dimension and low in perfectionistic perfectionism has important energizing qualities,
concerns. This view implies that rather than being these athletes seldom report that it is responsible for
indicative of perfectionism, the construct of per- enhanced psychological well-being. Instead, they
fectionistic strivings reflects qualities such as dili- see the personality characteristic as an inescapable
gence, industry, and perseverance and suggests that burden that they are reluctant to change and that
it may be more conceptually aligned with adaptive they must tolerate because of the instrumental
personality characteristics such as conscientious- role they believe that it plays in the fulfilment of
ness (Flett & Hewitt, 2016). Furthermore, when sporting aspirations.
striving brings about a perception of achievement,
those high in this dimension probably have little
reason to engage in an attributional search or harsh Table 6.1 Two Dimensions of Perfectionism
critical analysis, regardless of the degree to which Dimension Factors Outcome
they also endorse perfectionistic concerns. There- Perfectionistic • Energizing Adaptive patterns of
fore, in the absence of harsh self-critical appraisal, strivings • High standards motivation
perfectionistic strivings is believed to bring about • Self-critical evaluation
seemingly adaptive patterns of motivation that Perfectionistic • Fear producing Psychological
promote success (Sirois & Molnar, 2015). concerns • Irrational concerns maladjustment
In contrast, the second dimension, perfectionistic • Harsh self-deprecating
evaluation
concerns, reflects a tendency to engage in harsh
98 Hall
Recent empirical evidence to support these tion, sufficient to represent the personality char-
anecdotal claims has emerged in research by acteristic accurately. Consequently, perfectionism
Hill, Witcher, Gotwals, and Leyland (2015), who seems to reflect the combined influence of these
captured what might be considered the essence dimensions. Under these circumstances, perfection-
of perfectionism through the voices of self-iden- ism can be considered a vulnerability factor that,
tified perfectionists who were also high-level in the absence of sufficient personal resources to
performers. What emerged consistently from the provide resilience against perceived threats to self,
participants’ transcripts was that perfectionism led may act to undermine an athlete’s psychological and
to the pursuit of exceptionally high performance physical well-being, regardless of any successful
standards. All spoke about how their compulsive outcomes resulting from its energizing qualities
striving frequently led to success and how they (Flett & Hewitt, 2005, 2014, 2016; Hall, 2016).
perceived this pattern of behavior to be necessary
for the fulfilment of potential as either international Perfectionism
athletes or professional performing artists. Yet
alongside the considerable performance success as a Psychological Vulnerability
they encountered, all recognized the psychological The singular basis for differentiating between per-
strain of being a perfectionist, citing a range of fectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns
undesirable outcomes with which they attempted appears to be that the strategy avoids an exclusive
to cope. These included incessant performance-re- focus on negative characteristics, processes, and
lated anxiety, fear of failure, the fleeting nature outcomes and that it enables the strength and diver-
of confidence, insecurity and self-doubt, guilt, sity of the positive effects of perfectionism to be
ruminative thoughts, dissatisfaction with life, recognized (Stoeber, 2011). Flett and Hewitt (2014,
poor interpersonal relations, and the sacrificing 2016) have challenged this rationale and suggested
of normal everyday experiences. Experiencing that, in fact, this strategy is likely to obscure our
these outcomes is hardly reflective of what most understanding of the influence of perfectionism in
motivational theorists would consider adaptive sport. They argue that by adopting this approach
motivation. When enjoyment and performance people tend to misinterpret research findings and
satisfaction occur in perfectionistic people, it tends paint a considerably more positive picture of per-
to be short lived. For some, such as Karen Kain, fectionism than may be warranted by the evidence.
the former Canadian prima ballerina, performance A perusal of the empirical research concerned
satisfaction was so rare that over a 25-year career, with perfectionism in sport verifies that opinions
she was able to recount only a dozen times when differ widely on the effects of perfectionism. This
she was truly satisfied with her performance, which disagreement perhaps emanates from a conceptual
indicated that she felt undeserving of the accolades divergence regarding what constitutes perfection-
and applause that she received (Kain, Godfrey, & ism, a failure to recognize inherent weaknesses
Doob, 1994). in methodological approaches adopted, and, on
These findings demonstrate that when perfec- occasion, questionable interpretation of research
tionism is considered to reflect both heightened findings. For example, in group-centered research,
achievement striving and harsh self-critical data sets often include large numbers of people who
appraisal, the associated pattern of cognition, affect, are classified as perfectionists only by virtue of the
and behavior bears little resemblance to that which fact that they claim to be in pursuit of exceptionally
is indicative of adaptive forms of achievement high standards, and it is these people who exhibit
striving. Instead, it appears to engender a focus on seemingly adaptive patterns of motivation and
the demonstration of competence, in which falling behavior (Hall, 2016). But these individuals gener-
short of desired goals in personally salient domains ally don’t exhibit the harsh self-critical tendencies
not only brings into question one’s ability but also that most definitions of perfectionism consider
threaten one’s sense of self and thus elevates the a necessary core quality. The inclusion of these
potential for experiencing psychological debili- people thus tends to distort the true picture of the
tation. The evidence gleaned from athletes who long-term consequences of perfectionism for those
exhibit the cognitive and behavioral characteristics performing in sport. Evidence to support a lack
that meet the definition of perfectionism supplied of harsh self-critical appraisal when achievement
earlier suggests that although they may be essential striving unequivocally reflects the pursuit of high
components of perfectionism, neither perfectionistic standards was reported in a study by Blasberg,
strivings nor perfectionistic concerns is, in isola- Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, and Chen (2016). Their find-
ings indicated that it was only the pursuit of per- variable-centered research are frequently amassed
fectionistic standards and not the act of striving to from achievement contexts that appear to pose little
reach high standards that was associated with a in the way of existential threat to vulnerable people,
pattern of maladaptive interpersonal attitudes and it can be argued that we know little about whether
stress, thereby demonstrating that incorporating perfectionism can sustain adaptive achievement
harsh self-critical tendencies into the measurement striving when challenge, failure, and threat are
of perfectionism changes the nature of the construct experienced (Flett & Hewitt 2016; Hall; 2016; Hill
completely. 2014). Nor do we know whether factors such as
Further methodological concerns are evident in perceived goal achievement, high perceived compe-
variable-centered research, in which it is apparent tence, a mastery orientation, or a growth mind-set
that investigators often perform inferential analyses are sufficient to provide sustained psychological
on disaggregated components of multidimensional resilience against what Flett and Hewitt (2005, 2014)
perfectionism (e.g., high personal standards, perfec- term the perils of perfectionism (see the sidebar
tionistic strivings). Individually, however, these com- Response to Unfavorable Outcomes).
ponents reflect necessary, but altogether insufficient, The core defining features of perfectionism
qualities to represent the characteristic of perfection- reflect an extreme and irrational form of thinking
ism. Thus, the reporting of positive relationships and behavior, which has its roots in a distorted
from these analyses is often mistakenly considered view of what constitutes achievement, and it is this
as evidence that in certain guises, perfectionism aspect that gives rise to potentially debilitating pat-
manifests as a broadly adaptive personality char- terns of motivation and achievement striving. For a
acteristic (e.g., Gould Udry, Tuffey, & Loehr, 1996; perfectionist, demonstrating competence through
Stoeber, 2011). The reported associations provide either developmental or comparative processes
little more than an illusion that perfectionism under- in the way that many high achievers do is not
pins adaptive achievement striving, and the illusion sufficient. Instead, perfectionists seem to ascribe
becomes further magnified when shared variance further instrumental significance that gives distinct
with perfectionistic concerns is statistically removed meaning to achievement. Perfectionistic people
(e.g., Stoeber, Stoll, Pescheck, & Otto 2008). Statisti- engage in the pursuit of exceedingly high goals not
cally eliminating shared variance with self-critical because the motivational process is imbued with
dimensions of the personality characteristic from intrinsic appeal, but because it provides a means
inferential analyses about the effects of perfectionism to gain valued attributes such as social acceptance,
raises significant concerns about what the residual recognition, or a sense of personal value. More-
construct of perfectionistic strivings may represent over, perfectionists often aspire to reach idealized
(Hall, Hill, & Appleton, 2012; Hill, 2014). standards that not only lie beyond current levels of
The illusion that perfectionism gives rise to sus- capability but also have little basis in reality (Pacht,
tained patterns of adaptive achievement striving has 1984). They are energized to strive relentlessly to
been further reinforced because a significant body meet these illusory standards because they believe
of research in sport has relied on a cross-sectional, that their achievement will fulfil necessary criteria
correlational approach to examine the influence against which self-worth can be gauged (Burns,
of this personality characteristic. Because data in 1980).
Response to Unfavorable Outcomes
Flett and Hewitt (2016) have recently argued that irrespective of the degree to which people endorse either perfec-
tionistic strivings or perfectionistic concerns, it is the customary manner by which perfectionistic people respond to
unfavorable outcomes that will determine whether perfectionism has the capacity to sustain achievement striving and
cultivate an optimistic response to challenge or to give rise to significant performance impairment and psychological
distress. Unfortunately, at an empirical level we know little about the way in which perfectionistic people respond to
these challenges in sport. At a conceptual level, however, we do have some understanding about how individuals
are predicted to respond, and this illustrates why perfectionism will tend to render individuals vulnerable when they
face adversity. These predictions are grounded in the multidimensional nature of the construct in which the core
defining features not only indicate what people are striving to achieve but also explain why they are so motivated.
100 Hall
The fact that self-worth is perceived to be entirely

contingent on achievement leads perfectionists
Measurement
to inflate the value of attainment, which further and Classification
promotes compulsive goal striving. Although these
conditions make it improbable enough for perfec- of Perfectionism
tionists to compare favorably against such exacting
standards, a sense of accomplishment is rendered The core qualities of perfectionism that are
even less likely by the tendency for perfectionists to described in the previous section reflect character-
polarize success and failure into a rigid dichotomy istic features of the multidimensional disposition of
that results in the finest of margins separating the perfectionism, and they are represented in various
two outcomes. Therefore, any attempts that fall commonly used instruments that claim to assess
just short of meeting requisite standards will be this personality characteristic in sport (see Stoeber
perceived as failure, so discrepancies of any kind & Madigan, 2016, for a review of perfectionism
will likely be met with both harsh self-censure and measures). Instruments such as the Multidimen-
condemnation (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Hall et al., sional Perfectionism Scale (MPS-F) by Frost et al.
2012). Clearly, this belief provides perfectionists (1990) and derivatives created for sport such as the
with little scope for error, which engenders not Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (SMPS)
only a heightened concern about making mistakes (Dunn, Causgrove Dunn, Gotwals, Vallance, Craft,
but also a tendency to overgeneralize perceived & Syrotuik, 2006) capture both its energizing and
failures beyond the context in which they occur so its self-critical features in separate subscales, and
that even minor flaws or setbacks contribute to a these are frequently aggregated to form a total
pervasive negative experience (Frost et al., 1990). perfectionism score that represents the degree of
Perfectionists thus become preoccupied with their perfectionism exhibited by a person (see table 6.2).
shortcomings rather than their achievements, and In contrast, the Multidimensional Perfectionism
when this fixation is combined with ruminative Scale (MPS-H) developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991)
concerns about the perceived consequences of incorporates the various core, defining qualities into
failure, it undermines efficacy regarding whether three subscales, each of which captures the nature
performance, preparation, or effort is sufficient to of perfectionism but reflects variation in either the
meet exacting standards or whether tasks have been source or direction of perfectionistic behavior.
satisfactorily completed (Greenspon, 2014). This Although the three dimensions of the MPS-H
generalized sense of doubt is thought to contribute (self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-ori-
further to compulsive striving as people attempt to ented perfectionism) are each considered to mea-
compensate for perceived inadequacy (Frost et al., sure potentially debilitating forms of perfectionism,
1990). Covington (1992) refers to individuals who the MPS-F assesses a combination of energizing and
exhibit this pattern of cognition and behavior as behavioral components, interpersonal antecedents,
overstrivers, and he considers that what lies behind and self-critical dimensions that individually may
their compulsive striving for success is the avoid- be associated with either adaptive or maladap-
ance of the many negative consequences of failure. tive outcomes. Frost and colleagues (1990) have
Because of the combined influence of these core stressed, however, that it is the dimension reflecting
qualities, perfectionists are rendered psychologi- concern about mistakes rather than the pursuit of
cally vulnerable when faced with adversity. Despite high personal standards that represents the central
experiencing negative consequences, they will often component of the personality characteristic. The
continue to strive compulsively, however, because significance of this conclusion presents a strong
they fail to recognize the irrational nature of the conceptual challenge to notions of perfectionism
thought processes that underpin their behavior. having dual purpose because it means that the
Table 6.2 Self-Report Scales of Perfectionism

Scale Measures
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS-F) Six subscales: concern over mistakes, high personal standards, parental expectations,
parental criticism, doubts about actions, and organization; total perfectionism score
Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (SMPS) Six subscales: concern over mistakes, personal standards, doubts about actions, perceived
pressure from both parent and coaches, organization; total perfectionism score
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS-H) Three subscale scores: self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism
main feature of perfectionistic striving (the active istics such as conscientiousness at one end of the
pursuit of high personal standards), while neces- spectrum and neuroticism at the other.
sary, is insufficient to constitute perfectionism. It Because the 2 × 2 model proposes that PSP and
also lends credence to arguments put forward by ECP sit at either end of an adaptive–maladaptive
Hall and colleagues (Hall, Jowett, & Hill, 2014) that spectrum, claims have been made to suggest that
the core qualities of perfectionism can neither be the positive consequences of PSP may provide a
disregarded nor disaggregated without profoundly buffer against any negative effects generated by
altering the fundamental nature of the personality ECP (Gaudreau, 2012). This idea implies that the
characteristic. goal-setting process will offer direct protection
Heuristic models that attempt to explain what against debilitating cognition. Resilience, however,
constitutes perfectionism, such as the two-compo- is not a direct consequence of goal setting, and PSP
nent model (Alden, Ryder, & Mellings, 2002), reflect is thus unlikely to offset the negative consequences
similar thinking and suggest that perfectionism of ECP. Perceived success that results from the ener-
requires people to exhibit a combination of both gizing effects of perfectionism may build efficacy
high performance expectations and extreme mal- that may in turn provide resilience, but even this
adaptive self-appraisal. Moreover, Alden et al. argue may be insufficient to prevent athletes from engag-
that in the absence of maladaptive self-appraisal, ing in harsh self-critical appraisal when self-worth
people will not exhibit perfectionism, but will is threatened by falling short of desired standards.
demonstrate a high achievement orientation and, in In summary, although opinions vary about the
the absence of high performance expectations, will nature of perfectionism, strong conceptual argu-
exhibit either self-deprecation or self-acceptance. ments support the view that perfectionism is best
But other heuristic models that disaggregate core understood as a vulnerability factor for sport par-
components (Parker, 1997; Rice & Ashby, 2007; ticipants. We must further recognize that although
Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) appear more consis- empirical data may show that perfectionistic striv-
tent with Stoeber’s (2011, 2012) thinking. For exam- ings and perfectionistic concerns have distinctive
ple, the tripartite model (Parker, 1997; Rice & Ashby, correlates (Jowett, Mallinson, & Hill, 2016), this
2007) suggests that anyone striving to achieve high association does not necessarily contradict the
personal standards may exhibit perfectionism and conclusion that perfectionism is a latent source of
that whether it is adaptive or not will be determined vulnerability. Although perfectionism comprises
by the degree to which the person exhibits evalu- qualities that individually may give rise to both
ative concerns. The most recent heuristic model, positive and negative outcomes, finding evidence in
which Gaudreau and Thompson (2010) labeled the support of such associations does not, in isolation,
2 × 2 model, disaggregates the dimensions further uphold claims that perfectionism has a dual func-
and claims that perfectionism can manifest as either tion. Credible alternative explanations may support
pure personal standards perfectionism (PSP), pure the findings, and those seeking to understand the
evaluative concerns perfectionism (ECP), or a com- influence of perfectionism in sport must not only be
bination of both, suggesting that a person doesn’t cognizant of these but also be aware that failure to
necessarily need to pursue standards of any kind consider them might simply perpetuate the illusion
to be considered a perfectionist. See figure 6.1 for that perfectionism may be universally adaptive.
a comparison of the three models. To make sense of the empirical literature con-
The problem with both the tripartite and the 2 cerned with perfectionism in sport, we have to con-
× 2 model is that perfectionism can be ascribed sider these important factors in the interpretation
to people who score high on a single measured of available evidence:
dimension, as well as to those who exhibit all core
defining qualities. The 2 × 2 model thus implies
• The approach to perfectionism that has been
that the majority of any sample will exhibit per-
adopted
fectionism of some type, rather than conveying a
more realistic picture that only a small proportion • The degree to which the measurement of per-
of a sample will exhibit perfectionism because fectionism is consistent with the commonly
they display all the necessary core qualities of the accepted definition and whether it makes
personality characteristic. If perfectionism is to be attempts to integrate or disaggregate the core
understood as an individual difference variable, features of the construct
then the specific characteristic must be distinct • Whether a group-centered or variable-cen-
from, rather than congruent with, other character- tered approach has been taken
102 Hall
Achievement
Perfectionism
oriented
expectations
Performance
Self-acceptance Self-deprecation
Maladaptive self-appraisal
a
Adapted by permission from L.E. Alden, A.G. Ryder, and
T.M.B. Mellings, Perfectionism in the Context of Social
Fears: Toward a Two-Component Model. In Perfectionism:
E6768/Horn/F06.01a/578855/mh-R1
Theory, Research and Treatment, edited by G. L. Flett and
P.L. Hewitt (Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association, 2002), 273-292.
High High
Pure personal
Healthy Unhealthy Mixed
standards
perfectionists perfectionists perfectionism
perfectionism
Personal standards
Perfectionistic
perfectionism
strivings
Pure evaluative
Nonperfectionists Nonperfectionism concerns
perfectionism
Low High Low High

Perfectionistic concerns Evaluative concerns perfectionism
b c
Adapted by permission from J. Stoeber and K. Otto, “Positive Adapted from Personality and Individual Differences, vol 52(1), P.
Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges,” Gaudreau, “A methodological note on the interactive and main
Personality and Social Psychology Review 10, no. 4 (2006): 295-319. effects of dualistic personality dimensions: An example using the
E6768/Horn/F06.01b/578856/mh-R1 2×2 model ofE6768/Horn/F06.01c/578857/mh-R1
perfectionism,” pgs. 26-31, Copyright 2012, with
permission from Elsevier.
Figure 6.1 Models of perfectionism: (a) two-component model, (b) tripartite model, and (c) 2 × 2 model. Peak performance may
be a consequence of striving for perfection, but psychological debilitation is always likely when striving for perfection is combined with
harsh self-critical evaluation. That is, perfectionism will always render individuals psychologically vulnerable.
• Whether the analytical strategy attempts to • The environment in which perfectionism is

partial out shared variance between perfec- being measured and whether this setting is a
tionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns salient domain in which to achieve
• Whether the methodology adopted is appropri- • The point in time when data were collected
ate to test the degree to which perfectionism • Whether the research design was correla-
is a vulnerability factor tional, longitudinal, experimental, observa-
tional, or nonexperimental, because all are mistakes was unrelated to race performance, this
important factors to consider in the interpre- aspect of perfectionism was found to account for
tation of available evidence 36% of behavioral variance in personal standards.
This shared variance is important because it speaks
Given the considerable variability in methodological directly to the vulnerability issue. Although the
approaches that have been adopted in sport research sample of triathletes in this study appeared effica-
and the disparity in the quality of the measures that cious at the time of assessment, a pattern of repeated
have been employed, all those interested in this area perceived failure and a reduction in efficacy would
must carefully scrutinize the empirical findings possibly render concern about mistakes more salient
from research that is attempting to understand the and any positive performance effects of perfection-
influence of perfectionism in sport. ism unlikely. Indeed, when efficacy (personal best)
was controlled in a follow-up study, perfectionism
Influence dimensions were found to have no influence on
race performance.
of Perfectionism in Sport In a further study examining the degree to which
perfectionism was associated with performance in
Although anecdotal reports indicate that perfec- basketball, Stoll, Lau, and Stoeber (2008) found that
tionism is a common feature of high-performing striving for perfection was associated with higher
athletes, we have little detailed knowledge about performance on a number of trials of a novel task,
the prevalence of this characteristic in sport par- whereas negative reactions to imperfection were
ticipants. The personality characteristic and the associated with lower performance only on trial 1.
thought processes it evokes are, however, a concern Scrutiny of the data reveals, however, that because
for those working with both established and devel- the majority of participants improved their perfor-
oping athletes, because sport is an achievement mance over time, unsurprisingly, negative reactions
domain where perfectionism is reported to be par- to imperfectionism demonstrated no association
ticularly salient for performers of any level (Dunn, with performance beyond that found on the first
Gotwals, & Causgrove Dunn, 2005). An overview trial. If this improvement was perceived to be suc-
of the research that has been conducted to examine cess, participants would have little reason to engage
the effects of perfectionism on those performing in in harsh critical appraisal of performance.
sport contexts is provided in the following sections. In a recent study investigating the influence of
perfectionism on team performance (Hill, Stoeber,
Perfectionism and Performance Brown, & Appleton, 2014), a measure of team per-
fectionism (a derivative of other-oriented perfec-
Although case studies of elite athletes (Gustaffson, tionism) emerged as a predictor of team rowing
Hassmen, Kentta, & Johansson, 2008) and qualita- performance. Although the finding is intriguing,
tive research on high-achieving performers (Hill some other psychological construct probably
et al., 2015) suggest that perfectionism has appar- mediated this relationship, because it makes little
ent performance effects, few empirical tests have conceptual sense that performance is enhanced
been conducted to date, and it remains unknown because of either holding high expectations of other
whether perfectionism is itself capable of sustain- crewmembers or responding to their performance
ing performance. As with goal-setting research with harsh critical evaluation. Demanding that
(Locke & Latham, 1990, 2007), any performance colleagues meet lofty standards will itself be insuf-
effects are likely indirect and strongly influenced ficient to induce the requisite performance level if
by constructs that either mediate or moderate the they don’t possess sufficient ability. Thus, along
relationship between perfectionism and perfor- with an individual belief that one’s team members
mance. For example, Stoeber, Uphill, and Hotham are competent, a sense of collective efficacy is
(2009) found that in two studies examining perfec- probably a key mediator in this case.
tionism in triathletes, performance was positively The limited empirical work conducted in this
associated with the pursuit of high personal stan- area appears to show that variables that help to
dards and that the relationship was mediated by a sustain investment in perfectionistic striving and
combination of high performance-approach and low prevent a focus on perfectionistic concerns will
performance-avoidance goals, a pattern known to contribute to enhanced performance. But when
reflect high perceived competence. Although Stoe- little is available to provide resilience against the
ber et al. (2009) also reported that concern about harsh self-critical appraisal that comes about from
104 Hall
perceived failure to meet desired goals, evidence failure, these mechanisms may become severed,
indicates that even those dimensions of perfection- thereby undermining the process of achievement
ism that reflect perfectionistic strivings will initiate striving and detracting from performance.
a process that will undermine performance. For Because the standards by which perfectionistic
example, Anshel and Mansouri (2004) found that athletes evaluate success tend to be both exceed-
after receiving negative feedback on a contrived ingly high and inflexible, perfectionism will
motor task, the performance of those high in various increase the likelihood that performance outcomes
dimensions of perfectionism deteriorated. Similarly, will be perceived to be discrepant from desired
after receiving failure information on two consecu- goals. The probability that these athletes perceive
tive trials of an endurance-cycling task, Hill, Hall, that they are falling short is further increased if
Duda, and Appleton (2011) found that all partici- they consider it necessary to achieve standards
pants reduced performance following initial failure that they perceive others may hold for them and
and that those high in self-oriented perfectionism over which they have little control. Only when goal
reported greater perceived threat, lower satisfac- achievement is perceived to be under an athlete’s
tion, and a reduction in effort on a subsequent trial personal control, when ability is sufficient to sustain
compared with those who were low in self-oriented satisfactory levels of achievement, or when athletes
perfectionism. The research of Hill et al. suggests have developed sufficient resilience to prevent
that for those high in perfectionism, a single failure negative reactions to failure, will falling short of
may be all it takes to initiate a debilitating pattern desired standards have little more than benign
of cognition that gives rise to further performance consequences for perfectionists. In the absence of
impairment and considerable distress. some form of resilience, however, the combined
Similar levels of acute performance debilitation effect of a persistent devotion to challenging goals
have been noted in other research with athletes and recurrent performance difficulty is an enduring
participating in meaningful contexts. For exam- perception of goal blockage, which points toward
ple, in a study of elite-level golfers, Hill, Hanton, perfectionism as being a critical antecedent of dis-
Matthews, and Fleming (2010) noted that a combi- affection, distress (Madigan, Stoeber, & Passfield,
nation of perceived performance discrepancy and 2016), and eventual athlete burnout (Lemyre, Hall,
self-critical appraisal was sufficient to bring about & Roberts, 2008; Hall et al., 2012; Hall, 2013).
cognitive distraction and an acute deterioration in
performance. Moreover, athletes such as these, who
place high value on accomplishment and whose
Perfectionism and Burnout
performance requires the production of fine motor A number of studies have confirmed that vari-
skill, often report suffering from a debilitating ous self-critical forms of perfectionism appear to
condition known as “the yips.” This condition rep- contribute to increasing levels of athlete burnout
resents acute deterioration in the ability to perform (Appleton, Hall, & Hill, 2009; Chen, Kee, Chen, &
fine motor movement, and a recent study found Tsai, 2008; Hill, 2013; Ho, Appleton, Cumming,
that the pursuit of high standards in conjunction & Duda, 2015; Lemyre, et al., 2008). Research
with concern about making mistakes significantly has demonstrated that the association between
increased the probability of experiencing the yips in perfectionism and burnout is largely indirect and
golfers, cricketers and darts participants (Roberts, mediated by factors such as low unconditional
Rotheram, Maynard, Thomas, & Woodman, 2013). self-acceptance (Hill, Hall, Appleton, & Kozub,
From the relatively small number of studies 2008) and validation seeking (Hill, Hall, Appleton,
that have examined how perfectionism influences and Murray, 2010). Because self-worth is contingent
performance, we might safely conclude that perfec- on successful achievement, perfectionists become
tionism has the capacity to energize achievement susceptible to experiencing burnout when perceived
striving and, in the absence of adversity, to have worth is brought into question. But we need to rec-
a positive influence on performance. We might ognize that those endorsing different dimensions of
further postulate that the same mediating mecha- perfectionism attach importance to subtly different
nisms that explain the performance effects of goal contingencies of worth and that these differences
setting (Locke & Latham, 1990) might be applied may determine the nature and extent of the aver-
to illustrate why perfectionism has the capacity to sive consequences necessary to elicit burnout. For
bring about performance effects. But emerging evi- example, socially prescribed perfectionism has
dence suggests that under adverse conditions, when been found to be associated with contingencies
participants experience performance difficulties or of worth that are based on both outperforming
others and gaining the approval of others, whereas Although it has consistently emerged that dimen-
self-oriented perfectionism is associated with worth sions of perfectionism that typically inform perfec-
gained from outperforming others and demonstrat- tionistic strivings (SOP, self-oriented perfectionism,
ing competence. Given that socially prescribed the pursuit of exceedingly high personal standards
perfectionism is consistently associated with ath- and the employment of a harsh self-critical style
lete burnout, when the fulfilment of contingencies in response to goal striving) demonstrate either
requires the opinion of others, and thus appears to no linear relationship or an inverse relationship
lie outside an individual’s control, burnout becomes with athlete burnout, Hall (2016) has suggested
more likely (Hill, Hall, & Appleton 2010). that this is perhaps to be expected because the
Self-critical forms of perfectionism have also vulnerability of those high in perfectionistic striv-
been found to elicit avoidant forms of coping, which ings will be exposed only when performance is
may themselves contribute to burnout by encourag- discrepant, relevant contingencies of worth are
ing the use of strategies such as disengagement and challenged (see Hill et al., 2011), and these athletes
denial that amplify a sense of reduced accomplish- face recurrent adversity. Madigan, Stoeber, and
ment and a cynical attitude toward one’s sport (Hill, Passfield (2015, 2016) have recently put forward an
Hall, & Appleton, 2010). As a result, perfectionism alternative explanation, suggesting that perfection-
may not only encourage the employment of naive istic strivings does not have a positive association
strategies aimed at protecting self-worth but also with athlete burnout because the characteristic
deter the use of adaptive strategies that have the may offer protection against the consequences of
potential to help people manage adversity. Under harsh self-critical evaluation. But it is difficult to
adverse conditions, self-critical forms of perfection- comprehend why the pursuit of self-imposed high
ism give rise to ruminative self-focused attention standards would itself offer protection against the
and appear to play an important role in the onset onset of burnout.
of athlete burnout. For example, Hill and Appleton It seems more likely that the performance-re-
(2011) have reported that perfectionistic cognitions lated outcomes that emerge from perfectionistic
explain variance in burnout beyond that predicted strivings give the appearance that motivation is
by dispositional perfectionism. adaptive. With this focus, people are unlikely to
More recently, Donachie, Hall, Hill, and Gabriel feel vulnerable if they are fulfilling personal stan-
(2016) have found that following midseason perfor- dards. Moreover, because success is not contingent
mance, and in anticipation of the next performance, on approval from others, people perceive a greater
perfectionistic cognitions explain variance in emo- sense of personal control over the standards they
tions such as anxiety, dejection, and anger beyond are seeking to achieve. Providing that self-worth
that predicted by dispositional perfectionism. The is not jeopardized by outcomes that bring ability
rumination process seems to contribute to burn- into question, the motivational processes elicited
out because perfectionistic cognitions become a by perfectionistic strivings are unlikely to initiate
source of distraction, undermine a task focus, and debilitating cognition. For this reason, this form
bring to the fore a preoccupation with perceived of perfectionism may give the illusion that it has
inadequacies. Although further research is neces- a buffering effect against burnout. But because
sary to ascertain the precise role that rumination burnout is brought about through both unmet needs
might play in the onset of athlete burnout, a rea- and unfulfilled expectations (Gold & Roth, 1993),
sonable speculation is that this internal dialogue protection against burnout will last only as long
contributes to the burnout process when athletes as successful goal accomplishment is perceived.
experience adverse conditions. Strong evidence When athletes experience performance difficulties
already suggests that self-critical perfectionism and encounter repeated failure, vulnerability will
contributes to athlete burnout when basic needs become evident in those exhibiting perfectionistic
are thwarted (Mallinson & Hill, 2011; Jowett et al., strivings. Dropping out is not an option because
2016), when motivational regulation is introjected deciding to disengage from a situation where the
or external (Jowett et al., 2013; Madigan, Stoeber, athlete has invested considerable resources only
& Passfield, in press), or when athletes feel helpless serves to undermine self-definition. Under con-
(Hill & Appleton, 2011), but only by examining the ditions when competence is repeatedly brought
dynamic nature of the harsh self-critical appraisal into question, the illusion of buffering fades and
processes can sport psychologists understand how burnout becomes a likely outcome. Indirect sup-
perfectionism becomes corrosive, undermines port for this argument can be found by examining
achievement striving, and contributes to burnout. the group-centered research described by Gotwals
106 Hall
(2011). He found evidence that when the perfec- psychology literature has established that perfec-
tionism profiles of athletes included strong doubts tionism contributes significantly to depression
about action, burnout symptoms became elevated. (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 1993), it is an underresearched
Another clue about why perfectionistic striv- area in sport. But the need to examine this outcome
ings may render athletes vulnerable to burnout is important. Although no sport research has yet
comes from research by Curran, Hill, Jowett, and identified that depression in athletic contexts may
Mallinson (2014), who reported that self-oriented be linked to perfectionism, anecdotal reports of
perfectionism, a component of perfectionistic striv- irrational perfectionistic thinking before the suicide
ings, is positively associated with both harmonious of Robert Enke, the German national goalkeeper,
and obsessive passion. This pattern of association and the attempted suicide of Babak Rafati, the
suggests that, like those endorsing perfectionistic German Bundesliga referee, point to perfectionism
concerns, people high in self-oriented perfectionism being a critical antecedent of the depression from
have a propensity to seek out the approval of others which both individuals suffered. Recent research
to bolster self-worth. This contingency renders them by Smith, Hill, and Hall (2016) that screened elite
vulnerable in adverse conditions, thereby increasing football academy athletes for depressive symptoms
the likelihood of burnout. has found evidence to suggest that over 25% of
athletes in the study were experiencing mild to
moderate symptoms of depression and that 15%
Perfectionism and Mental Health exhibited symptoms that suggested the possibility
Although burnout is a particularly corrosive out- of major depression. Moreover, socially prescribed
come to which perfectionistic athletes may be perfectionism was found to be a significant predic-
susceptible, few studies have examined the broader tor of depression, and these symptoms appear to
consequences of perfectionism, in particular how it be further associated with perceived performance
may influence the psychological well-being of ath- difficulties and burnout arising from identity as an
letes. But one recent study adopted cluster analysis elite athlete being brought into question.
to group athletes into profiles that reflected both When perfectionism first manifests in sport per-
well-being and stress (Lundquist & Raglin, 2015). formers, it is unlikely to trigger symptoms of severe
Although perfectionistic strivings was equivalent anxiety, depression, or suicide ideation. Because
across all profiles, suggesting that athletes were perfectionism reflects a form of irrational thinking
similarly energized to achieve across three cluster and is considered to be internalized through the
groupings, elevated levels of perfectionistic concerns process of social learning, its first manifestations
were reported only in the lower well-being–high- are more likely to be observed as mildly debilitating
stress cluster, alongside lower need satisfaction, rather than severely dysfunctional or pathological
higher need dissatisfaction, and a lower mastery patterns of cognition, affect, and behavior. But
climate. This finding further demonstrates that it as the personality characteristic emerges and the
is in combination with perfectionistic concerns that sporting environment becomes a salient context for
perfectionistic strivings becomes problematic and achievement and the establishment of identity, evi-
that perfectionistic strivings does not itself appear dence of its consequences will become more appar-
to buffer against psychological debilitation when ent. Although these consequences don’t require
perfectionistic concerns are salient, the environ- clinical intervention for most athletes, growing
ment emphasizes the comparative demonstration evidence in the sport psychology literature indicates
of ability, and the person’s psychological needs are that the personality characteristic gives rise to a
not being met. range of potentially debilitating cognitive, emo-
Sport research into the psychological well-being tional, and behavioral outcomes that are indicative
of athletes is now beginning to explore how perfec- of maladaptive psychological processes that may
tionism might influence outcomes that go beyond significantly undermine the sporting experience.
performance-related disaffection and burnout. This
research is in response to calls for greater consid- Perfectionism and Maladaptive
eration to be given to personal and environmental
factors that may interact to undermine the mental Psychological Processes
health of athletes at critical points during their A summary of this research by Hall, Hill, and Apple-
career (Nixdorf, Frank, Hautzinger, & Beckmann, ton (2012) has identified that one source of psycho-
2013; Nixdorf, Frank, & Beckmann, 2016; Junge & logical debilitation may result from the combination
Feddermann-Demont, 2016). Although the clinical of achievement goals that perfectionistic athletes
endorse, because these contribute to distorted views and these goals will encourage people to focus on
concerning the meaning of achievement. Some strategies to protect self-worth.
sport research has confirmed that the pattern of dis- Performance avoidance goals reflect a pattern
positional achievement goals that seems to under- of motivation that is governed predominantly by
pin perfectionism reflects a combination of strong fear of failure (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). Evidence
ego goals and either moderate or weak task goals from a small number of studies shows that when
(Dunn et al., 2002; Hall, Kerr, & Matthews, 1998). perfectionism is characterized by both high per-
The salience of ego goals is important, because sonal standards and harsh self-critical appraisal,
they reflect either approach or avoidance behavior achievement striving appears to be underpinned by
depending on the level of ability perceived by the fears of failure (Sager & Stoeber, 2009; Gucciardi et
athlete (Duda & Hall, 2001; Nicholls, 1989). That is, al., 2012). As a result it may evoke debilitating imag-
competent people will usually seek to demonstrate ery concerned with failure and its consequences
comparative ability, whereas those lacking in com- (Nordin-Bates, Cumming, Aways, & Sharp, 2011).
petence seek to avoid demonstrating comparative Perfectionism of this type has also been found to
inability (Midgeley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). elicit motivationally maladaptive attributions when
Recent studies that have examined the relation- athletes appraise performance. That is, perfection-
ship between perfectionism and contextual goals ists demonstrate a tendency to make internal causal
have found that perfectionism seems to be poten- attributions for failure (Anshel & Mansouri, 2005)
tially more debilitating when avoidance goals are and external attributions for success (Stoeber &
endorsed. For example, research by Stoeber and Becker, 2008).
colleagues (Stoeber, Stoll, Pescheck, & Otto, 2008; Although it contributes to irrational thought,
Stoeber, Stoll, Salmi, & Tiikkaja, 2009) reports perfectionism that incorporates both striving for
that perfectionistic concerns seems to be under- high standards and harsh self-critical appraisal
pinned by a combination of performance approach has also been found to be associated with various
goals, performance avoidance goals, and mastery negative emotions in athletes. Specifically, it has
avoidance goals. Further research by Hall, Hill, been found to be positively associated with trait
and Jowett (2010) found that a similar pattern of (Frost & Henderson, 1991) and state anxiety (Hall,
achievement goals also underpins both SOP and Kerr, & Matthews, 1998; Koivula, Hassmann, &
SPP (socially prescribed perfectionism, the pursuit Fallby, 2002; Stoeber, Otto, Pescheck, Becker, & Stoll
of exceedingly high standards that a person per- 2007, as well as a tendency to perceive that anx-
ceives that others whose opinions he or she values iety will have debilitating effects on performance
expect the person to achieve, in conjunction with (Martinent & Ferrand, 2007). This itself may be a
an irrational belief that these important people will consequence of lower confidence and a propensity
respond to the person’s efforts with harsh critical to appraise sporting performance as a threat to
appraisal) in athletes. They reported that self-ori- self-worth in those who express high evaluative
ented perfectionism in athletes was associated not concerns (Crocker, Gaudreau, Mosevich, & Klja-
only with a combination of mastery and perfor- jic, 2014). Following perceived poor performance
mance approach goals but also with both mastery or failure, Gotwals and Spencer-Cavaliere (2014)
and performance avoidance goals. Further, socially report that it is common for perfectionistic athletes
prescribed perfectionism was found to exhibit to feel embarrassed, to be ashamed that they have
a similar pattern but was unrelated to mastery let others down, and to demonstrate anger and
approach goals. The findings from variable-centered frustration by arguing with others. The expression
research are confirmed in group-centered research. of anger has been noted by others (Dunn, Gotwals,
For example, Gucciardi, Mahoney, Jalleh, Donovan, Causgrove Dunn, & Syrotuik, 2006; Vallance, Dunn,
and Parkes (2012) recently demonstrated that those and Causgrove Dunn, 2006), who have found that
high in both personal standards and concern about perfectionism in athletes is associated with a dispo-
mistakes endorse a combination of both approach sition to experience unprovoked anger reactions, the
and avoidance goals. What should be noted from expression of angry feelings that involve frustration,
all these studies is that the potential for debilitation and angry reactions to mistakes. A similar pattern
seems to be present even in those whose behavior was confirmed by Hall, Hill, Appleton, and Ariano
is governed by perfectionistic strivings, because the (2009), who also found that socially prescribed
performance approach goals that characterize this perfectionism was associated with anger rumina-
form of achievement striving are known to trans- tion, revenge planning, and feelings of displaced
form into avoidance goals when failure is perceived, aggression toward other athletes, demonstrating
108 Hall
that the irrational thought processes exhibited by To this end, I wish to make two recommendations
perfectionistic athletes have the potential to give for future research. The first is that we seek to refine
rise not only to negative emotions but also perhaps our methodological paradigm to capture the various
to more sinister behaviors that run counter to tra- psychological processes that are grounded in our
ditional sporting values. theoretical understanding of the construct. To date,
The tendency for perfectionism to underpin mal- much of the research concerning perfectionism in
adaptive cognition and induce negative emotions sport and physical activity contexts has employed
because of harsh self-critical appraisal suggests that cross-sectional designs. Clearly, however, the field
this characteristic may predispose people to cope would benefit considerably from the employment
poorly with adversity. Limited evidence seems to of longitudinal research designs because this
confirm this notion, suggesting that perfectionism approach would permit the tracking of emergent
is associated with the employment of a number of psychological processes resulting from either the
potentially debilitating strategies. For example, ath- effects of repeated perceived failure or the expe-
letes exhibiting evaluative concerns perfectionism rience of ongoing performance difficulties. Hall
and those high in socially prescribed perfectionism (2016) has argued that designs of this type would
were found to endorse avoidant coping in their make it possible to test the vulnerability hypothesis
attempts to manage adversity (Crocker et al., 2014; and examine any changes in the motivational pro-
Hill et al., 2010), whereas behavioral disengagement cesses of perfectionistic athletes when appraisals
was employed by athletes whose profile included reveal that performance is repeatedly discrepant
the pursuit of high standards and harsh critical from ideals. But this research must be conducted
appraisal (Dunn, Causgrove Dunn, Gamache, & in ecologically valid contexts where achievement
Holt, 2014). Mouratidis and Michou (2011) have is not only personally meaningful to the athlete
suggested that perfectionism may lead to a dimin- but also relevant to his or her identity. Unlike in
ished sense of being able to cope with adversity contrived contexts where failure appears to result
because it heightens concerns about self-validation in swift withdrawal of investment (e.g., Hill et al.,
and increases perceptions of controlled motivation, 2011), perceived failure in meaningful contexts will
thus reducing the ability to use effective (e.g., enable researchers to understand evolving patterns
problem-focused) coping strategies for fear that self- of perfectionistic reactivity because even following
worth could be undermined by their employment. prolonged difficulties, people will find it hard to
Although the body of sport research on perfec- extricate themselves from activities to which they
tionism from which to draw firm conclusions is have committed significant personal resources and
limited and may be characterized by methodolog- in which success contributes to self-definition (Hall
ical inconsistency in both its conceptualization et al., 1998).
and measurement, evidence is more than suffi- Flett and Hewitt (2016) have proposed similar
cient to suggest that when perfectionism reflects views on what they believe to be the essential
both heightened achievement striving and harsh direction of future research. They have called
self-critical appraisal, there is little to support the for the systematic investigation of perfectionistic
idea that perfectionism has a dual function. When reactivity, suggesting that only by examining the
perfectionism reflects all necessary and sufficient cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences
components, it energizes striving that may bring of this response style when athletes are exposed
about performance effects, but it renders athletes to adverse situations will it become possible to
vulnerable because of the way they appraise per- distinguish between those who are perfectionists
formance outcomes against rigid and extreme and those who strive for excellence. In the same
achievement criteria that define self-worth. way that researchers examining achievement
goals have argued that the potentially debilitating
effects of endorsing an ego orientation are revealed
Future Research only under conditions where the demonstration of
Recommendations superior ability is not possible, or where compar-
ative incompetence is exposed, Flett and Hewitt
Although some may offer a legitimate challenge to have identified a range of potentially challenging
these conclusions, it is only by designing further or threatening situations that they consider will
empirical research to test these assertions that our either perpetuate or magnify stress responses in
understanding of how perfectionism influences perfectionists. They argue that testing the patterns
those performing in competitive sport will advance. of cognition, affect, and behavior that are evoked
when faced with adversity in these situations is a tionism. Testing the moderating effects of empow-
priority if knowledge in this area is to advance and ering environments and other sources of resilience
provide an empirically based challenge to the notion that might be facilitated by coaches, teachers, and
of perfectionism as a dual process. sport psychologists is clearly warranted, because if
Although longitudinal survey methodologies successful, such growth-oriented approaches can
will help to advance knowledge, this particular be delivered within the sporting environment and
methodological paradigm may not be best suited to may reduce the need for more clinically oriented
understanding the dynamic nature of the appraisal interventions with individual athletes.
process and its consequences, all of which may be
triggered either in anticipation of performance or at
any point afterward. Currently, we have no suitable Summary
quantitative paradigm that will enable us to capture
the details of harsh critical appraisal processes in This chapter has drawn on a range of conceptual,
real time. Researchers should therefore consider methodological, and empirical evidence to chal-
employing mixed methodologies that will permit lenge recent claims that perfectionism exhibits a
the recording of any debilitative change in outcome dual nature in sport. The apparent basis for these
measures, alongside the retrospective gathering of claims is a growing sport psychology literature
information about the self-critical appraisal pro- that reports that divergent outcomes are associated
cesses that may occur at any time before or after with two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism
performance. that have been labeled perfectionistic strivings
The second recommendation for future research and perfectionistic concerns. Note, however, that
is that we begin to test the degree to which the although each of these superordinate dimensions
potentially debilitating influence of perfectionism appears to be designated as a different form of per-
may be moderated. Because Flett and Hewitt (2005, fectionism (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017), each reflects
2014, 2016) have argued that perfectionists may different core-defining features of the personality
be able to develop resilience against the perils of characteristic, and thus, in isolation, each may be
perfectionism, future research must begin to test insufficient to reflect a disposition that is defined
the degree to which qualities such as high self-ef- by both compulsive striving to achieve excessively
ficacy, a task-oriented approach to coping, a low high standards and harsh self-critical appraisal. It
ego orientation, a growth mind-set, a tendency to should come as no surprise to find, however, that
employ adaptive disengagement following setbacks, when perfectionistic strivings is disaggregated from
and so on may be sufficient to sustain achievement perfectionistic concerns, this particular dimension
striving in perfectionists and prevent them being of perfectionism demonstrates an association with
guided by irrational thought and dysfunctional an array of broadly constructive outcomes, because
attitudes when they encounter recurrent perfor- conceptually, it underpins adaptive energizing
mance difficulties. Researchers also need to begin qualities rather than a maladaptive pattern of
to examine the influence of different achievement achievement related cognition and behavior that
environments on the development of perfectionism, will render people vulnerable. Moreover, attempts
because if perfectionism is predominantly a socially to establish perfectionistic strivings as distinct
learned characteristic, it may be either strengthened from perfectionistic concerns by removing shared
or weakened by interaction with important social variance from dependent variables (DV) makes
agents such as parents (Appleton, Hall, & Hill, little conceptual sense if the aim is to understand
2010, 2011; Gustafsson, Hill, Sterling, & Wagnsson, the effects of the broader construct. The variance
in press; Sapieja, Dunn, & Holt, 2011), coaches, that is removed from the DV is associated with
teachers, and teammates. It might be argued that harsh self-critical appraisal and, according to Frost
learning and performing for any length of time in and others (Frost et al., 1991), is not only central
an empowering coaching environment (Appleton & to the definition of the perfectionism construct but
Duda, 2016; Appleton, Ntoumanis, Quested, Vilad- also renders perfectionism distinct from adaptive
rich, & Duda , 2016) may encourage the employment achievement striving (e.g., a mastery orientation).
of rational appraisal processes that will, over time, The fact that it is possible to partial out shared
reduce the probability that athletes will employ variance statistically does not mean that it is always
perfectionistic cognitions and other dysfunctional conceptually or methodologically appropriate to
strategies that reinforce the core irrational beliefs do so, nor does it mean that the results of the
and attitudes underpinning dispositional perfec- analyses employing this strategy will enable us
110 Hall
to obtain better answers to questions about how athletes and their parents. Psychology of Sport and Exer-
perfectionism influences achievement behavior in cise, 11, 363–371.
sport. Consequently, it may not be unreasonable Appleton, P.R., Hall, H.K., & Hill, A.P. (2011). Examining
to conclude that research attempting to partial the influence of the parent-initiated and coach-created
out shared variance does little to enhance our motivational climate upon athletes’ perfectionistic cog-
understanding of perfectionism in sport because nitions. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29, 661–671.
this research assumes that perfectionistic strivings Appleton, P.R., Ntoumanis, N., Quested, E., Viladrich, C.,
and perfectionistic concerns represent two different & Duda, J.L. (2016). Initial validation of the coach-created
forms of perfectionism, and it fails to recognize Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate
that the conceptual and empirical overlap between Questionnaire (EDMCQ-C). Psychology of Sport and
perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic con- Exercise, 22, 53–65.
cerns helps define the construct. It is clear from Blasberg, J.S., Hewitt, P.L., Flett, G.L., Sherry, S.B., &
both anecdotal and empirical evidence that when Chen, C. (2016). The importance of item wording: The
considered in combination, the two higher-order distinction between measuring high standards versus
measuring perfectionism and why it matters. Journal
dimensions not only reflect perfectionism more
of Psychoeducational Assessment (Early Online). DOI:
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England: Cambridge University Press.
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PART
III
Socioenvironmental
Factors
The three chapters presented in part II of this text Part III begins with chapter 7, in which Nicholas
identified and discussed the relationships between Holt and his coauthors review current research and
selected individual-difference factors and the theory on the influence of the family on the active
behavior and psychosocial reactions of individuals free play of children and on their involvement in
in sport, exercise, and other physical activity con- youth sport activities. The chapter authors begin by
texts. The collective research and theory reviewed documenting the decline in active unstructured free
in those chapters demonstrate the importance of play that has occurred, particularly in some parts
psychological characteristics of individual partic- of the world. In contrast, the popularity of youth
ipants. But it is also apparent that behaviors and sport activities has only shown slight declines over
reactions cannot be completely understood without the past generation. To explore the reasons for these
an accompanying analysis of the context within historical and contemporary trends, Holt and his
which the person lives and within which the phys- coauthors offer an overview of some foundational
ical activity behavior occurs. Thus, accounting for theories that have been used to study parenting
socioenvironmental and sociocultural influences in relation to children’s and adolescents’ physical
will allow more accurate and complete interpre- activity and sport participation. They explore
tation of individuals’ physical activity behaviors. research regarding family influences on active free
Physical activity involvement across the lifespan play and youth sport, including an examination
takes place within various social contexts. Thus, of the limited research addressing siblings in the
influential social agents within these contexts affect family context. Similar to other chapters in this text,
the psychological outcomes of physical activity the authors end by identifying some key gaps in the
participation. Such social agents include team- knowledge base and making recommendations for
mates, peers, siblings, coaches, exercise leaders, future research work.
group leaders, and parents. The chapters in part In chapter 8, Alan Smith, Kathleen Mellano, and
III highlight the roles that these significant others Sarah Ullrich-French examine the role that peers
play and present a socioenvironmental perspective play in psychological experiences within physical
on the behavior of people in sport and physical activity settings. They address the unique position
activity contexts. of this type of social agent in physical activity
115
116 Part III
settings by first looking at how peers are con- leadership, yielding an especially current discussion
ceptualized by researchers and discussing levels and analysis. They end the chapter by noting gaps
of analysis (individual, interaction, relationship, in what we know and providing the reader with
group) for studying peer influence. Smith and his ideas for future leadership research.
coauthors present theoretical perspectives that have Finally, in chapter 10, Mark Eys and Blair Evans
guided peer research and then proceed to summa- explore the actions, processes, and changes that
rize empirical work on peer relationships in sport, occur with groups as they are formed and as they
relation-inferred self-efficacy, peer motivational function across a range of physical activity contexts.
climate, and peers and physical activity behavior. As these authors note, the importance or impact
They share key knowledge gaps and the associated of the group was initially examined in the sport
future research directions that could meaningfully psychology research literature as primarily occur-
advance knowledge and practice in this emerging ring within formal team sport contexts in which
area of work within sport and exercise psychology. interindividual member cooperation was important
Specifically, they encourage researchers to integrate to successful performance (e.g., volleyball, soccer,
peers with other social agents in their examinations hockey). However, current views of group dynamics
of psychological experiences of physical activity suggest that the group is also important in informal
participants. They encourage the integration of contexts (e.g., fitness classes, running groups) as
knowledge on peer and group dynamics and the well as in individual sport settings (e.g., tennis,
development of peer-based physical activity inter- track). Eys and Evans follow this discussion with
vention strategies, among other suggestions. In an overview of key theoretical frameworks used
addressing these research directions, the authors to explain group dynamics. They then examine
believe that there is an opportunity to inform the the research literature conducted on some critical
promotion of positive social relationships and adap- components of group dynamics: home advantage,
tive physical activity outcomes. member roles, norms, group cohesion, and group
In chapter 9, Mark Beauchamp, Ben Jackson, and processes. As Eys and Evans note at the end of
Todd Loughead focus on a specific aspect of the their chapter, “Much has been learned over the past
physical activity group environment—the behavior several decades about group dynamics in sport,
of group leaders (e.g., coaches, peer leaders, exercise exercise, and physical activity contexts. Clearly,
leaders, physical education teachers). In offering however, the need to build on this foundation
this focused view of leaders, the authors cover continues.” To that end, the authors conclude their
some of the influential conceptual frameworks that chapter by highlighting key knowledge limitations
have been used to examine leadership within sport, and offering recommendations for future research.
exercise, and other physical activity settings. Given As was noted in the preface, the research focus
the proliferation of theories in this area (and the in the early years of the field of sport psychology
adaptation of theories from other disciplines), Beau- was primarily on the relationship between individ-
champ and his coauthors present a much-needed ual-difference variables and sport performance and
identification of commonalities and discrepancies behavior. Sport and exercise psychology researchers
across frameworks. This enables understanding of quickly recognized, however, the value of incorpo-
the antecedents of leader behaviors, the mediating rating socioenvironmental factors into their work.
psychological mechanisms that explain how leader As the research cited in this part of the book shows,
behavior has the capacity or potential to affect this more inclusive focus has advanced understand-
followers, and the moderators that explain when, ing of individuals’ behaviors and psychosocial
how, and why certain leader behaviors are more or responses in the broader physical activity context,
less effective. Along the way, the authors introduce particularly when such social factors are examined
some newer terms into the literature on effective in combination with individual-difference variables.
7
Family Influences
on Active Free Play
and Youth Sport
Nicholas L. Holt, PhD  Shannon Pynn, BPE  Kurtis Pankow, BSc 
Kacey C. Neely, PhD  Valerie Carson, PhD  Meghan Ingstrup, MA
Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to examine family influences on children’s and adolescents’
engagement in physical activity. We primarily focus on parental influence on active free
play (AFP) and youth sport participation. After defining key terms (e.g., childhood, ado-
lescence, physical activity, AFP, sport), several foundational theories that depict parental
influence on children’s motivation and affective outcomes are briefly reviewed. We then
focus on the current state of research evidence with regard to family influences on AFP
and youth sport. This review includes research on physical activity in the early years
(from birth to approximately 4 years old) and key issues associated with the decline of
AFP during childhood. We discuss the role of parents, the good parenting ideal, and the
role of grandparents in relation to children’s AFP. Next, we focus on research examining
parents’ influence on youth sport participation, also commenting on the role of siblings.
Finally, we turn to critical future directions for advancing the knowledge base in this
area, including targeting parents as agents of change, creating studies that examine
parenting styles and strategies over time, and intervening to promote AFP and overall
physical activity.
117
118 Holt, Pynn, Pankow, Neely, Carson, and Ingstrup
I
ndisputable evidence shows that regular phys- we define childhood as the first decade of life and
ical activity has physical, mental, social, and adolescence as the second decade of life (Steinberg,
emotional benefits for children and adolescents 2013). As necessary, we make further distinctions
(Biddle & Asare, 2011). The more physical activity between different stages of childhood and adoles-
that occurs, the greater the health benefits are (Jans- cence (e.g., the early years of childhood is defined as
sen & LeBlanc, 2010). On the other hand, low levels the period from birth to approximately 4 years old).
of physical activity are associated with a range of We use physical activity as an umbrella term that
health problems (Tremblay et al., 2011). A decline refers to any bodily movement produced by the
in physical activity from childhood to adulthood is skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure
also a predictor of adult obesity (Dwyer et al., 2009), (Caspersen, Powell, & Christenson, 1985). One form
and almost 80% of obese children become obese of physical activity is AFP, which is a specific type
adults (Whitaker, Wright, Pepe, Seidel, & Dietz, of physically active play defined as spontaneous
1997). Therefore, engaging children and adolescents and voluntary activities that take place outdoors
in various forms of physical activity is critical. with minimal or no adult control (Lee et al., 2015;
Most children and adolescents from many Pellegrini & Smith, 1998). Examples of AFP include
so-called WEIRD (Western, educated, industrial- running, climbing, chasing, and informal games
ized, rich, and democratic) countries do not engage (but not organized sport). AFP may also include
in sufficient levels of physical activity (e.g., Kalman active transportation, such as walking or cycling
et al., 2015). For example, in Canada, only 4% to play areas (Carver, Timperio, & Crawford, 2008).
of girls and 9% of boys meet Canadian physical We define sport as a regulated form of organized
activity guidelines (i.e., to accumulate 1 hr of daily physical activity that involves a contest between
moderate to vigorous physical activity; Colley et two or more participants for the purpose of deter-
al., 2011). Yet, despite low levels of overall physical mining a winner by fair and ethical means (Sport
activity, it has been estimated that between 60% Canada, 2009). Such contests may be in the form
and 76% of Canadian youth aged 3 to 19 years of a game, match, race, or other competitive event.
regularly participate in youth sport (Canadian Sport requires neuromuscular skills, a degree of
Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute, 2015). difficulty, risk, and effort. Although youth sport
Although participation in youth sport has declined occurs at various levels (e.g., recreation, club or
slightly over the past generation in many countries, representative, elite), by our definition youth sport
it remains popular (see Holt & Knight, 2014, for a must include an element of competition. The com-
review). These trends highlight two important and petitive nature of sport implies the need for coaches
related issues. First, it is important to gain better (usually adults).
understandings of how to promote unstructured
physical activity (e.g., active free play; AFP) among
children. Second, it is necessary to study ways in Foundational Theories
which children’s and adolescents’ involvement in
structured physical activity (e.g., youth sport) can
and Models
be enhanced. The role of parents in socializing their children is a
The overall purpose of this chapter is to examine key feature of several historically important theories
family influences on children’s and adolescents’ that have been used in sport and exercise psychol-
engagement in physical activity. We examine these ogy. Here, we briefly discuss some of these theories
issues with a particular focus on the influence of (see Weiss & Ferrer-Caja, 2002, for a more complete
parents on AFP and youth sport participation. In review). These theories have most frequently been
the first section we define some key terms. Then we used in the study of achievement settings—includ-
briefly review foundational and historically import- ing youth sport—but several may also provide a
ant theories that have been used to study parenting. useful basis for understanding parental influence
We then go on to summarize the current state of on physical activity in general and AFP specifically.
knowledge in terms of research examining AFP
and youth sport, respectively. Finally, we consider
critical issues for future research.
Expectancy-Value Theory
Eccles and colleagues’ (Eccles [Parsons] et al., 1983;
Definitions of Key Terms Eccles & Harold, 1991) expectancy-value theory was
originally introduced as a theory of parental influ-
In this chapter we use the term youth to refer gener- ence on gender socialization. Eccles and her col-
ally to children and adolescents. More specifically, leagues proposed that children’s behavioral choices
Family Influences on Active Free Play and Youth Sport 119
are based on their expectations for success in a climate. A mastery climate reflects task goals,
given task and the importance or value they place and a performance climate reflects ego goals (Blu-
on the task. The value that children attribute to a menfeld, 1992; Harwood, Keegan, Smith, & Raine,
task is thought to depend on their interest in or 2015). Parents who provide support in relation
enjoyment of an activity, the perceived importance to their children’s effort demonstrate a mastery
of being good at an activity, the perceived useful- climate and are likely to encourage their children
ness of an activity to achieve short- or long-term to be task involved (Harwood, Spray, & Keegan,
goals, and the perceived cost of involvement in an 2008). Additionally, parents who themselves are
activity. As key socializing agents in childhood, task involved tend to have children who are task
parents play a critical role in influencing the devel- involved, whereas parents who are ego involved
opment of children’s task values, expectations for are likely to have children who are ego involved
success, and behaviors or activities (Wigfield & (Biddle, Wang, Kavussanu, & Spray, 2003).
Eccles, 1992).
Parenting Styles Typology
Competence Motivation Theory
Baumrind’s (1978, 1989) work on parenting styles
Harter’s (1978) competence motivation theory has been particularly influential in the developmen-
includes antecedents and correlates of children’s tal psychology literature. She originally proposed a
motivation. More specifically, social agents’ feed- threefold typology of parenting styles. Authoritarian
back, experiences, and perceived control over parents try to shape and control their children’s
the outcome are proposed to influence children’s behavior through placing high maturity demands
perceptions of competence. These perceptions of (e.g., expectations for achievement) on their chil-
competence are, in turn, proposed to influence dren and not tolerating inappropriate behavior.
children’s affective outcomes and motivation to Permissive parents are warm and ready to allow
persist at an activity (Harter, 1992). Parents who children independence. They make few maturity
are positive role models and provide positive demands on their children, tolerate inappropriate
reinforcement and feedback following successful behavior, and rarely engage in the use of punish-
mastery attempts enhance children’s perceptions of ment. Authoritative parents attempt to guide; they
competence and motivation (Babkes & Weiss, 1999). may place high maturity demands on their children
On the other hand, if children perceive disapproval and foster maturity demands through “induction”
from their parents following mastery attempts, (i.e., discussing and explaining their rationale).
their perceptions of competence, motivation, and They provide clear rules and boundaries when
positive affect may decline (see also chapter 17 in necessary but also encourage their children to be
this volume for more detail on this theory and its independent within these rules and boundaries.
developmental applications). Compared with permissive styles, the authorita-
tive parenting style has been associated with pos-
Achievement Motivation Theory itive child-level outcomes in achievement settings,
including increased school engagement, grade point
In Nicholls’ (1984) achievement motivation theory, averages, perceptions of competence, and intrinsic
individuals’ goals (to demonstrate competence or motivation at school (Pomerantz, Grolnick, & Price,
avoid demonstrating low ability in achievement 2005; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling,
domains) are predicted to influence behaviors. 1992). Durkin (1995) suggested three reasons why
Competence may be perceived in relation to indi- authoritative parenting styles are associated with
viduals’ own task mastery (i.e., self-referenced positive outcomes. First, authoritative parents
perceptions of competence) or normative reference provide a high level of emotional security. Second,
standards (i.e., other-referenced perceptions of authoritative parents provide children with expla-
competence). People who seek to demonstrate com- nations for their actions. Third, authoritative par-
petence in relation to others can be labeled as ego ents have bidirectional communication with their
involved, whereas people who seek to demonstrate children.
competence in relation to their own task mastery Note that Baumrind’s (1978, 1989) approach to
can be labelled as task involved. Ames (1992) fur- parenting styles has been criticized by researchers
ther asserted that individuals’ perceptions of the since its introduction. For example, Lewis (1981)
motivational climate were important for predicting noted that these types of parenting are primarily
psychological and behavioral responses. Research- distinguished on dimensions of parental authority
ers generally define two types of motivational and control, and it is not clear why strong external
control would lead children to internalize parents’ Drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s (Bronfenbrenner &
values. Furthermore, as with any typology, substan- Morris, 1998) ecological systems theory, the Lee et
tial overlap may be present between different par- al. model considers factors that influence children’s
enting styles (e.g., a parent placed in one style may AFP ranging from more proximal to more distal
use some of the features associated with another factors. They also proposed a series of reciprocal
style). Therefore, putting parents in a particular relationships between factors at different levels of
typology of parenting style may represent a best fit social ecology. Children are located at the center of
rather than an absolute distinction between styles the model, and their personal characteristics (e.g.,
(Holt & Knight, 2014). Additionally, in two-parent age, competence, gender) moderate their opportu-
households, the parents may not adopt the same nities to engage in AFP. The next (most proximal)
parenting style, highlighting a methodological chal- ecological influence is parents, who set limits on
lenge for researchers in distinguishing the influence the extent to which children can engage in AFP. The
of mixed parenting styles (Holt, Tamminen, Black, parent level is influenced by neighborhood-level
Mandigo, & Fox, 2009). factors (e.g., such as the absence of children to play
with in a neighborhood).
Integrative Contextual Model According to Lee et al. (2015), parent and neigh-
borhood level factors are influenced by broader
of Parenting societal changes. For instance, parents’ supervision
Darling and Steinberg’s (1993) integrative contex- activities are influenced by what is considered good
tual model of parenting is useful for understanding or bad parenting in modern society. The perception
more about parents’ influence on child develop- that it is socially unacceptable for parents to allow
ment. This model includes parenting styles and children to roam free limits children’s engagement
strategies but moves beyond previous classification in outdoor play to when their parents are available
work by placing parenting within a more complete to supervise. Further, a reduced sense of commu-
integrative model. Darling and Steinberg proposed nity in today’s society, such as not knowing the
that parents’ goals and values toward socializing neighbors and having available fewer organized
their children are critical determinants of parent- community events, influences how parents view the
ing behavior. These socialization goals and values safety of their neighborhood, thus influencing how
include parents’ expectations for their children to often they let their children play outdoors. Hence,
acquire specific skills and behaviors (e.g., man- parents are influenced by factors at various levels
ners, social skills) and more global qualities (e.g., of social ecology. Simultaneously, parents’ actions
curiosity, critical thinking, independence). Parents influence these factors reciprocally. For instance,
convey their socialization goals through parenting if parents restrict their children’s freedom to spend
styles and parenting practices (Darling & Steinberg, time outdoors, fewer children are present to play
1993). Parenting styles are general approaches to within a neighborhood, further restricting parents’
parenting that are conveyed through more specific willingness to let their children go out and play.
parenting practices. Parenting styles are broad and Such social traps (Carver et al., 2008) reduce the
pervasive across a range of situations, whereas number of people outdoors and presumably reduce
parenting practices are more context specific. a sense of community and social cohesion in neigh-
Hence, parenting practices have a direct effect on borhoods. This model highlights, therefore, the
children’s development and behaviors and are the need to consider the reciprocal nature of factors at
mechanisms by which parents help their children multiple levels of social ecology to generate further
attain the parents’ socialization goals. Parenting understandings of children’s AFP.
styles, on the other hand, have an indirect effect
on children’s development and behaviors. More
specifically, parenting styles alter the parents’
Family Influence
capacity to socialize their children by changing the on Active Free Play
effectiveness of parenting practices.
Active free play is a major contributor to children’s
overall health and development. For instance, time
Ecological Model of Active Free Play spent playing outdoors is associated with increased
Lee et al. (2015) recently put forward an ecologi- physical activity (Burdette, Whitaker, & Daniels,
cal model of factors that influence children’s AFP 2004) and reduced obesity (Cleland et al., 2008).
based on a meta-synthesis of 46 qualitative studies. Exposure to natural outdoor environments is asso-
ciated with reduced experience of symptoms and Education, 2009), the United Kingdom (Start Active
impairments tied to cardiovascular, respiratory, Stay Active, 2011), Australia (Department of Health
neurological, and digestive diseases (e.g., Pretty, and Ageing [DHA], 2011), and Canada (Tremblay
Peacock, Sellens, & Griffin, 2005; Taylor & Kuo, et al., 2012). Three of the four guidelines recom-
2009; Wells & Evans, 2003) and reduced depression mended at least 180 minutes of physical activity per
and anxiety (Maas et al., 2009). Further, AFP is day of any intensity for toddlers (1 to 2 years old)
important for healthy cognitive and social develop- and preschoolers (3 to 4 years old; DHA, 2011; Start
ment because it provides children with opportuni- Active Stay Active, 2011; Tremblay et al., 2012). The
ties to learn how to work in groups, share, negotiate, major difference between physical activity guide-
resolve conflicts, and develop self-advocacy skills lines for the early years (compared with those for
(Ginsburg, 2007). Despite these well-documented childhood and adolescence) is the intensity of phys-
benefits, a significant decline in children’s involve- ical activity. That is, physical activity in the early
ment in AFP has occurred. The shift toward inactive years is not specified as needing to be moderate to
indoor lifestyles contributes to chronic conditions vigorous. A recent survey from Canada showed that
such as obesity, asthma, attention deficit hyperac- 70% of 3- to 4-year-olds participated in at least 180
tivity disorder, and vitamin D deficiency. All these min of physical activity of any intensity daily (Par-
conditions have increased in North America in the ticipACTION, 2015). Note, however, that (even when
past few decades (Mithal et al., 2009; Perrin, Bloom, objective measures of physical activity are used)
& Gortmaker, 2007). prevalence estimates vary widely depending on the
The decline of AFP is a trend across numerous methods (e.g., cut points) used to assess physical
countries (Carver et al., 2008; Valentine & McKend- activity (Hnatiuk, Salmon, Hinkley, Okely, & Trost,
rick, 1997; Wen, Kite, Merom, & Rissel, 2009; Witten, 2014). Hence, knowledge of physical activity levels
Kearns, Carroll, Asiasiga, & Tava’e, 2013). For during the early years is far from complete.
instance, Sturm (2005) documented that between Parents play an important role in physical
1981 and 1997 in the United States, the amount of activity promotion during the early years given
time spent in AFP decreased by 138 min per week that very young children are highly dependent
among children 3 to 12 years old. Sixty percent of on their parents (Vaughn, Hales, & Ward, 2013).
parents of English children aged 8 to 11 years old The behaviors of modeling and support have been
recalled that they played outdoors more often than the most commonly assessed parental correlates
their children did (Valentine & McKendrick, 1997). of physical activity in the early years (Xu, Wen,
A study of 830 mothers of children 2 to 12 years of & Rissel, 2015). Parental modeling encompasses
age from the United States showed that 85% thought the process of children learning by observing and
that, compared with their own childhood, their imitating their parents (Bandura, 1986). Parental
children spent less time playing outdoors and more modeling, however, is typically assessed only with
time engaged in indoor activities, such as watching a crude measure of parental physical activity (Yao
television and playing computer games (Clements, & Rhodes, 2015). Parental support includes several
2004). Further, data from an international study dimensions that can be classified as tangible (e.g.,
showed that mothers from 16 countries thought a watching, coactivity, transportation) and intan-
reduction in AFP was “eroding childhood” (Singer, gible (e.g., providing physical activity advice and
Singer, D’Agostino, & DeLong, 2009). encouragement; Beets, Cardinal, & Alderman, 2010).
Consistent associations between higher parental
modeling, higher parental support, and higher
Physical Activity in Early Childhood physical activity in children during the early years
Researchers have started paying more attention to have been observed, and the largest effect sizes are
understanding physical activity in the earliest years reported for parental support (Yao & Rhodes, 2015).
of a child’s life (from birth to 4 years old). Physical
activity during the early years is important for The Good Parenting Ideal
healthy growth and development (Timmons et al.,
2012). Levels of physical activity during the early
and Active Free Play
years also predict physical activity in adulthood As children age beyond the early years and begin to
(Jones, Hinkley, Okely, & Salmon, 2013). Physical gain a limited amount of independence, parents and
activity guidelines for the early years have been other caregivers are actually the most frequently
presented in several countries, including the United reported barriers to children’s engagement in AFP,
States (National Association for Sport and Physical primarily because of parents’ perceptions of traffic
safety and “stranger danger” concerns (Carver et al., are parents from higher social classes (Pinkster &
2008; Holt, Cunningham, Sehn, Spence, Newton, & Fortuijn, 2009; Tranter & Pawson, 2001; Valentine
Ball, 2009). The concept of the good parenting ideal & McKendrick, 1997). Furthermore, good parenting
provides one way of understanding these parental may vary depending on the child’s gender and age;
anxieties and the subsequent restrictions they place older children and boys are given more freedom to
on their children. The good parenting ideal refers play unsupervised than are younger children and
to how parents understand societal expectations girls (Lee et al., 2015). But more research is required
for their parenting (cf. Lee et al., 2015; Valentine & to understand how socioeconomic status and gender
McKendrick, 1997). Essentially, the good parenting (both parents’ gender and children’s gender) shape
ideal is what parents perceive to be considered good parents’ influences on AFP.
parenting by other parents in their community and Interestingly, in contrast to parenting-styles
society, and it is therefore subject to evolving social research in youth sport (discussed later), some
and cultural norms. evidence suggests that permissive parenting may
The good parenting ideal changes over time and be beneficial for children’s engagement in unstruc-
between generations. For instance, in the 1950s tured physical activity. For instance, studies from
and 1960s, the family home was a place for adults the United States and the United Kingdom have
and strict control, whereas outdoors was a place shown that permissive parenting was associated
for children. Allowing their children to spend time with higher mean physical activity levels among
outdoors unsupervised was not only socially accept- children compared with authoritative parenting
able for parents but also an expectation of good (Hennessy, Hughes, Goldberg, Hyatt, & Economos,
parenting (Karsten, 2003, 2005). Studies from the 2010; Jago et al., 2011). Yet even permissive parents
1990s and early 2000s, however, demonstrated that must provide logistical support for their children
“good parents” perceived the need to monitor their to engage in various types of physical activity.
children at all times; allowing children to roam free Nonetheless, findings from these studies suggest
was generally considered a feature of poor parenting that effects of parenting styles may vary depending
(Blakely, 1994; Tranter & Pawson, 2001; Valentine & on the specific context and child behaviors under
McKendrick, 1997). Consequently, outdoor spaces investigation.
have become adults’ areas, and private spaces, such In recent years a variety of hyperparenting styles
as the family home, have become children’s areas. have received attention in the popular media and
We suspect that the good parenting ideal has research circles. Janssen (2015) highlighted four
further changed and evolved in the past decade or types of hyperparenting:
so. An increased number of mothers in the work-
force and both parents working (in two-parent • “Helicopter parents” who try to solve all of
households) means that parents spend less time in their children’s problems and protect them
the family home. Good parenting may involve, for from all dangers
some, working long hours to provide financially for • “Little emperor” parents who strive to give
their families rather than spending unstructured their children all the material goods they crave
free time together (Kinoshita, 2009; Witten et al., • “Tiger moms” who push for and accept noth-
2013). Simultaneously, given the increased number ing less than exceptional achievement from
of working parents, grandparents have become their children
more involved in child rearing than in past decades • Parents who practice “concerted cultivation”
(Dunifon, 2013). Sixty-seven percent of Canadians by scheduling their children into many extra-
aged 65 years and older have grandchildren, and curricular activities.
most of these grandparents have regular contact
with their grandchildren (Rosenthal & Gladstone, Results of Janssen’s (2015) study showed that little
2000). Grandparents likely have different percep- emperor, tiger mom, and concerted cultivation par-
tions of the good parenting ideal than parents, but enting styles were associated with lower physical
these factors and their implications for the provision activity among 7- to 12-year-olds from Canada and
of AFP have not been adequately examined to date. the United States.
Other broader social issues are implicated in the Although childhood is a critical period for
good parenting ideal. For example, some studies engaging children in AFP, it is also when children
have shown that the good parenting ideal is related commence their involvement in organized sport
to social class; parents from lower social classes are programs (Smoll & Smith, 2002). Parental restric-
more likely to allow their children to roam free than tions arising mainly from safety concerns and
Practical Applications for Promoting Active Free Play
Parents’ safety concerns limit their willingness to let their children spend time outdoors and therefore contribute to
the overall low levels of AFP that children engage in. To help alleviate some of these concerns and promote AFP,
parents should
• encourage their children to spend more time outdoors,
• encourage social connectivity in neighborhoods (e.g., neighbors knowing each other) and have children play
in groups,
• take time to get to know the neighborhood and identify potential places for children to play, and
• establish rules and boundaries with their children to create safe play areas.
hyperparenting styles such as concerted cultivation including providing praise and encouragement, has
have limited children’s AFP (Veitch, Bagley, Ball, been associated with increased enjoyment among
& Salmon, 2006) and to some extent have replaced children who play sport (e.g., Fraser-Thomas &
it with organized sport. Organized sport programs Côté, 2009; Leff & Hoyle, 1995; McCarthy, Jones, &
presumably offer a supervised and safe environ- Clark-Carter, 2008). Perceptions of positive parental
ment in which children can engage in physical attitudes toward sport participation and perfor-
activity. mances also contribute to the development of chil-
dren’s perceived competence, self-confidence, and
Family Influence intrinsic motivation to play and continue in sport
(Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Ullrich-French & Smith,
on Youth Sport Participation 2006; Wuerth, Lee, & Alfermann, 2004). Parents
can also help their children develop skills to cope
Children begin to participate in organized sport with the demands of youth sport (Tamminen & Holt,
earlier than they did in the past (Coakley, 2011). One 2012), and they play important roles in helping their
survey showed that 84% of Canadian children aged offspring achieve sporting success, specifically by
5 to 10 years old participated in organized sport at providing emotional and tangible support (Côté,
least once a week (Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle 1999; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005).
Research Institute, 2011). Another survey from Aus- On the other hand, excessive parental pressure
tralia showed that participation in organized sport and expectations have been associated with a
and dance among 5- to 8-year-olds increased from range of negative outcomes, including elevated
57% in 2000 to 65% in 2009 (Australian Bureau of precompetitive anxiety, reduced self-esteem, and
Statistics, 2009). Increased youth sport participation reduced self-confidence (Collins & Barber, 2005;
comes with demands on parents. Parents invest Gould, Tuffey, Udry, & Loehr, 1996; Leff & Hoyle,
substantial amounts of time, money, and energy 1995; Reeves, Nicholls, & McKenna, 2009). In addi-
to support their children’s sport participation. tion, excessive parental pressure and expectations
They pay registration fees, take time off work to have also been associated with children’s burning
transport children to practices and games, and, out or dropping out of sport (Butcher, Linder, &
in many cases, coach, manage, or referee (Kirk et Johns, 2002; Gould et al., 1996). Finally, parental
al., 1997). In this sense parents can be viewed as interference with coaching can negatively influence
the purchasers of youth sport experiences for their children’s long-term sporting development (Knight
children (Green & Chalip, 1998). As a result, youth & Harwood, 2009).
sport programs must not only cater to the needs of The motives underpinning parents’ behaviors
children and adolescents but also satisfy parents’ in youth sport are not well understood. Research
expectations for the experiences being purchased. has shown, however, that a range of contextual fac-
tors, such as children’s performances and parents’
Parental Influence social interactions, influence parents’ experiences
and behaviors in youth sport (Dorsch, Smith, &
A large body of research shows that parents influ- McDonough, 2015; Holt, Tamminen, Black, Sehn, &
ence their children’s sport participation in both Wall, 2008). In a recent survey of 773 U.S. parents,
positive and negative ways. Parental support, 93.8% reported that they had become angry at a
sport event, most frequently because they perceived by no means conclusive, some interesting results
that someone (coaches, other parents, or athletes) have been reported. For example, compared with
acted in an unfair, unjust, or uncaring manner older siblings (e.g., firstborns), younger siblings
toward their child (Omli & LaVoi, 2012). In another may be more likely to play “dangerous” sports
U.S. study, parents with a high control orientation (e.g., football, ice hockey, rugby, boxing, bobsleigh;
(a desire to control and be directive regarding Sulloway & Zweigenhaft, 2010) and reach more elite
behaviors) reported enhanced ego defensiveness, levels of sport (Hopwood, Farrow, MacMahon, &
anger, and displays of aggression at youth sport Baker, 2015).
competitions (Goldstein & Iso-Ahola, 2008). Older siblings may have a positive influence
Studies in youth sport have also demonstrated through acting as work ethic role models in and
that being a sport parent can be stressful. Stress- outside sport (Côté, 1999). For example, older sib-
ors arise from concerns over game outcomes, time lings can be competitors within the family unit,
and financial demands, coaches, and balancing which may motivate athletes to beat their sibling
children’s schooling with sport (Harwood, Drew, counterpart and perform well in the presence of
& Knight, 2010; Harwood & Knight, 2009b). The family and friends (Davis & Meyer, 2008). But sib-
types of stressors experienced by parents change ling influence is complex and may not always be
as their children progress through sport (Harwood supportive (Blazo, Czech, Carson, & Dees, 2014).
& Knight, 2009a) and the ways in which parents In a study with Olympic champions, siblings were
appraise and cope with stressors may have impli- found to influence development by teasing, through
cations for parenting styles and practices. For sibling rivalry, and by providing critiques of per-
instance, research shows that parents who report formance. Yet, in this study, siblings also helped
high levels of general life stress engage in more to instill positive and healthy values and attitudes
punitive and controlling actions toward their chil- (Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffet, 2002).
dren than parents who report less general life stress Additionally, Blazo et al. (2014) found that
(Bonds, Gondoli, Sturge-Apple, & Salem, 2002; Crnic although siblings influenced sport participation,
& Low, 2002; Deater-Deckard, 1998). the sibling relationship could also be influenced
by sport. The common interest and prolonged
time spent together in sport may allow the sibling
Sibling Influence relationship to continue as the siblings grow older
Within the family unit, siblings can also influence and possibly increase in strength. Given siblings’
children’s and adolescents’ engagement in youth potential influence on socialization and develop-
sport. Although a vast amount of research has not ment, sibling influence on youth sport participation
been done in this area, and current findings are (as well as AFP) warrants further investigation.
Practical Applications for Optimal Parenting in Youth Sport
Optimal parental involvement is a process that is unique to each child and occurs over an extended time. Achieving
optimal involvement is largely based on parents working to understand and enhance their child’s sport journey. In
practical settings, coaches and sport psychologists can encourage parents to do the following:
• Share and communicate their goals for sport participation. The absence of shared goals may create problems
(e.g., if a child wants to play sport just for fun while parents hope that their child will become good enough to
earn a college scholarship). Parents and children need to discuss their goals for sport participation regularly,
because these goals may change over time.
• Create an understanding emotional climate. Parents can create an understanding environment by maintaining
a strong parent-coach relationship, engaging in independent learning about their child’s sport, keeping sport in
perspective, and focusing on the multiple benefits of sport participation.
• Engage in enhancing parenting practices. Parents should communicate with their child regarding their needs,
understand their child’s perceptions of parental behaviors, read and react to situations, foster independence,
hold their child accountable for behavior, and enjoy the experience of being at competitions.
Knight & Holt, 2014.
Theoretically Driven Research ented behavior and low levels of norm-breaking

behavior among 14- to 16-year-old hockey players.
Examining Parental Influence In another cross-sectional study, Sapieja, Dunn,
and Holt (2011) found that, among early adolescent
in Youth Sport soccer players from Canada, healthy perfectionists
reported significantly higher perceptions of mater-
The foundational theories discussed earlier have
nal and paternal authoritativeness than unhealthy
been used extensively to study parenting in youth
perfectionists and nonperfectionists. In a qualitative
sport. For example, in applying and extending the
study, Holt, Tamminen, Black, Mandigo, and Fox
expectancy-value theory to youth sport, Fredricks
(2009) found that Canadian parents who supported
and Eccles (2004) suggested that parents fulfill
their children’s autonomy were able to read their
three crucial roles: provider, interpreter, and role
children’s mood and had open bidirectional com-
model. Parents provide youth sport experiences
munication with them in soccer.
by transporting their children to practices and
Darling and Steinberg’s (1993) model provided
matches, paying registration fees, and support-
the basis for a grounded theory of optimal parenting
ing their children at competitions. Parents inter-
involvement in youth tennis (Holt & Knight, 2014;
pret their children’s sporting involvement by com-
see the sidebar Optimal Parenting in Youth Sport).
municating beliefs and values about performance
The grounded theory was built around the core cat-
and success. As role models, parents influence
egory of “understanding and enhancing your child’s
children’s attitudes and involvement in sport by,
tennis journey.” This core category was further
for example, displaying positive attitudes toward
underpinned by three subcategories. The first sub-
winning and losing. Note that this theory does not
category was parents and children having shared
specify or predict the nature of parents’ involvement
goals for their children’s involvement in tennis.
in youth sport (Holt et al., 2008). In fact, Fredricks
The second subcategory was an understanding
and Eccles (2004) themselves noted that “much
emotional climate, which accounted for the need for
more attention needs to focus on unpacking the
parents to seek to foster an environment in which
constructs of parental involvement, encouragement,
children perceived that parents understand their
and support in the athletic context” (p. 157).
experience. The final subcategory was enhanced
Using Harter’s (1978) competence motivation
parenting practices at competitions, which referred
theory, Babkes and Weiss (1999) found that chil-
to specific behaviors that parents should display in
dren who reported high perceptions of their own
relation to tennis competitions.
competence, sport enjoyment, and intrinsic moti-
vation had parents who were positive role models
of sport behavior, gave positive feedback following Future Research
performances, and had positive beliefs about their
children’s competence in sport. Nicholls’ (1984) Recommendations
achievement goal and Ames’ (1992) motivational Key gaps and critical future directions for advancing
climate theories have been widely used in the youth the knowledge base in the role of family influences
sport literature. For instance, research shows that on active free play and youth sport include targeting
parents who provide positive feedback when their parents as agents of change, creating studies that
children win and negative feedback when they examine parenting styles and strategies over time,
lose may promote ego involvement. Alternatively, studying physical activity in younger age groups,
parents who provide support in relation to their and directing interventions to promote AFP and
children’s effort, as opposed to performance out- overall physical activity.
comes, are likely to encourage their children to be
task involved (see Harwood et al., 2015; Harwood
et al, 2008).
Parents as Agents of Change
Only a handful of studies have examined Baum- A critical need is to understand ways in which
rind’s (1978, 1989) parenting styles in youth sport. children’s and adolescents’ involvement in AFP and
To date, authoritative styles have been associated youth sport can be promoted and enhanced. One
with positive outcomes. In a cross-sectional Finn- means to this end is to draw from other fields of
ish study, Juntumaa, Keskivaara, and Punamäki research. An interesting development in the pedi-
(2005) showed that authoritative parenting was atric weight management literature has been the
associated with high levels of task- or mastery-ori- creation of parent-based interventions, referred to
as “parents as agents of change” (PAC) approaches that exist between parents and their children at
(e.g., Ball et al., 2012). Clinical trials have demon- different stages of the life course (or, in the context
strated the value of PAC interventions in facilitating of sport, at different stages of a sporting career).
weight management and lifestyle changes in chil- Another need is for greater understanding of
dren and parents (e.g., Boutelle, Cafri, & Crow, 2011; variations in parenting styles and practices over
Epstein, Paluch, Roemmich, & Beecher, 2007). Such time with regard to gender and ethnicity. For
PAC interventions may provide guidance for creat- example, one cross-sectional Swiss study showed
ing novel studies to examine parental influences that perceived parenting styles differed by gender
on AFP and youth sport. But an important goal is among youth sport participants; females report
to understand parent–child relationships and who significantly higher perceptions of positive par-
takes primary responsibility for lifestyle changes to enting styles than males do (Brand et al., 2011).
provide insights into how best to target and engage Other studies (in nonsport contexts) show that the
families (Faith et al., 2012). relationship between authoritative parenting and
In a recent study, we examined ways in which positive outcomes is not consistent across families
parents and children made lifestyle changes during from different ethnic and socioeconomic back-
a PAC intervention (Holt et al., 2015). Based on inter- grounds (Blair & Qian, 1998; Jackson, Henriksen,
views with members of 10 families pre-, during, & Foshee, 1998). Studies in AFP and youth sport
and postintervention, three approaches to making examining how parenting styles vary by gender,
change were identified. In some families, parents ethnicity, or socioeconomic status over time will
primarily assumed responsibility for making life- make important contributions to the literature.
style changes. In other families, children were
primarily responsible. Finally, in some families, Physical Activity in the Early Years
parents and children shared responsibility for
Limited research has looked at parental rules,
lifestyle changes. These results suggest that consis-
parental perceptions, parenting styles, and parental
tency between the general parenting style at home
self-efficacy to support or model physical activity
(reflected by who took responsibility for lifestyle
during the early years of life (Xu et al., 2015).
change) and specific parenting strategies used to
Furthermore, most physical activity research on
effect change is important.
the early years has focused on preschool children,
and limited available evidence exists on parental
Understanding Parenting Styles correlates of infants’ and toddlers’ physical activity
and Practices (Hnatiuk, Salmon, Campbell, Ridgers, & Hesketh,
2013). Clearly, there is a need for more research
As the findings from the PAC qualitative study (Holt
examining parental influences on the physical
et al., 2015) indicated and as models of parenting
activity of infants and toddlers. Longitudinal stud-
predict, parents convey their socialization goals
ies are needed to examine how these relationships
through parenting styles and parenting practices
change as children grow and develop. Studies
(Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Recall that parenting
should be guided by relevant theory (such as those
styles are broad and pervasive across a range of
reviewed earlier) to inform family-centered inter-
situations, whereas parenting practices are more
ventions to promote physical activity in the early
context specific. A gap in the existing literature is
years. Again, PAC interventions may offer a valuable
that it is unclear how parenting styles and practices
framework for studies targeted at improving phys-
change over the life course. The same criticism
ical activity in the early years given that children
can be applied to the study of parenting styles and
are heavily dependent on their parents at this time.
practices in relation to AFP and youth sport. In
particular, little is known about how different types
of parenting styles and practices influence child Increasing Active Free Play
outcomes in sport at different stages of development Looking more specifically at AFP, research is needed
(Holt & Knight, 2014). In the future, we would like to to examine ways in which children’s engagement
see more studies that include measures of parenting in AFP can be increased (see the sidebar Promot-
styles and parenting practices in relation to AFP ing Active Free Play). Given that research suggests
and youth sport over time. Such research will help that declining AFP is a result of parents’ safety
to create a platform for the delivery of PAC-style concerns, interventions designed to increase social
interventions tailored to the types of relationships connections in neighborhoods offer a promising
avenue for future research (Lee et al., 2015). For

instance, research has shown that putting more
Summary
“eyes on where children play” (including neighbors In this chapter we have examined family influences
and other parents looking out for children and on children’s and adolescents’ engagement in phys-
children playing in groups so that there is safety ical activity, focusing particularly on parental influ-
in numbers) may help create social connections in ence on AFP and youth sport. A strong evidence
neighborhoods and alleviate parents’ safety con- base is in place, yet a great deal of scope exists
cerns (Holt, Lee, Millar, & Spence, 2015). We also for future research in these areas. Theoretically
agree that more emphasis on promoting AFP out- driven research, informed by other fields of study
doors is needed in children’s health care (McCurdy, and using a range of methodologies, is needed to
Winterbottom, Mehta, & Roberts, 2010). advance the evidence base. To summarize, this
The ecological model of AFP (Lee et al., 2015) chapter offers several key takeaway messages:
may be useful for examining how and why parental
anxieties about safety have increased over recent • Children’s and adolescents’ engagement
generations. The evidence suggests that parents in various forms of physical activity must
are more concerned about their children’s safety increase.
than they were in the past, yet levels of crime are • Parents exert a great deal of influence over
declining in most developed countries (see Lee et their children’s engagement in all forms of
al., 2015, for a review). Parents’ anxieties are likely physical activity.
linked to multiple ecological factors (e.g., from
• More research examining the influence of
parents’ views about how competent or streetwise
parenting styles and practices on all forms
their children are to more distal factors like their
of physical activity is needed, and particular
understanding of the supervisory expectations of
attention should be given to how parenting
good parenting in modern society). Furthermore,
styles and practices influence children’s
because of factors like poor air quality and the
behaviors over time.
threat of luring children on the Internet, the family
home may contain more dangers than the outdoors • The early years of life is a vitally important
does (Tremblay et al., 2015). By ascertaining more time for physical activity, but research in this
precise understandings of how and why parents’ area remains limited.
attitudes to AFP have changed, along with the • Parents can possibly be targeted as agents of
influence of grandparents, researchers may be in a change to influence children’s behaviors in
better position to create much-needed interventions various forms of physical activity.
to promote AFP. • Another need is to find ways to revive chil-
Finally, researchers have suggested that children’s engagement in AFP. Community-based
dren’s voices should be given more weight in deci- initiatives to promote social connectivity may
sions about the provision of play opportunities in be particularly useful in this regard.
their communities (e.g., Ferré, Guitart, & Ferret,
2006; Gearin & Kahle, 2006). This idea is important The decline in physical activity among children
because children and adults report different prefer- and adolescents is clearly an important public
ences for the provision of play spaces. For instance, health concern. There is a pressing need to find
children see play spaces almost anywhere (Glenn, ways to promote various forms of physical activity
Knight, Holt, & Spence, 2013), whereas parents among children and adolescents (including children
tend to have a more constrained view of play and in the earliest years of life). Given that parents
often focus on specific types of fixed equipment have a tremendous influence on their children’s
in playgrounds (e.g., Tucker, Gilliland, & Irwin, engagement in physical activity and that parents
2007). Furthermore, studies have shown that chil- themselves stand to benefit from physical activity,
dren are less concerned with risk and safety than interventions targeted at parents offer a fruitful
their parents are (Thomson & Philo, 2004). Hence, direction for future research. But the need remains
there is a need to establish better understandings for additional fundamental research to examine the
of what children want in play areas and to provide correlates and determinants of parental influence
opportunities for their voices to be heard and their on physical activity during the early years, AFP
needs to be addressed. Hearing children’s voices during childhood, and youth sport participation
will also help inform the creation of child-friendly during childhood and adolescence.
interventions to promote AFP.
Brand, S., Gerber, M., Beck, J., Kalak, N., Hatzinger,

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8
Peers
and Psychological
Experiences
in Physical Activity
Settings
Alan L. Smith, PhD  Kathleen T. Mellano, MS  Sarah Ullrich-French, PhD
Abstract
As competitors, teammates, exercise partners, and coactors or spectators, peers are a
notable presence within physical activity settings. Although research activity on peers
in physical activity settings is not as extensive as that on other social agents, such as
coaches, interest in peers has been developing within the sport and exercise psychol-
ogy literature. Peers hold a unique social position that enables them to contribute to
performance, motivation, and well-being of athletes, exercisers, and other movers.
In this chapter, we offer an overview of conceptual perspectives and empirical efforts
that directly pertain to peers in physical activity settings. We start by providing the
general conceptualization of peers in physical activity settings, sharing the breadth of
peer-based constructs that can be explored, and discussing levels of conceptualization
(individual, interaction, relationship, group) for studying peers. We then share theo-
retical perspectives that have given shape to the literature on peers in physical activity
settings. A synopsis of empirical work on peers follows, focusing on peer relationships in
sport, relation-inferred self-efficacy, peer motivational climate, and peers and physical
activity behavior. In the last primary section, we highlight critical knowledge gaps on
peers in physical activity settings and share suggestions for future research that will fill
these gaps. In particular, we advocate for work on peers in the broader social context of
physical activity, the integration of peer and group dynamics research, and peer-based
physical activity intervention, as well as some promising emerging areas. We believe
that attention to these research topics will benefit knowledge and practice, helping to
contribute to more meaningful, high-quality experiences within sport, exercise, and
other physical activity settings.
133
134 Smith, Mellano, and Ullrich-French
P
hysical activity settings such as sport, physi- such as high school athletes, middle school physi-
cal education, and various exercise contexts cal education students, and so forth (Smith, 2007).
are inherently social and can engage a broad Emphasis of typical definitions, however, is on
range of peers such as teammates, competitors, equivalent standing, rank, or power; thus, members
spectators, fellow students, partners, and coactors. of a beginner’s adult exercise class may be consid-
Moreover, a person’s engagement in physical activ- ered peers even if of vastly different ages. Similarly,
ity contexts can be catalyzed by social motives, athletes of equivalent abilities could be considered
interest in identifying with certain others, and peers despite a notable difference in experience or
desire to project a particular image. Peers therefore age. Note as well that athletes of discrepant abili-
are not only ubiquitous in physical activity settings ties might not be considered peers despite similar
but also have much potential to contribute to the age and experience, even within a specific team.
psychological experiences of athletes and other Thus, how a researcher conceptualizes peers will
movers. In light of this potential, sport and exercise be closely tied to the research question of interest,
psychologists have pursued research on a variety of and ideally, even if it is not common practice, the
peer-based questions, and some areas of work have researcher would directly communicate this con-
received sustained attention. Although the amount ceptualization.
of work in this area is much less than the amount Peers are among many social agents within
of work on other social agents such as coaches or physical activity contexts, and therefore we should
parents, our understanding of peers in physical consider why sport and exercise psychologists would
activity settings has advanced meaningfully from want to study them. There are several justifications,
these growing efforts. considering both how peers matter within physical
In this chapter we define peers, offer a brief jus- activity settings and how physical activity involve-
tification for attending to peers in physical activity ment matters to peer relationships. With respect to
settings, overview various types of peer constructs the former, opportunities to affiliate and interact
that are explored in the sport and exercise psy- with peers are important motives for participation
chology literature, and discuss levels of concep- in sport and other physical activity settings (Allen-
tualization (individual, interaction, relationship, der, Cowburn, & Foster, 2006; Weiss & Petlichkoff,
group) for studying peers. We additionally discuss 1989). In addition, youth-based research suggests
key theoretical frameworks that inform peer-based that peers serve as an important source of physical
research, such as the interpersonal theory of psy- competence information through comparative and
chiatry (Sullivan, 1953), social cognitive theory evaluative processes (Horn, 2004). With respect to
(Bandura, 1986) and other theories. We then sum- how physical activity matters to peer functioning,
marize key research on peers in physical activity physical activity involvement provides opportunity to
settings. Because the constraints of this chapter do be with, cooperate with, and compete against peers.
not allow an exhaustive literature review, we focus Accordingly, physical activity settings can poten-
on selected topics that offer coherence and potential tially be constructed in ways that foster positive peer
for continued attention. In line with the extant lit- relationships (Smith, 2007; chapter 26). Thus, several
erature we predominantly focus on youth-oriented reasons support considering peers in more depth
research, but we also draw from adult work where as we seek a better understanding of psychological
appropriate. Lastly, we assess selected knowledge aspects of physical activity participation.
gaps about peers in physical activity settings. Filling An array of peer constructs has been examined
these gaps offers potential for understanding how to in sport and exercise psychology research. These
increase the quality and meaningfulness of physical constructs sometimes are employed in investi-
activity experiences. gations that directly address peer dynamics in
physical activity settings, and other times are used
within a broader research aim (e.g., determinants of
Conceptualization of Peers physical activity behavior). Smith and McDonough
in Physical Activity Research (2008) assembled this array of constructs into three
general categories. The first was referred to as peer
In the sport and exercise psychology literature, group constructs because of their emphasis on the
peers are typically conceptualized as same- or peer group in physical activity settings. Example
near-age cohorts such as teammates, classmates, or constructs include the peer network or connections
friends, owing to the fact that most investigations of an aspiring exerciser, acceptance by teammates
are delimited to a particular developmental group (i.e., peer acceptance), overt disliking by fellow
Peers and Psychological Experiences in Physical Activity Settings 135
physical education classmates (i.e., peer rejection), with “different” types of peers (interaction), dealing
and social support from peers within and outside with peer conflict (relationship), emergence of peer
the focal physical activity setting. The second leaders and a social hierarchy (group), and learning
pertained to specific peers in the physical activity to work as a team (group). Their data demonstrated
setting. Example constructs include friendship, interconnections among levels of social complexity,
characteristics of friends, and the quality of a highlighting the nested structure of the levels. This
specific friendship with respect to features such finding reinforces the view that best understanding
as loyalty, closeness, and other dimensions. Peer of peers in physical activity contexts will necessitate
modeling also falls within this category, in which moving beyond reliance on the individual level of
observation of specific peers can result in learning analysis and dependence on measures of individual
skills and forming thoughts and emotions sur- perceptions of peers (Smith, 2003).
rounding physical activity. The final category was Careful consideration of these conceptual issues
labeled peer referenced, representing broader social will benefit future research and understanding of
goals or concerns. Examples include the possession peers in physical activity settings. Additional bene-
of social goals (e.g., for admiration, for affiliation), fit will be derived from using theory that addresses
a person’s desire to manage the impression made or accounts for social functioning. The next section
on others, and views on the expectations of others presents selected theoretical perspectives that fea-
and the value placed on those expectations (i.e., ture in the sport and exercise psychology literature
subjective norm). Altogether, this span of peer- on peers.
based constructs highlights the complexity and
potential of research and practice that focuses on
peers in physical activity settings. Theoretical Perspectives
Peers comprise nested levels of social complexity Considerable research on peers in physical activ-
and are understood best when considering multiple ity settings is theory informed. Peer constructs
levels of analysis. Rubin, Bukowski, and Parker employed in the work are drawn from theory,
(2006) outline a peer relationships framework that although the work is not necessarily designed to
suggests that dispositional characteristics and social test theory. As an example, much work on peer
orientation of the individual interact and are nested relationships in sport emphasizes peer acceptance
in progressively greater levels of social complexity. or friendship constructs drawn from Sullivan’s
The most fundamental level is that of interaction, (1953) interpersonal theory of psychiatry but is not
characterized by short-term behavioral exchanges designed to test specific propositions of that per-
between peers that can take a variety of forms. Such spective. Other work is more explicitly designed to
interactions are often nested within and shaped test theory, although this objective is less common
by historical exchanges among actors, reflecting a in physical activity research. Examples include
higher-level relationship. Lastly, a group consists of the use of peer variables to represent core social
a web of relationships and can both shape and be constructs in testing motivation theory (e.g., Smith,
shaped by other levels of this social system. As an 1999; Vazou, Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2006). Either
example, integrating a new member into an existing way, outlining selected theoretical perspectives
team reflects the interweaving of individual charac- that guide peer-based research in physical activity
teristics, specific interactions (e.g., how a team leader settings is valuable. In this section, we share key
engages with the new member), relationships (e.g., perspectives that drive contemporary research in
replacement of an existing relationship on the team this area.
with the new member), and group dynamics (e.g.,
whether the team divides into cliques).
Although challenging to accomplish in a given
Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry
physical activity investigation, capturing multi- The interpersonal theory of psychiatry (Sullivan,
ple levels of social complexity is valuable when 1953) has been influential in the study of peers.
researching peers. Holt, Black, Tamminen, Fox, This perspective on psychosocial development out-
and Mandigo (2008) demonstrate this in the context lines interpersonal processes from infancy through
of girls’ youth soccer. Through extensive immer- adolescence and suggests that maladaptive relation-
sion in this context and interview methods, they ships with others during these periods can result
uncovered categories specific to these levels of in later challenges in adulthood. One of the most
social complexity: integrating new members into influential aspects of this perspective has been the
peer group structure (interaction), interactions specification of both the peer group and specific
friendships as contributing to development. Both settings. Lent and Lopez (2002) offer an expanded
help young people shift from egocentrism to a more tripartite view of efficacy beliefs when interest is
mature perspective in which the self is understood in interpersonal relationships, one that considers
in relation to others. This social accommodation is not only self-efficacy but also other-efficacy (views
fostered through interactions with others. During of the efficacy of another) and relation-inferred
the early elementary years, popularity or peer self-efficacy (RISE; belief about how another
acceptance shapes how individuals come to form views one’s own capability). This approach is well
views on authority figures, competition, compro- matched to peer-based work and is revisited later
mise, and exclusion. In the later elementary years, in this chapter.
a need for interpersonal intimacy forms that fuels
interest in the development of same-sex friendships. Additional Perspectives
Friendships serve needs for validation and offer
opportunity to accommodate the needs of a peer. Several other conceptual frameworks are well suited
This process helps form the foundation for romantic to advancing knowledge on peers. For example,
relationships later in development. Because both achievement goal perspectives (e.g., Nicholls, 1984,
the broader peer group and friendships are con- 1989; see chapter 15) direct attention to the goals
sidered essential to successful development, many that people pursue in achievement contexts and
developmental psychology and sport and exercise the way in which definitions of success, individual
psychology studies have focused on one, the other, orientations, and the prevailing climate shape a
or both of these peer constructs. Considering both person’s present involvement. Particular interest has
simultaneously has advantages that are discussed been directed to motivational climate (Ames, 1992),
later in this chapter. In physical activity settings we which reflects the expectation and reward structure
would expect the most adaptive social, affective, that significant others reinforce. Generally, climates
cognitive, and behavioral outcomes when partic- where normative success and outperforming others
ipants feel accepted by the group and validated are promoted can introduce motivational chal-
by specific peers (Smith & McDonough, 2008). lenges as compared with climates where mastery,
Relationships, motivation, and physical activity improvement, and cooperation are promoted. Peers
behavior itself theoretically would be optimized can meaningfully contribute to the motivational
when these relationship systems function well. climate, a topic that is detailed later in this chapter.
Other motivational perspectives are amenable to
peer work as well. For example, self-determination
Social Cognitive Theory theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000; see
In Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, social chapter 16) articulates competence, autonomy, and
agents are considered an important component of relatedness as fundamental needs that must be met
a person’s environment, which along with personal for people to have adaptive and sustainable forms of
factors and behavior make up a system of triadic motivation. Peers inherently contribute to related-
reciprocity. These three components mutually ness but also can shape competence and autonomy
affect one another to shape learning and behav- perceptions. Similarly, Harter’s (1978, 1981, 1987)
ioral outcomes. Social learning processes such as competence motivation theory and perspective on
reinforcement and modeling (learning through self-worth point to significant others in the forma-
observing the behavior of others) are outlined in tion of competence and control perceptions, affect,
this perspective. Within peer-based physical activ- and ultimately adaptive motivation. Considered
ity research, reinforcement is commonly operation- together, these motivational perspectives suggest
alized as perceived social support or encouragement that peers can undergird motivation and therefore
from peers to be active. The operationalization of sustained and energetic engagement in physical
modeling is typically somewhat indirect, focusing activity settings.
on the perceived activity levels of peers or friends Beyond these perspectives, processes surround-
(Smith & McDonough, 2008). These constructs are ing how people attempt to control the impressions
among the core sources of self-efficacy, which is an that others form of them, known as impression man-
individual’s belief in being able to execute behaviors agement (Leary & Kowalski, 1990), are certainly
needed to produce certain performance outcomes relevant with respect to peers and within physical
(Bandura, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy influences activity settings (Leary, 1992; Smith, 2007). Phys-
choices, effort, and persistence, and therefore is ical activity settings often involve public display
a key motivational variable in physical activity of physical coordination and capability, reveal the
physique, and foster social comparisons that can given for sport involvement (Weiss & Amorose,
heighten a person’s attentiveness to what others 2008). Considering that the nature, expectations,
think. More globally, physical activity researchers and outcomes of peer relationships can vary by
have drawn from ecological perspectives that spec- social setting and the composition of the peer
ify individuals to be embedded within progressively group (Hartup, 1996; Sheridan, Buhs, & Warnes,
layered and nested systems (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; 2003; Zarbatany, Ghesquiere, & Mohr, 1992), there
Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Spence & Lee, 2003; is a basis for sport-contextualized examinations of
Welk, 1999). That is, physical activity behaviors will peer acceptance and friendship. Sport psychology
stem from the interface of individual characteristics, researchers have predominantly examined peer
social interactions, and broader social and environ- relationships in the sport setting with respect to
mental systems. Peers are important both in direct peer group acceptance and friendship (see Smith,
social interactions with physical activity partici- 2007; Weiss & Stuntz, 2004 for reviews). As noted
pants and in reinforcing broader social structures earlier, emphasis on acceptance and friendship
that can encourage or discourage certain thoughts, can be traced to the influence of Sullivan’s (1953)
feelings, and actions in physical activity settings. conceptual perspective. We offer a brief overview
Considered collectively, the various theoretical of extant empirical work on these peer relationships
perspectives that have been employed in peer constructs, highlighting a selection of both early
research in physical activity settings span the rel- and recent efforts in these areas.
atively specific, with clearly articulated constructs Early efforts exploring youth beliefs about the
and testable propositions, to the more general or value of sport showed sport capability to be viewed
heuristic. In the next section we review selected as a meaningful source of social currency (Smith,
empirical research on peers in physical activity 2007). Indeed, physical competence and peer
settings, much of which draws from (explicitly or acceptance are closely intertwined (Evans & Rob-
not) the perspectives described earlier. erts, 1987; Ommundsen, Gundersen, & Mjaavatn,
2010; Weiss & Duncan, 1992), and young people
view being good at sports as an important and a
Research on Peers desired route to gaining popularity (Buchanan,
in Physical Activity Settings Blankenbaker, & Cotten, 1976; Chase & Dummer,
1992). In Chase and Dummer’s (1992) investigation,
The amount of research specifically designed this preference was unsurprisingly stronger for boys
to address peers in physical activity contexts is than girls. Yet, both boys and girls rated appearance
modest, yet it has broadened in scope in recent years and sports among their top two most important
and is poised to accelerate over the next decade. pathways to popularity, and the importance was
In this section we share areas of work that have greater for those in sixth grade than those in fourth
received systematic or extended attention and are grade. Thus, as young people move toward middle
bringing shape to the knowledge base. We first look school and adolescence, importance of the sport
at research predominantly in the youth sport setting domain intensifies with respect to popularity. In
that has focused on peer relationships, specifically a follow-up study by Chase and Machida (2011)
on peer acceptance and friendship. We then review that contained a more diverse sample of children
work on relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE), in the fourth to seventh grades, the importance of
peer motivational climate in sport, and research sport to girls remained consistent with the 1992
addressing peers and physical activity behavior, study but the importance to boys declined some-
respectively. Although we cannot review the full what, possibly reflecting alternative activities and
span of peer-based research within this chapter, opportunities to status among peers (e.g., being
these predominant lines of work have meaning- good at video games). Although tracking trends in
fully advanced understanding of peers in physical young peoples’ views on gaining popularity will
activity settings and provide a critical foundation continue to be important, and some variability can
for future research and practical advances. be expected over time, being competent in the sport
arena appears to be among the salient pathways to
Peer Relationships in Sport acceptance and status among peers.
Moving from popularity or acceptance generally
Extensive early work on youth sport participation to acceptance within the sport context itself, ath-
motives has established that social affiliation and lete perceptions of peer acceptance in sport tie to
being with friends are among the top reasons important markers of motivation and well-being.
For example, in adolescent soccer players, peer nuanced in adolescence. Later efforts to produce a
acceptance and markers of positive friendship in survey measure of friendship quality by Weiss and
soccer were positively associated with adaptive Smith (1999, 2002) showed dimensions to whittle
responses on goal orientation, motivational climate, and merge to six in total. Self-esteem enhancement
and perfectionism measures (Ommundsen, Roberts, and supportiveness, loyalty and intimacy, things in
Lemyre, & Miller, 2005). Moreover, an examination common, companionship and pleasant play, and
of a large-scale longitudinal data set on adolescent conflict resolution represented positive friendship
health showed peer acceptance to partially medi- quality. Conflict represented negative friendship
ate the relationship between sport participation quality. Their measure has been used in empirical
and global self-esteem (Daniels & Leaper, 2006). efforts that explore the association of sport friend-
Other work has shown greater peer acceptance to ship quality with various markers of motivation
associate with more adaptive sport-related affect, and well-being.
lower self-presentational concerns, and greater Initial research on sport friendship quality
psychological needs, self-determined motivation, showed age and gender differences with respect
and sport continuation (Gardner, Magee, & Vella, to scores on some dimensions (Weiss & Smith,
2017; Riley & Smith, 2011; Smith, Ullrich-French, 2002). These differences have not been explored
Walker, & Hurley, 2006; Ullrich-French & Smith, intensively, and often the positive friendship quality
2006, 2009). Although predominantly cross-sec- dimensions are collapsed and conflict is used as a
tional and nonexperimental, the extant work sur- distinct marker of negative friendship quality (e.g.,
rounding peer acceptance in sport suggests that Smith et al., 2006). Girls usually score higher than
this peer construct is central to understanding the boys on positive friendship quality, which parallels
sport experience. Research suggests that examining work in school or developmental contexts (Weiss
peer group acceptance alongside friendship may be & Smith, 2002). Associations of friendship quality
especially effective in generating understanding of with markers of motivation and well-being, how-
how peers shape motivational and other outcomes ever, tend to be consistent across girls and boys.
in sport (Smith et al., 2006). Weiss and Smith (2002) found several positive
Friendship can be considered from various per- markers of sport friendship quality to contribute in a
spectives, including whether or not someone has positive direction to multivariate prediction of sport
friends, who those friends are, and the quality of enjoyment and commitment. Other work has shown
friendships as expressed in various support dimen- positive sport friendship quality to associate in
sions (see Hartup, 1996; Weiss & Stuntz, 2004). adaptive directions with sport enjoyment, perceived
Focus in the sport psychology literature has been teammate relatedness, perceived competence, self-
on the quality of friendships and is informed by worth, and self-determined motivation (Kipp &
seminal qualitative and related measurement work. Weiss, 2013; McDonough & Crocker, 2005; Smith et
Specifically, Weiss, Smith, and Theeboom (1996) al., 2006). Direct associations are sometimes less
interviewed youth ages 8 to 16 years about their robust than those found with peer acceptance, and
best sport friendships. Twelve dimensions reflect- in some studies friendship variables do not pre-
ing positive features of sport friendship emerged dict well-being markers (e.g., Kipp & Weiss, 2015;
from the interviews: companionship, pleasant play/ Shapiro & Martin, 2014). Peer acceptance appears
association, self-esteem enhancement, help and to be more salient than friendship quality when
guidance, prosocial behavior, intimacy, loyalty, these peer constructs are treated as independent
things in common, attractive personal qualities, or parallel predictors of outcomes. When consid-
emotional support, absence of conflicts, and con- ered in combination, however, friendship emerges
flict resolution. The participants also expressed as uniquely meaningful (see Smith et al., 2006;
four negative dimensions of sport friendships, Ullrich-French & Smith, 2006). As a final point,
specifically conflict, unattractive personal qual- conflict findings in quantitative studies of sport
ities, betrayal, and being inaccessible. These friendship quality have not been as robust as the
dimensions were qualified as being experienced positive friendship quality findings. This outcome
sometimes or infrequently, yet were important in could reflect the focus of such studies largely on
sport friendships. Aside from emotional support, positive markers of motivation and well-being, the
which was more frequently cited by girls than boys, need for a more comprehensive measure of conflict
the qualitative features of friendship were equally as experienced in sport friendships, or the need to
represented by sex. Some age differences emerged consider conflict in combination with the capacity
as well, reflecting friendship becoming more of friends to resolve conflict.
Conflict is a natural feature of even best friend- mutual influence. Relation-inferred self-efficacy
ships in the sport context. Considering that sport (RISE) refers to a person’s inferences about a signifi-
involves engagement with a range of people, friends cant other’s confidence in that person’s ability (Lent
or not, and often involves high expectations, inten- & Lopez, 2002), and this construct has been exam-
sive training, and setbacks, conflict is naturally ined within sport and physical education contexts.
salient in this setting and viewed as having affective, Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory provides
cognitive, and behavioral manifestations (Paradis, the framework that highlights the processes by
Carron, & Martin, 2014; Partridge & Knapp, 2016). which the development and revision of self-efficacy
Barki and Hartwick (2004) propose a two-dimen- beliefs emerge within interpersonal contexts. For
sional interpersonal conflict framework with con- example, children learn to label competencies and
flict viewed, first, as possessing the properties of deficits by observing others and from the conse-
disagreement, negative emotion, and interference. quences of their own actions, including through
Second, conflict is viewed as either stemming from interactions with others. As children mature,
the task that brings people together or the interper- social comparison processes become an important
sonal relationship context itself. This framework reference point in the development of their efficacy
aligns with observations of athletes (Holt, Knight, & standards. Aligned with a social constructionist
Zukiwski, 2012; Paradis et al., 2014) and suggests that view that human perceptions are largely the product
effective conflict management will involve preven- of social processes (Burr, 2015), Lent and Lopez
tion efforts and attention to both the task demands expand on Bandura’s original conceptualization
and interpersonal features of the sport setting. of efficacy beliefs to address more thoroughly the
Holt and colleagues (2012) interviewed universi- specific relational components inherent in the pro-
ty-level female team sport athletes about teammate cesses of developing self-efficacy.
conflict and what strategies might be useful in Lent and Lopez (2002) suggest that within inter-
managing such conflict. Their data showed conflict personal contexts three relational efficacy beliefs
to occur regularly and to be a normal feature of should be considered: self-efficacy, other-efficacy,
team involvement. Performance conflict pertained and RISE. RISE is the least understood component
to playing time and to practice and competition within this tripartite perspective, whereas self-ef-
concerns, whereas relationship conflict was char- ficacy, or beliefs about one’s own capabilities,
acterized by interpersonal disputes/disagreements has the strongest literature base (see Feltz, Short,
and conflicting personalities. Among the ways that & Sullivan, 2008). Self-efficacy beliefs are often
athletes believed conflict could be managed, team developed within relational contexts. For example,
building early in the season and addressing conflict an athlete experiencing a performance slump and
early when it occurs were important. In addition, lacking confidence may look to a teammate’s beliefs
mediation from third parties, preferably senior in her or his ability in order to regain confidence.
players and captains, and structured team meetings In this situation, objective performance feedback
guided by someone like a sport psychologist was is proposed to be mediated through interactions
viewed as potentially helpful. These findings were with and perceptions about significant others.
shared within the context of the athletes stating RISE reflects the perceived beliefs that a relational
their preference not to have to deal with conflict. partner holds about one’s capabilities—“how my
Accordingly, the authors view the development of partner sees me” (Lent & Lopez, 2002, p. 268). In
conflict resolution skills in athletes as a critical con- relational contexts, self-efficacy exists alongside
sideration for practitioners. Along with the findings a complex and dynamic interplay between RISE
on peer acceptance and positive friendship quality and other-efficacy (beliefs about the capabilities
in sport, this work enriches our understanding of of one’s relationship partner). Such beliefs are
peer relationships in competitive sport contexts imbedded within a relationship dynamic and rely
and contributes to the emerging foundation for on the interpretation of sometimes-ambiguous
understanding peers in physical activity contexts. social cues (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, taking a
tripartite perspective has the potential to enhance
Relation-Inferred Self-Efficacy understanding of both relationships and emerging
individual beliefs and behaviors.
A core motivational construct that has emerged Sport and organized physical activity are rich
in the peer literature reflects the development social contexts to examine RISE and other-efficacy
of self-perceptions specifically within close rela- beliefs. In both sport dyadic relational contexts
tionships, or relationships in which partners have (Jackson, Knapp, & Beauchamp, 2008, 2009) and
youth recreational sport (Saville et al., 2014), qual- a source of efficacy beliefs. This finding comple-
itative data support RISE perceptions and social ments other work showing that both higher oth-
persuasion as distinct, serving independent func- er-efficacy and RISE inferences about one’s partner
tions in the development of self-beliefs. Specifically, predict higher self-efficacy beliefs of the perceiver
social persuasion reflects direct efficacy-relevant and that other-efficacy beliefs additionally predict
feedback, whereas RISE represents a meta-cogni- relationship satisfaction (Jackson, Beauchamp,
tive process through which a person interprets the & Knapp, 2007). Partner effects also emerged, in
underlying meaning of social cues. The tripartite which self-efficacy beliefs in one partner predicted
perspective of relational efficacy beliefs has support higher partner commitment to remaining with the
(e.g., Jackson, Grove, Beauchamp, 2010; Jackson, relationship. An important finding was that RISE
Whipp, Chua, Pengelley, & Beauchamp, 2012; Sav- was not predictive of relationships with outcomes
ille et al., 2014), although largely within hierarchical of satisfaction and commitment and could reflect
relationships (e.g., coach, instructor relationships). RISE perceptions not accurately matching partner
Although not framed specifically within a tripartite reports. Distorted interpretations of one’s partner
or relational efficacy perspective, interviews of elite are expected, and accuracy may differ based on
athlete dyads by Wickwire, Bloom, and Loughead the level of mutual dependence, status, and power
(2004) exemplified the relational basis well: “I have (Lent & Lopez, 2002). Therefore, important differ-
to take into consideration what my strengths are, ences may emerge between a peer relationship and
what my partner’s strengths are, what his weak- a more hierarchically based (e.g., coach–athlete)
nesses are, and come up with the best way to set up relationship. Such structural characteristics of a
our team for that game” (p. 389). Yet another athlete dyad should be considered in how peers may shape
stated, “If you don’t believe in your partner, you efficacy beliefs.
cannot win. . . . I think believing in your partner Peer relationships exist within a broader peer
is more important than believing in yourself” (p. climate beyond dyads. Accordingly, RISE has been
390). This work reinforces the value of examining considered as emerging not only from a single
relational dynamics in sport. target “other” but also as the perception of a gen-
Jackson and colleagues (2008) more explicitly eralized aggregate of a group’s confidence in one’s
explored the tripartite model of relational effi- ability (Gairns, Whipp, & Jackson, 2015; Jackson,
cacy through qualitative interviews with elite Gucciardi, Lonsdale, Whipp, & Dimmock, 2014).
athlete partners from dyadic sports. Emerging Extending from an interpersonal level to the group
themes supported Lent and Lopez’s (2002) tripar- level, generalized peer RISE beliefs uniquely predict
tite conceptualization. Key antecedents of RISE individual motivation-related outcomes in sport and
reported by athletes included perceptions of the physical activity settings as well as group-based
self (e.g., self-efficacy, motivation), the partner intentions for sport continuation with a particular
(e.g., affective state), and the dyad (e.g., past mas- team. Thus, the collective work on RISE suggests
tery achievements as a dyad). Both intrapersonal that perceptions of how one’s partner in a close
(self-efficacy, performance, affect, motivation) and dyadic relationship feels about one’s ability, and
interpersonal (relationship persistence intentions, of how one’s peer group feels about one’s ability,
relationship termination, relationship satisfaction) are salient to psychological experiences in phys-
consequences of RISE were also reported. The ical activity. Further research attention to RISE
complexity of interpersonal dynamics also revealed within dyads and the broader peer climate will
potential ways in which RISE perceptions might benefit understanding of both relationship-based
either enhance or diminish motivation. Therefore, and motivational outcomes in sport and physical
moderating factors such as relationship dynamics activity settings.
likely influence relational efficacy beliefs.
The structure of a dyad, including whether role Peer Motivational Climate
interdependence is present, is important to con-
sider when examining dyads (Wageman, 2001). For According to achievement goal theory perspectives
example, one study examined how performance (Ames, 1992; Nicholls, 1984, 1989), motivation to
of cheerleaders completing a paired stunt task demonstrate ability stems from the interaction of
differed depending on roles, task difficulty, and personal characteristics and unique features of the
self-, other-, and collective efficacy beliefs (Habeeb, achievement setting that serve as the basis for judg-
Eklund, & Coffee, 2017). When an athlete was in a ing competence and defining success and failure.
high-dependence role, the partner was found to be The motivational climate reinforced by significant
others is a salient feature of the youth sport context dimensions. Improvement refers to encouraging
that contributes to motivated behaviors. Motiva- and providing feedback for teammates to improve.
tional climate refers to perceptions of situational Relatedness support is the fostering and facilita-
goal structures reinforced by significant others that tion of the feeling of belonging and being part of
encourage a particular goal orientation and that a group as well as the creation of a friendly team
at a given point in time induce a goal involvement atmosphere. Lastly, effort represents the importance
state (Ames, 1992; Roberts, Treasure, & Conroy, of exerting effort and trying one’s hardest (Vazou
2007). Two climate types have been identified. The et al., 2005). In contrast, the ego-involving climate
task-involving climate encourages self-referenced is defined by intrateam competition and ability and
forms of ability, effort, and improvement, and the intrateam conflict dimensions. Intrateam compe-
ego-involving climate fosters social comparison and tition and ability is the promotion of competition
emphasizes normative ability (Ames, 1992). Percep- and comparison among team members, whereas
tions of motivational climate have been examined intrateam conflict involves exhibiting negative and
in the physical education and youth sport settings unsupportive behaviors (e.g., blaming each other
with a focus predominantly on coach and teacher for poor performance, laughing at teammates) that
influence (Harwood, Keegan, Smith, & Raine, 2015; are not directly related to competing with others
Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999). (Ntoumanis, Vazou, & Duda, 2007). The creation
Peers can also be reasonably expected to play of this measure clarified the conceptual landscape
a critical role in the creation and maintenance of of peer motivational climate and paved the way for
particular motivational climates. Vazou, Ntouma- future quantitative research.
nis, and Duda (2005) sought to address the lack of Early studies have explored the comparative role
knowledge on the peer motivational climate in their of peer- and coach-created motivational climate
seminal sport-based work that entailed in-depth in shaping sport experiences. For example, peer
individual interviews and focus groups with 30 indi- task-involving climate has been shown to uniquely
vidual- and team-sport athletes, ages 12 to 16 years. predict physical self-worth and to account for a
Interviews consisted of two major components. portion of the variance in sport enjoyment over
First, participants were asked to expand on how and and above the coach-created climate (Vazou et al.,
when their teammates put them (or other members 2006). Other work has shown both peer and coach
on the team) in situations promoting task and ego motivational climate to predict team cohesion and
goal states. Next, participants were asked a series sport satisfaction over time (García-Calvo et al.,
of open-ended questions regarding the influence of 2014), suggesting that peer climate contributes
teammates on their motivation and vice versa. Con- to the quality of a sport experience throughout a
tent analysis of the transcribed interviews yielded season beyond coach-created climate contributions.
11 dimensions that explained the influence of peers Research comparing climate types (e.g., coach
in transmitting task-involving and ego-involving versus peer) does not claim one as more influen-
climate cues within a team. These dimensions tial than another, but rather suggests that multiple
were improvement, equal treatment, relatedness social agents serve to shape motivational climate.
support, mistakes, cooperation, effort, intrateam The peer task-involving climate appears to
competition, normative ability, autonomy support, associate with adaptive motivation and well-being
evaluation of competence, and intrateam conflict. outcomes in sport. Specifically, higher task-involv-
A number of the dimensions aligned with earlier ing climate perceptions have been linked to higher
coach motivational climate research, but others levels of sport enjoyment, self-worth, and sport
were unique. This finding suggested that peer commitment, as well as lower anxiety levels (Vazou
motivational climate may be a distinct feature of et al., 2006). Further, this climate type has been
the youth sport setting, an observation reinforced related to greater team cohesion (García-Calvo et
in later youth sport and elite sport research (e.g., al., 2014; McLaren, Newland, Eys, & Newton, 2016),
Keegan, Harwood, Spray, & Lavallee, 2009, 2014). empathic concern (Ettekal, Ferris, Batanova, & Syer,
This qualitative effort informed the develop- 2016), and prosocial attitudes (Ntoumanis, Taylor,
ment of a measure of peer motivational climate & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2012), as well as greater
perceptions that includes five unique dimensions basic psychological needs satisfaction, intrinsic
that define the task- and ego-involving climates motivation, and sport persistence (Jõesaar, Hein,
created by teammates (Ntoumanis & Vazou, 2005). & Hagger, 2011, 2012), and lower athlete burnout
Specifically, the task-involving climate is made up perceptions (Ntoumanis et al., 2012; Smith, Gus-
of improvement, relatedness support, and effort tafsson, & Hassmén, 2010). A higher perception
of ego-involving climate in Vazou and colleagues’ of primary school through the 4th year of second-
(2006) study was related to higher levels of mal- ary school, peer support declined across the period
adaptive motivational outcomes. But this climate and did so more steeply for girls (Kirby, Levin, &
type did not predict anxiety, which is inconsistent Inchley, 2011). Of note, however, is that greater
with previous coach-created climate literature (Har- peer support was associated with greater physical
wood et al., 2015). Following this initial finding, activity across the time span. Although nuances
work has shown the peer ego-involving climate may be tied to sex and age, and not all studies show
to be related to greater perceptions of negative a relationship between peer support and physical
sport behaviors (Davies, Babkes Stellino, Nichols, activity, the weight of evidence appears to suggest
& Coleman, 2015), athlete burnout perceptions that peer support meaningfully benefits physical
(Smith et al., 2010), and antisocial attitudes in sport activity behavior.
(Ntoumanis et al., 2012), as well as less self-de- Peer modeling is typically operationalized as the
termined motivation (Hein & Jõesaar, 2015). This activity levels of proximal peers or friends, which
early research suggests that further examination is assumed to be observed by a person such that
of the peer motivational climate offers promise for physical activity is encouraged. Sometimes peer
advancing knowledge on social dynamics in sport modeling is considered a form of peer support (Fitz-
and the motivation and well-being of participants gerald et al., 2012) or is combined with peer support
in physical activity settings. into a global peer influences construct (Sabiston
& Crocker, 2008). This combined representation
is helpful within complex designs, yet evidence
Peers and Physical Activity Behavior suggests that support and modeling offer distinct
Researchers have explored a range of peer con- or interactive contributions to physical activity. For
structs in assessing possible peer influence on phys- example, work has found that friend activity level
ical activity behavior (see Efrat, 2009; Fitzgerald, (modeling) more strongly predicts physical activity
Fitzgerald, & Aherne, 2012; Smith & McDonough, when combined with greater peer support (Vilh-
2008). Drawn from the social cognitive theory jalmsson & Thorlindsson, 1998). This consideration
tradition (Bandura, 1986), peer support and peer is important for future peer-based research. When
modeling have been frequently examined. Peer possible, researchers should distinguish peer vari-
support represents reinforcement for activity in the ables and explore them in combination, not simply
form of encouragement, helping, praise, spectating, in parallel, in physical activity studies.
coparticipating, and any other form of supportive With respect to findings specific to modeling,
behavior from peers or friends. Generally, findings recent reviews suggest that most studies show a pos-
show peer support to associate with physical activ- itive association between a person’s own physical
ity behavior, whether in studies with a broad range activity and the physical activity of friends (Maturo
of potential physical activity determinants (Sallis, & Cunningham, 2013; Sawka, McCormack, Net-
Taylor, Dowda, Freedson, & Pate, 2002; Taylor, tel-Aguirre, Hawe, & Doyle-Baker, 2013). As exam-
Sallis, Dowda, Freedson, Eason, & Pate, 2002) or ples, an early study of Norwegian seventh-grade stu-
with a more specific focus on social contributors dents showed peer modeling to predict leisure-time
to physical activity (Beets, Vogel, Forlaw, Pitetti, physical activity (Anderssen & Wold, 1992), and a
& Cardinal, 2006; Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, study of Canadian adolescents showed that a higher
2005; Robbins, Stommel, & Hamel, 2008; Springer, proportion of active close friends was associated
Kelder, & Hoelscher, 2006). Further aligned with with greater likelihood of meeting physical activity
social cognitive theory, research has found peer guidelines (Sawka et al., 2014). As pointed out else-
support to be positively associated with self-efficacy where (Smith & McDonough, 2008), some studies
for overcoming barriers to activity and resisting do not support a link between peer modeling and
competing activities (Beets, Pitetti, & Forlaw, 2007). physical activity. This result may stem from mea-
Thus, supportive peers can reinforce physical activ- surement shortcomings such as lack of precision in
ity behavior while fostering confidence to manage assessing peer activity behavior and identification
challenges that interfere with persistent physical of the focal peer (e.g., friend versus peers in one’s
activity involvement. grade). Also likely important is that the focal peers
Importantly, developmental and sex changes in be sufficiently available or present. Greater inten-
peer support may be salient and warrant careful sity of physical activity is reported when peers or
consideration. For example, in a 5-year longitudinal close friends are present (Salvy et al., 2008), and
study of Scottish adolescent youth from the last year the presence of a friend increases physical activity
motivation and behavior (Barkley et al., 2014; Salvy promise to offer practical knowledge that enhances
et al., 2009). Indeed, young people report that the the quality of physical activity involvement.
availability of same-age peers with common inter-
ests in their neighborhood is important for engaging Peers in the Broader Social Context
in physical activity (Smith, Troped, McDonough, &
DeFreese, 2015). of Physical Activity
The quality of peer relationships as reflected in A key gap in our understanding of peers in phys-
peer group acceptance and positive friendship qual- ical activity settings is how peers integrate with
ity may influence physical activity. As suggested other social agents in shaping motivation and
by Vilhjalmsson and Thorlindsson’s (1998) finding well-being. Peers are a component of the physical
that modeling relates to physical activity behavior activity context that also can involve instructors,
when combined with support, peers may be more coaches, parents, spectators, and others. Although
influential when they treat a person well and research efforts designed to understand social con-
establish a meaningful interpersonal connection. tributors to physical activity outcomes often include
Indeed, perceived peer acceptance and friendship assessments for multiple types of social agents, the
positively associate with physical education and dominant research strategies are to amalgamate
physical activity motivation (Cox, Duncheon, & social constructs or to examine them in parallel to
McDavid, 2009; Cox & Ullrich-French, 2010; Smith, determine the relative “importance” of respective
1999). Alternatively, being poorly treated by peers social agents (Smith & McDonough, 2008). These
may undermine physical activity. Some work has approaches neglect the potential integration of
been conducted on peer victimization, in which a social influences, whereby people reconcile support
person receives aggressive peer interactions, focus- by some social agents for being active alongside
ing on weight-related criticism or overweight youth. interference by other agents. Moreover, this col-
This work shows that such negative peer exchanges lection of social agents operates within settings
predict greater barriers to physical activity and less that vary in competitiveness or professionalization,
physical activity behavior (Gray, Janicke, Ingerski, adaptive or challenging built environments, and so
& Silverstein, 2008; Storch et al., 2007). Other work forth. As noted earlier in this chapter, ecological
shows that general difficulties with peers, reflected perspectives specify that physical activity outcomes
in exclusion and keeping to oneself, associates with will stem from the interface of individual charac-
less physical activity behavior (Sebire et al., 2011). teristics, social interactions, and broader social
Yet being able to cope with weight-related criticism and environmental systems (Spence & Lee, 2003;
in productive, problem-focused ways may buffer Welk, 1999). Future work should deliberately speak
such negative social effects (Faith, Leone, Ayers, to this interface.
Heo, & Pietrobelli, 2002). Thus, any peer-based Strategies for capturing the integration of possi-
physical activity promotion efforts may benefit ble social influences in physical activity research
from both fostering positive peer connections and include examining the predictive value of interaction
helping people manage negative interactions in the terms in statistical models or using person-centered
physical activity setting. approaches to uncover profiles of social relation-
ships and their salience to outcomes of interest. For
example, Ullrich-French and Smith (2006) explored
Future Research perceptions of parent-child relationship quality,
Recommendations friendship quality, and peer acceptance in youth
soccer players. They found that combinations of
To gain better understanding of how peers shape the social variables predicted enjoyment, perceived com-
psychological experiences of athletes and physical petence, and self-determined motivation for soccer,
activity participants, addressing specific knowledge such that relatively higher values on two or three of
gaps will be valuable. In this section we encourage the social variables was necessary for more adaptive
attention to issues pertaining to peers in the broader motivation-related outcomes. Cox and Ullrich-French
social context of physical activity, integration of (2010) used a profiling approach in examining peer
the peer and group dynamics research areas, peer- acceptance, friendship quality, and teacher support
based physical activity intervention, and other in seventh- and eighth-grade physical education stu-
emerging research topics tied to peers in physical dents. Along with uniform profiles of relatively lower
activity settings. We believe that such efforts will or higher perceptions of the social constructs, respec-
not only benefit scholarly knowledge but also hold tively, they observed a mixed profile characterized
by relatively positive peer relationships along with assessing the effectiveness of peer-based interven-
relatively low teacher support. The mixed profile in tions for physical activity promotion appear to have
some cases tied with motivation-related outcomes value. Initial efforts suggest that strategies incorpo-
similar to the uniformly positive social profile and rating peer tutoring or mentoring, peer modeling,
in other cases with outcomes more like the weaker and social skills development may help increase
social profile. Together these studies suggest that in physical activity behavior (Horne, Hardman, Lowe,
some circumstances positive relationships with one & Rowlands, 2009; Jelalian & Mehlenbeck, 2002;
type of social agent (e.g., peers) can buffer against Spencer, Bower, Kirk, & Friesen, 2014). In a sys-
weaker relationships with another type of social tematic review of 10 studies, predominantly using
agent (e.g., teacher). In other circumstances, rela- adult participants, those reporting within-group
tionships with multiple social agents must be going analyses showed peer-delivered interventions to
well to yield best motivational outcomes. Research yield increases in physical activity (Martin Ginis,
that untangles these circumstances and enriches Nigg, & Smith, 2013). Moreover, the interventions
our understanding of the more comprehensive social were equally effective as interventions delivered by
context of physical activity would meaningfully professionals. Considering the work to date, much
benefit knowledge. promise appears to be offered by constructing,
evaluating, and optimizing peer-based physical
Integration of Peer and Group activity interventions.
A notable shortcoming of peer-based physical
Dynamics Research activity intervention work to date is that most stud-
For decades well-established research activity has ies do not assess social cognitive variables that may
been ongoing in the area of group dynamics in explain intervention effects (Martin Ginis et al.,
physical activity settings (see chapter 10), and more 2013). Theory-driven research that offers proposed
recently an emerging literature has focused on peers, mechanisms for intervention effects is needed, and
as described in the present chapter. Yet relatively researchers must go to the effort of measuring the
little integration of these research areas has occurred proposed mechanism variables and performing
to date within the sport and exercise psychology proper mediation testing. Self-efficacy, self-deter-
literature. This circumstance is surprising in light of mined motivation, perceptions of acceptance and
their natural connection and conceptual overlap. As friendship quality, and other variables may explain
noted earlier in this chapter, peers comprise nested how peer-delivered or peer-targeted interventions
levels of social complexity and considering multiple result in successful (or not) promotion of physical
levels of analysis will be valuable in understanding activity behavior. Accordingly, these constructs
peers in physical activity settings (Holt et al., 2008; should be assessed when evaluating intervention
Rubin et al., 2006). Some recent studies have pulled efficacy and effectiveness. Attention to the promotion
together constructs traditionally used in the respec- of positive peer relationships is scant in this research
tive research areas, such as exploring how constructs area, although some recommendations can be drawn
like peer-motivational climate or peer leadership tie from the literature reviewed earlier in this chapter
to group cohesion in sport (McLaren et al., 2016; (see the sidebar Promoting Positive Peer Relation-
Price & Weiss, 2011). Moreover, chapter 10 outlines ships). Building on these recommendations, future
how greater use of multilevel analytic approaches intervention work has the potential to produce mean-
and social network analysis, which enable simulta- ingful advances in knowledge and practice efforts.
neous consideration of multiple levels of the social
context, can offer meaningful advancements to Emerging Research Topics
knowledge. We encourage an acceleration of efforts
to bring together these areas of work in ways that We have focused on areas of persistent activity
advance understanding of the social dynamics of and influence with respect to the study of peers in
sport, exercise, and other physical activity settings. physical activity settings and have identified core
knowledge gaps that merit future research attention.
Peer-Based Physical Activity Other noteworthy and emerging areas of research
warrant mention as well, owing to their potential to
Intervention enrich understanding of how peers contribute to psy-
In light of the research evidence described within chological experiences in sport, physical education,
this chapter about peers being notable motivational and other physical activity settings. For example, an
agents in physical activity settings, developing and emerging construct that can enrich the knowledge
Promoting Positive Peer Relationships
Critical to administering meaningful physical activity experiences and to executing peer-based physical activity
interventions is the cultivation of positive peer relationships. Beyond the mere presence of peers, relationships that
are supportive and that function well will yield the best motivation and well-being outcomes. Based on the extant
literature, strategies for promoting positive peer relationships include fostering a task-involving motivational climate,
providing cooperative learning opportunities and interdependent goals, providing autonomy and voice to the group,
creating space for informal interactions and relationship building, communicating shared interests and challenges,
modeling regard for others and being reliable, and helping movers improve their physical skills through direct instruc-
tion and collaborative learning (Smith & Delli Paoli, 2018). Managing conflict and negative treatment from peers is
also important. Strategies include early team building, maintaining open communication lines, addressing conflicts
early when they arise, providing structure for group discussions, empowering third parties to mediate conflicts, and
encouraging personal responsibility to mitigate avoidance behavior that is common in the face of conflict (Holt et
al., 2012). Many of these strategies reinforce one another, which can create momentum for positive peer interactions
and other important outcomes in physical activity settings.
base is peer athletic reputation, which reflects the domains and both theory and empirical work point
aggregate view of one’s peers with respect to her to their developmental and psychological salience.
or his athletic ability (Howle et al., 2016). This con- Recent efforts on peer relationships in sport, RISE,
struct helps capture reputational features of peer peer motivational climate, and peers and physical
dynamics and will complement other peer relation- activity behavior address a range of peer constructs,
ships constructs in school-based studies of peers and suggest that peers are critical to motivation and
physical activity. Another example is recent work well-being, and contribute to our understanding of
exploring physical activity as a strategy for man- the social context of physical activity. We see value
aging the outcomes associated with negative peer in cultivating emerging areas of work, such as that
experiences such as social exclusion (Delli Paoli, on social exclusion and physical activity, and in
Smith, & Pontifex, 2017). Future work in this arena filling current knowledge gaps. Particularly import-
may produce recommendations for using physical ant areas to address include the manner in which
activity to cope effectively with social challenges. the assortment of peers and other social actors in
Many additional areas of consideration will enrich physical activity settings collectively affect movers,
the knowledge base, including intensified pursuit the integration of peer and group dynamics knowl-
of peer-focused research that is longitudinal and edge within sport and exercise psychology, ways
informed by developmental theory (Weiss & Stuntz, to generate efficacious peer-based physical activity
2004), is conducted in disability sport (Martin, intervention strategies, and the relative salience
2018), considers various moderators (Smith, 2007), and role of peers across the developmental lifespan.
and incorporates multiple levels of social complex- Advancing knowledge in these areas will help us
ity (Holt et al., 2008). Although a comprehensive understand how to optimize social relationships in
account of knowledge gaps and promising research physical activity settings and how to leverage peers
directions cannot be provided here, this sampling in promoting quality physical activity.
highlights the tremendous opportunity to conduct
meaningful work that addresses the psychological
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9
Leadership
Contexts
Mark R. Beauchamp, PhD  Ben Jackson, PhD  Todd M. Loughead, PhD
Abstract
The importance of effective leadership in physical activity contexts cannot be overstated.
On sport teams, coaches’ displays of leadership directly influence athlete growth and
development, along with shaping the psychological climate that exists among athletes and
their ability to achieve their goals. It is not only coaches who display leadership; athletes
often fill formal and informal leadership roles as well. Similarly, in health promotion
contexts, the capacity of those such as physical education teachers and exercise instructors
to display effective leadership can play a major role in encouraging people across the
age spectrum to adopt and sustain active lifestyles. The overall objective of this chapter
is to provide an overview of the most prominent and influential frameworks that have
been used to understand leadership within sport, exercise, and other physical activity
settings. We identify both commonalities and discrepancies across these frameworks
and in so doing present an evidence-based integrated framework that explains (a) the
antecedents of various leadership behaviors, (b) mediating psychological mechanisms
that explain how leaders affect the achievement outcomes of others (e.g., athletes, exer-
cisers, students), and (c) moderators that explain the boundary conditions of various
leadership behaviors. In drawing from this integrative framework and extant knowledge
base, we highlight implications for intervention (by targeting evidence-based antecedents
of effective leadership) as well as gaps in knowledge, and provide an overview of some
important areas for future research. These areas include efforts to test the efficacy of
leadership interventions in sport using high-quality experimental designs, the role of
understudied individual difference factors that might act as important determinants
of leadership (e.g., emotional intelligence), and newer conceptualizations of leadership
(e.g., authentic, ethical, and abusive leadership) in physical activity settings.
151
152 Beauchamp, Jackson, and Loughead
L
eadership is concerned with the behavioral implicated in effective leadership (especially
processes through which one person influ- between the 1950s to 1980s), the past two decades
ences a group of others toward attaining a of research within organizational psychology has
specific set of objectives or goals (Northouse, 2016). revealed a reemergence of interest in personality
Regardless of whether one is interested in how factors and leadership. This focus is likely due to
coaches and team leaders foster athlete engagement, widespread recognition of the five-factor model of
how physical education teachers empower children personality (Digman, 1990), as well as meta-ana-
to be active, or how instructors inspire exercisers lytic evidence linking various personality traits to
to become and stay active, each circumstance is both leader emergence as well as indices of leader-
exemplified by a process of leadership whereby ship effectiveness (Judge, Bono, Illies, & Gerhardt,
one person influences others to obtain some given 2002). As interest in understanding links between
outcome. For hundreds of years, scholars and personality and leadership within organizational
philosophers have been interested in leaders (the settings has reemerged, this has mirrored a recent
person) and leadership (the behavior). For example, growth in research on leadership and personality
early writers such as Aristotle and Plato wrote about in sport contexts (Jackson, Dimmock, Gucciardi,
the importance of personal ethics and character as & Grove, 2011).
contributing to effective leadership. As the field of We begin this chapter by providing a broad over-
psychology started to take shape in the late 1800s, view of the major theoretical frameworks that have
the widely acknowledged father of American psy- guided leadership research in physical activity set-
chology, William James (1890), highlighted that tings, along with a synopsis of empirical evidence
leadership clearly matters and should be studied. associated with each of these frameworks. Although
Over the course of the 20th century a wide range these different models are unique and distinct in
of perspectives began to emerge about the origins many respects, they share a number of comple-
of effective leadership and the question of whether mentary features (with complementary empirical
leaders are born or made; that is, is leadership findings). Thus, in the second section of this
shaped by nature or nurture? Similarly, if leader- chapter, we draw from these different frameworks
ship is important, then what leadership behaviors to present a theory-driven evidence-informed inte-
are most likely to facilitate achievement outcomes grative framework for understanding and studying
among others? leadership in sport. We draw from this integrative
Although the scope of this chapter precludes the model (and the extant knowledge base) to highlight
inclusion of an extended historical overview, it is several pertinent gaps in the literature as well as
fair to say that the evolution and development of directions for future research.
leadership research in sport and exercise psychol-
ogy mirrored its development within other fields of
psychology, particularly organizational psychology. Major Theoretical Frameworks
Specifically, after the Second World War, Stogdill
(1948) published an influential review paper con- We begin this section with an overview of Chel-
cluding that situational and contextual factors are ladurai’s (1990, 2007) MML, which highlights the
much more likely to be implicated in predicting contribution of both personal and situational fac-
successful leadership than are personality factors. tors in shaping leadership behaviors. This model
As a result, a number of leadership frameworks such also points to how leadership behaviors might be
as those developed by Fielder (Fiedler, Hartman, & related to salient outcomes such as athlete sat-
Rudin, 1952; Fiedler 1967) and House (1971, 1996) isfaction and performance. We discuss research
emerged and gained considerable traction within based on this model and highlight limitations of
organizational psychology, which emphasized the this framework. We subsequently cover research
important contribution of situational and contextual that has applied Bass’ (1985; Bass & Avolio, 1994;
factors. In particular, House’s path-goal theory pro- Bass & Riggio, 2006) full range model of leadership
vided the foundational basis for Chelladurai’s (1990, to physical activity contexts, including both sport
2007; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978) multidimensional and school-based physical education settings.
model of leadership (MML), which in turn became Several motivational (Dweck, 1999; Mageau &
the most widely used framework for understand- Vallerand, 2003) and social cognitive (e.g., Ames
ing leadership in sport settings. When considered & Archer, 1988; Feltz, Chase, Moritz, & Sullivan,
against this large body of research (within both 1999; Lent & Lopez, 2002) frameworks have been
organizational and sport settings) that sought to applied to examine the effects of leadership and
examine situational and contextual constraints coaching behaviors in physical activity settings,
Leadership in Physical Activity Contexts 153
providing important insight into the psychological With respect to these required, preferred, and
mechanisms (mediators) through which leader actual leadership behaviors, Chelladurai (1990,
behaviors influence salient cognitive, affective, and 2007) recognized the complex interplay that results
behavioral outcomes among athletes, exercisers, from both personal and environmental factors in
and students. We provide an overview of these both shaping what coaches do (i.e., behaviors) as
frameworks, as well as others that have focused well as their effects on their athletes. Specifically,
explicitly on coach-athlete relationships (Jowett, he proposed that situational factors (box 1) such as
2007) and work that has examined peer leadership competitive level (elite versus recreational), team
(Loughead, Hardy, & Eys, 2006) in sport. norms, cultural factors, and team structure often
set the parameters for the behaviors required of
a given coach (box 4) but also (to a lesser extent;
Multidimensional Model of Leadership Chelladurai, 2013) contribute to those behaviors
The MML was developed by Chelladurai (1990, preferred by athletes (box 6). According to the
2007; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978) as a multicompo- MML, athletes’ personal characteristics such as
nent path model, in which situational, athlete, and their own personalities and developmental levels
leader characteristics were theorized to contribute (box 3) shape athletes’ preferences (box 6) but also
to the types of behaviors used by coaches (see box (to a lesser extent; Chelladurai, 2013) play a role
5 of figure 9.1) in their interactions with athletes, in contributing to those behaviors required of the
which in turn contribute to two key measures of coach (box 4). Finally, the actual behaviors used
leader effectiveness, namely athlete satisfaction and by the coach (box 5) were posited within the MML
athlete performance (see box 7). Besides providing to be affected by (a) the coaches’ own personal
this direct effect (linking box 5 to 7), Chelladurai characteristics (box 2) (e.g., personality traits, pre-
also contended that both athlete satisfaction and vious coaching experience), (b) the requirements
performance were predicated on the extent to which of the organization and preferences of the athletes
those actual behaviors align with those behaviors (as highlighted earlier vis-à-vis the congruency
required of the coach (box 4), as well as those coach hypothesis), and (c) through a feedback loop that
behaviors that were preferred by the athletes (box is derived from the level of athlete satisfaction and
6) under his or her charge. Chelladurai referred to the performance accomplishments of the group
this latter contention as a congruency hypothesis. (links from box 7 to 5).
(1) (4)
Situational Required
characteristics behavior
(7)
Member
(2) (5)
Leader Actual satisfaction
characteristics behavior Group
performance
(3) (6)
Member Preferred
characteristics behavior
Figure 9.1 Multidimensional model of leadership. The paths denoted by solid lines reflect paths that were described by Chelladurai
(2007, 2013) as having stronger relationships when compared with those denoted by dotted lines. Note, however, that Chelladurai
(2007) did not make explicit (in relation to the figure) why solid and dotted lines were used, but through examination of his writing it is
E6768/Horn/F09.01/565535/mh-R2
evident that these paths (reflecting differential effects) were implied.
Reprinted by permission from P. Chelladurai, Leadership in Sports. In Handbook of Sport Psychology, 3rd. ed., edited by G. Tenenbaum &
R.C. Eklund (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2007), 117.
Chelladurai and Saleh (1980) developed the Lead- not subsumed within the LSS. These leadership
ership Scale for Sports (LSS) as a means to test the behaviors are discussed in the following section.
core tenets of the MML. This measure assesses five A second limitation of the MML corresponds to the
leadership behaviors, namely the use of autocratic fact that it does not conceptualize and explicate
behavior, democratic behavior, positive feedback, the mechanisms (i.e., psychological mediators)
social support, as well as training and instruction. through which leadership behaviors might bring
An extensive amount of research has tested the about improved achievement outcomes among
core tenets of the MML (Chelladurai, 2013). The athletes. Next, we highlight complementary, but
dimensions of positive feedback, social support, distinct, theoretical frameworks that have sought to
democratic leadership, and training and instruc- explain to a much greater extent the psychological
tion tend to be associated with improved athlete processes through which coaches (and other leaders
satisfaction, and autocratic leadership tends to be in the physical activity domain) are able to foster
associated with lower levels of athlete satisfaction improved engagement and achievement-related
(Chelladurai, 2007). The empirical evidence linking outcomes.
coach behaviors (as operationalized by the LSS)
to athlete performance, however, has been less Transformational Leadership
compelling (Chelladurai, 1990, 2007). In a simi-
lar regard, empirical support for the congruency and the Full Range Model
hypothesis has not been forthcoming (cf. Riemer A notable leadership framework that originated
& Toon, 2001). On the one hand, this lack of evi- in organizational psychology but has received
dence might reflect deficiencies in measurement increased traction within sport and exercise
and that it may be premature to conclude the lack psychology is the full range model of leadership
of a substantive effect in this regard (see Riemer developed by Bass and colleagues (Bass, 1985, 1997;
& Toon, 2001, for a discussion); on the other hand, Bass & Riggio, 2006). Within this model, a range of
it may be that in spite of the intuitive appeal for a leadership behaviors are considered to exist along
congruency effect such a hypothesis is simply not a continuum from least to most effective. At the
supported by the data. Indeed, it may be that what least effective end, laissez-faire leadership involves
athletes say they want of their coach (i.e., preferred behaviors that reflect avoidance, disengagement,
behavior) does not necessarily align with what is and failing to intervene even in pressing circum-
best for them (i.e., actual behaviors). stances. This form of leadership has been described
When the extant research base on the MML is by some as non-leadership (Barling, Christie, &
taken in concert, several points are noteworthy. Hoption, 2010). Beyond laissez-faire leadership,
First, a substantive contribution of the MML relates Bass conceptualized transactional leadership as
to the broad recognition that leadership behaviors a form of leadership characterized by a series of
are shaped by a range of personal and environ- exchanges designed to get followers (e.g., employ-
mental factors. Second, the model recognizes that ees, athletes) to comply with the leaders’ expecta-
leadership behaviors have the potential to have a tions. Specifically, transactional leadership involves
substantive effect on athletes’ psychological and use of rewards and recognition (comparable to the
behavioral responses. Although it should be recog- dimension of positive feedback within the MML)
nized that the model is complex and that several of as well as compliance-maximizing behaviors (cor-
the hypothesized paths have yet to be sufficiently rective actions, monitoring). Although Bass recog-
tested using robust designs, this model (and its nized that the provision of positive feedback and
operationalization in the form of the LSS) possesses corrective actions provided a basis for successful
some notable limitations that prevent a full under- leadership, to get the best out of others, leaders need
standing of the effects of leadership behaviors on to supplement these transactional behaviors with
salient athlete outcomes in sport. One limitation of what he termed transformational leadership behav-
this framework corresponds to the range of behaviors. In describing this hypothesis, he referred to
iors that are conceptualized and operationalized this as an “augmentation effect” (Bass, 1998, p. 5).
within the LSS. The MML is now almost 40 years In its broadest sense, transformational leadership
old, and although the five leadership dimensions involves actions that transcend the leaders’ own
subsumed within the LSS provided a useful start- self-interests, whereby they empower, inspire, and
ing point for testing the basic tenets of this model, support others to reach higher levels of achievement
recent advances in leadership science point to the (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Bass considered transforma-
utility of a range of behavioral dimensions that were tional leadership to be composed of four conceptu-
ally distinct but related subdimensions that include leaders are able to influence those being led (ath-
idealized influence, inspirational motivation, indi- letes, exercisers, students). For example, research
vidualized consideration, and intellectual stimula- by Callow et al. (2009) found that when captains of
tion (Bass, 1998; Bass & Riggio, 2006). Transforma- ultimate Frisbee teams exhibited transformational
tional leadership has been studied across multiple leadership, their teams displayed higher levels of
domains of human functioning (business, employ- group cohesion. In another study with Canadian
ment unions, medicine, education, and sport), and youth ice-hockey players, Tucker, Turner, Barling,
from 1980 to 2007 it was reported to receive more and McEvoy (2010) found that when coaches dis-
research attention than any other theory of leader- played transformational leadership in their inter-
ship (Barling et al., 2010). In the physical activity actions with their players, those players engaged
domain, research has examined the nature and in fewer on-ice transgressions (i.e., penalty min-
effects of transformational leadership with regard to utes). Specifically, a cross-level mediated model,
coaching behaviors (Rowald, 2006), peer leadership controlling for prior levels of player aggression,
in the form of captaincy of sport teams (Callow, showed team-level aggression to mediate the rela-
Smith, Hardy, Arthur, & Hardy, 2009), exercise tionship between coach transformational leadership
instructors’ use of leadership (Beauchamp, Welch, & and player aggression. This finding suggests that
Hulley, 2007), parents’ use of transformational lead- coaches (through displays of transformational
ership to support child physical activity and healthy leadership) are able to develop prosocial motiva-
eating (Morton, Wilson, Perlmutter, & Beauchamp, tional climates whereby athletes engage in fewer
2012), and physical education teachers’ behaviors rule-breaking actions.
in relation to supporting student engagement out- In the context of school-based physical educa-
comes (Beauchamp et al., 2014). tion, displays of transformational leadership by
Research within the context of martial arts teachers (also referred to as transformational teach-
(Rowold, 2006) provided support for the hypothe- ing; Beauchamp & Morton, 2011) have been found
sized augmentation effect (cf. Bass, 1998) in a study to prospectively relate to improved engagement
conducted with 186 martial arts students and their in within-class activities, as well as leisure time
coaches from 20 clubs in Germany. In particular, physical activity by adolescents (Beauchamp et al.,
Rowold found that displays of transformational 2014). In the study by Beauchamp and colleagues,
leadership explained unique variance beyond that involving 2,948 adolescents from 133 classes, the
of transactional leadership in predicting four mea- relations between transformational teaching and
sures of leader effectiveness, namely athlete extra within-class and leisure-time physical activity
effort, satisfaction with the coach, perceptions of behaviors were mediated by student self-deter-
coaching effectiveness, and frequency of training mined motivation. Similarly, studies have also
sessions attended by the athletes. In a study confound that displays of transformational teaching
ducted with Canadian university sport teams, Char- are related to the satisfaction of students’ basic
bonneau, Barling, and Kelloway (2001) found that psychological needs (Wilson et al., 2012) as well as
athlete ratings of coach transformational leadership elevated levels of self-efficacy (Bourne et al., 2015).
were related to higher coach ratings of athletes’ In a distinct line of work, research that has sought
performance levels. Additionally, the relationship to examine parent transformational leadership
between coach transformational leadership and behaviors has similarly found that when parents
athlete performance was mediated by athlete intrin- make use of these behaviors (idealized influence,
sic motivation. This finding points to a potential inspirational motivation, individualized influence,
psychological mechanism through which coaches intellectual stimulation), their adolescent children
might influence athlete achievement and suggests tend to report greater self-regulatory capabilities
that when coaches make use of transformational to engage in health-enhancing physical activity
leadership their athletes tend to feel a greater sense (Morton et al., 2011) as well as greater leisure-time
of internalized motivation toward the sport (i.e., physical activity pursuits (Morton et al., 2012).
perform for the joy and pleasure inherent within Although the majority of transformational
the activity) and as a result perform at higher levels. leadership research in physical activity settings
Beyond the prediction of performance outcomes, has examined the downstream effects of trans-
the growing literature on transformational lead- formational leadership (i.e., consequences), some
ership within the physical activity domain points work also points to the potential antecedents, or
toward a number of psychological mechanisms sources, of transformational leadership. Consistent
through which coaches and other physical activity with Chelladurai’s (1990, 2007) notion that leader-
ship behaviors are shaped by both personal and variance in the use of transformational leadership
environmental factors, work in the sport domain suggests that both nature and nurture contribute
and beyond has sought to identify some of the to (transformational) leadership.
underlying personal and contextual factors that As a final note about transformational leadership,
might contribute to people displaying higher levels recent work also points to the importance of con-
of transformational leadership. Such research gets sidering followership when examining the effects
at the heart of the question posed at the beginning of leader behaviors. Followership is concerned with
of this chapter—that is, are leaders born or made? examining potential boundary conditions (i.e.,
In an attempt to examine the potential socializing moderators) related to the effects of leadership,
effects of parents in shaping the use of leadership in particular how people with different personal
behaviors by their children, Zacharatos, Barling, qualities (i.e., individual differences) might respond
and Kelloway (2000) looked to examine the rela- in different ways to particular leadership behav-
tionship between parents’ use of transformational iors. One study that sheds light on this question
leadership (transformational parenting) and ado- was the investigation by Arthur, Woodman, Ong,
lescent athletes’ displays of those same behaviors. Hardy, and Ntoumanis (2011) involving individual
In this study, the extent to which fathers (but not and team-sport athletes and their coaches from the
mothers) interacted with their child through dis- Singapore Sports Academy. Athletes who displayed
plays of transformational parenting was associated high levels of narcissism (a trait in which people
with adolescents also displaying these behaviors exaggerate their talents and accomplishments and
when interacting with their peers within sport have an inflated sense of their own self-importance)
settings (even after controlling for athletic skill responded markedly differently to displays of trans-
levels). Those athletes who were rated as display- formational leadership than did athletes who scored
ing higher levels of transformational leadership (as lower on this trait. Specifically, when coaches were
rated by themselves, their coach, and peers) were reported to emphasize teamwork and group goals
in turn rated as being more effective, satisfying, as displays of transformational leadership, those
and effort-evoking by their peers and coaches. athletes that scored higher in narcissism put in less
Although the study by Zacharatos et al. (2000) effort than did those who scored lower in this trait.
points to the potential role of environmental factors Arthur and colleagues reasoned that by promoting
more generally and socializing agents (in this case, higher-level goals that emphasize teamwork and
parents) in particular, to influence young people’s group achievement, narcissists will be much less
use of leadership, a growing number of studies point likely to experience opportunities for individual
to the fact that transformational leadership can self-enhancement and personal glory and thus
be taught. Most of this work has been conducted would be less likely to contribute to the good of
within organizational settings (Avolio, Reichard, the team. In sum, although research on follower-
Hannah, Walumbwa, & Chan, 2009), although some ship has been notably limited, when considered in
work demonstrates that physical education teachers relation to leadership in sport and physical activ-
can be taught to use transformational leadership ity settings, the results of this study point to the
in supporting physical activity engagement among importance of considering individual differences in
adolescents (Beauchamp, Barling, & Morton, 2011). responding to specific leadership behaviors. Indeed,
Balanced against this body of work showing the such a line of inquiry represents a highly promising
contribution of early socialization experiences and direction for future research.
formalized training to transformational leadership,
recent evidence from the field of behavioral genetics Motivational Models of Leadership
also points to the potential contribution of heredi-
tary factors. In particular, data from the Minnesota Although the research on transformational lead-
Twin Registry involving female twins (214 identical ership points to the potential for coaches and
and 178 fraternal) establishes that transformational teachers to foster internalized or self-determined
leadership behaviors can be partly explained forms of motivation (cf. Beauchamp et al., 2014;
by genetic factors (Chaturvedi, Arvey, Zhang, & Charbonneau et al., 2001) a complementary, but
Christoforou, 2011). Although such behavioral distinct, body of research has examined some of the
genetics investigations have yet to be conducted motivational processes through which those con-
within physical activity settings, consideration of cerned with physical activity engagement can foster
the findings that parental behaviors, genetic fac- improved motivation among others. Specifically,
tors, and intervention effects explain significant within the context of self-determination theory,
Ryan and Deci (2002) provide compelling evidence fident in their capabilities to be physically active,
for the existence of three basic psychological needs they tend to persist and adhere to a greater extent
that must be satisfied for more self-determined (Woodgate, Brawley, & Weston, 2005). When taken
forms of motivation to result (see also chapter 16). together, the growing literature on self-determina-
These include the needs to feel competent, auton- tion clearly points to the importance of behaviors
omous, and socially connected to others in the that are designed to bolster athletes’, exercisers’,
form of relatedness. Indeed, of direct relevance to and students’ needs for autonomy, relatedness, and
this chapter, these needs have been found to sup- competence.
port physical activity as well as a diverse array of A separate but complementary body of work
health-enhancing behaviors in a range of contexts corresponds to the contribution of a cluster of
(Ng et al., 2012). Thus, although some research achievement goal theories that emerged in the
(Wilson et al., 2012) has looked at the extent to 1980s (Dweck, 1986, 1999; Nicholls, 1984, 1989). The
which transformational teaching is related to the broad tenet of these approaches is that the quality
satisfaction of students’ psychological needs in a of a person’s motivation is shaped by the way in
more global or omnibus sense, work by Mageau which that person evaluates her or his own sense of
and Vallerand (2003) provides a more nuanced, competence. For example, Nicholls suggested that a
but complementary, insight into how each of these person’s sense of competence can be appraised by
psychological needs might be targeted. virtue of displaying self-referent personal improve-
Within their motivational model of coach–ath- ment or personal mastery (in a state he referred to
lete relationships, Mageau and Vallerand (2003) as task-involvement) or can be appraised by virtue
conceptualize three types of coach behavior. of norm-referent comparisons with others (in a state
These include (a) autonomy-supportive behavior, he referred to as ego-involvement). A critical aspect
which reflects actions designed to foster athlete of Nicholls’ achievement goal theory was that these
volition and choice, (b) enabling involvement, goal states are affected both by aspects of a person’s
which reflects coaching behaviors designed to personality along with features embedded within
maximize the quality of social connections (i.e., the social environment. Specifically, and because
relatedness) between coach and athlete, and (c) of various early childhood experiences, Nichols
the provision of structure through coaching, which contended that people develop goal orientations that
reflects behaviors designed to maximize athlete reflect their tendency to adopt either task-involv-
competence. Research conducted within coaching ing or ego-involving goals in various achievement
(Conroy & Coatsworth, 2009), physical education settings. In a similar regard, Dweck contended that
(Cheon & Reeve, 2013), and exercise settings people have a propensity to be either entity theorists
(Moustaka, Vlachopoulos, Kabitsis, & Theodorakis, and conceive the world (and their place within the
2012) has provided evidence that emphasizes the world) as fixed and uncontrollable or as incremental
importance of providing athletes, students, and theorists whereby they consider themselves and the
exercisers with volition and choice. For example, world about them as more malleable and open to
middle-aged women receiving an 8-week autono- change. According to Dweck, entity theorists are
my-supportive exercise intervention subsequently more likely to endorse ego (norm-referenced) goals
displayed improved motivation and vitality, as well related to outperforming others, whereas incremen-
as improved program attendance, when compared tal theorists are more likely to entertain self-referent
with those within a control condition (Moustaka et goals based on personal improvement.
al., 2012). Similarly, considerable research shows Balanced against the contribution of these
coach involvement and high-quality coach–ath- dispositional goal orientations, the frameworks of
lete relationships to support athlete growth and both Nicholls (1984) and Dweck (1986) acknowl-
achievement (Jowett, 2007). Finally, an extensive edged the contribution of environmental factors to
body of literature exists in the context of sport and buffer and potentially interact with those personal
physical activity settings, as well as in other life characteristics in shaping a person’s motivation.
contexts, supporting the importance of structuring Specifically, Dweck and Leggett (1988) noted that
the environment to maximize opportunities for per- “Dispositions are seen as individual difference
sonal mastery and notions of personal competence variables that determine the a priori probability of
(of self-efficacy). Indeed, when athletes believe in adopting a particular goal and displaying a partic-
their capabilities to accomplish given tasks, they ular behavioral pattern, and situational factors are
tend to perform better (Moritz, Feltz, Fahrbach, & seen as potentially altering these probabilities” (p.
Mack, 2000). Similarly, when people are more con- 269). From an achievement goal theory perspective,
a large body of research has sought to examine the The additional +1C component of the model
effects of motivational climates, created by coaches relates to the notion of co-orientation between dyad
and parents, that endorse either task-involving or members (see Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007) and
ego-involving goals (O’Rourke, Smith, Smoll, & originated out of the distinct types of perceptions
Cumming, 2014). This research emerged from the that exist in social interactions (see Laing, Phil-
work of Ames (1992), who contended that when lipson, & Lee, 1966; Levesque, 1997). First, social
coaches and teachers develop motivational climates exchanges encourage the development of an array
that endorse self-referent improvement and learning of direct perceptions, which reflect individuals’
(i.e., mastery) rather than normative comparisons perceptions of their own emotions (e.g., closeness,
(i.e., emphasis on winning), then people will “I like my coach”), thoughts (e.g., commitment, “I
tend to respond with greater task involvement, am committed to my coach”), or behaviors (e.g.,
more adaptive emotional responses, and greater complementarity, “When I am coached by my
achievement (see chapter 15). For example, research coach, I am ready to do my best”). Additionally,
has found that when sport teams operate within people develop meta-perceptions, which refer to
task-involving (or mastery) climates, they tend their estimations regarding another’s perceptions
to experience stronger beliefs in their collective or state. Accordingly, by incorporating this perspec-
capabilities (Magyar, Feltz, & Simpson, 2004). In tive into the 3C model, it also became possible to
sum, this body of research clearly emphasizes that assess dyad members’ meta-perceptions regarding
coaches and teachers should develop motivational closeness (e.g., “My coach likes me”), commitment
climates that emphasize the importance of personal (e.g., “My coach is committed to me”), and com-
improvement and mastery. plementarity (e.g., “My coach is ready to do his
or her best”). Jowett and Poczwardowski (2007)
contended that when people report congruent
Coach–Athlete Relationship Quality relationship appraisals and were on the same page
For over a decade, a sustained stream of sport-based (i.e., were co-oriented), this circumstance can
research has centered on examining leadership exert positive effects on both athlete and coach
effectiveness by understanding the dyadic relation- functioning as well as relationship quality. More-
ships that coaches form with their athletes. The over, they encouraged the assessment of different
primary goals of researchers in this area have been components of co-orientation, including assumed
to (a) define and assess coach–athlete relationship similarity (i.e., does an athlete believe that her or
quality, (b) explore how harmonious coach–athlete his coach views the relationship in the same way
relationships develop, and (c) identify the conse- that the athlete does?), actual similarity (i.e., do
quences that stem from one’s involvement in a members of a coach–athlete dyad view each other
high- (or low-) quality relationship. in the same way?), and empathic accuracy (i.e., are
Much of the research into coach–athlete (i.e., dyad members able to appraise the other person’s
one-on-one) relationships in sport has been con- perceptions accurately?).
ducted using a conceptual model developed by Limited attempts have been made to examine
Jowett and colleagues (see Jowett, 2007; Jowett & co-orientation within coach–athlete exchanges (e.g.,
Poczwardowski, 2007), known as the 3+1C frame- Jowett & Clark-Carter, 2006), but an established
work. The initial 3C model—as operationalized by body of work has charted how athletes’ closeness,
Jowett and Ntoumanis (2004) and the predecessor commitment, and complementarity perceptions
to the 3+1C model—incorporates athletes’ and align with personal and team-related outcomes.
coaches’ perceptions of closeness, commitment, The findings indicate that the fostering of positive
and complementarity. Closeness refers to a person’s 3C perceptions among athletes by their coaches
perception of the emotional and affective connec- may serve to directly or indirectly support adaptive
tion that exists within the relationship, commit- outcomes, including enhanced collective efficacy
ment represents a person’s desire to maintain the (Hampson & Jowett, 2014), task cohesion (Jowett
relationship, and complementarity relates to the & Chaundy, 2004), satisfaction (e.g., Jowett, Shan-
perception that the person engages in friendly, mugam, & Caccoulis, 2012), well-being (Lafrenière,
supportive, and reciprocal behaviors. Within the Jowett, Vallerand, Donahue, & Lorimer, 2008),
3C model, these concepts were broadly designed developmental experiences (Vella, Oades, & Crowe,
to capture the supportive emotions (i.e., closeness), 2013), and reduced burnout symptoms (Isoard-
cognitions (i.e., commitment), and behaviors (i.e., Gautheur, Trouilloud, Gustafsson, & Guillet-Descas,
complementarity) that help bind relationship mem- 2016) among athletes. If high-quality relationships
bers to one another. with coaches are able to support athletes’ training
experiences and competitive goals, then effective instructional and diagnostic skills (i.e., technique
leadership may rely, in part, on coaches’ abilities to efficacy), and (d) foster athletes’ personal develop-
foster closeness, commitment, and complementarity ment and positive attitudes (i.e., character-building
with their athletes. Practical strategies for fostering efficacy).
the coach–athlete relationship appear in the sidebar Note as well that an additional dimension reflect-
Enhancing Coach–Athlete Relationship Quality. ing coaches’ confidence in their ability to prepare
their athletes physically for competition (termed
Efficacy Considerations: physical conditioning efficacy) was later added (see
Myers, Feltz, Chase, Reckase, & Hancock, 2008),
Modeling and Transmitting Confidence although this component has not always been incor-
Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in his or her porated in recent assessments of coaching efficacy.
capabilities (Bandura, 1997). In the physical activity Consistent with self-efficacy theory (Bandura,
domain, self-efficacy has consistently been found 1997) and guided by the athlete self-efficacy litera-
to be related to improvements in sport performance ture (see Feltz, Short, & Sullivan, 2008), Feltz and
(Moritz et al., 2000) and physical activity adherence colleagues (1999) contended that highly self-ef-
(McAuley & Blissmer, 2000). In this section we ficacious coaches display adaptive instructional
provide a brief synopsis of the literature that has methods and a positive attitude toward their role.
examined the efficacy beliefs held by coaches and Research has shown that high-efficacy coaches, as
exercise instructors, as well as the ways in which compared with their low-efficacy counterparts, pro-
these social agents promote the efficacy beliefs of vide more social support (e.g., Sullivan, Paquette,
others (i.e., athletes, exercisers). Holt, & Bloom, 2012), report greater commitment
to their role (e.g., Kent & Sullivan, 2003; Sullivan
Coaches’ Confidence in Their Own Abilities & Kent, 2003), and use more effective instructional
Rooted in established teacher efficacy frameworks behavior, such as the provision of efficacy-enhanc-
(e.g., Denham & Michael, 1981; Fuller, Wood, ing behaviors and positive feedback (e.g., Myers,
Rapport, & Dornbusch, 1982), Feltz and colleagues Vargas-Tonsing, & Feltz, 2005; Sullivan & Kent,
(Feltz et al., 1999) forwarded a conceptual model 2003). In addition to these intrapersonal outcomes
for the study of coaches’ self-efficacy beliefs (i.e., for the coach, Feltz and colleagues posited that
coaching efficacy). Defined as “the extent to which coaches’ efficacy beliefs may also engender positive
coaches believe they have the capacity to affect the responses among their athletes. For example, higher
learning and performance of their athletes” (Feltz, levels of coaching efficacy have been positively cor-
et al., 1999, p.765), coaching efficacy was proposed related with athletes’ collective efficacy judgments
to consist of four subdimensions underlying a global (Vargas-Tonsing, Warners, & Feltz, 2003), as well as
total coaching efficacy construct. Specifically, Feltz with elevated athlete performance and satisfaction
and colleagues (1999) theorized that coaching with their coach (Myers et al., 2005).
efficacy is represented by coaches’ confidence in Research into coach–athlete relationship pro-
their abilities to (a) coach during competition and cesses has demonstrated that coach efficacy beliefs
affect successful performance (i.e., game strategy may shape athlete outcomes, at least in part,
efficacy), (b) support the psychological states of through interpersonal appraisals that athletes form
their athletes (i.e., motivation efficacy), (c) maintain about their coaches. For example, Jackson and
Enhancing Coach–Athlete Relationship Quality
In light of evidence for high-quality coach–athlete relationships facilitating adaptive athlete outcomes, from a practical
perspective coaches are encouraged to focus on promoting cooperation, individual effort, and equal recognition, as
well as to cater to athletes’ needs for autonomy (e.g., providing choice and rationale). For example, athletes could
be actively involved in decision-making processes (with regard to training, strategies, and competition) and, in the
context of team sports, the management structure of the team (see Hodge et al., 2014). Coaches also are encour-
aged to communicate their positive relationship perceptions with athletes, given that athlete appraisals of coach
relationship perceptions (i.e., athletes’ 3C metaperceptions) align positively with athlete satisfaction (e.g., Lorimer
& Jowett, 2009; Jowett, 2009). This goal can be accomplished by providing feedback (catching athletes doing the
right thing) and simply by letting them know how well they are performing.
Beauchamp (2010) reported that elite athletes expe- points toward two relational efficacy constructs
rienced greater motivation and self-efficacy, as well that skilled coaches or instructors may be able to
as more positive relationship outcomes (e.g., rela- foster among their athletes and exercisers. These
tionship satisfaction and commitment, attentive- constructs are referred to as other-efficacy (or proxy
ness to their coach), when they estimated (rightly efficacy) and relation-inferred self-efficacy (see Lent
or wrongly) that their coach believed strongly in & Lopez, 2002).
their own ability (i.e., when they believed that their Other-efficacy reflects the degree of confidence
coach was highly self-efficacious). These findings that one person has in another’s capabilities (e.g.,
indicate that athletes filter their coaches’ verbal an athlete’s confidence in his or her coach’s ability),
and nonverbal cues to arrive at an estimation of and proxy efficacy is considered a specific type of
how (self-) confident their coach is (e.g., “My coach other-efficacy that has been studied in situations
seems really confident in herself at the moment . . in which one person relies on another’s help in
.”) and that this appraisal may act as a perceptual regulating or maintaining a course of action (e.g.,
mechanism that reinforces athlete functioning (“. . . rehabilitation relationships between therapist and
and that makes me feel more confident about what client). Nonetheless, studies testing the predictive
I’m doing”). In sum, the work in this area illus- effects of other-efficacy and proxy efficacy, as well
trates that in addition to driving coach behavior, as related work focusing on athlete perceptions
self-efficacious coaches may also activate desirable of coaching competency (Myers, Beauchamp, &
outcomes for athletes because athletes believe that Chase, 2011), have demonstrated that when athletes
they are working under a highly confident coach. or exercisers believe that they are working under
In light of the research just reviewed, it is import- a highly capable leader, this belief may promote
ant to outline the ways in which coaches derive con- greater self-efficacy and motivation, along with
fidence in their ability. Within their original model, more positive interpersonal exchanges (Jackson,
Feltz et al. (1999) identified a number of antecedent Grove, & Beauchamp, 2010). In a similar regard,
variables that might contribute to coaches’ efficacy when leaders believe in their followers’ capabilities
beliefs, including their experience, career win- (when coaches believe in their athletes), this belief
ning percentage, and the perceived ability of their has been found to have notable transmission effects
team. Subsequent studies have provided support for followers. For example, in a recent experimental
for these antecedents (e.g., vis-à-vis team ability, study involving basketball teams, Fransen, Haslam,
winning percentage, coaching experience; Kavus- et al. (2015) demonstrated that when (confederate)
sanu, Boardley, Jutkiewicz, Vincent, & Ring, 2008; athlete leaders displayed greater confidence in their
Myers et al., 2005), as well as evidence of additional team, a contagion effect resulted, whereby team
sources of coaching efficacy, including one’s per- members became more confident in themselves,
sonal competing experience (Chase, Feltz, Hayashi, and that this effect was partially mediated by
& Helper, 2005; Sullivan, Gee, & Feltz, 2006), the improvements in team identification. In addition,
use of visualization techniques (Short, Smiley, & when leaders expressed high team confidence, team
Ross-Stewart, 2005), perceptions of support from members’ performance increased during the exper-
players (Chase et al., 2005) and the community iment, but when leaders expressed low confidence,
(Myers et al., 2005), and participation in coach team members’ performance decreased.
education programs (Malete & Feltz, 2000; Sullivan Methods for modifying other-efficacy beliefs
et al., 2012). Although some of these sources cannot have to date received limited attention using
be readily manipulated through intervention (e.g., controlled experimental (or intervention-based)
competing and coaching experience), others are designs. But evidence indicates that certain sources
more malleable and offer promise for those seeking underlie favorable other-efficacy (and proxy effi-
to promote coaching efficacy beliefs through train- cacy) perceptions. Having conducted interviews
ing and coach development initiatives (e.g., coach with members of elite coach–athlete relationships,
education, visualization, player and community Jackson, Knapp, and Beauchamp (2009) reported
support). that athletes were confident in their coach when,
among other things, their coach appeared to be
Coaches’ Promotion of Confidence in Others highly motivated, adopted an autonomy-supportive
Besides believing in their own capabilities, effective coaching style, and provided them with sufficient
leaders are also mindful (and capable) of promoting contact time. Similar findings have been reported
confidence among others. In particular, a growing in the few experimental manipulations that have
body of research in sport and exercise settings been conducted with the aim of bolstering proxy
efficacy perceptions. Bray and colleagues (Bray, of their own capabilities, stimulates motivation, and
Gyurcsik, Martin-Ginis, & Culos-Reed, 2004), for buffers against stress. Robust empirical evidence for
example, demonstrated that relative to exercise these effects has yet to be established, but support
class attendees who received neutral instruction, has been consistent for the role of RISE beliefs with
those who received enriched (i.e., encouraging, respect to perceivers’ confidence in their own abil-
attentive, interactive) instruction reported greater ity (e.g., Jackson et al., 2009; Saville & Bray, 2016).
confidence in their instructor’s capabilities (see In light of these findings, it may be beneficial to
also Bray, Saville, & Brawley, 2013). Also, Priebe, encourage leaders in sport and exercise settings to
Flora, Ferguson, and Anderson (2012) showed overtly transmit their confidence in their athletes’
that novice exercisers responded with heightened or clients’ ability, with the goal of affirming their
proxy efficacy regarding an exercise instructor RISE appraisals (see the sidebar Relation-Inferred
when they were informed that the instructor Self-Efficacy). Taken together, recent research
was highly recommended, had a successful track suggests that efficacy beliefs are important in
record, and created a fun in-class environment leadership contexts and offers some insight into
(relative to neutral descriptive information about leader strategies that may bolster others’ relevant
the instructor). With this in mind, one coach- or efficacy judgments.
instructor-focused approach for supporting athlete
or exerciser motivation, confidence, and well-being
might be to implement instructional strategies that Athlete Leadership
are designed to enhance athlete or exerciser con- The overwhelming majority of leadership research
fidence in the coach’s or instructor’s ability. Such within sport psychology has focused on the coach
methods might include providing autonomy support (Loughead et al., 2006). Some recent research,
and encouragement, overtly displaying enthusiasm however, has focused on leadership of an athlete or
and motivation, emphasizing fun, and making time group of athletes who attempt to influence others
for the athlete or exerciser. within the team to achieve a common goal (e.g.,
The second relational efficacy construct perti- Loughead & Hardy, 2005; Vincer & Loughead, 2010).
nent to this discussion, namely relation-inferred This work can be categorized into three general
self-efficacy (or RISE), refers to one person’s esti- areas that include the characteristics of athlete
mation of another’s confidence in one’s ability. For leaders, the quantity of athlete leaders within teams,
instance, RISE would reflect an athlete’s estimation and the leadership behaviors exhibited by athlete
of how confident her or his coach is in her or his leaders. Characteristics of athlete leadership can
(i.e., the athlete’s) ability (e.g., “My coach seems be considered with regard to either formal (e.g.,
to really believe in me”). Lent and Lopez (2002) team captain) or informal (e.g., veteran player)
asserted that when people believe that a credible leadership roles within a given team (e.g., Loughead
authority figure (such as a coach) is confident in et al., 2006). These athlete leaders either self-rate
their ability, this belief reinforces their perception or are rated by their teammates and coaches as
Relation-Inferred Self-Efficacy
Practical insight into how to bolster relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE) beliefs has been provided within both elite
and youth sport contexts. Athletes in Jackson et al.’s (2009) investigation inferred that their coaches believed
strongly in their ability when the coach displayed inclusive, positive, encouraging feedback and when he or she set
challenging goals for the athlete. These findings have been largely mirrored in youth sport contexts; athletes who
were interviewed by Saville et al. (2014) described a relatively consistent set of verbal (e.g., encouragement, effica-
cy-building statements) and nonverbal (e.g., focused attention, challenging opportunities) RISE-relevant signals from
their coaches. Saville and Bray (2016) also recently operationalized a measure of RISE-relevant coaching behaviors
within youth sport settings (e.g., “My coach tells me that he believes I can do well,” “My coach works with me one on
one so that I can improve my weaker skills”). They revealed that the frequency of detecting RISE-relevant signals by
athletes was positively related to athletes’ estimations of their coach’s confidence in the athletes’ abilities. Guided
by these (limited) findings, coaches and instructors may be able to transmit confidence to their athletes by tailoring
their feedback and behavior to promote more favorable RISE perceptions.
being skilled performers (e.g., Yukelson, Weinberg, 2012). As highlighted previously, when athlete
Richardson, & Jackson, 1983), have some level of leaders display confidence in their teammates, their
expertise playing their sport (Loughead et al., 2006), assurance can drive a contagion effect whereby
and play central positions (Glenn & Horn, 1993). their teammates become more confident (Fransen,
Lastly, athlete leaders are typically liked by their Haslam, et al., 2015). Similarly, when team captains
teammates (Tropp & Landers, 1979) and exhibit a display higher levels of transformational leadership,
strong internal locus of control (Yukelson et al., greater group cohesion can result, mediated by the
1983). More recent research disentangles the relative team’s improved communication processes (Smith,
importance of the various task, motivational, social, Arthur, Hardy, Callow, & Williams, 2013). In sum,
and external (i.e., demands related to the media, the results from these various studies clearly indi-
sponsors, and club management) functions that cate that athlete leaders use a variety of leadership
athlete leaders typically perform (Fransen, Van Puy- behaviors and that these behaviors are positively
enbroeck, et al., 2015). Specifically, Fransen, Van related to both individual and team-level outcomes.
Puyenbroeck, et al. found that the extent to which
athletes felt connected with their leader proved most
salient in relation to measures of leader quality. That An Integrated Framework
is, to be viewed as an effective leader, teammates
had to feel closely connected to that leader.
for Leadership
Another line of research has examined the quan- in Physical Activity Settings
tity or proportion of athlete leaders present within
sport teams. The research findings from this line As is evident from previous sections of this chapter,
of inquiry have shown that leadership from ath- a diverse range of approaches has been applied to
letes is a shared activity within teams and that all the study of leadership within physical activity
team members have the opportunity to participate settings. Considered in concert, many of these
in the leadership of their team depending on the approaches clearly share complementary compo-
requirements of the situation and the experience nents that collectively shed important light on the
and capacities of the athletes involved (Fransen, nature of effective teamwork in physical activity
Vanbeselaere, De Cuyper, Vande Broek, & Boen, settings. In this section, we draw from this extant
2014; Loughead & Hardy, 2005). For instance, using knowledge base to present an integrated framework
open-ended questions, Crozier, Loughead, and Mun- for leadership in physical activity settings. This
roe-Chandler (2013) asked intercollegiate athletes model is presented in figure 9.2.
to indicate what constitutes the ideal number of Consistent with research on transformational
formal and informal athlete leaders on a given team. leadership (Bass & Riggio, 2006), the MML (Chel-
Participants responded that over 85% of athletes on ladurai, 2007; 2013), social cognitive models (Ban-
a team should assume a leadership role for optimal dura, 1997, Feltz et al., 1999; Lent & Lopez, 2002),
team functioning. and personality approaches to leadership (Judge et
The third line of research in this area has sought al., 2002), considerable evidence exists to support
to examine the various leadership behaviors of the contention that leadership behaviors are shaped
athlete leaders. Using the LSS (Chelladurai & Saleh, by both personal (box 1) and situational (box 2) fac-
1980), Loughead and Hardy (2005) examined tors. For example, compelling evidence exists that
whether athlete leaders and coaches differed on genetic or hereditary factors (personal factors, box
the amount of leadership behaviors provided to 1) explain unique variance in measures of trans-
their teams. The results demonstrated that coaches formational leadership (Chaturvedi et al., 2011).
used more training, instruction, and autocratic Similarly, the results of a prominent meta-analysis
behavior compared with athlete leaders. Athlete show that personality factors are associated with
leaders, however, exhibited more social support, measures of both leader emergence and leader
positive feedback, and democratic behavior than effectiveness. Specifically, Judge and colleagues
did coaches. With regard to the correlates of athlete (2002) found that across several contexts (including
leadership, the athlete leader behaviors of training sport), higher extraversion, greater conscientious-
and instruction, social support, positive feedback, ness, more openness to experience, and lower neu-
and democratic behavior have been found to be roticism were found to be related to people being
positively associated with task and social cohesion appointed into leadership roles as well as measures
(Paradis & Loughead, 2012; Vincer & Loughead, of leader effectiveness. In each case, extraversion
2010) and athlete satisfaction (Paradis & Loughead, demonstrated the strongest relationship with both
(5)
Athlete personal
characteristics
(1)
Leader personal
characteristics
(3) (4) (6)

Athlete and
Athlete
Leader team behavioral
psychological
behaviors achievement
mediators
outcomes
(2)
Environmental and
contextual factors
Figure 9.2 Integrated model of leadership in physical activity settings.
outcome measures. Interestingly, a meta-analysis by Besides these personal antecedents of leader-

E6768/Horn/F09.02/565536/mh-R2
Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, and van Engen (2003) ship behaviors (genetics, personality, gender),
points to the importance of considering gender as compelling evidence also indicates that leadership
an additional individual difference factor. Specifi- behaviors are influenced by various social and
cally, in this meta-analysis, women were found to environmental factors (box 2). These include the
display higher levels of transformational leadership influence of formal training interventions as well
than men, and men were also more likely to display as other social agents, such as parents, within more
less effective leadership in the form of transactional naturalistic settings. For example, as highlighted
and laissez-faire styles. Although the effects sizes earlier, a growing body of evidence now supports
(i.e., differences) were small, this finding is note- the fact that transformational leadership behaviors
worthy, because these transformational leadership can be developed through intervention, such as
behaviors have been implicated in the prediction through the provision of professional development
of leadership effectiveness across life contexts workshops (Avolio et al., 2009; Beauchamp et al.,
(including sport). Notably, men are often selected 2011). In a similar regard, research conducted from
for leadership positions (in sport, as across other an achievement goal theory perspective found that
achievement contexts), and this finding points to coaches could be trained to make greater use of
the utility of considering the leadership behaviors task-focused (rather than ego-endorsing) coach-
of women that might be superior to those of men in ing behaviors (Smith, Smoll, & Cumming, 2007).
supporting performance outcomes among followers Besides the effects of these formalized training
(e.g., athletes). Finally, and highlighted earlier, a initiatives, research also points to the socializing
number of individual psychological factors can effects of various social agents, such as parents,
operate as salient antecedents of various leader- as well as the role of cultural factors. For exam-
ship behaviors. For example, work from a social ple, research by Zacharatos et al. (2000) indicated
cognitive theory perspective has found that when that parents appear to play a critical role in their
coaches are more confident in their own capabilities children’s displays of leadership. Specifically, in
(high coaching efficacy), they tend to make greater the context of youth sport, children tend to exhibit
use of effective instructional behaviors, including the same leadership behaviors that are modeled
efforts to bolster their athletes’ own efficacy beliefs by their parents. Finally, some evidence suggests
as well as provide positive feedback (e.g., Myers, that cultural factors affect displays of leadership.
Vargas-Tonsing, & Feltz, 2005). As a recent example, Hodge, Henry, and Smith
(2014) describe the shared leadership behaviors of 2011). In a more recent study, Benson, Hardy, and
a world-class rugby team (New Zealand All Blacks) Eys (2015) examined prototypical characteristics
that developed (involving both coaches and ath- of ideal followership (active independent thought,
letes) because of a long-standing cultural heritage ability to process self-related information accurately,
embraced by the team. collective orientation, and relational transparency)
In terms of those leadership behaviors (box 3) within the context of high-performing sport teams.
most likely to result in improvements in athlete, This study nicely illustrated the circumstances
student, and exerciser achievement, research when leaders are more likely to support the utility
(highlighted earlier in this chapter) points to the of proactive followership. In sum, the results of
importance of transformational leadership behav- these studies suggest that the effects of leadership
iors (Bass & Riggio, 2006), behaviors that target behaviors on athlete outcomes may well depend on
the basic psychological needs of those being led (i.e., interact with) the personal qualities of athletes,
(e.g., autonomy support, structure, involvement) exercisers, and students.
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2002), Across the diverse physical activity contexts
efforts that maximize the quality of relationships covered within this chapter (sport, physical edu-
between coaches and athletes (Jowett, 2007), dis- cation, exercise), achievement outcomes (box 6)
plays of confidence in others’ capabilities (by an derived from various leadership behaviors have
efficacy transmission effect) (Lent & Lopez, 2002), been operationalized in a range of ways. When
and the creation of motivational climates that target taken together, however, what is evident from the
self-referent improvement rather than norm-referent foregoing research is that when coaches, teachers,
comparisons (Ames, 1992). and exercise instructors make use of the behaviors
With regard to how leadership behaviors affect subsumed within box 3, achievement outcomes tend
athlete or team outcomes, our integrated model to improve. These outcomes include improvements
reflects a range of individual- and group-level psy- in student engagement (Wilson et al., 2012), more
chological mediators (i.e., mechanisms; box 4) that within-class as well as leisure-time physical activ-
have been found to explain the relations between ity among adolescents (Beauchamp et al., 2014),
leader behaviors and athlete and team achievement. improved exercise class attendance among adults
Examples of individual-level mediators include (Moustaka et al., 2012; Rowold, 2006; Woodgate et
improvements in psychological need satisfaction al., 2005), and indeed better athletic performances
(Ng et al., 2012; Wilson et al., 2012), self-determined (Charbonneau et al., 2001). In sum, we certainly
motivation (Charbonneau et al., 2001; Moustaka recognize that each of the elements subsumed
et al., 2012), self- and relational-efficacy beliefs within our integrated model is reflected in the
(Beauchamp et al., 2014; Jackson et al., 2009), various theories and models covered earlier in
and perceptions of improved relationship quality the chapter. By presenting a parsimonious frame-
(Lafrenière, Jowett, Vallerand, & Carbonneau, 2011). work that includes input variables (personal and
Examples of group-level (i.e., shared) psychologi- situational antecedents of leadership behaviors),
cal mechanisms include improved perceptions of mediating mechanisms, and boundary conditions,
team identification (Fransen, Haslam, et al., 2015), we hope that this framework might be useful in
group cohesion (Callow et al., 2009), and collective guiding evidence-based qualitative, observational,
efficacy (Hampson & Jowett, 2014; Vargas-Tonsing longitudinal, and experimental studies concerned
et al., 2003). with maximizing our understanding of leadership
Although an extensive amount of research in within the physical activity domain.
sport and physical activity settings has examined
mechanisms (i.e., mediators) through which lead-
ership behaviors might account for (or explain) Future Research
athlete achievement outcomes, some (albeit limited)
research has also examined potential moderators,
Recommendations
or boundary conditions, that potentially buffer (or Balanced against the accumulation of research over
enhance) the effects of leadership behaviors in the past two decades on the nature of leadership
physical activity settings (box 5). One study that within physical activity contexts, a number of gaps
nicely illustrates this effect shows that athletes with remain in our knowledge base. Therefore, several
higher levels of narcissism respond quite differently important avenues are open to be investigated by
to displays of transformational leadership than do future research. The purpose of this section is to
athletes who score lower on this trait (Arthur et al., highlight some of these gaps and opportunities.
One major deficit in the current knowledge base 17 studies included in the review used a small
corresponds to the paucity of leadership interven- number of theories or frameworks that guided the
tion studies within the physical activity domain interventions (e.g., achievement goal theory, trans-
that have used high-quality experimental research formational leadership theory, autonomy-supportive
designs. Some randomized controlled trials have coaching). Most of the studies focused on the effec-
been conducted that test the efficacy of teacher tiveness component of RE-AIM, and almost all the
development interventions in school-based physical studies overlooked the maintenance component.
education settings. These studies include inter- Given this result, Evans et al. (2015) recommend
ventions designed to support the development of that future intervention studies should contain an
transformational leadership (Beauchamp et al., assessment of each of the RE-AIM components.
2011), autonomy-support (Cheon & Reeve, 2013; A second gap in knowledge, and a direction for
Cheon, Reeve, & Moon, 2012; Fenner, Straker, further research, concerns individual difference
Davis, & Hagger, 2013), as well as interpersonally factors that might act as important determinants
involving instructional practices (Sparks, Lonsdale, of leadership, in the form of leadership potential.
Dimmock, & Jackson, 2017). In the exercise domain, For example, although some research indicates that
a few controlled experimental studies illustrate the personality traits such as extraversion might be
viability and utility of similar autonomy-supportive associated with measures of leadership effective-
exercise instructor interventions (e.g., Moustaka et ness (Judge et al., 2002), other individual difference
al., 2012). In the context of a peer-leadership inter- factors might contribute to the development of
vention involving sixth-grade students, the results effective leadership. One such factor is emotional
of a recent controlled intervention study tested the intelligence, which reflects a person’s ability to per-
efficacy of a Presidential Active Lifestyle Award ceive, use, understand, and manage one’s own and
program and revealed improvements in health-en- others’ emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). In one of
hancing physical activity among adolescents the few studies to examine this concept in sport,
(Barr-Anderson et al., 2012). Nevertheless, in spite Hwang, Feltz, and Lee (2013) assessed emotional
of the pervasiveness of coach education training intelligence among a sample of more than 300 high
programs and initiatives, few coach-development school basketball head coaches. They observed
programs have been evaluated using controlled that coaches’ self-reported emotional intelligence
experimental designs. was positively associated with their coaching effi-
To illustrate, Langan, Blake, and Lonsdale (2013) cacy and feedback or instructional behaviors. In a
conducted a systematic review of coach education similar study focusing on physical activity group
interventions that focused on the development of leaders, Magyar et al. (2007) also demonstrated
coach interpersonal behaviors. Only four studies positive associations between aspects of emotional
were included that used some form of control intelligence and leader efficacy. Chan and Mallett
group compared with an intervention condition. (2011) contended that the study of emotionally
One of these studies focused on developing a intelligent leadership may have implications for
mastery approach to coaching (Smith et al., 2007), understanding, among other things, coach–athlete
which resulted in fostering a team mastery climate relationship quality, communication patterns, coach
whereby the athletes’ subsequent ego orientation effectiveness, conflict resolution, and player or team
decreased and mastery orientation increased. The efficacy and performance states. Finally, evidence
three other intervention studies were based on outside sport and exercise suggests that emotional
coach effectiveness training (Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, intelligence may be teachable (e.g., Brackett &
1979). These interventions produced mixed effects, Caruso, 2005). Contingent on the findings of work
including a reduction in anxiety among athletes suggested earlier, it would be fascinating to explore
(Smith, Smoll, & Barnett, 1995) but a failure to methods for, and implications of, emotional intel-
increase athlete self-esteem or reduce athlete fear ligence training among sport and exercise leaders.
of failure (Coatsworth & Conroy, 2006; Conroy & A third worthwhile area for future research
Coatsworth, 2004). In a more recent systematic would be to examine additional styles or forms of
review, Evans, McGuckin, Gainforth, Bruner, and leadership beyond those highlighted in this chapter.
Côté (2015) investigated the extent that coach inter- As one example, recent work within the field of
vention programs reported on internal and exter- organizational psychology has sought to examine
nal validity using a RE-AIM approach (Glasgow, the contributions of authentic (Gardner, Cogliser,
Vogt, Boles, 1999; reach, effectiveness or efficacy, Davis, & Dickens, 2011) and ethical (Brown, Treviño,
adoption, implementation, and maintenance). The & Harrison, 2005) leadership. Although both have
similarities with transformational leadership, they Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the
are also posited to reflect different dimensions of classroom: Students’ learning strategies and motivation
leadership. In a similar vein, although the majority processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260–267.
of leadership research within both organizational Arthur, C.A., Woodman, T., Ong, C.W., Hardy, L., &
and sport psychology has sought to examine aspects Ntoumanis, N. (2011). The role of athlete narcissism in
of good leadership, future research that examines moderating the relationship between coaches’ transfor-
the dark side of leadership would certainly be mational leader behaviors and athlete motivation. Journal
of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33, 3–19.
encouraged. In a recent study, Carleton and col-
leagues (2016) examined the effects of abusive coach Avolio, B.J., Reichard, R.J., Hannah, S.T., Walumbwa,
leadership within the context of professional sport. F.O., & Chan, A. (2009). A meta-analytic review of lead-
They found that over the course of athletes’ careers, ership impact research: Experimental and quasi-experi-
mental studies. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 764–784.
abusive coach behaviors were prospectively related
to displays of athlete aggression and reductions in Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.
task performance within the National Basketball New York, NY: Freeman.
Association (NBA). Additional research on the effects Barr-Anderson, D.J., Laska, M.N., Veblen-Mortenson, S.,
of abusive (and other forms of bad) leadership would Dudovitz, B., Farbarksh, K., & Story, M.A. (2012). School-
certainly appear worthwhile. based, peer leadership physical activity intervention
for 6th graders: Feasibility and results of a pilot study.
Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 9, 492–499.
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10
Group Dynamics
in Sport, Exercise,
and Physical Activity
Contexts
Mark Eys, PhD  M. Blair Evans, PhD
Abstract
The present chapter focuses on group dynamics, or the study of “the actions, processes,
and changes that occur within and between groups” (Forsyth, 2014, p. 2) in sport and
exercise settings. Group dynamics can be observed across a range of contexts, such
as during a well-executed passing play among basketball players leading to an easy
layup, an exercise instructor motivating a row of stationary cyclists, or figure skaters
negotiating the shared time of their coach during practice. Group scenarios like these
incorporate some degree of interdependence, interaction, and social influence among
the group members. This chapter begins with discussion of the relevancy of group
dynamics across contexts (e.g., team sport, individual sport, exercise classes). Next is
a presentation of two frameworks that can be used to categorize important variables.
Specific variables within the construct of group dynamics (e.g., home advantage, roles,
norms, coordination, communication, cohesion, and team building) are then targeted
for more in-depth discussion. Finally, the chapter ends with the identification of future
research directions that may advance our understanding of group dynamics within and
across physical activity contexts.
171
172 Eys and Evans
D
uring the late summer of 2015, the Canadian processes, and changes that occur within and
men’s basketball program made a strong between groups” (p. 2). In the past several decades,
push for Olympic qualification with an understanding of group dynamics within physical
exciting young lineup composed of professional activity contexts has advanced considerably. The
players from various teams competing in the NBA objective of this chapter is to provide an overview
and European leagues. Clearly, when national of the extant research while highlighting pertinent
programs of this nature include athletes who are issues for future consideration. Specifically, we
brought together for a relatively limited period, the begin by making a case for the relevancy of group
group environment must develop rapidly despite dynamics across many physical activity contexts.
numerous challenges. In this situation, the coach- Next, we provide brief summaries of frameworks
ing staff and athletes were able to unite around that have been developed to understand group
their goal in a short time. As one player, Anthony processes, and we examine in more depth some of
Bennett, described, the critical components that are receiving research
attention. Finally, we conclude with suggestions for
It’s a great group of guys, every day just fun to be future research.
around. . . . .Just learning different personalities—
We note that what is covered in this chapter does
West coast, East coast, different teams, overseas,
it’s a good feeling. Everybody comes in . . . and
not represent the totality, or depth, of information
we click. I can say it’s pretty much a family. available regarding group dynamics in physical
activity. Texts devoted to this topic within sport
Koreen, 2015, para. 14.
and exercise (e.g., Beauchamp & Eys, 2014; Carron
This team-sport example is what typically comes & Eys, 2012), as well as group dynamics more
to mind when discussing physical activity groups generally (e.g., Forsyth, 2014), cover much larger
in action. But groups are found across a range of territory. Furthermore, we avoid replication with
physical activity contexts (e.g., exercise classes, information found in previous chapters of the cur-
informal running groups), and the challenges inher- rent text. In particular, the leadership provided by
ent in effectively bringing individuals together can coaches, exercise instructors, physical educators,
be diverse. For example, Muylwyk (2004) described and peers is a critical construct within the group
a sea-kayaking excursion in which the six partici- dynamics literature. But these topics are covered
pants differed in experience and skill level. When in chapters 8 and 9 and thus are not discussed in
conditions deteriorated because of high winds, one this chapter. Finally, a wide array of psychological
of the members fell dangerously behind. Muylwyk concepts have relevance for group dynamics (e.g.,
recollected, personality, emotions, social identity, and personal
growth) but are not explored within this chapter. In
While waiting, we discussed the idea that a summary, we restrict our attention to the group’s
group’s tempo should be determined by the
environment, structure, cohesion, and processes.
slowest paddler. . . . When at last Dave made it
to shore, he threw his paddle on the rocks, yelled
at us, and proceeded to stay away from the rest
of the group.
Relevancy of Group Dynamics
Muylwyk, 2004 (para. 5) Across Contexts
These short examples illustrate many of the Considering the historical roots of research and
issues (e.g., member characteristics, the group’s intervention involving sport group dynamics, an
environment, cohesion, communication, conflict) implicit presumption is that group processes are
that are examined through the study of groups or, most pertinent where true groups exist. Indeed, a
in other words, group dynamics. The objectives precedent was established early in sport and exer-
of this area of inquiry, shared among psychology cise research (e.g., Carron & Chelladurai, 1981) that
subdisciplines such as social, organizational, and group dynamics are most relevant on teams whose
sport and exercise, were described by Cartwright members must cooperate during group perfor-
and Zander (1968) as focusing on “advancing mances and are closely bound by traits that repre-
knowledge about the nature of groups, the laws of sent groupness (e.g., common fate, mutual benefit,
their development, and their interrelationships with social structure, group processes, and self-categori-
individuals, other groups, and larger institutions” zation; see Spink, Wilson, & Priebe, 2010). Logically,
(p. 7). More recently, Forsyth (2014) succinctly then, the rich group setting of team sport provides
defined group dynamics as the study of “the actions, fertile ground for studying groups because members
Group Dynamics in Sport, Exercise, and Physical Activity Contexts 173
cooperate during performance and represent many pulling them together, others may face imposing
of the core elements of belonging to a group. With competitive structures that serve to push them
this in mind, much of our current understanding apart. Such variability from one group to another
of sport group dynamics was generated through provides an opportunity to adopt an integrative
studies featuring competitive team sports in early approach that involves studying group dynamics
adulthood or late adolescence (e.g., 18 to 30 years across many contexts—providing contrasts across
of age; Eys, Lougheed, Bray, & Carron, 2009). different forms of groups that will allow contempo-
More recently, however, research studies have rary researchers to ask an array of novel questions.
shown that meaningful group experiences can be In the following section of this chapter, an overview
found in many physical activity settings, such as is provided of two frameworks that can be used to
fitness classes and running groups (Burke, Carron, understand the variety of topics housed under the
Eys, Ntoumanis, & Estabrooks, 2006). For example, general umbrella of group dynamics.
when exercisers rated their fitness groups higher
on the essential features of groupness, they also
reported greater attendance and more frequent exer- Frameworks for Group
cise bouts (Spink et al., 2010). This finding is inter-
esting. Whereas affiliations between members of
Dynamics in Physical Activity
fitness classes or facilities may involve weak social Several theoretical frameworks have been proposed
ties rather than group bonds, exercise programs to understand group dynamics within physical
and activity leaders have opportunities to integrate activity. The broadest framework is provided by
group processes in their programs (e.g., requiring Carron and Eys (2012) to situate the numerous
cooperation among members or developing a team concepts examined in this field. As figure 10.1
name). Positive experiences in these settings can, illustrates, the attributes of group members and
in turn, elicit potent exercise motivation. Therefore, the group’s environment are proposed to underpin
group-centered motives should be considered as important structural aspects of the group, the unity
potential active ingredients in physical activity of its members (i.e., group cohesion), and group
promotion (Estabrooks, Harden, & Burke, 2012). processes. Outcomes that arise are relevant at both
As noted earlier in this section, much of the early the individual and group level.
research on group dynamics within the sport setting In regard to specific components of the Carron
focused primarily on team sports (e.g., football, and Eys (2012) framework, member attributes refer
hockey). More recent research, however, indicates to the skills that individuals bring to the group, as
that teammate interactions are a vital aspect of well as their personalities, experiences, and phys-
some individual-sport athletes’ competitive lives ical attributes (to list just a few attributes). Carron
as well (Evans, Eys, & Wolf, 2013), even though and Eys suggest that these attributes need to be
individual-sport athletes are seldom required to considered not only in terms of how much they are
cooperate during performances. This finding sug- present in a group but also whether variability and
gests the potential for individual-sport teams to compatibility is sufficient (or excessive). Features of
involve other forms of interdependence, whereby the group environment that have been considered
teammates contribute to shared objectives (e.g., include the size of the group as well as territoriality
team titles) or depend on shared resources (e.g., (e.g., whether a team plays home or away). From a
coaches, training facilities, equipment), and may structural standpoint, the number and quality of
even engage in competition against one another leaders in the group, status hierarchies, the provi-
(Evans, Eys, & Bruner, 2012). Taken from this sion and execution of role responsibilities, and the
perspective, individual sport provides a unique type and degree of adherence to normative values
research setting because involvement can range provide the foundation for ongoing group percep-
from being completely solitary to participating in tions (e.g., cohesion) and processes (e.g., commu-
a collective, team-focused experience. nication, conflict, and coordination). Finally, the
Considering these varying streams of research, dynamics of the group will influence both group
group dynamics are evident in virtually all contexts (e.g., performance, ongoing stability, and so on) and
related to physical activity—even in groups whose individual outcomes (e.g., satisfaction, retention,
members customarily have few observable ties that individual performance, and so on).
bind them. Note, however, that group dynamics will The Carron and Eys (2012) framework provides
vary as a function of the context. Whereas members an inclusive perspective on group dynamics across
in one type of group might face social structures many contexts within the sport and physical
174 Eys and Evans
Member Individual
attributes outcomes
Group Group Group

structure cohesion processes
Group Team
environment outcomes
Figure 10.1 A conceptual framework of group dynamics in sport.

Reprinted from A. V. Carron and M. A. Eys, Group dynamics in sport, 4th ed., (FIT: Morgantown, WV, 2012), 20. Used with permission from
the publisher.
E6768/Horn/F10.01/565537/mh-R2
a ctivity field. Recently, more specific frameworks In all, these frameworks allow greater under-
have been developed that focus on important standing of the complexity of group dynamics and
subcomponents to guide group research. McEwan the breadth of topics that can be considered in this
and Beauchamp (2014), for example, developed a field. Thus, they certainly can be, and already have
framework for examining the concept of teamwork. been, used to examine group processes across many
Specifically, these researchers suggested that indi- different contexts.
vidual (e.g., group member attributes), team (e.g.,
group size), and external (e.g., organizational
resources) inputs affect individual and team outputs Critical Components
through a series of mediating teamwork behaviors.
Some of the teamwork behaviors are proposed to
of Group Dynamics
target the maintenance of the group (e.g., through In this section, we use figure 10.1 to explore recent
reducing conflict), whereas others focus on perfor- research that has been conducted on targeted vari-
mance issues. McEwan and Beauchamp outlined ables related to the group’s environment (e.g., home
that performance-related behaviors are dedicated to advantage), structure (e.g., roles, norms), cohesion,
and processes (e.g., coordination, communication,
• preparation (e.g., goal setting and other ana- and team building).
lytical activities),
• execution (e.g., communication and coordi-
nation),
Group Environment
• evaluation (e.g., monitoring activities assess- Although several contextual variables (e.g., group
ing actual performance versus initial objec- size, cultural backdrop) are of interest with respect
tives), and to the group’s environment, the effect of game
• adjustment (e.g., developing strategies to location remains one of the most discussed both
overcome obstacles or challenges). in the popular media and within sport psychol-
ogy research. For example, in reference to the
As a final component of this framework, perceptions playoff aspirations of the 2015 Toronto Blue Jays
of cohesion and collective efficacy are thought to be professional baseball team, general manager Alex
emergent states that influence and are influenced Anthopoulos noted, “Home field for us with the
by the previously mentioned behaviors. environment we have at that stadium . . . everybody
across the league is talking about what an unbe- more pronounced as the number of time zones
lievable environment it is, to have a dome, playing traveled increases for the opposition. In the case
conditions . . . it’s a big advantage for us” (Whyno, of rule variations, Courneya and Carron (1990) did
2015, para. 16). Courneya and Carron (1992) gener- not find support for the notion that batting last was
ally defined the home advantage as the tendency for advantageous to home teams in slow-pitch softball,
home teams to win over 50% of games played. This but Liardi and Carron (2011) did show that face-offs
tendency is incredibly consistent; evidence stretches were won more often by home teams in professional
back well over 100 years in professional sport. Pol- hockey (home teams are allowed final personnel
lard and Pollard (2005) reported that the winning changes, and theoretically better matchups, during
percentage of professional sport teams (e.g., base- stoppages in play). But in the hockey example, the
ball, American football, hockey, basketball, and advantage in the face-off circle did not translate to
soccer) throughout much of the 1900s ranged from team performance success.
56.9% to 67.4% and decreased only slightly when The preceding discussion represents a relatively
examined between the years 1998 and 2002 (53.7% cursory overview of home advantage research, and
to 61.0%). Although this advantage appears to be certainly the relationships are much more nuanced
present in many sports (including some individual than space allows us to describe. Furthermore,
sports; Bray & Carron, 1993; Jones, 2013) and for alternative explanations over and above specific
both men and women (Pollard & Gómez, 2014), game location factors may account for a portion of
soccer tends to display the greatest home advantage the advantage for the home team. In an excellent
over time. Jamieson (2010) speculated that having summary of the research on this topic, Allen and
a shorter season (making each game relatively Jones (2014) also note evolutionary (i.e., opponents
more important), greater crowd density, and more entering one’s territory evokes a natural protective
raucous fan behavior may account for the stronger response) and, relatedly, physiological explana-
home advantage in soccer. tions (i.e., increased testosterone; Carré, Muir,
The ongoing interest in the home advantage has Belanger, & Putnam, 2006) that could account for
spurred many research studies as well as much different behaviors at home versus away contexts.
speculation regarding why such a phenomenon Furthermore, conditions under which playing at
exists. Carron, Loughead, and Bray (2005) reviewed home could manifest poorer performance represent
home advantage research and generated a frame- additional twists on a popular topic (Allen & Jones).
work that encompassed the findings. In general, Clearly, this topic remains a relevant and interesting
their framework identifies several game location area of research for future work.
factors that have the potential to influence psycho-
logical and behavioral states of the major actors Group Structure
within sport (i.e., athletes, coaches, officials) and,
thus, ultimately to influence performance outcomes. Carron and Eys (2012; see figure 10.1) highlight
One game location factor pertains to characteristics the range of topics related to a group’s structure,
of the crowd. For example, the supportive nature including its physical (i.e., individual positions)
of a home audience has been related to the perfor- and psychological structures (i.e., roles, norms,
mance advantage (Boudreaux, Sanders, & Walia, status, and leadership). In the following sections,
in press) as has greater crowd size and density we briefly summarize literature pertaining to roles
(Nevill, Newell, & Gale, 1996; Schwartz & Barsky, and norms, because they have received recent
1977). A second factor pertains to the learning attention from researchers in sport psychology. As
advantage that may be present for home teams noted previously, those interested in issues pertain-
(i.e., athletes playing at home may understand the ing to leadership are directed to chapters 8 and 9
playing surface better than opposing players). As of this book.
possible evidence for this factor, both Pollard (2002)
and Loughead, Carron, Bray, and Kim (2003) found Roles
that the home advantage was slightly lower after As noted in the introductory section of this chapter,
professional teams moved facilities and, in the latter several structural components provide the founda-
study, that this decrease was more pronounced for tion for sport and exercise groups. Among these
higher-quality teams. components, properly distributing, transmitting,
The remaining two game location factors, effects and executing role responsibilities represent import-
of travel and rule variations, also have research sup- ant practices. Roles refer to the expected patterns
port. With respect to the former, Goumas (2014) pro- of behavior for individuals who occupy specific
vided evidence that the home advantage becomes positions in the group (Biddle & Thomas, 1966).
176 Eys and Evans
Athletes are often defined by the roles they occupy, As it pertains to the former, several informal roles
and these roles can be focused on task aspects of may emerge to fill gaps in group structure (e.g., a
the group (e.g., on-court leadership provided by a void in leadership). In contrast, negative informal
captain) or on maintaining harmony among group roles (e.g., a team cancer; Cope, Eys, Schinke, &
members (e.g., a social organizer). Furthermore, Bosselut, 2010) function to disrupt the group and
group member roles can arise either through formal resist its formal structure (Hare, 1994; Homans,
means (e.g., a coach assigns specific responsibilities 1950). Interesting research questions remain with
to an athlete) or through more informal mechanisms respect to understanding how these informal roles
(e.g., athletes gravitate toward particular roles develop as well as how to nurture or manage the
because of personality characteristics or interactions role occupants.
with other group members). In an exploration of Role-related research in sport has focused on ath-
the nature and transmission of role responsibilities letes’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses
in sport contexts, Benson, Surya, and Eys (2014) to role pressures. These responses include percep-
found some intersections between role type and tions of role clarity, efficacy, satisfaction, conflict,
development. For example, specialized task roles and acceptance (see the example in the sidebar The
were predominantly conveyed by formal means Importance of Accepting Role Responsibilities), as
by the coach, whereas auxiliary task (e.g., “energy well as role performance. For example, role clarity
players”) and social roles tended to arise through the refers to the degree to which athletes understand
informal process. Furthermore, leadership responsi- what is required of them within the team. Beau-
bilities and expectations were derived through both champ, Bray, Eys, and Carron (2002) suggested that
formal and informal pathways. athletes need to understand
The majority of previous research in sport has
focused on formal roles, probably for good reason. • the general scope of their responsibilities,
These types of roles are more overt and are intended • the specific behaviors necessary to fulfill their
to provide positive contributions to the group. Thus, responsibilities,
comprehending how these responsibilities are • the way in which they will be evaluated with
developed and transmitted is easier. For example, respect to role performance, and
Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964) • the consequences of not fulfilling their role
highlighted a typical role episode that is useful in expectations.
thinking about how role expectations are transmit-
ted. This role episode, when translated to sport (Eys, Initial research on this topic highlighted the impor-
Carron, Beauchamp, & Bray, 2005), is composed of tance of such understanding to athlete satisfaction
five events that occur when coaches communicate (Eys, Carron, Bray, & Beauchamp, 2003), competi-
role responsibilities to an athlete. First, coaches tive state anxiety (Beauchamp, Bray, Eys, & Carron,
develop expectations for each group member based 2003), and role efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002).
on team needs and individual characteristics.
Role pressure (i.e., the second event) is exerted by Norms
coaches and is subsequently experienced by the The preceding discussion pertaining to roles high-
athletes (i.e., the third event). The fourth event is lights the expectations that people hold for specific
represented by the responses of the athlete to the individuals. When extended to the group level,
role pressure she or he is receiving, and actual overt expectations for the standards of behavior of all
responses (e.g., role performance) at the fifth event members are referred to as norms. These group
are interpreted by the coach. norms exist for several reasons (Cialdini, Reno,
In contrast, although athletes readily identify & Kallgren, 1990). First, they serve as descriptive
informal roles within their groups, how coaches information regarding what behaviors are consid-
and teammates communicate and develop these ered appropriate (i.e., descriptive norms) and the
types of roles is appreciably less clear. Cope, Eys, relative degree to which they will receive approval
Beauchamp, Schinke, and Bosselut (2011) identified versus disapproval from other group members
several sport-oriented informal roles, including (i.e., injunctive norms; Cialdini et al., 1990). Fur-
mentors, verbal and nonverbal leaders, social thermore, norms also serve to integrate the team
conveners, comedians, sparkplugs, cancers or bad (Kiesler & Kiesler, 1969), because those who con-
apples, and distractors. Research in organizational form to the group’s expectations will be more likely
psychology suggests that the emergence of informal to be accepted as members and less likely to detract
roles can serve positive and negative functions. from group functioning.
The Importance of Accepting Role Responsibilities
Although athletes hold many perceptions regarding their role responsibilities, role acceptance (i.e., “the degree to
which an athlete is willing to fulfill the role responsibilities expected of him/her”; Benson, Eys, Surya, Dawson, &
Schneider, 2013, p. 273) is projected by academics and the popular media to be among the most critical with respect
to group functioning (Carron & Eys, 2012). As an example, Sunderland A.F.C. (Premier League football team) manager
Paolo Di Canio was asked to comment on the feasibility of successfully combining two high-profile players (i.e., Jozy
Altidore and Steven Fletcher) who occupy the same position for the club:
“I have to work in a psychological way,” Di Canio said, almost whispering. “Both probably are
thinking that they’re the main man up front.” . . . But the Italian [coach], looking my way in a
calm manner, thinks they need to accept their roles in order for the partnership to pay dividends.
. . . It seems as if the Altidore-Fletcher combo is a work in progress, but Di Canio believes it
can flourish and produce the goals Sunderland need to move up the Premier League standings.
Prince-Wright, 2013, para. 5, 14, and 16.
Within sport, norms have been described within that exercisers’ perceptions of descriptive norms
several contexts, including practices or training ses- pertaining to physical activity behaviors (i.e., how
sions, competitions, off-season training, and social other people are behaving) positively predicted
situations (Munroe, Estabrooks, Dennis, & Carron, their own adherence and effort.
1999; Prapavessis & Carron, 1997). These expecta-
tions also revolved around themes such as norms Group Cohesion
for effort, social support, punctuality, respect, atten-
dance, interpersonal communication, and attitude. Interactions between teammates and group mem-
Recent research by Spink, Crozier, and Robinson bers are complex and continually changing. Group
(2013) found that youth athletes reported exerting members may feel united and engage meaningfully
more individual effort when they perceived stronger with one another at one point in time and, later,
descriptive normative information. Further, Bruner, feel ambivalent about being within the group and
Carreau, Wilson, and Penney (2014) reported that struggle to cooperate. Group cohesion represents
males, as well as females participating in contact members’ perceptions of this ongoing flow of
sports, had lower normative expectations within group interactions and is specifically defined as a
their teams compared with other types of female “dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency
sport participants. Thus, perceptions of group for a group to stick together and remain united in
norms may vary based on gender and type of sport. the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for
Norms are also salient within physical activ- the satisfaction of member affective needs” (Carron,
ity or exercise settings. Investigators using the Brawley, & Widmeyer, 1998, p. 213). Through sev-
theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985) as their eral decades of research, group cohesion has been
underlying theoretical framework often consider linked to an array of individual and group variables
normative beliefs and the subsequent strength of and is a benchmark construct for gauging members’
the subjective norm (i.e., people’s ultimate per- ongoing perceptions of their group. Figure 10.1
ceptions of the pressures from others to engage illustrates the significance attributed to cohesion,
in physical activity) as a precursor to behavioral because it is a central concept for understanding
intentions to exercise (Symons Downs & Hausen- and describing groups. Furthermore, cohesion is
blas, 2005). Generally, perceptions of the subjective the most common group characteristic targeted
norm are weaker predictors of exercise intentions in efforts to develop effective groups (see Bruner,
than individual attitudes toward physical activity, Eys, Beauchamp, & Côté, 2013). As such, it is dif-
although researchers do find that perceptions of the ficult to understate the influence that the current
subjective norm are positively related to exercise conceptualization of cohesion has had on group
intentions (Dean, Farrell, Kelley, Taylor, & Rhodes, dynamics research.
2006). The importance of norms in an exercise con- The preceding definition supports many ways
text was further reinforced by the findings of Priebe of assessing and conceptualizing sport and exer-
and Spink (2012, 2014). Their work demonstrated cise group cohesion, although the most widely
178 Eys and Evans
cited model was developed by Carron, Widmeyer, coaches believed that cohesion was vital in both
and Brawley (1985). By studying individual group male and female teams, they thought that it held
members’ perceptions of group behaviors and a particularly strong bearing within female teams
their relationships with teammates, Carron et al. and developed unique strategies to elicit cohesion
(1985) distinguished cohesion in two important perceptions in female teams as a means of pro-
ways. First, perceptions about the extent of close- moting performance (Eys et al.). Whereas these
ness and cooperation within the group as a whole findings provide impetus to examine the forces
(i.e., group integration) were distinguished from (i.e., social, cultural, and evolutionary) that shape
members’ evaluations of how appealing the group the nature of cohesion in male and female teams
is to them (i.e., attractions to the group). Second, from a theoretical perspective, other findings
cohesion perceptions relating to team tasks during demonstrate the application of group cohesion to
practice and competition were distinguished from promote positive outcomes. For example, the advent
perceptions of the social realm. These distinctions of child and youth cohesion measures (e.g., Eys et
combine to generate four dimensions of group al., 2009; Martin, Carron, Eys, & Loughead, 2012)
cohesion: individual attractions to the group—task; provides opportunities to study how groups affect
individual attractions to the group—social; group youth development. Notably, youth who belong to
integration—task; and group integration—social. cohesive sport teams report a greater number of pos-
Although some disadvantages of high group itive developmental experiences (e.g., developing
cohesion have been noted (see Hardy, Eys, & social skills; Bruner, Eys, Wilson, & Côté, 2014) and
Carron, 2005), the bulk of evidence supports the treat teammates in more positive and caring ways
numerous positive group and individual outcomes (e.g., Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010). Furthermore,
that emerge when people believe that their team or cohesion can be promoted among young athletes
group is a cohesive unit. For example, a meta-anal- when coaches support a task-related motivational
ysis conducted by Carron, Colman, Wheeler, and climate (McLaren, Eys, & Murray, 2015). By reflect-
Stevens (2002) aggregated effects across a large ing on theoretical elements that shape cohesion
number of studies and revealed a moderate to large and applying cohesion to form groups that promote
positive relationship between sport team cohesion vital outcomes, group cohesion may continue to
and performance. Beyond performance, group be a central concept in group dynamics research.
cohesion influences individual affect and motiva-
tion. Research shows that athletes at recreational Group Processes
and elite levels derive more satisfaction from sport
when they belong to cohesive teams (Riemer & Ultimately, where the group is situated (e.g., home
Chelladurai, 1998) and that they are more likely versus away; exercise class or outdoors), who the
to return to their team in subsequent years (Spink, members are, the degree to which there is structural
Wilson, & Odnokon, 2010). In exercise groups, stability, and the amount of task or social cohesion
perceptions of task cohesion in particular have will all contribute to the operations of the group
been linked to adherence and motivation (Carron, (see figure 10.1). Several processes are necessary for
Hausenblas, & Mack, 1996). Considering these achieving positive individual and group outcomes,
benefits, researchers have identified constructs including the appropriate balance between cooper-
that help predict cohesiveness (e.g., group size; ative and competitive behaviors of group members,
Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron, 1990) and estab- common goal striving, creation of team-enhancing
lished a broader understanding of how group attributional strategies, coordination, and commu-
cohesion relates to other group components such nication (Carron & Eys, 2012). In the present chapter,
as role ambiguity or conflict among members (e.g., we briefly highlight the latter two processes as well
Leo, González-Ponce, Sánchez-Miguel, Ivarsson, & as the broader objective of team building.
García-Calvo, 2015).
Contemporary researchers have extended our Coordination
understanding of cohesion in both applied and Steiner (1972) highlighted that a group’s actual pro-
theoretical directions. As one example, quantita- ductivity is the result of its potential productivity
tive evidence that the cohesion-to-performance (achieved through the accumulation of resources/
link was stronger among female sport teams (i.e., talent) minus its process losses. Process losses, in
Carron et al., 2002) prompted Eys et al. (2015) this case, refer to decrements in motivation (e.g.,
to explore gender differences in group cohesion social loafing) or coordination. Eccles and Tran
through interviews with sport coaches. Although Turner (2014) defined coordination as “arranging
members’ actions so that, when they are combined, on intragroup communication among athletes. For
they are in suitable relation for the most effective example, Sullivan and Feltz (2003) developed a
result” (p. 241). At the heart of coordination is the questionnaire (i.e., Scale for Effective Communica-
degree to which individual group members share in tion in Sports Teams) that assesses communication
some common knowledge about what each person practices that
should do and when they should do it. Eccles and
Tenenbaum (2004) proposed that shared knowl- • are positive and negative with respect to con-
edge is important not only for performance (i.e., flict resolution,
in-process coordination) but also at time points • promote acceptance and inclusion of group
both before and after performance (preprocess and members, and
postprocess coordination). Important preprocess • enhance a sense of distinctiveness within
activities included planning (e.g., development of the team.
tactics and strategies for an upcoming game), deriv-
ing common goals and objectives, and allocating Research conducted with this questionnaire demon-
appropriate roles for all group members. As was strated positive relationships between intrateam
discussed earlier in the case of role development, communication and both cohesion (Sullivan &
these tasks can be challenging. Communicating Feltz) and role clarity (Cunningham & Eys, 2007).
clear role information and convincing group mem- As a final example, Lausic, Razon, and Tenenbaum
bers to accept a variety of roles within the group (2015) coded and analyzed the verbal communica-
yield a variety of cognitive, affective, and behavioral tions made between doubles tennis partners, as well
responses. as each person’s sensitivity to nonverbal cues. They
The postprocess coordinative activities predom- found that more successful partnerships employed
inantly serve evaluative functions (Eccles & Tenen- less non-task-related communication and greater
baum, 2004). In sport, examples include postgame use of statements that were encouraging, action
video analysis and debriefing sessions among play- oriented, and geared toward planning for subse-
ers and coaches. In exercise contexts, instructors quent play. The importance of appropriate ongoing
may seek feedback from class members regarding communication during the in-process phase with a
the setup of the class and their approach in getting larger team size (i.e., netball) has also been demon-
everyone motivated. These postprocess evaluations strated (LeCouteur & Feo, 2011).
also serve to inform future preprocess activities, Researchers have also focused attention on com-
which will all have an effect on how coordinated a munication between formal leaders and followers.
group is during its execution of the task. Clearly, coaches communicate extensively with
Finally, we also note that the coordination their athletes regarding a number of objectives,
activities discussed briefly in this section closely including instruction, feedback, strategy, and
map onto behaviors highlighted by McEwan and motivation (Mouchet, Harvey, & Light, 2014). In
Beauchamp (2014) within their framework of team- a similar vein, exercise class instructors need to
work and team effectiveness. In fact, coordinative communicate effectively to participants in terms
activities are listed as behaviors targeted toward of advising, instructing, listening, demonstrating,
the execution of team performance. Furthermore, and providing social support (Hancox, Quested,
these frameworks share the implicit understand- Thørgersen-Ntoumani, & Ntoumanis, 2015). The
ing that communication among group members is sidebar Communication Among Teammates high-
fundamental to coordination (i.e., across the phases lights practical considerations for communicating
of pre-, in-, postprocess coordination). To reflect effectively within sport groups.
further on this link, communication is discussed
briefly in the subsequent section. Team Building
Given the strength of the research supporting the
Communication value of cohesion, a logical application is to develop
Verbal and nonverbal interactions among mem- strategies that can be used within sport and exercise
bers are fundamental processes in groups, and the settings to ensure that athletes and exercisers have
resulting information that is shared and received opportunities to experience positive group effects.
helps facilitate task and social objectives. Research Such strategies are often referred to as team building
in sport and exercise psychology has attempted to (e.g., Brawley & Paskevich, 1997). Despite taking
address several issues related to communication. many forms, the strategies used to build groups
In some cases, researchers have focused strictly share a similar foundation, because they were
180 Eys and Evans
Communication Among Teammates
Being an effective communicator can be challenging. Eccles and Tran (2012) provided several communication tips:
• Use multiple sensory modes (e.g., verbal and written).
• Employ redundancy (e.g., follow up instructions with group discussion).
• Use enduring representation (e.g., playbooks create a permanent reference for players).
• Explain the underlying reason why a play is used.
• Promote better listening skills.
• Encourage questions.
• Ensure understanding.
Beyond these suggestions, the cultural background of the participants should be considered, because cultures
vary in regard to what constitutes appropriate and respectful communication (Schinke, McGannon, Parham, & Lane,
2012). Finally, social media affords creative opportunities to augment the frequency and creativity of communication
practices if used appropriately (Forrest & Bruner, 2015).
• derived from approaches originally designed to promote group structure (e.g., designing norms
to improve workplace groups and and assigning individual roles) and positive group
• closely aligned with literature on sport group processes (e.g., developing collective goals and
cohesion (Bruner et al., 2013). requiring cooperation). Another vital component
of this team-building approach is that a specialist
In general, group members exposed to team (i.e., researcher) works alongside existing group
building report that their sport and exercise leaders through four stages:
groups develop enhanced cohesion (e.g., Bruner &
Spink, 2010; Dunn & Holt, 2004; Newin, Bloom, & 1. An introductory stage focusing on the ratio-
Loughead, 2008; Pain & Harwood, 2009; Sénécal, nale and importance of team building
Loughead, & Bloom, 2008; Spink & Carron, 1993; 2. A conceptual stage when the intervention
Watson, Martin Ginis, & Spink, 2004). In particular, approach is outlined
the positive influences of team building on cohesion 3. A practical stage when the leader (with
within sport teams have been verified through the support from the specialist) designs the
results of a meta-analysis (Martin, Carron, & Burke, intervention
2009). Beyond cohesion, outcomes experienced by
4. An intervention stage when the strategies are
individual athletes following team building include implemented
improvement in performance, confidence, and
satisfaction (see Martin et al., 2009). These results Ultimately, evidence indicates that this process
are consistent with exercise interventions designed can facilitate cohesion and, in turn, promote desir-
using group dynamics principles. Participants able outcomes such as exercise group attendance
report increased perceptions of cohesion, along with (Prapavessis et al., 1996; Spink & Carron, 1993).
individual outcomes like improved satisfaction and L o ok i n g b e yond t h i s mo de l, nu me rou s
increased attendance (e.g., Bruner & Spink, 2010; team-building approaches in sport and exercise
Watson et al., 2004; see Burke et al., 2006). show overlap as well as distinct elements (e.g.,
The team-building approach developed by Spink, Dunn & Holt, 2004; Newin et al., 2008; Pain & Har-
Carron, and Prapavessis (Prapavessis, Carron, & wood, 2009). Figure 10.2 depicts four core features
Spink, 1996; Spink & Carron, 1993) is noteworthy that distinguish team-building approaches. First,
because it is built on a conceptual framework interventions differ according to the involvement
describing group cohesion as an output influenced of the specialist (e.g., researcher or consultant),
by three categories of group characteristics that can ranging from indirect approaches as described ear-
each be promoted using unique strategies. Specifi- lier in which interventionists interact only with the
cally, the approaches used to shape the group envi- group’s leaders (e.g., Spink & Carron, 1993) to direct
ronment (e.g., improving group distinctiveness and interventions when the specialist works directly
monitoring group size) are distinct from those used with group members (e.g., Yukelson, 1997). Second,
Indirect: Specialist works

Involvement with group leader, providing Direct: Specialist working
of specialist education and developing directly with group
strategies for the leader to
apply with the group
Group Group environment (e.g., distinctiveness and togetherness)

characteristics
targeted Group structure (e.g., role clarity, leadership, group norms)
Group processes (e.g., cooperation, communication)
Engineering
(architecture)
Type of
strategies
used to
engage group
Guiding Interacting
Single time point

Temporal
versus the
distribution
Lifespan of a group
Figure 10.2 Framework depicting four features of team-building intervention implementation. Within the figure, differences between
interventions are reflected in the way that the specialist is involved with the group, the group characteristics that are targeted, the way
E6768/Horn/F10.02/565538/mh-R2
that group members are engaged, and the temporal distribution of team building.
team building may differ according to the targeted disclosing personal experiences, adventure-based
group characteristics. Whereas broad approaches cooperation), or guiding members through a pro-
may equally target group structures, environments, cess of education (e.g., education and generating
and processes, others may target specific compo- goals with a team). Finally, team building differs
nents (e.g., exercise group composition; Beauchamp according to its temporal nature. Whereas certain
et al., 2015). Third, team-building strategies may interventions take place at single and potentially
engage the group in different ways, ranging from crucial points in time (e.g., Dunn & Holt, 2004),
engineering the structures surrounding the group approaches aligned with Spink and Carron’s (1993)
(e.g., creating a team name, creating shared out- framework are conceptualized (and encouraged)
comes, creating individual roles), to generating as processes integrated throughout the lifespan of
meaningful interactions among members (e.g., a group.
182 Eys and Evans
The nature and diversity of the process of team (McLaren et al., 2015). Whereas this example pro-
building has broadened substantially in recent vides evidence that the family of team-building
years. For example, group exercise interventions interventions could expand to include a number
have expanded to include varied populations, such of different approaches and goals, signs also indi-
as workplace fitness programs (Dishman, DeJoy, cate that the team-building literature is diverging.
Wilson, & Vandenberg, 2009) and postnatal exer- Notably, exercise researchers have introduced the
cise groups (Cramp & Brawley, 2006), to use cohe- term group-dynamics-based exercise interventions
sion as a mechanism to improve physical activity (Estabrooks et al., 2012) to describe interventions
behavior. In one case, the Spink and Carron (1993) that treat the group as the agent of change for the
approach was integrated within a large-scale com- promotion of exercise behavior. A gap emerged
munity intervention initiative that was titled Walk between these interventions and team building, in
Your Heart to Health (Izumi et al., 2015). In this part because they are adopted in a broader range of
initiative, group leaders facilitated a walking intergroup settings (e.g., ranging from cohesive exercise
vention that included embedded group dynamics groups to large communities) and as such may apply
concepts. The initiative was particularly notable group elements to promote physical activity in ways
because it was conducted in existing community that extend beyond existing team-building models
contexts (e.g., faith-based groups) that supported (e.g., Spink & Carron, 1993).
lasting social interactions. Because of the commu- Finally, it is important to design interventions
nity context, social cohesion (as opposed to task that can be evaluated and applied in the public
cohesion) facilitated participation in the interven- realm. Whereas the evaluation of team building
tion. Team building has even been applied in the continues to be a challenge (Bruner & Spink, 2010),
online realm, whereby in-person exercise classes rigorous intervention protocols are being conducted
with university undergraduates were supplemented with exercise groups (i.e., randomized controlled
with team-building strategies conducted over social trials: Dishman et al., 2009). In future research,
media (Forrest & Bruner, 2015). Estabrooks et al. (2012) recommended measuring
Team-building interventions have also diversi- potential causal mechanisms of group interventions
fied to adopt unique goals and theories. Focusing and conducting appropriate mediation analyses to
on a preventative function, Johnson and Chin (2015) identify whether they explain intervention effects
provided a commentary of how team building was on group members. As a further consideration,
used during the orientation and socialization of Harden, Burke, Haile, and Estabrooks (2015) called
new sport team members with the goal of limiting for researchers to develop interventions that have
harmful hazing rites. Regarding the adoption of the greatest potential to be translated in broader
distinct theories, Beauchamp et al. (2015) pub- group settings. Although team-building studies
lished an intervention protocol for an exercise are often designed with a priority on intervention
group intervention for older adults grounded within effectiveness, team-building interventions need to
self-categorization theory. Beauchamp et al. (2015) have the potential to reach representative samples
highlighted that future work with this protocol will and to be adopted and maintained over time within
contrast exercise groups composed of similar ages organizations (Harden et al., 2015). With this focus
or groups composed of similar ages and genders on providing evidence that team building is both
to study whether they improve group and individ- effective and scalable, research will continue to
ual outcomes compared with groups composed generate innovative intervention approaches into
of varied ages and genders. At this point, then, the future.
numerous other theories besides those that focus
on group cohesion may be important to consider
when developing effective group interventions Future Research
(Estabrooks et al., 2012).
Moving forward, defining what is (and is not)
Recommendations
team building will also be important. As one Much has been learned over the past several decades
example, widely disseminated coach education about group dynamics in sport, exercise, and phys-
workshops that are designed on the basis of achieve- ical activity contexts. Clearly, however, the need
ment goal and motivation theories to improve youth to build on this foundation continues. As Eys and
sport experiences (e.g., Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979; Spink (2016) noted, the study of group dynamics in
Duda, 2013) can shape group-related perceptions our field is “still in its adolescence in many areas”
and facilitate group cohesion on youth sport teams (p. 572), and researchers are encouraged to reflect
on research questions that can be examined across being used for a variety of research questions in the
three generations (Zanna & Fazio, 1982). These field of sport and exercise psychology (e.g., Myers,
include first-generation (e.g., describing general Beauchamp, & Chase, 2011) and allow targeted
relationships among variables), second-generation hypotheses to be tested regarding potential indi-
(e.g., moderators), and mechanistic third-generation vidual and group effects. Finally, team sports have
questions (e.g., mediators). The types of questions often been the common target for group dynamics
that are pursued should be consistent with our research in physical activity. As stated throughout
stage of understanding about any particular vari- this chapter, however, many opportunities are
able. As an example of first-generation research, available to consider social influences and group
early work on the concept of role acceptance and variables within formal and informal exercise envi-
commitment has focused on description (Benson et ronments, as well as in counterintuitive contexts
al., 2013), but future work should provide clarity like individual sports.
with respect to measurement and confirm proposed Another possibility for advancing knowledge
relationships with key antecedents (e.g., quality of of group dynamics would be to study the complex
coach communication) and outcomes (e.g., reten- network of connections that exist among group
tion or attrition). But in the case of a construct such members. Although social network analysis entails
as cohesion, which has primarily been examined seeing groups through unique theoretical lenses
using first-generation research questions, future (e.g., theories about the importance of group
researchers should study the boundary conditions structure; Borgatti & Foster, 2003), many avenues
and mechanisms of relationships to obtain a more can generate network data in sport and exercise
nuanced understanding of its importance and to groups. Indeed, this suggestion is not novel. Nixon
generate better intervention strategies down the (1992) noted the potential to use social network
road. analysis to understand the social influences that
Fu r t her more, i mpor ta nt a nd i nterest i n g shape athletes’ decisions about whether to play with
group-oriented research questions (for each gener- injuries. Although studying the personal networks
ation) can be derived by examining areas of study of unrelated individual participants as outlined by
beyond the subdiscipline of sport and exercise Nixon (i.e., ego networks) is possible, the likely
psychology (e.g., social psychology, organizational goal of group dynamics research is to conduct
psychology). As an example, Benson, Evans, and whole network analyses. To generate a network
Eys (in press) recently used organizational social- where most or all members of a group contribute
ization theorizing (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979) to the network structure, data could be collected
to examine the processes undertaken to integrate by surveys asking group members to describe rela-
new group members within sport teams. This tionships with others, such as asking athletes to
work introduced a relevant novel framework from indicate links with teammates that are positive (i.e.,
a different discipline (organizational psychology) friendships) or negative (i.e., enmities). On the other
to understand an ongoing challenge in sport and hand, networks can be composed using observation
exercise psychology. (e.g., using video to identify interactions among
The study of groups also provides unique and players) or even archival data (e.g., exercise group
exciting challenges with respect to our available members having similar attendance patterns).
choice of methods, analyses, and contexts. In the Indeed, countless potential network structures can
preceding sections of this chapter, the studies that be identified in a given group and in turn explored
were reviewed varied greatly with respect to the using social network analysis (see Borgatti, Everett,
approaches used by the researchers. These included & Johnson, 2013; see the sidebar How Can Social
correlational (e.g., Eys et al., 2003), meta-analytic Network Analysis Be Applied to Study Sport and
(e.g., Carron et al., 2002), qualitative (e.g., Benson Exercise Groups?).
et al., 2013), content review (e.g., McEwan & Beau- A final suggestion links directly to the focus and
champ, 2014), measurement (e.g., Martin et al., title of the present chapter: group dynamics. Over
2012), and observational studies (Mouchet et al., the past three decades, significant questions have
2014). For future research, investigators need to arisen about whether researchers have actually
keep in mind the nested nature of datasets that are examined group variables from a dynamic per-
typically obtained in sport (e.g., athletes within spective (i.e., identifying what group phenomena
teams) and exercise studies (e.g., participants change and how change happens over time; Cronin,
within classes or repeated measures nested within Weingart, & Todorova, 2011; McGrath, Arrow, & Ber-
participants). Multilevel analyses are increasingly dahl, 2000). This critique can certainly be applied
184 Eys and Evans
How Can Social Network Analysis Be Applied

to Study Sport and Exercise Groups?
Although this chapter makes a compelling case for studying whole network structures, the levels at which research
questions are asked should be considered (Borgatti et al., 2013). The lowest level is the dyadic level, which involves
studying whether connections among two given group members can be predicted using characteristics of one (or
both) members. For example, at the dyadic level, a plausible question to ask is whether stronger relationships form
among people of the same age or tenure within the group. The next level is the “node” level of analysis, which involves
calculating values that attribute a relative term to each group member based on his or her position within the group. A
common node-level variable is centrality, which can be assessed using varying statistics that represent the structural
prominence of a single group member (e.g., the extent to which a person is directly or indirectly connected with all
other group members; Borgatti & Foster, 2003). For example, a valuable issue to consider is whether running group
members who are most central develop stronger positive running cognitions. Finally, if enough groups are collected
to make meaningful comparisons, entire groups could be contrasted with one another according to their network
characteristics, such as cohesiveness (e.g., maximal ties among members) or shape (e.g., a core–periphery structure;
Borgatti & Foster, 2003).
to sport and exercise research. For example, do we provide a solid foundation for testing and employing
understand the development of cohesion across an intervention strategies that are practical for coaches
athletic season? Can we communicate, with any and athletes.
confidence, the interplay (i.e., the reciprocal influ-
ence) over time between dynamic individual char-
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PART
IV
Behavior
and Performance
This section of the text focuses on several dimen- as well as the documented consequences of moral
sions of behavior and performance in sport and behavior. Following this summary, Boardley iden-
physical activity settings. The chapters in this tifies some existing research limitations and the
section differ from those in parts II and III by more associated future research directions in this area.
strongly emphasizing the performance outcomes In his summary, he correctly notes that “sport and
and behavioral outcomes of individual differences physical activity represent contexts with consider-
and socioenvironmental factors. All chapter authors able potential for desirable and undesirable moral
in this section recognize the influence of individual behavior.” He ends by suggesting that researchers
difference and socioenvironmental factors but con- embrace new methodologies and theories as well as
centrate on the examination of the performance and conduct work in a wider range of sport and physical
behavioral manifestations of psychosocial processes activity populations.
in sport and physical activity contexts. In chapter 12, Rich Neil and Tim Woodman
Part IV begins with chapter 11, written by Ian examine the extensive research and theoretical
Boardley to review current research and theory knowledge base on the topics of anxiety, arousal,
on moral behavior in sport and physical activity and coping and how these specifically relate to
contexts. The chapter defines moral behavior as a sport performance. This is a longtime area of
“collective term capturing a range of purposeful interest within sport psychology, in both research
behaviors with potential positive or negative con- and practice. The authors begin by defining and
sequences for others.” This definition highlights the explaining the terms anxiety, arousal, and coping.
value of examining both prosocial as well as anti- This is followed by an overview (and critique) of
social behaviors within physical activity settings. the frameworks and theories that have been used
Boardley begins by providing a historical overview to study these constructs in the sport setting. Neil
of the research and theory on moral behavior. and Woodman identify concepts that can enhance
He then critically reviews the empirical research our understanding of why individuals may or may
conducted since 2011, emphasizing the influence not cope well under conditions of high anxiety
of individual-difference and contextual variables and arousal. Based on this critical review, they
189
190 Part IV
recommend directions for future research that have Finally, in chapter 14, Deborah Feltz and Stephen
the potential to fill crucial gaps in understanding. Samendinger examine a topic that is relatively new
In chapter 13, Mark Williams, Colm Murphy, to physical activity psychology: the use of exercise
David Broadbent, and Christopher Janelle focus video games or virtual-reality enhanced exercise as
on a topic that is new to this edition of the text by techniques to enhance motivation and performance.
examining the growing base of research on antic- They identify exergames as physical activities that
ipation in sport. In the first section of this chapter, are technology driven and that require physical
the authors identify some key perceptual-cognitive exertion in order to play the game. As the authors
skills and processes that underlie anticipation and note, the popularity of exergames for individuals
explain how these skills—postural cue utilization, across the lifespan has increased over the past
visual search, familiarity detection, and probabil- several years. They provide a summary of the cur-
ity assignment—have been examined empirically. rent state of knowledge on this topic as well as the
This section includes a summary of the research conceptual approaches (e.g., goal setting, self-de-
evidence to show differences between skilled and termination theory, flow, and group dynamics)
less-skilled performers in their anticipation abilities. that have been used to design and test the effec-
In the second section, Williams and his coauthors tiveness of particular types of exergames. Feltz and
discuss how training programs have been employed Samendinger suggest that contemporary research
to facilitate the development of key anticipation skills on this topic appears to focus on group dynamics
in performers. The chapter ends with a discussion of approaches. Thus, they examine issues in this area
the limitations in what we currently know, followed and provide suggestions for future research. They
by recommendations for future research. Although end by drawing on theory and research to identify
the primary focus in this chapter is on anticipation key elements that exergame designers need to incor-
as it occurs in sport contexts, the authors point out porate into their program features to enhance the
the potential for this body of knowledge to inform popular appeal of the games while also promoting
other applied domains in which decisions must be the health goals that can be obtained through the
made in unpredictable, dynamic environments. use of such games.
11
Moral Behavior
in Sport
Ian D. Boardley, PhD
Abstract
As social contexts with the potential to affect others’ rights and well-being, sport and
physical activity represent milieus highly relevant to moral behavior. This chapter opens
with a review of recent research investigating moral behavior within sport and physical
activity contexts, with a significant focus on prosocial and antisocial behavior. Following
subsections detailing studies centered on individual-difference influences on, contextual
concomitants of, and consequences of moral behavior, the review concludes with an
overview and discussion of the main implications and issues arising from this body of
work. Next, limitations in current knowledge are considered, critically analyzing major
shortfalls in our understanding of moral behavior in sport and physical activity. In the
final section, a range of original and inventive future research directions are proposed
to help inspire and direct future research on sport and physical activity morality.
191
192 Boardley
G
iven that sport and physical activity fre- versus deliberate psychological processes, studying
quently involve social interaction, few would potential interactions between cognition and emo-
argue against their inherent capacity to tion, and examining the role of moral reasoning
facilitate the development of desirable moral virtues and consideration of cultural influences on moral
(e.g., honesty, empathy, responsibility). But with behavior in sport and physical activity.
almost-daily media headlines centered on topics
such as cheating and aggression in sport, and use
of performance-enhancing drugs in sport and exer- Structural Development Versus
cise, sport and physical activity can apparently also
lead to undesirable moral outcomes. Accordingly,
Social Cognitive Perspectives
the preceding decades have seen a progressive on Moral Behavior
increase in theoretical and empirical work aimed at
explaining the psychosocial processes that may lead Although some adopted a social-learning perspec-
to both desirable and undesirable moral outcomes tive (e.g., Mugno & Feltz, 1985; Smith, 1974, 1975,
in sport and physical activity. 1979), the majority of researchers investigating
Previous reviews of empirical work relevant to morality in sport and physical activity during the
morality in sport and physical activity demonstrate latter part of the previous century grounded their
two clear and important research trends during the work in structural-developmental theories (e.g.,
early part of the current millennium (see Board- Bredemeier, 1985, 1995; Bredemeier & Shields, 1984).
ley & Kavussanu, 2011; Kavussanu, 2007, 2008, More recently, the volume of work adopting such
2012; Shields & Bredemeier, 2007; Weiss, Smith, & approaches has decreased, and social cognitive
Stuntz, 2008). First, they document a move away theory (Bandura, 1991, 1999) has become the more
from research solely focused on undesirable moral prevalent theoretical framework for research in this
outcomes (e.g., legitimacy of injurious acts; Brede- area. Given the focus on contemporary research
meier, 1985) to work that considers both desirable in the current review, an important first step is to
and undesirable aspects of morality (e.g., prosocial consider some of the implications of this shift in
and antisocial behavior; Kavussanu, 2006). Second, dominant theoretical framework. First, whereas
they illustrate a progression away from a predom- structural developmental theories highlight the
inant focus on moral cognition (e.g., Bredemeier importance of moral reasoning as an indicator of
& Shields, 1984) to one centered on moral action moral development (e.g., Kohlberg, 1984; Haan,
(e.g., Kavussanu & Boardley, 2009). With this in 1983), social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1991, 1999)
mind, contemporary sport and physical activity considers moral behavior to be more important.
morality research has emphasized the importance Although Bandura (1991) acknowledges that devel-
of understanding psychosocial factors relevant to opment of moral reasoning abilities is an important
desirable and undesirable moral behavior. There- aspect of moral development, he also argues that
fore, a primary aim of the current chapter is to higher levels of moral reasoning can just as easily be
present a comprehensive and critical review of used to rationalize immoral conduct as they can be
empirical work relevant to this topic published since to reason against it. As a result, studies grounded in
the aforementioned reviews were conducted. The social-learning theory tend to assess moral behavior
chapter begins with an identification and exam- as an indicator of moral functioning.
ination of contemporary research topics within Another key distinction between the two
the moral behavior literature. These focus on indi- approaches is the amount of importance they
vidual-difference variables, contextual influences, place on intention. Whereas structural develop-
and consequences of moral behavior. Based on the mental theorists (e.g., Kohlberg, 1984) consider
results of this review, the second section of this the perpetrator’s intentions to be fundamental in
chapter discusses significant limitations that exist determining the morality of an action, Bandura
with regard to the current knowledge base. Here, (1991) deemphasizes the importance of intention.
the need for further evolution of theory, continued In his opinion, although intention should be appar-
methodological advancements, increased research ent in the social labeling of a behavior, it should
in nonsport physical activity contexts, and more never be the defining characteristic. Instead, the
research with children and early adolescents is consequences of the action for others should be
discussed. Finally, in the third section, a series of a defining factor, because people experience the
novel and potentially significant future research consequences of an action regardless of the actor’s
directions are proposed. These topics include stated intention. Such a view corresponds with
investigating the relative influence of automatic Turiel (1983), who suggests that behaviors that have
Moral Behavior in Sport and Physical Activity 193
implications for the rights and well-being of others behavior intended to harm or disadvantage another
are those that belong to the field of morality. A final (Sage, Kavussanu, & Duda, 2006). Examples from
factor that distinguishes social cognitive theory sport and physical activity include trying to injure
from structural developmental approaches is that it an opponent or making disparaging remarks about
considers dual aspects of morality (Bandura, 1999). another exerciser’s appearance. Numerous meth-
One aspect—inhibitive morality—represents the odological approaches have been used to assess
power to refrain from acting inhumanely, whereas moral behavior in sport and physical activity, and
the other—proactive morality—denotes the power being aware of these is important. To assist with
to act humanely. Whereas structural developmen- this, brief descriptions of the most commonly used
tal theories focus primarily on the reasoning of approaches are presented in table 11.1, along with
detrimental behavior (i.e., inhibitive morality), the major strengths and weaknesses associated with
social cognitive theory suggests that both aspects each approach. The interested reader is directed to
need to be considered if we are to gain a complete Kavussanu and Boardley (2012) for a comprehensive
understanding of morality. discussion of this topic. In the following sections
The behavioral focus of the present review empirical research relevant to moral behavior in
reflects the volume of work investigating moral sport and physical activity published from 2011
action in contemporary sport and physical activity onward is critically reviewed, divided into topics
morality research, and is consistent with the key on individual-difference variables, contextual influ-
characteristics of social cognitive theory (Bandura, ences, and outcomes of moral behavior. The aim
1991, 1999) outlined earlier. Thus, moral behavior here is to identify and review studies that highlight
in sport and physical activity is defined presently the major contributions made by, and topic areas
as a collective term capturing a range of purpose- covered in, contemporary research.
ful behaviors with potential positive or negative
consequences for others (see Kavussanu & Board-
ley, 2012). Reflecting the dual aspects of morality, Individual-Difference
research investigating proactive and inhibitive
morality is reviewed; prosocial behavior represents
Variables
proactive morality and antisocial behavior expresses Past research supports the potential influence of
inhibitive morality. Prosocial behavior represents a wide range of individual-difference variables on
intentional behavior aiming to help or benefit moral behavior in sport and physical activity (see
another individual or group (Eisenberg & Fabes, Kavussanu, 2012; Weiss et al., 2008). In the subsec-
1998). Examples from sport and physical activity tions that follow, contemporary empirical research
include helping an injured opponent or providing investigating the relevance of the following individ-
encouragement to another exerciser. In contrast, ual-difference factors is reviewed: moral disengage-
antisocial behavior is characterized by deliberate ment (MD), achievement goals, motivation type,
Table 11.1 Approaches to Measuring Moral Behavior

Methodological approach Brief description Main strengths Main limitations
Self-report questionnaires (e.g., Questionnaire-based self-reported Convenient; quick; can cover Socially desirable responding;
Kavussanu & Boardley, 2009) behavior frequency a wide range of behaviors assesses reported behavior, not
actual behavior
Self-report scenarios (e.g., Kavussanu Scenario-based self-reported Includes contextual infor- Specific narrow range of behaviors;
& Ring, 2016) behavior frequency mation assesses reported behavior, not
actual behavior
Coach or teacher ratings (e.g., Hor- Questionnaire-based assessments Avoids socially desirable Preexisting biases may influence
rocks, 1979) of players’ aggression or behavior responding; can cover a ratings
wide range of behaviors
Behavioral observation (e.g., Sheldon Behavioral coding of aggressive, Reliable and objective Labor intensive; time consuming;
& Aimar, 2001) prosocial, or antisocial behavior assessment of actual doesn’t capture verbal behaviors
from video recordings behavior effectively; difficult to assess individ-
ual players
Fouls and penalties (e.g., Gee & Using official statistics on fouls or Availability of data; ease of Not all penalties or fouls are for
Leith, 2007) penalties as indicators of aggres- repeated assessments aggressive acts; officials may make
sion errors or be influenced by preexist-
ing biases
194 Boardley
attitudes, sportspersonship orientations, empathy, Increased MD is linked with anticipation of a

passion, moral identity, and social identity. weakened emotional response (e.g., guilt) following
Research on moral behavior in sport and physical transgressions, and it is through this blunting of
activity continues to investigate a wide range of negative emotional responses normally associated
individual-difference variables. Of these, MD has with harmful conduct that MD facilitates harm-
been the most frequently investigated in recent ful behavior (Bandura, 1991). In addition, MD is
work; qualitative and quantitative research links thought to be a weak negative predictor of prosocial
MD with on-field (i.e., antisocial and prosocial behavior, because increased MD is linked with
behavior) and off-field (i.e., PED use) moral behav- weakened self-regulatory processes that facilitate
ior in sport and exercise. Additionally, achievement positive social behaviors such as empathy (Ban-
goals and motivation type have been meaningfully dura, 1999).
linked with on-field and off-field moral behavior, Building on previous work (see Boardley &
whereas other constructs have been associated with Kavussanu, 2011 for a review), researchers have
on-field (i.e., empathy, passion, moral identity, and recently employed both quantitative and qualitative
social identity) or off-field (i.e., attitudes, sportsper- approaches to investigate MD in sport. Quantita-
sonship orientations) conduct. tive work has demonstrated strong positive links
between MD and antisocial behavior in team-sport
Moral Disengagement athletes from Australia and the United Kingdom
(Boardley & Jackson, 2012), team- and individu-
Moral disengagement is a collective term for a series al-sport athletes from New Zealand (Hodge & Lons-
of eight psychosocial mechanisms (Bandura, 1991; dale, 2011; Hodge & Gucciardi, 2015), national- and
see table 11.2 for definitions and examples of MD regional-level soccer and ice-hockey players from
in sport and physical activity) that operate through Switzerland (Traclet, Moret, Ohl, & Clémence, 2015),
• cognitive reconstrual of harmful behaviors and disabled and able-bodied U.K. team-sport ath-
into benign ones, letes (Kavussanu, Ring, & Kavanagh, 2014). This
latter study found that disabled athletes reported
• diminishment of personal responsibility for
less frequent antisocial behavior and lower MD than
damaging behavior,
able-bodied athletes did and that group differences
• downplaying of the injurious effects of trans- in antisocial behavior were mediated by group
gressions, or differences in MD. Further, MD has been shown to
• blaming the victims of harmful conduct or be a moderate positive predictor of susceptibility to
distorting the victims’ character. performance-enhancing drug (PED) use in team-
Table 11.2 Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement

Mechanism Definition Example
Moral justification Cognitive reconstrual of harmful acts into noble ones by Threatening an opponent to protect a teammate
portraying it as facilitating a valued social or moral purpose
Euphemistic labeling Selective use of language that cognitively disguises culpa- Referring to cheating as “bending the rules”
ble acts as less harmful
Advantageous comparison Comparing damaging behaviors with more reprehensible Comparing doping to use of class A drugs
acts to make them appear less harmful
Diffusion of responsibility Absolving personal responsibility for transgressive behavior Claiming that doping is not cheating because “every-
and its consequences through group action or collective one does it”
decision making
Displacement of respon- Minimizing individual accountability for detrimental con- Suggesting that cheating occurred because of pres-
sibility duct by perceiving it to be the result of implicit or explicit sure from the coach
social pressures
Distortion of consequences Avoiding or cognitively minimizing harm caused by one’s Downplaying the seriousness of injuries inflicted on
reprehensible actions an opponent
Dehumanization Depriving the victim of harmful behavior of human qualities Suggesting that foul play is OK because the recipient
and/or attributing animalistic qualities to him or her has been acting like an animal
Attribution of blame Perceiving to have been driven to detrimental conduct Being offensive about an exerciser’s appearance and
through forcible provocation by one’s victim claiming she brought it on herself by wearing reveal-
ing clothing
Based on Bandura (1991).
and individual-sport athletes from New Zealand 2015; Engelberg, Moston, & Skinner, 2015). Sem-
(Hodge, Hargreaves, Gerrard, & Lonsdale, 2013) istructured interviews with admitted PED users
and reported PED use in high school students from provided strong evidence that athletes consistently
Italy (Lucidi, Zelli & Mallia, 2013). Collectively, the use MD when explaining their reasons for using
findings from these studies support the contention PEDs; advantageous comparison, displacement and
that MD weakens inhibitive morality in sport and diffusion of responsibility, and distortion of conse-
physical activity. quences are the commonly used MD mechanisms.
In two studies, Stanger, Kavussanu, Boardley, Similar approaches have been used to examine MD
and Ring (2013) investigated whether the effects and PED use in exercise populations (Boardley &
of MD on antisocial behavior were mediated by Grix, 2014; Boardley, Grix, & Dewar, 2014). Here,
reduced guilt. The first cross-sectional study interviews with bodybuilders who had doped evi-
demonstrated that guilt partially mediated a strong denced use of all but two (dehumanization and
positive effect of MD on antisocial behavior toward attribution of blame) of the MD mechanisms, and
opponents in university team-sport athletes. The distortion of consequences occurring was used most
second study showed that experimental manip- frequently (Boardley et al., 2014). Thus, qualitative
ulation of attribution of blame (a specific MD evidence from research with sport and exercise
mechanism; see table 11.2) increased participants’ populations supports the potential importance of
reported likelihood to act antisocially, partially MD in aiding our understanding of transgressive
mediated by anticipated guilt. behavior in sport and physical activity.
In contrast to its links with antisocial behav-
ior, MD has shown inconsistent associations with
prosocial behavior in sport research. For instance,
Achievement Goals
Boardley and Jackson (2012) found MD to be a weak Historically, Nicholls’ (1989) achievement goal
negative predictor of prosocial behavior toward theory (AGT) has been one of the most popular
teammates in athletes from Australia and the United theoretical frameworks in research investigating
Kingdom. But no such effect was identified in team- motivational influences on morality in sport (see
and individual-sport athletes from New Zealand also chapter 15 in this volume). A key individual-dif-
(Hodge & Lonsdale, 2011; Hodge & Gucciardi, 2015). ference factor in this theory is a person’s tendency
Similarly, although Hodge and Gucciardi (2015) to define success as represented by two orthogonal
found MD to be a negative predictor of prosocial goal orientations. The first, task orientation, is the
behavior toward opponents in developmental and tendency to define success in self-referenced (i.e.,
elite team- and individual-sport athletes from New compared with one’s own past performances)
Zealand, this effect was not detected in team- and terms. Task orientation is thought to lead to more
individual-sport athletes from the same country desirable moral conduct because fair play leads to
competing across a range of competitive levels less ambiguous judgments of self-referenced perfor-
(Hodge & Lonsdale, 2011). Apparently, then, the mance over time (Duda, Olson, & Templin, 1991).
relationships between MD and prosocial behavior The second, ego orientation, is characterized by a
are not as strong or as consistent as those for MD predisposition to use other-referenced (i.e., com-
and antisocial behavior. The existence of moral pared with others in the competitive environment)
(e.g., helping others) and amoral (e.g., enhanced judgments of success. Ego orientation is thought to
self-presentation) motivations for prosocial acts promote undesirable moral conduct because such
(e.g., Carlo, Knight, McGinley, Zamboanga, & behavior can help gain competitive advantages over
Jarvis, 2010) may explain the inconsistent links opponents and therefore success in other-referenced
between MD and such behavior. terms (Duda et al., 1991).
Qualitative approaches also continue to be used Contemporary moral behavior research has
to investigate MD and immoral conduct in sport drawn on an alternative achievement goal frame-
and physical activity. For example, using stimu- work by applying Elliot’s (1999) 2 × 2 model of
lated-recall interviews with regional-level French achievement motivation. Here, the traditional
male soccer players, Traclet, Romand, Moret, and achievement goals described previously are bifur-
Kavussanu (2011) identified displacement of respon- cated into approach (i.e., striving to demonstrate
sibility and moral justification as frequently used competence) and avoidance (i.e., striving to avoid
mechanisms when players explained their antiso- demonstrating incompetence) forms. Researchers
cial behavior. Qualitative approaches have also been have applied Elliot’s (1999) framework to investigate
used to investigate MD and PED use in team- and both on- and off-field moral behavior. Regarding
individual-sport athletes (Boardley, Grix, & Harkin, on-field behavior, Boardley and Jackson (2012)
196 Boardley
investigated whether achievement goals predicted been used to investigate moral behavior in sport,
intrateam prosocial and antisocial behavior across and motivation type is considered a potentially
a range of team sports in the United Kingdom and influential factor. Originally, SDT (Deci & Ryan,
Australia. Structural equation modeling demon- 1985) made a distinction between intrinsic (i.e.,
strated engaging in behavior for associated pleasure and
satisfaction) and extrinsic (i.e., behavior driven by
• prosocial behavior toward teammates was separable factors such as external rewards or pres-
positively predicted by task approach goals, sures or to alleviate negative feelings) motivation.
• prosocial behavior toward teammates was Recent revisions of the theory, however, distinguish
negatively predicted by task and ego avoid- motivation in terms of autonomous (i.e., intrinsic
ance goals, and self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation)
• antisocial behavior toward teammates was and controlled (i.e., non-self-determined or con-
positively predicted by ego approach and ego trolled extrinsic motivation) motivation (Deci &
avoidance goals, and Ryan, 2008). Importantly, intrinsic, or autonomous,
• the effects of ego goals on antisocial behavior motivation is thought to benefit moral function-
were mediated by MD. ing, whereas extrinsic, or controlled, motivation
is thought to be detrimental to it (Gagné, 2003;
The findings from this study demonstrate the Ntoumanis & Standage, 2009). In a recent study,
potential importance of distinguishing between Hodge and Lonsdale (2011) found general support
approach and avoidance achievement goals when for these potential effects of motivation type in
investigating on-field moral behavior. work with competitive athletes from New Zealand.
Researchers have also applied Elliot’s (1999) Here, autonomous motivation was a moderate
framework to investigate off-field moral behavior. positive predictor of prosocial behavior toward
Barkoukis, Lazuras, Tsorbatzoudis, and Rodafinos teammates, whereas controlled motivation was a
(2011) studied the motivational profiles of elite moderate positive predictor of antisocial behavior
Greek athletes from nine Olympic sports in relation toward teammates and opponents; the effects of
to doping. Cluster analysis revealed that athletes controlled motivation on antisocial behavior were
high on task approach and task avoidance goals mediated by MD.
and low on ego approach and ego avoidance goals A separate study with elite Greek athletes sug-
were less likely to report having used PEDs than gested that motivation type may also be important
athletes who scored either high on all four goals or for our understanding of PED use in sport (Bark-
high on approach goals but low on avoidance goals. oukis et al., 2011). Cluster analysis revealed three
Chantal, Bernache-Assollant, and Schiano-Lomori- groups of athletes who were intrinsically motivated,
ello (2013) also investigated achievement goals with extrinsically motivated, or amotivated (i.e., absence
respect to doping, using Nicholls’ (1989) theory of motivation or behavioral regulation such that
rather than Elliot’s (1999). Here, physical education engagement in the activity is not approached in
students were presented with one of two scenarios a systematic and strategic manner; Deci & Ryan,
portraying a male 400-m runner either agreeing or 1985; Vallerand, Pelletier, Blais, Briere, Senecal, &
refusing to use anabolic steroids when encouraged Vallieres, 1992). Reported use of PEDs was highest
to by his trainer. Participants were then asked to in the amotivated group and lowest in the intrinsi-
complete a range of assessments regarding the cally motivated group, and significant differences
protagonist in the scenario to investigate the social were found between all groups. Highest reported
image of anabolic steroid users. Those exposed to use of PEDs in the amotivated group may be due
the scenario in which the protagonist agreed to to a lack of behavioral control and low perceptions
use steroids rated the protagonist’s ego orientation of competence associated with this motivation type
higher than those who read the scenario in which (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, & Briere, 1995).
he refused, suggesting that male steroid users have These factors may make amotivated athletes more
a social image characterized in part by a dominant susceptible to doping because it may be perceived
ego orientation. as a viable means of increasing competence and
regaining control of performance outcomes (Bark-
oukis et al., 2011).
Motivation Type Related work by Hodge et al. (2013) also iden-
Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985, tified a significant weak to moderate correlation
2008; see also chapter 16 in this volume) has also between controlled motivation and drug-taking
susceptibility in a sample of competitive athletes to assess implicit attitudes to PED use in 61 male
from New Zealand. But no link was found between bodybuilders. Implicit attitude scores were then
autonomous motivation and susceptibility to compared between users and nonusers of PEDs
doping. Overall, however, research grounded in (assessed by urine sample analysis); PED users
SDT suggests that autonomous motivation may be showed more lenient attitudes to PED use than non-
important for our understanding of proactive moral- PED users did. Overall, these two studies support
ity and controlled motivation for that of inhibitive the efficacy of BIAT-based techniques to assess
morality. implicit attitudes to doping and the predictive value
for identifying PED use in athletes.
Attitudes
Sportspersonship Orientations
Jalleh, Donovan, and Jobling (2014) investigated
predictors of explicit attitudes (i.e., an evaluation Sportspersonship orientations (Vallerand, Briére,
of doping based on thoughts consciously retrieved Blanchard, & Provencher, 1997) represent
from memory; see Petróczi, 2013) to doping with
elite Australian team- and individual-sport athletes. • concern and respect for the rules and officials,
They found morality (i.e., personal judgment on social conventions, and the opponent,
whether PED use is morally wrong or OK) and • a full commitment to one’s sport, and
reference group opinion (i.e., perception of ref- • the absence of a negative approach to sport
erence group’s judgment on whether PED use is participation.
morally wrong or OK) to be positive predictors
and legitimacy (i.e., perceptions of drug testing Recently, Barkoukis et al. (2011) investigated
and appeals processes) to be a negative predictor sportspersonship orientations as a differentiat-
of explicit attitudes toward PED use, which in turn ing factor between users and nonusers of PEDs
positively predicted reported PED use. Whitaker, in elite Greek athletes. Cluster analysis revealed
Long, Petróczi, and Backhouse (2014) then inves- two meaningful segments; athletes in the “high
tigated explicit attitudes to PED use in U.K.-based sportspersonship” cluster had higher mean scores
competitive athletes. In accord with Jalleh et al. on all dimensions of sportspersonship than those
(2014), this research demonstrated that favorable in the “low sportspersonship” cluster. In contrast
explicit attitudes toward PED use were strong with expectations, however, the two groups did
positive predictors of athletes’ willingness to dope. not differ in terms of reported past PED use. This
Researchers have also assessed implicit (also finding contrasted with those from a related study
referred to as automatic) attitudes (i.e., a collection by Chantal et al. (2013) in which the social image
of self-relevant thoughts regarding doping instinc- of an athlete who agreed to take anabolic steroids
tively retrieved from memory; see Petróczi, 2013) when encouraged by a trainer was characterized
to doping. For example, Petróczi et al. (2011) used by weaker sportspersonship orientations compared
a version of the Brief Implicit Attitude Test (BIAT; with an athlete who would not agree. The contrast-
Sriram & Greenwald, 2009) to assess athletes’ ing findings between these two studies suggest a
implicit attitudes to doping alongside explicit atti- possible disconnect between the actual sportsper-
tudes. To investigate response bias for explicit atti- sonship orientations of users and nonusers of PEDs
tudes, divergence or convergence between implicit and the way in which others view the sportsperson-
and explicit attitudes was compared between ship orientations of users and nonusers.
athletes who denied PED use but whose hair sam-
ples indicated PED use (group 1) and athletes who Empathy
denied PED use and whose hair samples supported
this (group 2). As expected, “deniers” (i.e., group Representing one’s ability to adopt others’ per-
1) showed dissociation between their explicit and spectives and to experience feelings of sympathy,
implicit attitudes, whereas “clean athletes” (i.e., compassion, and concern for others (Davis, 1983),
group 2) showed convergence between the two empathy has been associated with moral behavior
attitudes. This research highlights the potential in sport. Recently, Stanger, Kavussanu, and Ring
limitations inherent in assessing explicit attitudes (2012) experimentally investigated the effects
with samples that may be motivated to respond in of empathy on emotional reactions to aggres-
a socially desirable manner. More recently, Brand, sion (i.e., nonaccidental verbal or physical overt
Wolff, and Thieme (2014) used a pictorial BIAT behavior with the intention and capacity to cause
198 Boardley
sychological or physical injury to another; Husman

p investigated whether moral identity internalization
& Silva, 1984) in undergraduate sport and exercise inhibited antisocial behavior in sport and whether
science students. As expected, positive manipu- anticipated guilt mediated this effect. These stud-
lation of empathy resulted in stronger negative ies showed that moral identity had a moderate to
emotional reactions to images portraying aggressive strong negative relationship with antisocial behav-
sport acts and reduced likelihood to aggress when ior toward teammates and opponents (study 1), the
compared with negative manipulation. Further, the relationship between moral identity and antisocial
effects of empathy on likelihood to aggress were behavior toward opponents was mediated by antic-
partially mediated by anticipated guilt, suggesting ipated guilt (study 2), and experimentally priming
that empathy may potentially diminish aggressive moral identity reduced antisocial behavior, medi-
behavior in sport by influencing projected guilt. ated by changes in moral judgment and anticipated
guilt (study 3). Collectively, these findings suggest
Passion that the development of robust moral self-schemata
may deter antisocial sport behavior by intensifying
Passion represents a strong inclination toward the feelings of guilt that athletes experience when
a desired and valued activity in which a person engaging in such acts.
invests a significant amount of time and effort
(Vallerand et al., 2003). Further, passion has harmo-
nious (i.e., engagement in an activity that one has Social Identity
control over and is in harmony with other aspects Another aspect of a person’s identity relevant to
of one’s life) and obsessive (i.e., engagement in moral behavior in sport is the person’s social iden-
an activity that one feels internally or externally tity. Social identity represents “that part of an indi-
pressured to participate in and conflicts with other vidual’s self-concept which derives from his or her
aspects of one’s life) dimensions. Vallerand et al. knowledge of his/her membership of a social group
(2003) suggest disparate intra- and inter-personal (or groups) together with the value and emotional
outcomes for these two forms of passion; harmo- significance attached to that membership” (Tajfel,
nious passion is proposed to result in adaptive 1981, p. 255). Recently, Bruner, Boardley, and Côté
outcomes and obsessive passion to lead to less (2014) investigated the prospective effects of two
adaptive outcomes. Across two studies, Bureau, Val- dimensions of social identity on moral behavior
lerand, Ntoumanis, and Lafreniere (2013) tested this across a competitive season with youth sport par-
assertion with respect to moral behavior in sport. ticipants. The two dimensions were
In study 1 they found that obsessive, but not har-
monious, passion positively predicted self-reported • in-group affect (i.e., positive feelings associ-
cheating in paintball. In study 2, obsessive passion ated with group membership) and
positively predicted undesirable moral conduct and
• in-group ties (i.e., perceptions of similarity,
harmonious passion positively predicted desirable
bonding, and belongingness with other group
moral conduct in athletes from various sports.
members).
These findings suggest that differentiating between
the dual dimensions of passion is important when Structural equation modeling demonstrated that
considering how passion may affect moral behavior.
• in-group affect positively predicted prosocial
Moral Identity behavior toward teammates,
• in-group ties positively predicted prosocial
Moral identity represents the cognitive representa-
behavior toward teammates,
tion of moral character (Aquino, Freeman, Reed,
Lim, & Felps, 2009) and can have a self-regulatory • in-group ties and in-group affect negatively
effect on moral behavior (Blasi, 1984). Aquino and predicted antisocial behavior toward team-
Reed (2002) proposed nine traits representing a mates and opponents, mediated by athletes’
moral person (i.e., caring, compassionate, fair, perceptions of group unity around task per-
friendly, generous, helpful, hardworking, honest, formance, and
kind) and defined internalization of moral identity • in-group ties positively predicted antisocial
as the degree to which a person’s moral self-schema behavior toward teammates and opponents,
is considered central in defining the self. Across mediated by athlete’s perceptions of group
three studies, Kavussanu, Stanger, and Ring (2015) unity regarding social integration.
Contextual Influences prosocial behavior toward teammates, and in the

second study, relatedness satisfaction positively pre-
Because behavior stems from both individual-differ- dicted prosocial behavior toward opponents. Thus,
ence factors and the environment (see Lewin, 1935, based on these findings, need satisfaction appears
1951), contextual influences are another important to have more potential importance for regulation
consideration for researchers investigating moral of prosocial behavior than antisocial behavior,
conduct in sport and physical activity (see Kavus- and satisfaction of the needs for competence and
sanu, 2012; Weiss et al., 2008). relatedness is of greater prospective import than
Research reviewed in this section reveals that that of autonomy.
sport morality researchers are actively investi-
gating numerous contextual influences on moral
behavior. Although coach influences continue to Coach Behavior
be a common focus in such work, SDT appears to
be increasingly popular as a guiding theoretical A number of types of coach behavior have been
framework. Overall, this work has established the investigated for their effect on athletes’ moral
potential importance of both autonomy-supportive behavior. Hodge and colleagues applied SDT prin-
and controlling coach behaviors for athletes’ moral ciples to examine the differential effects of auton-
behavior both on and off the field of play. Moving omy-supportive and controlling coach behaviors
beyond motivational aspects of coach behavior, on moral behaviors in team- and individual-sport
Bolter and Weiss’ (2012, 2013) preliminary work athletes from New Zealand (Hodge & Lonsdale,
investigating specific coach behaviors relevant to 2011; Hodge et al., 2013, 2015). Autonomy-sup-
athletes’ moral conduct has made an important con- portive coach behaviors involve providing athletes
tribution to the field. Research has also supported with noncontrolling feedback, choice and rationales
the potential influence of morally relevant team for tasks, acknowledgment of their feelings, and
norms to moral behavior in team sport. Finally, the opportunities to show initiative and independence
reemergence of bracketed morality as a concept of (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). In contrast, controlling
interest and its apparent relevance to moral behav- coach behaviors are coercive, pressuring, and
ior, as well as its previously established relevance to authoritarian, and they seek to impose on athletes
moral reasoning, has resulted in some interesting a specific and preconceived way of thinking and
findings. But the general lack of work investigating behaving (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, & Thøgers-
contextual influences on moral behavior in non- en-Ntoumani, 2010).
sport physical activity contexts must be addressed Hodge and Lonsdale (2011) found that athletes’
to enable better understanding of moral behavior perceptions of their coach’s autonomy-support-
in all areas of sport and physical activity. ive behavior positively predicted their prosocial
behavior toward teammates and negatively pre-
dicted their antisocial behavior toward teammates
Need Satisfaction and opponents; effects were partially mediated by
Psychological need satisfaction is potentially motivation type and MD. Hodge et al. (2013) then
important for moral behavior because it influences showed that athletes’ perceptions of their coach’s
the type of personal motivation (i.e., autonomous or controlling behaviors were a moderate positive
controlled) that a person is likely to adopt (Deci & predictor of athletes’ susceptibility to PED use,
Ryan, 2008). For autonomous motivation to develop, again mediated in part through motivation type
the psychological needs for autonomy (i.e., a sense and MD. Most recently, Bayesian modeling was
of personal initiative and choice), competence (i.e., used to show that athletes’ perceptions of their
a sense of performing effectively), and relatedness coach’s controlling behavior negatively predicted
(i.e., a sense of connecting effectively with others) their prosocial behavior toward opponents and
need to be satisfied. If a context fails to satisfy these positively predicted their antisocial behavior toward
three needs, then controlled motivation may result, teammates and opponents indirectly via MD (Hodge
with potential detrimental consequences for moral et al., 2015). Further, athletes’ perceptions of their
behavior (see previous section). Hodge and Guc- coach’s autonomy-supportive behavior positively
ciardi (2015) recently tested these postulates across predicted prosocial behavior toward teammates
two studies with competitive athletes from New through satisfaction of relatedness and competence
Zealand. In both studies, satisfaction of the needs needs and prosocial behavior toward opponents
for relatedness and competence positively predicted through satisfaction of relatedness needs.
200 Boardley
A further approach to investigating the influence was found to be a moderate positive predictor of
of coach behavior on athletes’ moral conduct is to conformity to masculine norms. These findings sug-
identify and measure specific relevant coaching gest that moral atmosphere may promote immoral
behaviors. Bolter and Weiss (2012, 2013) adopted behavior through an influence on masculine norms
this approach when developing the Sportsmanship in sport that propagate masculine dominance.
Coaching Behaviors Scale (SCBS), which assesses
six categories of coach sportspersonship behavior. Bracketed Morality
Significant relationships with athletes’ moral behav-
ior were identified for four of the six types of coach A reemerging concept within sport morality research
behavior in high school and club team-sport athletes is that of bracketed morality, which represents the
(Bolter & Weiss, 2013). First, responding to players’ temporary adoption of relative egocentricity (favor-
sportsmanlike behaviors with reinforcement was ing one’s own needs over those of others) in sport
a weak to moderate positive predictor of prosocial in comparison with everyday life (Bredemeier &
behavior toward teammates and opponents. Second, Shields, 1986). Early work on this concept focused
deliberately teaching players sportsmanlike behav- on moral reasoning (e.g., Bredemeier & Shields, 1986;
iors was a weak to moderate positive predictor of Bredemeier, 1995), whereas more recent work has
prosocial behavior toward opponents. Third, mod- extended this early work by investigating bracketed
eling or demonstrating good sport behaviors was morality in terms of moral behavior. In two stud-
a moderate positive predictor of prosocial behavior ies with university sport participants, Kavussanu,
toward teammates and a weak to moderate negative Boardley, Sagar, and Ring (2013) found that prosocial
predictor of antisocial behavior toward opponents. behavior toward teammates and antisocial behavior
Finally, placing higher importance on winning than toward opponents were more frequent during sport
on good sportsmanship was a moderate positive participation than equivalent behaviors toward
predictor of antisocial behavior toward opponents. students during everyday university life; contextual
Thus, this initial work by Bolter and Weiss provides differences were partially mediated by MD and ego
support for the influence of coach sportspersonship orientation. This finding suggests that athletes may
behavior on their athletes’ moral behavior. suspend (i.e., bracket) their everyday moral behavior
when engaging in sport.
Group Norms
Two group norms investigated by Steinfeldt, Rut- Consequences
kowski, and Orr (2012) as predictors of immoral
behavior (i.e., intimidating opponents, risking
of Moral Behavior
injuring opponents, cheating, and intentionally An emergent area of research focuses on con-
injuring opponents) in U.S. college American foot- sequences, rather than antecedents, of moral
ball players were masculine norms and the moral behavior. One example is a study on sledging, a
atmosphere. Masculine norms represent an ideology cricket-specific form of gamesmanship (i.e., using
that promulgates masculine superiority by valuing, ethically questionable tactics to distract and disrupt
encouraging, and sanctioning aggression (Steinfeldt the opponent; Potter, 1947) in which crude and
et al., 2012). Sports that are associated with such derogatory language is used to intimidate and dis-
ideologies may become hotbeds for aggressive tract opposing batsmen (Joseph & Cramer, 2011). To
behavior because aggression is then viewed as a investigate the effects of sledging, semistructured
socially sanctioned way of obtaining privilege and interviews were conducted with 10 elite English
power (Kreager, 2007). Consistent with this propo- batsmen. Results revealed numerous negative
sition, Steinfeldt et al. (2012) found that conformity consequences of sledging, including an altered
to masculine norms was a moderate positive pre- perception of self (e.g., feeling insulted) and state
dictor of immoral behavior. The other group norm of mind and body (e.g., increased nervousness or
investigated, moral atmosphere, represents the arousal), and decreased batting ability (e.g., playing
assembled collective moral behavioral norms within unnaturally aggressive shots). Not all consequences
a group and is thought to influence team members’ were negative, however, because some players
moral actions (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995). As with described increased determination and motivation
masculine norms, players’ perceptions of the moral because of sledging.
atmosphere were strong positive predictors of their A related study by Conmy, Tenenbaum, Eklund,
immoral behavior. In addition, moral atmosphere Roehrig, and Filho (2013) investigated the influ-
ence of trash talking (i.e., intentional overt verbal this work has considered the implications of moral
communication used to provide self-affirmation conduct for both perpetrators and recipients, to date
or disrupt opponents) on self-efficacy and posi- work in this area has been constrained to actions
tive and negative affect while competing against relevant to inhibitive morality. As such, future work
another player in an American football video considering the influence of positive social behav-
game. Self-confessed trash talkers were randomly iors (e.g., prosocial behavior) would help further
allocated to one of two conditions, both of which develop this emerging area. For instance, research
involved playing two games. In one condition par- outside sport and physical activity has recently
ticipants were forced to be silent in the first game demonstrated a positive link between prosocial
and were permitted to trash talk in the second (i.e., behavior and psychological well-being (Martela &
silent–talk condition), whereas in the other condi- Ryan, 2016). Similar research in sport and physical
tion trash talk was allowed only in the first game activity contexts would help further progress this
(i.e., talk–silent condition). Key findings included avenue of research.
the following:
• Players in the silent–talk condition had lower Contemporary

self-efficacy immediately after initial condi-
tion allocation than those in the talk–silent Moral Behavior Research
condition. The research studies cited in the preceding sections
• Players in the silent–talk condition exhibited illustrate the breadth of recent research investigat-
lower self-efficacy than those in the talk–silent ing moral behavior in sport and physical activity.
condition following game 1. The aim of the following paragraphs is to provide an
• Players in the silent–talk condition reported overview and discussion of the main implications
an increase in self-efficacy after they were and issues arising from this body of work, including
informed they could trash talk in game 2. key findings and dominant theories and methodol-
ogies. When relevant, reference is made to earlier
Permission to use trash talk was also linked favor- (i.e., published pre-2011) research to demonstrate
ably with positive and negative affect, although consistency, or otherwise, in research relating to
findings for these two variables were not as consis- particular topics. Although sport and physical
tent as they were for self-efficacy. The findings of activity morality research continues to burgeon and
this study, and those of Joseph and Cramer (2011), evolve, this section makes clear that gaps in knowl-
suggest that verbally berating opponents could edge are still significant. Following this discussion,
result in positive outcomes for the perpetrator, as some important limitations are identified, including
well as largely detrimental consequences for the theoretical and methodological development, a lack
recipient. of research with children and early adolescents, and
Georgiadis and Papazoglou (2014) then investi- moral behavior in physical activity contexts outside
gated the negative implications of receiving a ban sport. When relevant, methodological trends that
from competition because of committing an anti- likely explain these deficits are also considered.
doping violation. Semistructured interviews with An increasingly dominant variable in sport
five Greek athletes who had recently incurred a ban and physical activity morality research is MD.
revealed negative social (e.g., perceived rejection Although earlier literature reviews identified MD
or contempt from sporting community), emotional as an emerging variable of interest (see Boardley &
(e.g., anger, helplessness), and psychological (e.g., Kavussanu, 2011; Kavussanu, 2008, 2012), research
insomnia, memory loss) implications. Although investigating this concept has proliferated since
such penalties are necessary to deter doping, these these reviews were completed. Researchers have
findings highlight the need for accompanying used a wide range of methodologies to investigate
support mechanisms for athletes who receive such MD and have applied it to most areas of interest to
bans. this field of research. This effort is demonstrated
In general, then, following recent calls for through qualitative (e.g., Boardley & Grix, 2014)
research investigating the consequences of moral and quantitative (e.g., Boardley & Jackson, 2012)
behavior (see Kavussanu, 2012), researchers have research that identifies MD as aiding our under-
identified both positive (e.g., self-efficacy, posi- standing of both on-field (e.g., Traclet et al., 2015)
tive affect) and negative (e.g., anxiety) outcomes and off-field (e.g., Engelberg et al., 2015) moral
stemming from moral behavior in sport. Although behavior in both sport (e.g., Hodge et al., 2013) and
202 Boardley
exercise (e.g., Boardley et al., 2014). Overall, this (e.g., Kolhberg, 1984; Haan, 1983) to ones that
body of research provides strong evidence that MD emphasize the importance of moral behavior and
is a potential facilitator of negative social behaviors the dual (i.e., proactive, inhibitive) aspects of moral-
in sport and physical activity contexts. This con- ity (e.g., Bandura, 1991, 1999). One positive outcome
clusion is evidenced by strong positive associations of this change in theoretical focus is increased
between MD and antisocial behavior in sport (e.g., understanding of moral outcomes that have a direct
Boardley & Jackson, 2012; Hodge & Lonsdale, 2011), effect on others (i.e., moral behavior). As such, the
as well as its frequent use when sport and exercise behavioral vantage adopted by many researchers
participants explain their moral transgressions during the last two decades has complemented well
(e.g., Boardley et al., 2014; Engelberg et al., 2015). the earlier work that focused on factors influencing
Evidence also supports a causal effect of MD on the development of moral reasoning. But further
harmful sport conduct (Stanger et al., 2013). conceptual progressions may be needed if we are to
Another emerging trend is the increasing use of continue furthering our understanding of sport and
SDT as a guiding theoretical framework for research physical activity morality. For instance, whereas
investigating on-field (e.g., Hodge & Gucciardi, morality research outside sport and physical activity
2015) and off-field (e.g., Hodge et al., 2013) moral has started to adopt models highlighting the impor-
behavior in sport. Although research applying AGT tance of fast automatic subliminal processes (e.g.,
continues (e.g., Barkoukis et al., 2011), the amount Haidt, 2001), sport and physical activity research
of work underpinned by SDT appears to be prolif- is still largely dominated by theories focused on
erating such that these two theories now appear rational processes. Given that many moral behaviors
to be of equal influence on research in this field. in sport and physical activity occur with little time
A definite shift in theoretical focus has occurred, for conscious thought (e.g., retaliating to a bad foul),
because AGT had previously been the dominant research in such contexts may benefit from a further
motivational theory (see Kavussanu, 2012; Weiss theoretical evolution toward intuitive (e.g., Haidt,
et al., 2008). 2001) or dual-process (e.g., Smith & DeCoster, 2000;
One moral behavior that has seen a marked Strack & Deutsch, 2004) theories that consider both
increase in research attention in sport and exercise conscious and subconscious processes.
is doping. Qualitative (e.g., Boardley et al., 2015) The application of such theories may require
and quantitative (e.g., Hodge et al., 2013) approaches methodological advancements too, because dom-
have been used to establish links between personal inant approaches in current sport and physical
(e.g., MD) and contextual (e.g., controlling-coach activity morality research (e.g., self-report question-
behavior) variables and PED use. This proliferation naires) have clear limitations when subconscious
in research attention is welcome, because doping processes need to be assessed. Methods designed
is associated with numerous negative outcomes. specifically to assess automatic processes such as
In sport, PED use constitutes an unfair advantage the Implicit Attitude Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee,
over opponents, and the negative implications for & Schwartz, 1998) and affect misattribution tech-
health (Kanayama, Hudson, & Pope, 2008; Laure & niques (Payne, Cheng, Govorun, & Stewart, 2005)
Kriebitzsch-Lejeune, 2000) are relevant in all sport may be needed to facilitate research on subliminal
and physical activity contexts. As such, further influences on moral conduct. In addition, although
studies are needed to increase understanding of IAT-based approaches have started to be used to
the psychosocial factors that facilitate doping so investigate PED use, increased understanding of
that findings can inform interventions aimed at what is actually assessed through such techniques
decreasing the prevalence of doping in sport and may be needed before the potential contribution
physical activity. of such techniques can be fully harnessed (see
Petróczi, 2013). Such methods also need to be
Theoretical applied to other forms of moral behavior in sport
and physical activity such as prosocial and antiso-
and Methodological Development cial behavior.
The first decade of this millennium documented A predominant focus on rational conscious
increased research interest in moral behavior and processes may also explain why our understand-
reduced interest in moral reasoning (see Kavussanu, ing of how emotions influence moral action in
2008, 2012). Concomitant with this trend was a sport and physical activity is still limited. Moral
move away from theories focusing primarily on emotions represent positive (e.g., pride, empathy)
moral cognition and negative aspects of morality or negative (e.g., guilt, shame) feeling states that
coexist with moral behaviors and may provide the early-rejecting parenting at age 1.5 to 2 years has
motivational force to act morally (Kroll & Egan, been associated with increased MD at age 15, and
2004). Such motivational forces are considered by changes in MD then mediate a positive effect of ear-
Bandura (1991) and have started to be explored in ly-rejecting parenting on antisocial behavior at age
sport-based research (e.g., Kavussanu et al., 2015; 16 to 17 (Hyde, Shaw, & Moilanen, 2010). Further,
Stanger et al., 2012). Such research, however, has peers’ MD has been shown to influence changes in
tended to treat moral cognitions and moral emotions MD during early adolescence (Caravita, Sijtsema,
as separate entities, whereas contemporary views Rambaran, & Gini, 2014). As such, increased appli-
suggest a need to consider their integrative effects cation of prospective and longitudinal designs such
(see Saxena & Babu, 2013). For instance, researchers as those implemented in these exemplar studies
have not considered how cognitive and emotional is encouraged to aid our understanding of how
moral processes may compete and combine to parents, siblings, and peers may influence moral
influence moral judgments (Greene, Sommerville, behavior in sport and physical activity.
Nystrom, Darley, & Cohen, 2001), or how a person’s
emotional state may influence moral intuitions that Moral Behavior in Nonsport Physical
affect reactive moral actions (Haidt, 2001). As such,
more research seeking to aid our understanding Activity Contexts
of how the complex interactions between moral In comparison with sport, nonsport physical activity
cognitions and emotions affect moral behavior in contexts have had little dedicated research attention
sport and physical activity is required. regarding moral behavior. But the social support
literature does provide some insight regarding the
Lack of Research With Children effect of proactive morality in exercise contexts.
More specifically, aspects of social support (e.g.,
and Early Adolescents encouragement, comfort, or advice) reflect prosocial
Another issue potentially linked to decreased appli- behavior, and numerous studies have demonstrated
cation of structural developmental approaches is a links between such behavior and desirable out-
reduction in research studying children and early comes (e.g., increased positive affect, participation,
adolescents. A central focus of structural develop- and self-efficacy) in exercise populations (e.g.,
mental theories (e.g., Kohlberg, 1984; Haan, 1983) McAuley, Jerome, Elavsky, Marquez, & Ramsey,
is how moral reasoning develops during childhood 2003; Rackow, Scholz, & Hornung, 2015). As such,
and adolescence. Therefore, researchers naturally there is some evidence for beneficial outcomes of
adopted such theories in sport and physical activity proactive morality in exercise contexts. In contrast,
to conduct work with children and adolescents (e.g., little is known about the effects or frequency of
Bredemeier, 1995; Bredemeier & Shields, 1984). As behaviors reflecting inhibitive morality in nonsport
a result, our knowledge of levels of moral reason- contexts, such as teasing, insulting, and bullying
ing in children and adolescents is reasonably well other exercisers. If such behaviors do occur, they
developed. In contrast, few studies have investi- will likely result in detrimental consequences (e.g.,
gated frequency of moral behavior in children and increased negative affect, reduced participation,
early adolescents in sport and physical activity and increased social physique anxiety) for recipi-
contexts. Initial work has been conducted, such as ents. Currently, however, we have little knowledge
that investigating age differences in moral behavior of the prevalence, antecedents, and outcomes
in adolescent male soccer players (Kavussanu, Seal, of these types of behavior in nonsport contexts.
& Phillips, 2006). But more research with children Therefore, research is needed that specifically
and early adolescents across a wide range of sport investigates moral behavior in a range of relevant
and physical activity contexts is needed to develop nonsport physical activity contexts.
further knowledge in this area.
We also have little knowledge of how the moral
beliefs and actions espoused by parents, siblings, Future Research
and peers during childhood and adolescence
influence moral conduct and its precursors in
Recommendations
sport and physical activity in later life. Research Although great strides have been made in broad-
in other contexts supports the need for research ening our knowledge and understanding of the
investigating developmental influences on moral psychosocial factors that influence moral behavior
behavior in sport and physical activity. For instance, in sport and physical activity, much work is still
204 Boardley
needed. To offer stimulus and guidance for those (i.e., through MD) as they can be to guide desirable
seeking to contribute to this work, the subsequent conduct. As such, Bandura (1991) suggests propen-
paragraphs offer some ideas for potentially import- sity for self-serving moral reasoning (i.e., MD) to be
ant future research endeavors. of greater importance for guiding moral action than
One interesting area of investigation would be to the structure of moral reasoning. Finally, although
determine whether the relative influence of implicit Haidt (2001, 2008) concurs with Bandura (1991) that
and explicit moral processes varies between fast, moral reasoning is often self-serving, he differs in
reflexive moral behaviors (e.g., reacting to a poor his view of when it occurs in the process of moral
decision by an official) and less time-pressured conduct. More specifically, Haidt (2001, 2008) sug-
and deliberate actions (e.g., PED use). Based on gests that moral reasoning mostly follows moral
the tenets of dual-process theories (e.g., Smith & conduct, primarily to identify and present evidence
DeCoster, 2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004), implicit in support of fast, intuitive moral actions that have
processes may be more important to the regulation already occurred. Thus, given these contrasting
of quick moral actions, whereas unhurried moral views on moral reasoning, future researchers
actions may be controlled more through conscious should seek to determine the exact nature and role
processes. of moral reasoning in guiding moral action in sport
Related research could also further our under- and physical activity.
standing of the complex interactions between moral Finally, research investigating cultural influ-
cognitions and emotions in sport and physical activ- ences on moral behavior would also be welcome.
ity. Contemporary moral theory (e.g., Haidt, 2001, Although a significant amount of research has been
2008) suggests that emotions are an intrinsic aspect conducted in Western cultures, far less has been
of the moral intuitions proposed to determine many completed with participants from other cultures. As
moral actions. Empirical support for this theory is a result, few studies have specifically investigated
provided by research showing that the severity of cultural differences and influences on moral behav-
moral judgments increases when negative emotions ior in sport and physical activity. Research from
(i.e., disgust) are induced (Schnall, Haidt, Clore, & other domains suggests that the investigation of
Jordan, 2008). Therefore, an interesting investiga- cultural influences may be a worthwhile endeavor.
tion would be to learn whether moral judgments For instance, given that some cultures (e.g., Hindu
in sport and physical activity change when differ- Indians) view the self in monistic (i.e., social duties
ing (e.g., positive versus negative) emotions are are part of self-realization) terms, whereas others
induced. A connected issue is that of emotion reg- (e.g., Americans) view it in dualistic (i.e., distinct
ulation (Lane, Beedie, Jones, Uphill, & Devonport, boundaries drawn between the self and society)
2012), which represents automatic or intentional terms (Miller, 1994), athletes from disparate cul-
strategic attempts to recruit, sustain, adjust, or tures may differ considerably in how they concep-
exhibit emotions (Gross & Thompson, 2007). Given tualize interpersonal morality. Research has also
its potential to influence athletes’ emotional state, shown how culture may influence frequency of
emotion regulation may affect moral behavior (see prosocial behavior as a function of the form (e.g.,
Gratz & Roemer, 2004). With this in mind, research public, altruistic) of such behavior (Carlo, Knight,
investigating the effect of emotion regulation on McGinley, & Hayes, 2011; Eisenberg & Spinrad,
moral behavior in sport and physical activity is 2014). As such, work is needed that investigates
also encouraged. potential cultural influences on moral behavior in
Another potential area of investigation relates to sport and physical activity contexts.
identifying the role of moral reasoning in regulating
moral conduct. Structural developmental theorists
(e.g., Kohlberg, 1984; Haan, 1983) argue that dif-
Summary
fering moral reasoning structures represent stages Sport and physical activity represent contexts with
of moral development that should be the primary considerable potential for desirable and undesirable
concern of morality research. In contrast, social moral behavior. This chapter discusses a wide range
cognitive theory (Bandura, 1991) places less impor- of personal and social variables that potentially
tance on moral reasoning development. Although influence moral conduct in these contexts. The
development of moral reasoning is thought to allow propensity to rationalize and justify transgressive
people to identify and integrate morally relevant acts, to judge one’s competence in other- rather than
information more effectively, such abilities can just self-referenced terms, to rely on controlled rather
as easily be used to rationalize immoral conduct than autonomous motivation, to lack empathy for
Recommendations for Practice
A number of studies have tested and provided support for the efficacy of field-based interventions aimed at promoting
moral development in sport and physical activity contexts (Bredemeier, Weiss, Shields, & Shewchuk, 1986; Gibbons
& Ebbeck, 1997; Gibbons, Ebbeck, & Weiss, 1995; Hassandra, Goudas, Hatzigeorgiadis, & Theodorakis, 2007;
Romance, Weiss, & Bockoven, 1986; Wandzilak, Carroll, & Ansorge, 1988). The interventions designed and tested
in these studies were primarily based on social-learning or structural developmental approaches, and the following
recommendations are based on these interventions
Social-Learning Approaches
• Clearly define appropriate and inappropriate moral behaviors.
• Model prosocial behavior frequently.
• Model and reinforce reacting calmly to antisocial behavior.
• Reinforce prosocial behavior through verbal commendation and tangible rewards.
Structural Developmental Approaches
• Explain guiding moral principles and provide a rationale for acting appropriately.
• Promote self-dialogue and group discussion using moral dilemmas and problem-solving activities.
• Consider learners’ current level of moral development when introducing moral dilemmas.
• Create situations in which moral conflict is likely to occur and discuss such conflicts when they arise.
others, and to regard one’s moral identity as not The author would like to thank Dr. James Adie and Dr. John Mills for their
comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.
being central to the self are personal factors mean-
ingfully linked with less desirable moral behavior
in sport and physical activity. Social factors are
also important. In sport, autonomy-supportive as references
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12
Performance
Anxiety, Arousal,
and Coping in Sport
Rich Neil, PhD  Tim Woodman, PhD
Abstract
Our primary goals within this chapter are to provide an overview of some of the key
models, theories, and associated literature relevant to anxiety, arousal, and coping and
to consider the influence of these variables on sport performance. We begin the chapter
by offering definitions of the relevant constructs with brief reference to contemporary
measurement. We then provide an overview of the key models and theories that have
been proposed to explain or describe the relationship between anxiety, arousal, and
performance. In the third section, we examine the research on various types of coping
strategies and psychological skills that performers use when anxious. Here, we also dis-
cuss the influence of key individual differences on coping with anxiety. We conclude the
chapter by identifying the gaps in the current knowledge base that offer future research
directions, including the measurement of anxiety, arousal, and coping; the relationship
of anxiety, arousal, and coping to performance; and the influence of individual differ-
ences on anxiety, arousal, coping, and performance.
211
212 Neil and Woodman
I froze out there. . . . It was not about tennis. It was

not about her being the better player. I just really, Defining and Operationalizing
really got nervous. Yeah, I really froze. . . . My legs
and my arms and everything just couldn’t move.
Anxiety, Arousal, and Coping
Jelena Dokic, 2012 To provide a definition of anxiety, we have to con-
sider the broader theoretical framework of stress.
To elaborate, in the transactional theory of stress
I was nervous and that’s a good thing. That
(Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), stress
means you care. You can try and use that energy
as best you can to heighten your focus and then is an ongoing transaction between environmental
get into the right situation and it worked out great demands and a person’s resources; strain is expe-
for me this week. rienced when demands exceed resources (Hanton,
Tiger Woods, 2008
Neil, & Mellalieu, 2011). This imbalance may arise
through a threat appraisal because of the perceived
implications if environmental demands are not
T
hese quotations from professional tennis managed. The result of this threat appraisal is
player Jelena Dokic and former world number the negative emotion of anxiety (a form of strain).
one golfer Tiger Woods offer different insights Cheng, Hardy, and Markland (2009) defined per-
into the potential influence that anxiety and arousal formance anxiety as an unpleasant psychological
can have on an athlete’s performance. The first state reaction to a perceived threat to the perfor-
quotation demonstrates that being highly anxious mance of a task under pressure. Over the past 35
and aroused can be a destructive force if the anxiety years anxiety research has predominantly adopted
is not coped with effectively, because the affective a two-dimensional approach toward understanding
state can negatively influence concentration and both trait anxiety (i.e., a predisposition to perceive
coordination. In contrast, the second quotation situations as threatening) and performance anxiety
highlights that being anxious and aroused may (e.g., competitive anxiety) by examining perform-
benefit performance if the athlete is confident and ers’ cognitive anxiety (negative expectations about
can cope effectively to stay focused on the task. The performance and fear of failure) and somatic anxi-
premise that performance anxiety can have either ety (perceived physiological state) responses. Born
detrimental or beneficial effects on behavior is not from the seminal work of Martens, Burton, Vealey,
new. Informed by models and theories of anxiety Bump, and Smith (1990) and their development of
or arousal and performance, the literature has often the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-
supported such dysfunctional and functional effects 2), the use of this conceptualization has offered
(see, e.g., Hardy, 1990; Hardy, Beattie, & Woodman, some insight into how performers respond in the
2007) and provided explanations for such effects lead-up to competition (e.g., see Gould, Petlichkoff,
(see, e.g., Hanton, Wadey, and Mellalieu, 2008; & Weinberg, 1984), factors that may influence these
Woodman & Hardy, 2001). In this chapter we pro- responses (e.g., see Hammermeister & Burton,
vide a critique of some of the research from this 1995), and the effects that these responses may
literature and consider various concepts that could have on performance (e.g., see Edwards & Hardy,
help to explain further why people may or may not 1996). We discuss more of this research later in the
cope well when anxious and aroused. To achieve chapter. When researchers have focused solely on
this end, we begin with a definition and explanation the effects of anxiety on athletic performance, the
of the terms anxiety, arousal, and coping. We then amount of performance variance that is explained
provide an overview and critique of the models by cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity has
and theories that have been developed to explain been relatively small. This result is possibly due to
important relationships between anxiety, arousal, inadequate measures or the use of a preperformance
and sport performance. In the third section we measure to predict performance (Hanton, Neil, &
review the research corresponding to the various Mellalieu, 2011; Woodman & Hardy, 2003). Further
coping strategies and psychological skills used by reasons could be attributed to the multidimensional
performers to cope in performance contexts when approach being a dated and simplistic conceptu-
they are anxious. The chapter ends with an insight alization of anxiety that was borrowed from test
into the gaps that exist within the anxiety, arousal, anxiety literature (e.g., Liebert & Morris, 1967) and
and coping literature, along with recommendations the general assumption that anxiety is detrimental
for future research. to performance (see Woodman & Hardy, 2001).
Performance Anxiety, Arousal, and Coping in Sport 213
Worry Autonomic
hyperactivity
Cognitive anxiety Physiological anxiety
Self-focused Somatic
attention tension
Perceived control
Figure 12.1 A three-dimensional conceptualization of performance anxiety.

Based on Cheng et al. (2009).
E6768/Horn/F12.01/565540/mh-R2
Dissatisfied with the simplistic multidimensional initial support for these subcomponents through the
anxiety theory, Cheng et al. (2009) introduced a use of their Three-Factor Anxiety Inventory (TFAI;
more comprehensive conceptualization of perfor- see also Cheng, Hardy, & Woodman, 2011).
mance anxiety, characterized by five subcompo- Pribram and McGuiness (1975) defined arousal
nents that also considered the functional potential as a person’s cognitive and physiological activity
of anxiety (see figure 12.1). Cheng et al. categorized in reaction to changing information being received
the first two subcomponents under cognitive anx- from the environment. This change in activity can
iety: individuals’ worry about future performance have an effect on concentration and subsequent
and their self-focused attention (i.e., increased behavior. Despite acceptance of this definition,
awareness of self-shortcomings concerning the the term has a history of being misused within the
performance of a task under stress). Two subcom- anxiety literature; some researchers used it inter-
ponents were also categorized under physiological changeably with anxiety and adopted an anxiety
anxiety: autonomic hyperactivity (i.e., perceptions scale to measure it (for more information, see Hardy,
of physiological symptoms) and somatic ten- Jones, & Gould, 1996; Neil, Fletcher, Hanton, & Mel-
sion (i.e., perceptions of physical tension). The final lalieu, 2007; Woodman & Hardy, 2001). In addition,
subcomponent included the functional, regulatory researchers have used various operational defini-
dimension of anxiety of perceived control, which tions of arousal, including self-report measures of
accounts for performers’ belief about how confident arousal (e.g., Filho, Moraes, & Tenenbaum, 2008),
they are about performing well and staying focused heart rate frequency (e.g., Cottyn, De Clercq, Pan-
in competition. In the development and testing of nier, Crombez, & Lenoir, 2006), heart rate variability
their model, Cheng et al. (2009) have provided some (e.g., Murray & Raedeke, 2008), muscle activity
(Cooke, Kavussanu, McIntyre, & Ring, 2010), how and why anxiety affects performance. We first
respiratory sinus arrhythmia (Perkins, Wilson, & consider the early theories of arousal and perfor-
Kerr, 2001), and cortisol concentration (McKay, mance, along with the multidimensional anxiety
Selig, Carlson, & Morris, 1997). Although the best theory. We then critique models that offered insight
measure to use to reflect arousal is debatable, any into how anxiety could be beneficial for perfor-
effective approach needs to be sensitive enough to mance, including the individual zones of optimal
detect the physiological changes associated with functioning and the cusp catastrophe model of
the autonomic nervous system or the subjective anxiety and performance. Finally, we critique the
cognitive labels of these changes (i.e., somatic theories that have been proposed to explain how
anxiety) that may occur because of the introduction anxiety has detrimental and beneficial effects for
of new stimuli. performance. These include the conscious process-
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) defined coping as ing hypothesis, theory of ironic processes of mental
the ongoing efforts in thought and action to manage control, the processing efficiency theory, and the
specific demands that a person appraises as taxing. attentional control theory.
They proposed the dichotomization of the func-
tional process of self-regulation and adaptation into Early Theories
two categories of coping: problem-focused coping
and emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused of Arousal and Performance
coping comprises the strategies used to eliminate Early attempts to describe the relationship between
or manage demands (i.e., stressors), and emo- anxiety, arousal, and performance were two-dimen-
tion-focused coping comprises the strategies used to sional in nature. They were primarily developed
reduce the negative emotions that are experienced to describe the effects of arousal on performance
from appraising demands as unmanageable. Roth but were often used to describe anxiety effects.
and Cohen (1986) later proposed a third function, For example, Spence and Spence (1966) introduced
avoidance coping, which is a person’s attempts drive theory and suggested that increases in arousal
to disengage cognitively or behaviorally from the would result in increases in performance only
situation. Within the sport anxiety literature, the if the performer was proficient in executing the
majority of research that has considered coping has desired skill. A lack of ability in performing the
adopted these definitions in one guise or another. required skill would result in poorer performance
That is, researchers have either adopted these when arousal increased. Although the simplicity
macroanalytical definitions of coping or used a of this concept is attractive, the concept may not
more microanalytical approach by considering the adequately map the complexity of the anxiety–per-
specific coping strategies that fall within each cate- formance relationship. The inverted-U hypothesis
gory. These include problem-focused strategies such (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908)—an inverted-U relation-
as active coping, suppressing competing activities, ship between arousal and performance—has been
planning, effort expenditure, and seeking social used as an alternative approach. According to the
support for instrumental reasons; emotion-focused inverted-U hypothesis, increases in arousal up to an
strategies such as seeking emotional support, optimal level are associated with improvements in
acceptance, positive reappraisal, and the venting of performance, but performance gradually decreases
emotions; and avoidance coping strategies such as beyond that optimal level. Optimal levels of arousal
wishful thinking, denial, and cognitive and behav- were also proposed to depend on task difficulty;
ioral disengagement. To measure these strategies in lower levels of optimal arousal are required for
relation to the experience of competitive anxiety, more complex tasks.
researchers have predominantly used the Coping
Function Questionnaire (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001)
to assess the use of the three coping functions or
Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
versions of the COPE (Crocker & Graham, 1995) to The arousal and performance relationships pro-
examine the specific coping strategies used. posed in drive theory and the inverted-U hypoth-
esis arguably influenced the development of what
was one of the most widely adopted theories in
Models and Theories of Anxiety, the competitive anxiety literature: multidimen-
Arousal, and Performance sional anxiety theory (MAT; Martens et al., 1990).
Through their MAT, Martens et al. suggested that
In this section we offer insight into the models and the relationship between cognitive anxiety and
theories that have aided our understanding about performance is negative and linear (see figure 12.2).
Performance
Performance
Cognitive anxiety Somatic anxiety
E6768/Horn/F12.02b/565542/mh-R1
E6768/Horn/F12.02a/565541/mh-R1
Performance
Figure 12.2 Martens, Vealey, and Burton’s (1990)

multidimensional anxiety theory predictions of anxiety
and performance.
Reprinted by permission from S. Hanton, R. Neil, and
S.D. Mellalieu, “Competitive Anxiety and Sporting,
In The New Sport and Exercise Psychology Companion,
edited by T. Morris and P. Terry (FIT: Morgantown, WV,
Self-confidence 2011), 95. Used with permission from the publisher.
E6768/Horn/F12.02c/565543/mh-R2
For the relationship between somatic anxiety and acknowledged that anxiety could have beneficial
performance, Martens et al. adopted the inverted-U effects. Through his individualized zone of optimal
model. Support for these separate relationships has functioning (IZOF) hypothesis, Hanin (1980, 1986)
been sparse, and only a selection of studies at best proposed that performers have optimal zones of
partially supported Martens et al.’s predictions (e.g., performance anxiety, within which they would
Burton, 1988; Chamberlain & Hale, 2007; Hammer- achieve their best performances. Experiencing anx-
meister & Burton, 1995; Krane, Williams, & Feltz, iety either below or above this zone would result
1992). Two key reasons for this lack of support are in poorer performance. Support has been provided
for this premise (see e.g., Annesi, 1998; Davis &
1. the suggestion that the experience of cog- Cox, 2002; Ruiz et al., 2015; Turner & Raglin, 1991;
nitive anxiety will always be detrimental to Woodman, Albinson, & Hardy, 1997), and research-
performance and ers have acknowledged the practical utility of the
2. the disregard for any interactive effect approach (Hardy et al., 1996). But the hypothesis
between cognitive anxiety and somatic anx- serves only to describe the different individualized
iety on performance. optimal zones of anxiety across individuals and
fails to explain why such differences might occur.
Individual Zones That is, the hypothesis has individual differences
in optimal affect at its heart but has no individu-
of Optimal Functioning al-difference variables to predict such differences.
Although the early supposition was that anxiety As such, it has limited theoretical value. Certainly,
is detrimental to performance, researchers later more evidence is needed to support this concept,
and future research is needed to investigate why in a catastrophic drop in performance. Attempts to
people might have different optimal anxiety levels return to optimal performance would be difficult
(see Woodman & Hardy, 2001). under these conditions due to the discontinuous
nature of the arousal–performance relationship.
Cusp Catastrophe Model Partial support for the model has been provided
through experimental and quasi-experimental
of Anxiety and Performance designs (Hardy & Parfitt, 1991; Hardy, Parfitt, &
The cusp catastrophe (CAT) model of anxiety and Pates, 1994; Woodman et al., 1997) and through
performance (Hardy, 1990) addressed the simplistic qualitative studies (Edwards, Kingston, Hardy, &
(main effects) approach advocated in MAT. Specifi- Gould, 2002).
cally, the model accounts for the interactive effects Acknowledging the importance of self-confi-
of cognitive anxiety and physiological arousal (as dence to sport performance, Hardy (1990) also
opposed to somatic anxiety) on performance (see proposed the butterfly CAT model, which includes
figure 12.3). Hardy (1990) proposed that performers’ self-confidence as a moderating factor. Within this
cognitive anxiety would determine the relationship more complex model, self-confidence moderates the
between physiological arousal and performance. interaction between cognitive anxiety and physio-
Specifically, when cognitive anxiety is low, changes logical arousal by swinging the fold, or the critical
in physiological arousal are predicted to result in cusp point, at the front of the CAT model to the right
minor performance fluctuations illustrated by a mild under high self-confidence and to the left under low
inverted-U relationship. Increases in physiological self-confidence (Hardy, Woodman, & Carrington,
arousal would result in increases in performance up 2004). Self-confidence would thus allow performers
to an optimal level, beyond which small decreases high in cognitive anxiety to tolerate higher levels
in performance will occur. Returns to optimal of physiological arousal before they suffered a cat-
performance were proposed to be straightforward astrophic drop in performance. Hardy et al. (2004)
through a reduction in physiological arousal. When provided some evidence for this buffering effect
cognitive anxiety is high, increases in physiolog- of self-confidence within the butterfly CAT model,
ical arousal were hypothesized to lead to positive which potentially supports the protective qualities
performance outcomes, up to a critical “cusp” of self-confidence when performers are anxious
point. Further increases in physiological arousal (see also Hanton, Mellalieu, & Hall, 2004; Mellalieu,
beyond this critical point were proposed to result Neil, & Hanton, 2006).
Performance
Performance
surface
Physiological
arousal
Cognitive anxiety
Figure 12.3 Cusp catastrophe model.
Adapted by permission from L. Hardy, A Catastrophe E6768/Horn/F12.03/565544/mh-R2
Model of Anxiety and Performance. In Stress and Performance in Sport, edited by J. G.
Jones and L. Hardy (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 1990), 81-106.
Conscious-Processing Hypothesis to achieve the desired state. When the cognitive

load is low, this monitoring process reactivates the
An early theoretical explanation of anxiety-induced operating process to fill the mind with the requisite
performance decrements in expert performers was relevant information to achieve the desired state,
the conscious-processing hypothesis (CPH; Masters, and the performer enjoys mental control. When the
1992). When expert performers are confident and cognitive load is too high, however, the cognitive
not experiencing anxiety, they may execute their space required for the operating process to work
behavior unconsciously in an effortless manner. But effectively is taken up by other resources (e.g., anx-
Masters suggested that when performers experience iety). Consequently, the operating process becomes
high levels of anxiety, they are more likely to try less effective, and the information gathered by the
to gain conscious control over their normally sub- monitoring process is brought into consciousness,
conscious behavior, thus paradoxically truncating yielding an undesired state. This effect is ironic
a normally fluid action. Because of this conscious because the monitoring process, which allows
control, the performer regresses to a more explicit, people to maintain mental control, is also directly
early stage of learning, executing the behavior in a responsible for causing the poor emotional and
less fluid and less successful manner. Partial sup- behavioral state that the performer specifically
port for this theory has been provided in experimen- wants to avoid. In short, the monitoring process
tal studies in golf (Cooke et al., 2010; Hardy, Mullen, normally allows performers to do what they want
& Jones, 1996; Mullen & Hardy, 2000; Mullen, Hardy, to do, but it is also directly responsible for their
& Tattersall, 2005; Gucciardi & Dimmock, 2008) and doing precisely what they do not want to do, when
trampoline performances (Hardy, Mullen, & Martin, they do not want to do it. To illustrate, a golfer in an
2001). The partial support for the CPH may be due important competition may be anxious about hit-
to the notion that anxiety can affect performance ting a poor shot into the trees, potentially because
by influencing both attentional resources (i.e., he or she executed a similar shot on that hole the
processing efficiency) and conscious control over previous day. If the anxiety (and cognitive load) is
performance movements (Mullen et al., 2005). In manageable, then the golfer can focus successfully
addition, conscious-processing effects may not on what needs to be done to execute a good shot and
always occur to the level required for a noticeable what needs to be avoided. The golfer is then able
drop in performance, potentially because of the to direct the golf ball toward the desired location.
proposed beneficial effects of consciously process- If, however, the high level of anxiety about hitting
ing movements. To elaborate, Toner and Moran the trees becomes the prevalent thought (“Don’t hit
(2014, 2015) suggested that conscious movement the trees”), then the golfer is ironically more likely
analysis may actually help elite performers identify to execute precisely that undesired action (i.e., the
where movement errors are occurring, allowing shot into the trees).
them to reinvest effort toward refining skills for Wegner, Ansfield, and Pilloff (1998) reported
performance benefits—a proposition recently sup- support for this theory in their two laboratory
ported by Malhotra, Poolton, Wilson, Omoru, and experiments with a golf putting and a handheld
Masters (2015). pendulum task. Wegner et al. instructed partici-
pants not to overhit a golf putt or not to move a
Theory of Ironic Processes handheld pendulum along a particular axis. The
researchers found that the probability of ironic
of Mental Control effects occurring increased under greater mental
In his theory of ironic processes of mental control load. Also using a golf-putting task, Woodman and
effects, Wegner (1994) postulates that humans Davis (2008) found that those performers classified
achieve mental control through two processes that as repressors (those who are anxious but deny that
work in parallel: the operating process and the mon- they are anxious) suffered more ironic errors of
itoring process. The operating process intentionally performance than those low or high in anxiety.
and consciously searches for cognitive information These findings suggest that ironic effects are more
to yield a desired emotional state or a preferred out- likely to occur if performers are unable to accept
come. Performers are more likely to maintain this their emotional state (see also Barlow, Woodman,
desired state through effortful engagement in this Gorgulu, & Voyzey, 2016). Recent support for ironic
conscious search. Working alongside this process effects was revealed by Woodman, Barlow, and
is a subconscious monitoring process that searches Gorgulu (2015) in two experimental studies using
for information that is associated with a failure a hockey penalty shootout and a dart-throwing
task. In study 1, Woodman et al. found that hockey 2011; Hardy et al., 2007; Mullen & Hardy, 2000;
players hit more shots into the to-be-avoided (ironic) Murray & Janelle, 2003; Wilson, Smith, Chattington,
zone when they were highly anxious. Similarly, Ford, & Marple-Horvat, 2006). Cooke at al. (2010),
in study 2, anxious performers threw their darts however, reported that an increase in effort was in
more often and more precisely into the ironic zone. part responsible for performance decrements in a
Despite the support for ironic effects, these studies golf-putting task, potentially because of conscious
have been conducted with low-skilled performers, control of behavior through a focus on explicit
which raises the question of whether such effects knowledge to guide actions. Consequently, rein-
would occur in a highly skilled elite sample. Toner, vestment through effort may also be detrimental
Moran, and Jackson (2013) conducted a golf-putting to performance.
task with high-skilled and low-skilled performers,
assessing whether the inclusion of avoidant instruc- Attentional Control Theory
tions increased the possibility of ironic effects (i.e.,
hitting the ball to the place instructed to avoid). Despite the potential utility of PET to explain anx-
High-skilled performance was unaffected by the iety-related performance effects, the theory has
avoidant instructions, but the low-skilled perform- been upgraded in attentional control theory (ACT;
ers were proposed to overcompensate by trying Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007; Eysenck
too hard to execute in the desired direction. These & Derakshan, 2011). In PET, Eysenck and Calvo
findings support those of de la Peña, Murray, and (1992) offered a somewhat generic explanation for
Janelle (2008), who provided evidence that negative how anxiety will affect the processing efficiency of
self-instructions may decrease the likelihood of a person: by affecting working memory capacity.
ironic processes for low-skilled performers, likely Eysenck et al.’s (2007) ACT provides a more precise
through a compensation of effort away from ironic explanation for this effect and describes a process
performance errors. Despite these interesting find- by which anxiety (caused by a valued goal being
ings surrounding ironic effects, the literature in threatened) impairs attentional control. Specifically,
sport outside golf is scarce. Questions remain about Eysenck et al. suggest that this impairment is a
whether the theory accounts for anxiety-related result of an imbalance between two attentional
poor performances in elite athletes. systems: a goal-directed (top-down) attentional
system and a stimulus-driven (bottom-up) atten-
tional system. When experiencing anxiety, people
Processing Efficiency Theory are proposed to increase their attention toward
Processing efficiency theory (PET; Eysenck & Calvo, threat-related stimuli, thus decreasing their atten-
1992) was developed to explain both anxiety-related tion toward goal-directed information. This distrac-
decrements and anxiety-related improvements in tion of attention is proposed to impair the efficiency
performance. Eysenck and Calvo proposed that of the inhibition function (i.e., the ability to prevent
when anxious, a proportion of a person’s capacity to task-irrelevant stimuli and responses from disrupt-
attend to task-relevant information is taken up by a ing performance) and the shifting function (i.e., the
focus on task-irrelevant thoughts, often in the form ability to allocate attention toward task-relevant
of worry. This direction of attention to task-irrele- stimuli) of attention (Eysenck & Derkashan, 2011).
vant information reduces working memory capac- Similar to PET, ACT also proposes that anxiety
ity and impairs the efficiency to process relevant does not necessarily have to result in negative
stimuli, which can disrupt performance (Eysenck performance outcomes. But the prevention of anxi-
& Calvo, 1992). Eysenck and Calvo also suggested ety-related poor performances is possible only if the
that this cognitive anxiety or worry may inform task is demanding and task goals are clear, because
the person that a poor performance is possible if those high in anxiety will be motivated to override
decisive action is not attempted, consequently lead- the influence of the stimulus-driven attentional
ing to increased investment in the task through a system by making use of compensatory strategies
focus on what needs to be done to complete it. In that help them process the right information to
other words, performers’ ability to maintain per- achieve the goals (Eysenck & Derkashan, 2011).
formance (effectiveness) is thanks to an increase Consequently, performance effectiveness is main-
in effort, hence the decreased efficiency. Authors tained, but at the expense of processing efficiency.
have revealed that performance maintenance is An opportunity to examine the hypotheses of
indeed possible through an increase in effort (e.g., ACT has been proposed to be through the tracking
Cooke, Kavussanu, McIntyre, Boardley, & Ring, of eye gaze behavior (Wilson, 2008). Wilson (2008)
identified eye gaze behavior as the representation of differences that have been examined in relation to
a person’s attention allocation through the number coping and anxiety.
of eye gaze fixations and the fixation duration of a
person’s point of interest. The premise is that the Coping Strategies
length of eye gaze fixation on a target is relative
to the amount of information extracted; eye move- The research on coping and anxiety has shown that
ments between successive fixations are proposed those who experience performance anxiety often
to account for information-processing disruption. adopt more emotion-focused and avoidance coping
Fewer fixations of longer duration are, therefore, strategies than those low in anxiety. For example,
proposed to represent greater attentional control Giaccobi and Weinberg (2000) found that high trait
and processing efficiency. Nieuwenhuys, Pijpers, anxious performers responded to stressful situa-
Oudejans, and Bakker (2008) tested this propositions through adopting such strategies as humor,
tion during a climbing task. They found that under denial, wishful thinking, self-blame, and behavioral
high-anxiety conditions, performers made longer disengagement. Dias, Cruz, and Fonseca (2012)
but more fixations on the holds used for climbing, reported similar findings, illustrating that higher
increasing performance times because they used trait cognitive anxiety was associated with less use
a less-efficient processing approach (i.e., because of problem-focused coping. Such findings suggest
they made more fixations). They also found that that being consistently anxious across stressful
most fixations were directed at handholds, which performance contexts will result in a desire to avoid
suggests an investment of effort to maintain focus such situations, as opposed to a desire to confront
on the goal-directed behavior. the problem with decisive and rational action.
Similar findings have been reported by Wilson This proposition aligns with work that shows that
and associates; high anxiety was associated with coping self-efficacy (people’s belief in their ability
more fixations of shorter duration to targets other to cope with stressful situations) is negatively, albeit
than the goal-directed point of interest in a com- weakly, associated with cognitive and somatic anx-
puter-simulated archery task (Behan & Wilson, iety (Nicholls, Polman, & Levy, 2010).
2008) and a basketball free-throw performance The belief that people can cope with anxiety
(Wilson, Vine, & Wood, 2009). Wilson, Wood, and underpins anxiety direction research. Research-
Vine (2009) also demonstrated that when anx- ers have proposed that people can view their
ious, experienced footballers (soccer performers) experience of anxiety symptoms as beneficial for
undertaking a penalty kick fixated longer at the performance, believing they can confidently cope
goalkeeper (i.e., the threat), suggesting a disruption with such symptoms (Hanton et al., 2004). Both
in gaze behavior. This anxiety-induced change of Ntoumanis and Biddle (2000) and Hanton, Neil,
attention also affected shooting accuracy. Con- Mellalieu, and Fletcher (2008) reported that a more
sequently, the findings of the studies that have beneficial interpretation of anxiety was associated
experimentally evaluated the utility of the ACT have with the use of more proactive problem-focused
been promising, demonstrating that anxiety can coping strategies. Hanton, Neil, et al. (2008) also
affect attentional control, which if not addressed showed that this increased use of problem-focused
can affect performance. coping was viewed to be more effective in dealing
with the stressful situation. Confidence was also
reported to be higher—emphasizing the potential
Coping Behaviors protective properties of (problem-focused) coping
of Anxious Sport Performers when experiencing anxiety.
As illustrated in the previous section, the constructs Psychological Skills

of anxiety and arousal have received considerable
research attention over the past decades. A related Some researchers have looked at coping through
body of research focuses on the ways in which per- the lens of psychological skill usage. That is, they
formers cope with anxiety. In this section we will have considered whether the use of psychological
examine this literature beginning with a critique skills such as self-talk, relaxation, imagery, and goal
of the research on coping usage when anxious. setting can help people manage their experience of
We will then consider studies that have looked at anxiety. Hayslip, Petrie, MacIntire, and Jones (2010)
the association between anxiety and psychological found that elite golfers reported greater use of self-
skill usage. Finally, we will discuss the individual talk, goal setting, automaticity (in the golf swing),
activation, and relaxation than lesser-skilled golfers; performers manage their anxiety symptoms, which
they concurrently reported less worry (i.e., cogni- enabled them to heighten their attentional focus and
tive anxiety) and less negative thinking. increase effort and motivation on the task at hand.
As in the coping literature, researchers have Although not traditionally defined as a psycho-
looked at the association between psychological logical skill within the sport psychology literature, a
skill usage and a person’s interpretation of anxiety useful discussion concerns the “quiet eye” training
symptoms in relation to upcoming competition. that has been used by Moore and associates (Moore,
With a sample of nonelite swimmers, Fletcher and Vine, Cooke, Ring, & Wilson, 2012; Moore, Vine,
Hanton (2001) found that the use of relaxation Freeman, & Wilson, 2013). The quiet eye, defined
strategies was related to lower levels of anxiety as the final fixation toward the goal-directed target
and a more facilitative interpretation of anxiety. before the initiation of the movement (Vickers,
Neil, Mellalieu, and Hanton (2006) replicated this 2007), is associated with better performance, but
study with rugby performers and found that elite it can be affected by anxiety (Wilson, Vine, et al.,
performers reported anxiety intensity levels simi- 2009; Wilson, Wood, et al., 2009). The training that
lar to those of their nonelite counterparts. But the Moore et al. (2012, 2013) adopted aimed to help
elite rugby performers interpreted these anxiety performers increase the chance of a longer quiet
levels as more facilitative for competition. They eye period before the execution of the required
reported higher levels of self-confidence, lower behavior. This training involved the practice of a
usage of relaxation strategies, and greater use of number of self-instructions designed to help the
imagery and self-talk. These findings may suggest performer focus on the target when anxious (see
that elite athletes can function when experiencing the sidebar Quiet Eye Training). Using a putting
anxiety through effective use of imagery and self- task, the performers who underwent the quiet eye
talk, whereas nonelite athletes need to reduce their training were more accurate in their putts and
anxiety levels. This assertion was supported by the demonstrated more effective gaze control. Conse-
findings of Mellalieu et al. (2006) who showed that quently, using self-talk strategies that focus on the
self-confidence mediated the relationship between external target could benefit sport performance
anxiety intensity and direction for elite athletes. through appropriate attentional control.
That is, when confidence was low, anxiety was
viewed as detrimental to performance. When con-
fidence was high, however, anxiety was viewed
Challenge Appraisals
as beneficial to performance. The implications of Alongside functional coping and self-talk strate-
these findings are that through confidence-en- gies, recent research has also examined the way
hancing strategies (e.g., psychological skills), elite that emotions such as anxiety are generated. In
athletes are able to view anxiety as beneficial to the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of
performance. For the nonelite sample, however, emotions, Lazarus (1999) posits that every emotion
confidence needs to be high and anxiety lowered experienced by a person is caused by an evaluative
for anxiety to be viewed as beneficial. A qualitative thought (i.e., appraisal) aligned to that person’s
study by Hanton, Wadey, et al. (2008) attempted to goals, whether or not the achievement of goals will
explain why elite athletes view anxiety as benefi- be or has been compromised, and the potential
cial. Hanton et al. found that the use of simulation implications of not achieving the desired goals.
training, cognitive restructuring, preperformance Lazarus suggested that anxiety would be caused by
routines, and overlearning of skills helped the elite a threat appraisal about the person’s performance
Quiet Eye Training
Moore et al. (2012, 2013) showed that quiet eye training could help performers focus their gaze on targets when
anxious to improve their attentional control and performance accuracy. They educated performers in a golf task to
use self-instructions that directed them to focus their gaze on the target (i.e., hole), using a maximum of three fixed
gazes on the target. The final fixation was directed to be on the ball immediately before execution. Similar strategies
are seen regularly in elite sporting environments. For example, before kicking for goal in rugby, the New Zealand player
Dan Carter can be seen looking at the target (rugby posts) and then the execution point of the rugby ball immediately
before running up and kicking for the posts.
in a future event. This premise has been supported others. In other words, when an opportunity for
by numerous studies in which evaluative threat glory arises, narcissists will seek to show how well
has been found to be a precursor for experiencing they can cope under pressure. Across four studies,
anxiety (e.g., Neil, Hanton, Mellalieu, & Fletcher, Wallace and Baumeister (2002) created tasks that
2011; Uphill & Jones, 2007). Athletes often use active had either a low or a high opportunity for such
problem-focused coping to curtail any negative personal glory. They consistently revealed that
performance effects (e.g., see Neil et al., 2011; Neil, narcissists performed better when an opportunity
Bayston, Hanton, & Wilson, 2013; Neil, Bowles, for personal glory was present (e.g., time pressure
Hanton, & Fleming, 2016). Given these findings, or a competitive environment) compared with when
a reasonable assumption is that a focus on more no such opportunity was available (see also Geukes,
effective, positive challenge appraisals could result Mesagno, Hanrahan, & Kellmann, 2012, 2013; Rob-
in lower anxiety levels (Jones, Meijen, McCarthy, & erts, Callow, Hardy, & Woodman, 2010; Roberts,
Sheffield, 2009). That is, appraising a situation as Woodman, Hardy, Davis, & Wallace, 2013; Roberts,
one that will enable a person to grow could result Woodman, Lofthouse, & Williams, 2015; Woodman,
in the experience of less anxiety and more positive Roberts, Hardy, Callow, & Rogers, 2011). In an
emotions such as excitement (Neil et al., 2007). attempt to understand more fully the mechanism
that might underlie such performance differences
Individual Differences across these self-glorifying contexts, Woodman et
al. revealed that high-narcissist participants on a
The individual differences that may influence the 10-min cycling task cycled almost a kilometer far-
coping behaviors of sport performers when expe- ther when they knew that their performance was
riencing anxiety have also been researched. These to be made public. No such difference occurred for
have included such personality characteristics as low narcissists. Woodman et al. also revealed that
hardiness, narcissism, and alexithymia. both high and low narcissists exerted greater effort
in a more highly identifiable setting, but only high
Hardiness narcissists were able to transfer their greater effort
Kobasa (1979) proposed the concept of hardiness to a performance gain.
as a form of dispositional resilience and suggested
that those high in hardiness would be high in com- Alexithymia
mitment (to a task), control (over a task), and chal- Alexithymia is characterized by the absence of
lenge (to grow by completing a task). These three words to express emotions. It comprises two prin-
beliefs, in turn, were suggested to influence more cipal factors: a difficulty identifying emotions and
positive appraisals and functional coping strategies feelings, and a difficulty expressing emotions and
during stressful situations. Hanton, Evans, and feelings to other people (see Sifneos, 1972; Taylor,
Neil (2003) found that those high in hardiness had Bagby, & Parker, 1997). Alexithymia has been linked
similar anxiety levels to those low in hardiness but with many negative indices of health and emotion
viewed their anxiety as more beneficial to perfor- regulation, such as anxiety and depression (Corcos
mance. Hanton, Neil, and Evans (2013) found that & Speranza, 2003; Lumley, Stettner, & Wehmer,
those high in hardiness who viewed their anxiety 1996), difficulties in interpersonal relationships
as beneficial to upcoming performance reported (Taylor et al., 1997), and lower quality of life
the greatest usage of planning, active coping, and (Mattila, Saarni, Salminen, Huhtala, Sintonen, &
effort during stressful competitive situations. This Joukamaa, 2009).
coping usage was also viewed as more effective in Some evidence from the high-risk sports litera-
managing the identified stressful situations. These ture suggests that alexithymic people are attracted
findings suggest that effective coping and a bene- to high-anxiety environments to enable them to
ficial interpretation of anxiety occur only when a regulate their emotions (e.g., Barlow, Woodman,
person is hardy. & Hardy, 2013; Castanier, Le Scanff, & Woodman,
2010a, 2010b, 2011; Cazenave, Le Scanff, & Wood-
Narcissism man, 2007; Taylor, Gould, Hardy, Woodman, &
People high in narcissism have a grandiose, albeit LaCaille, 2006; Woodman, Cazenave, & Le Scanff,
fragile, self-view, and they feel entitled (see Morf & 2008; Woodman, Hardy, Barlow, & Le Scanff,
Rhodewalt, 2001). The combination of narcissists’ 2010; Woodman, Huggins, Le Scanff, & Cazenave,
grandiose self-view and their fragile self-view leads 2009). That is, the anxiety inherent in the high-risk
them to seek to prove their worth in the eyes of domain allows an alexithymic person to experience
a negative emotion (anxiety) and then subsequently of the arousal system. Although the use of single
control that emotion to cope with the high-risk indicators may prove useful, the use of multiple
environment. In the high-risk sport domain, people measures of arousal may offer a clearer picture of
high in alexithymia also take greater risks and a person’s physiological reaction when anxious,
suffer from more accidents, which can be serious which may provide different physical intervention
(Barlow, Woodman, Chapman, Milton, Dodds, & strategies for the benefit of performance.
Allen, 2015). Thus, although alexithymic people The notion of coping effectiveness has only
might benefit from taking part in such sports, their been touched on within the coping literature as a
approach to these sports could also be destructive. whole, and even less attention has been given to
the topic by researchers with an interest in compet-
itive anxiety. Consequently, it is unknown which
Future Research coping strategies are more effective in helping
Recommendations people manage the situation or their emotions, and
insight is also lacking into the association between
Within this section we focus on the gaps in the coping effectiveness and performance. The best way
literature base and subsequent future directions to measure effectiveness is also unclear. Work is
through consideration of the research on (1) the needed to establish whether it should be through
measurement of anxiety, arousal, and coping; (2) subjective means, such as that used by Hanton,
the anxiety, arousal, coping, and performance rela- Neil, et al. (2008), or through more unbiased or
tionship; and (3) the influence of individual differ- objective measures that can corroborate coping
ences on anxiety, arousal, coping, and performance. usage and effectiveness, such as coach or observer
ratings (see MacGregor, Woodman, & Hardy, 2014)
Measurement of Anxiety, Arousal, or performance analysis.
and Coping
Influence of Anxiety
As alluded to earlier, Cheng et al.’s (2009) new
three-dimensional model of performance anxiety
on Attention and Performance
has received scant research to date to examine The experimental approaches adopted by Wilson
its utility as a framework for understanding the and associates (Behan & Wilson, 2008; Wilson,
anxiety response within competition. But Cheng Vine, et al., 2009; Wilson, Wood, et al., 2009) to
et al.’s conceptualization of a more holistic anxiety examine the influence of anxiety on attention
response that includes a self-regulatory dimension and performance are promising, and they offer
should help to advance the knowledge base. From an effective means of examining the utility of the
a performance perspective, the TFAI developed by attentional control theory within performance
Cheng et al. (2009) may be too long to complete contexts. But the research conducted has been
within performance conditions. Consequently, a experimental within controlled settings. In addi-
shorter version of this scale should be developed tion, the additional or interactive effects of physio-
to promote more applied and within-performance logical arousal and anxiety within such conditions
work, because the use of larger scales may be have received little consideration. Likewise, the
impractical in conditions that require expediency influence of coping or psychological skill use to
in the response (Cooke et al., 2010; Woodman & motivate an increase in effort or to aid attention
Davis, 2008). has received scant consideration. Further research,
With regard to physiological arousal, the concept therefore, should consider using the strengths of
has been operationalized through a number of these designs to contemplate the interaction of
objective and subjective indicators within the anx- different indicators of arousal with anxiety to
iety research. All these measures have the poten- assess under which conditions different levels of
tial to detect sensitive changes in arousal during arousal and anxiety assist or inhibit attention and,
competition, as do others such as skin conductance subsequently, performance. The work by Cooke
reactivity (Coifman, Bonanno, Ray, & Gross, 2007). et al. (2010, 2011) is of particular interest here
But only a few studies have considered the arousal because they have used measures of anxiety and
response alongside anxiety (e.g., Cooke et al., 2010; physiological arousal to examine their interactive
Woodman & Davis, 2008), and no study has exam- effects on simulated golf-putting performance. The
ined the changes in multiple measures of arousal transfer of such work to competitive performance
during competition to provide a more holistic view settings would be welcomed. A more comprehen-
sive design would also aim to examine the mediat- With regard to alexithymia, the evidence from
ing or moderating effect of using different coping the high-risk sport domain suggests that alexithy-
strategies or psychological skills at different levels mic people cope with their emotional difficulties by
of anxiety, across different levels of arousal, and participation in the high-risk activity, which opens
the subsequent effectiveness of those strategies on up the intriguing possibility that alexithymic people
maintaining attention and performance. might use the pressure of competitive sport to cope
Studies focusing on the influence of anxiety with their everyday anxiety (see Woodman et al.,
symptoms on performance have also widely 2009, 2010). That is, rather than being the difficulty
adopted snapshot designs that offer little explana- to cope with, competitive sport could be the coping
tion for any influence of anxiety on performance. mechanism for a more ingrained intraindividual
The effects of anxiety symptoms on performance emotional difficulty. What is fascinating from the
likely differ within and across performances, but high-risk sport literature is that alexithymic people
such differences remain artifactual when research appear to learn how to cope with their emotions
focuses on one moment in time. Neil, Hanton, in the high-risk domain such that they report that
and Mellalieu (2009) advocated the need for more they can transfer this ability back into everyday
prolonged qualitative studies to understand how life (e.g., interpersonal relationships; Barlow et al.,
and why emotions such as anxiety change over 2013; Woodman et al., 2010). Although these ideas
and during performances. The use of observations, are speculative at present, they appear worthy of
diaries, interviews, and verbal protocol analysis research attention given that they might go some
may provide the opportunity to monitor changes way to explain why some athletes cope rather better
in anxiety and assess the effect on performance. than others in the competitive arena.
The inclusion of arousal and coping within this
assessment would provide a more complete account
of affective changes. Summary
Within this chapter we aimed to offer insight into
concepts and research associated with anxiety,
Individual Difference Variables arousal, and coping when anxious. We provided
The role of individual difference variables such as operational definitions of anxiety, arousal, and
hardiness, narcissism, and alexithymia on anxiety coping, along with a review of the various models
and coping has only recently been considered. and theories of the anxiety–performance rela-
Consequently, a gap in the knowledge base remains tionship. We then identified key knowledge gaps,
about the influence of these constructs within focusing on the measurement of anxiety, coping,
stressful situations. For example, no research has and arousal, and the influence of these concepts on
considered the influence of hardiness on anxiety sporting performance—all of which inform direc-
within performance settings (Hanton et al., 2013), tions for future research. Specifically, we suggested
and no explanatory insight has been provided into that research should employ more within-perfor-
what hardy people do when situations become mance designs that aim to incorporate measures of
stressful and they experience anxiety. Both avenues anxiety, arousal, and coping, and additional consid-
offer opportunities to advance the understanding eration should be devoted to individual differences
of how hardy people function during competition. beyond those that researchers typically consider.
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13
Anticipation
in Sport
A. Mark Williams, PhD  Colm P. Murphy, BSc 
David P. Broadbent, PhD  Christopher M. Janelle, PhD
Abstract
At the highest levels in sport, athletes are often required to anticipate the outcome of
upcoming events to perform effectively. Over recent decades, the superior ability exhibited
by expert athletes to anticipate effectively relative to their less-expert counterparts has
frequently been reported. Scientists have employed methods such as manipulations to
the environment or visual display (e.g., temporal or spatial occlusion) and collected pro-
cess-tracing measures (e.g., visual search, verbal reports of thoughts) to understand how
experts outperform less-expert counterparts. Many researchers have reported that expert
athletes can more effectively pick up and use postural cues, recognize familiarity in the
environment, assign probabilities to potential event outcomes, and employ alternative
visual search strategies to anticipate quicker and more accurately than less-expert athletes
or novices can. Scientists have demonstrated that several of these perceptual-cognitive
skills develop as a function of expertise and that this process can be expedited through
the use of appropriate training methods. Simulation techniques are often used, and
factors such as the design, structure, and instructional approach affect the acquisition,
retention, and transfer of perceptual-cognitive skills. In this chapter, we provide an
overview of the research literature to date, with particular reference to the various ways
that anticipation has been tested and trained. We highlight areas that have not been
adequately researched as yet and make recommendations about how future researchers
may consider filling gaps in understanding and application.
229
230 Williams, Murphy, Broadbent, and Janelle
S
evere spatial and temporal constraints are demonstrated in tennis, but over recent decades
imposed on athletes in a wide variety of team the findings have been replicated in sports such
and individual sports (Williams, Davids, & as squash (Abernethy, 1990), badminton (Aber-
Williams, 1999). The speed of play dictates that nethy & Zawi, 2007), baseball (Moore & Müller,
players are often unable merely to react to events 2014), cricket (Abernethy & Russell, 1984), soccer
and must instead pick up and process information (Williams, 2000), volleyball (Wright, Pleasants,
arising before a key event like ball-foot or ball- & Gomez-Meza, 1990), and field hockey (Starkes,
racket contact (Williams & Abernethy, 2012). In 1987). Most researchers have used the classical film-
other words, successful performance necessitates based temporal occlusion approach to examine the
that athletes be able to read the future by learning importance of this skill in anticipation. Typically,
to anticipate the intentions and likely actions of the task, such as the serve in tennis, is filmed
an opponent. The ability to anticipate successfully from the (receiving) player’s viewing perspective.
provides performers with more time to prepare and The film clip is then played back to participants,
execute a response, presenting an appearance that and the action sequence is selectively occluded
these people have all the time in the world. The following various periods relative to ball-racket
ability to anticipate is not unique to sport; similar contact. A repeated-measures design is employed,
time-constrained judgments are essential to supe- and the action is edited to occlude before (early),
rior performance in many other domains of human at, or after ball contact (late). Skilled athletes are
activity such as driving, medicine, military combat, more accurate than their less-skilled counterparts
law enforcement, and firefighting (Williams, Ford, in making judgments, particularly in the earlier
Eccles, & Ward, 2011). The scientific study of antic- occlusion conditions, and their accuracy scores are
ipation in sport contributes to societal needs by significantly higher than chance levels. Findings
offering a suitable domain to examine the processes highlight the ability of skilled athletes to pick up
and mechanisms that underpin expertise and its early-arising information from the movements and
acquisition (Ericsson & Williams, 2007; Williams postural orientations of opponents such that they
& Ericsson, 2005). are able to anticipate what will happen ahead of
In support of anecdotal and intuitive evidence, a the key event, allowing them more time to prepare
plethora of empirical evidence highlights the impor- a response. For example, in soccer, highly skilled
tance of anticipation in sport. In this chapter, we goalkeepers appear to pick up early-occurring cues
synthesize key research findings that have emerged from the penalty kick taker’s nonkicking leg and
over the last few decades of scientific investigation hips to anticipate to the outcome of the shot (Savels-
and explore implications for the development of bergh, van der Kamp, Williams, & Ward, 2005).
training programs to improve anticipation. A few researchers have replicated the findings
initially reported using film-based occlusion
Key Perceptual-Cognitive approaches by presenting images as point-light
and stick figure displays (e.g., Abernethy, Gill,
Skills Underpinning Parks, & Packer, 2001; Ward, Williams, & Bennett,
2002). Such images are mainly generated using
Anticipation a motion capture system, such that the x and y
A variety of perceptual-cognitive skills have been coordinates and their associated time codes may
identified as essential to anticipation in sport and be subsequently manipulated to occlude, neutral-
other domains (Williams et al., 2011). In the fol- ize, or exaggerate one or more areas of the body
lowing sections, the research corresponding to the (Bourne, Bennett, Hayes, Smeeton, & Williams,
measurement and evaluation of each of these skills 2013; Huys, Cañal-Bruland, Hagemann, Beek, Smee-
is summarized. ton, & Williams, 2009; Smeeton & Huys, 2011). The
latter approach offers a more refined and sensitive
method to manipulate the information available
Postural Cue Utilization in biological motion displays. The ability of per-
An important component of anticipation is the abil- formers to anticipate at levels above chance even
ity to pick up information from the body shape of an when information is presented in a degraded form
opponent in advance of a key event such as ball-foot suggests that the key information is contained in the
or ball-racket contact (Jones & Miles, 1978). Skilled relative motions between critical biological mark-
athletes can read what an opponent is going to do ers rather than in the background and structural
ahead of the action itself. This skill was initially information per se.
Anticipation in Sport 231
The temporal occlusion approach is used to iden- has improved markedly in recent years, making
tify the timeline of information extraction in antic- these systems more portable and robust for use in
ipation tasks, whereas its companion approach, the both the field and the laboratory, as well as more
so-called spatial occlusion technique, is used to affordable (Causer, Janelle, Vickers, & Williams,
highlight what specific cues are picked up during 2012).
the anticipation period. In the spatial occlusion The research to date suggests that skilled athletes
method, areas of the display are selectively occluded use central vision more effectively and efficiently
for the duration of the trial, or only one specific cue when scanning the environment for information.
is presented (Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Jackson & Skilled athletes fixate on more informative areas
Mogan, 2007; Müller, Abernethy, Eid, McBean, & of the display. Differences are typically reported
Rose, 2010). If a decrement in performance is appar- in regard to the locations of these fixations, their
ent when the cue is occluded, that specific cue is duration, and the search strategy or sequence
likely important to anticipation, either in isolation employed (Roca, Ford, McRobert, & Williams, 2013;
or in conjunction with others, even if performance is Williams, Janelle, & Davids, 2004). Moreover, a
only maintained above chance levels. For example, robust though less voluminous body of empirical
in badminton, the way that the opponent moves work indicates that when no systematic differences
the racket in particular appears to hold important are recorded in the point of gaze, skilled athletes
information about the depth of the upcoming shot are either able to extract more relevant and usable
(Abernethy, Zawi, & Jackson, 2008). Probably for information from the point of gaze or are better
this reason, skilled racket sports players often at using peripheral vision to extract information
attempt to disguise their intentions until the last relating to the movements of opponents off the ball
moment when hitting short shots by preparing their (Williams & Davids, 1998). In some tasks, skilled
racket as if they are about to hit deeper. A variant of athletes employ the use of so-called visual pivots
the film-based spatial occlusion technique has been or anchors that enable them to fixate gaze while
to manipulate the information contained in point- simultaneously monitoring other elements in the
light or stick figure displays. As with the findings display, such as the positions and movements of
yielded in temporal occlusion paradigms, the use of teammates and opponents in the visual periphery
degraded visual conditions through point-light or (Ripoll, Kerlirzin, Stein, & Reine, 1995; Vaeyens,
stick figure displays (described earlier) has provided Lenoir, Williams, Mazyn, & Philippaerts, 2007).
novel information about the importance of specific Debate continues about how performers most
cues. Recent findings suggest that skilled athletes effectively combine the use of the fovea and periph-
pick up information in a more distributed manner eral vision. The most effective combination of the
across the system such that they rely on more components of the visual system may be to some
global rather than local sources of information. degree dependent on the constraints experienced
This ability is thought to allow experts to be more at a given moment. For example, investigators have
flexible and adaptable in regard to the information reported that the most effective gaze behaviors vary
they employ as well as being more resilient to the based on the number of players and the playing
negative influences of deception and disguise (Huys area involved (Vaeyens et al., 2007), the distance of
et al., 2009; Smeeton & Williams, 2012). the ball from the player (Roca et al., 2013), and the
strategic intention of the player (Helsen & Starkes,
Visual Search 1999; Williams & Davids, 1998). Stressors such as
fatigue (Casanova, Garganta, Silva, Alves, Oliveira,
The visual system is made up of various func- & Williams, 2013), physiological workload (Vickers
tional components. The fovea, or central vision, is & Williams, 2007), and anxiety (Vater, Roca, &
responsible for highly acute and detailed vision, Williams, 2015; Williams & Elliott, 1999) have also
whereas the visual periphery is more sensitive been reported to influence the manner in which the
to motion and light (Williams et al., 1999). These visual system is used to extract information.
components interact dynamically during natural
scene perception to facilitate information pickup Familiarity Detection
and anticipation. To investigate these issues in sport
contexts, a head-mounted corneal reflection system Researchers have consistently reported that skilled
is typically used to locate the point of orientation athletes are better than their less-skilled counter-
of the fovea, and on occasion, to measure the eye parts at identifying familiarity or patterns in evolv-
movements that separate each fixation. Technology ing sequences of play in team sports such as soccer,
field hockey, and basketball (Williams & North, In this section, we first discuss research studies
2009). If familiarity and structure are detected early in which the ability of skilled athletes to assign
in the sequence, players will presumably be more accurate probabilities to potential event outcomes
able to anticipate or predict the end outcome of that is evident. We then provide examples of studies
pattern. The original efforts to examine this skill that further highlight how skilled athletes use
occurred in the domain of chess using the now clas- contextual information to inform their judgments.
sical recognition and recall paradigms (De Groot, Alain and colleagues provided seminal empirical
1965). Chase and Simon (1973) later reported that evidence highlighting the ability of skilled racket
skilled grandmasters were significantly superior to sports players to assign accurate probabilities to
less expert players in recalling structured patterns potential event outcomes and the effect of provid-
of play when these represent actual match situations ing performers with such information in advance
rather than random orientations on the chessboard. of the event (Alain & Girardin, 1978; Alain & Pro-
Recognition of familiarity in the configuration of teau, 1978, 1980). More recently, efforts have been
pieces was cited as a major determinant for this made to use more sport-specific stimuli and tasks
performance advantage. Several researchers have (Ward, Ericsson, & Williams, 2013; Ward & Wil-
adopted these paradigms for use in sport and have liams, 2003). Ward et al. (2013) presented skilled
reported similar conclusions (Allard, Graham, & and less-skilled players with short film sequences
Paarsalu, 1980; Gorman, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2012; involving offensive sequences of play in soccer
North, Williams, Hodges, Ward, & Ericsson, 2009). from the perspective of a defender (see also Belling,
Dittrich (1999) suggested that skilled athletes are Suss, & Ward, 2015). These film sequences were
more efficient at integrating low- and high-level per- paused, and players were asked to highlight what
ceptual-cognitive processes to facilitate familiarity options were available to the player in possession
detection. Low-level interindividual relative motion of the ball. Options were ranked in regard to their
information is initially picked up from the positions likelihood of occurring, as rated against what
and movements of players, and this information actually happened in a match and the opinions of
is then matched to some higher-order template in expert coaches. Skilled players were more accurate
memory based on a pattern-matching process. in their predictions and had developed a hierarchy
of probabilities that helped them predict what was
more and less likely to happen. Most likely, their
Probability Assignment greater prediction accuracy was underpinned by
The effective pickup of postural cues and the the development and refinement of this hierarchi-
successful identification of patterns in evolving cal structure, which precipitated and permitted
sequences involve a dynamic interaction between advancement to higher skill levels.
low-level and high-level cognitive processes. An increasing number of researchers have
Evidence exists to demonstrate that almost inde- started to focus on the role of contextual infor-
pendently of the stimulus itself, skilled athletes mation in anticipation and its use in addition to,
are able to make accurate a priori predictions or in advance of, pertinent postural information
about what actions opponents may take based on becoming available. Abernethy et al. (2001) orig-
contextual information. Skilled athletes develop a inally demonstrated that skilled squash players
hierarchy of event probabilities such that they are were able to anticipate the depth and direction of
able to predict what the likely outcomes are and an opponent’s shot as early as 620 ms in advance
how they may differ as a function of constraints. of the opponent’s ball-racket contact. The authors
Minimal Essential Information
A more recent emphasis has been placed on identifying the minimal essential information required for making effective
pattern recognition judgments. The use of gaze recording, think-aloud verbal protocols, and various experimental
manipulations of spatial (e.g., removal of central or peripheral players from the visual display) and temporal dynamics
have suggested that typically only an isolated number of players are needed to define a particular sequence of play.
The positions of the central midfield and offensive players in soccer, for instance, even when players are presented as
points of light on an outline of the playing field, are sufficient to enable accurate judgment scores (see North, Ward,
Ericsson, & Williams, 2011; Williams, Hodges, North, & Barton, 2006; Williams, North, & Hope, 2012).
concluded that these players must have used infor- athletes are able to use their previous knowledge
mation other than postural cues far in advance of and expectancies to build a cognitive model on the
the opponent’s striking the ball, such as information fly that enables them to employ anticipative rather
about the opponent’s preferred pattern of play (par- than reactive strategies.
ticularly preferred stroke options and sequences), In a series of experiments, Murphy, Jackson,
to anticipate so accurately. They suggested that Cooke, Roca, Benguigui, and Williams (2016) fur-
skilled players were attuned to the probabilities ther examined the role of contextual information
associated with potential event outcomes based on in anticipation in tennis. In one condition, skilled
such information. Loffing and Hagemann (2014) and less-skilled tennis players were presented
later demonstrated that skilled tennis players’ with filmed sequences of tennis rallies and asked
expectations of shot direction are influenced by the to anticipate where an opponent on the other side
opponent’s lateral court position and that this con- of the net would hit the ball to when trials were
textual information influences players’ expectations occluded at ball-racket contact. In another condi-
most strongly when presented far in advance of tion, access to all superficial information such as
the opponent’s racket-ball contact, when pertinent postural cues, players’ rackets, and background
postural information is not available. color was removed by presenting the same rallies
Published reports have further examined the in an animated format in which the only informa-
higher-level cognitive processes associated with the tion presented was the court markings, the ball,
use of contextual information when making antici- and cylinders of different colors to identify players’
pation judgments. Using a simulated cricket batting positions. A schematic of these two conditions is
task, McRobert, Ward, Eccles, and Williams (2011) presented in figure 13.1.
examined how multiple exposures to the same Although the results of this study (Murphy et
bowler influenced gaze behaviors and thought pro- al., 2016) indicate that performance degrades when
cesses compared with a condition in which batters viewing the animated footage compared with the
viewed only single deliveries from the same bowler. filmed footage, players are still able to anticipate
In the multiple exposure, high-context condition, shots at levels significantly above chance, and the
skilled batters used gaze behaviors and thought pro- skilled players are more accurate than the less-
cesses that were significantly different from those skilled players in both conditions. Subsequent col-
used in the single delivery, low-context condition. lection of gaze data and retrospective verbal reports
The skilled batters changed their gaze behaviors to of thoughts in the animated condition suggest that
rely on earlier arising information from more prox- the performance differences were related to the
imal cues such as the arm, shoulders, and trunk skilled players’ higher-level cognitive processing of
rather than on distal cues from the bowling arm. the presented information. These data suggest that
Moreover, a clear shift occurred in participants’ although access to postural information is helpful
thought processes such that fewer verbalizations to anticipation in tennis, skilled players can also
occurred relating to lower-level cognitions and more use contextual information relating potentially to
high-level thoughts occurred related to evaluation court positioning, relative movements of the players
and planning. These data illustrate that skilled and ball, shot sequencing, and the angles between
Figure 13.1 Normal video (left) and animated (right) display conditions.
Reprinted from Murphy et al. (2016).
the players and the court markings to anticipate. on isolating certain perceptual-cognitive skills or
Follow-up experiments are underway to explore highlighting single sources of information.
more specifically the nature of the information
that players are able to extract from the animated
sequences. Dynamic Interaction Among
The data reported by McRobert et al. (2011)
and Murphy et al. (2016) align well with previous
Perceptual-Cognitive Skills
descriptive reports. In an effort to quantify the In the previous sections, we have identified and
frequency of observable anticipation behaviors in discussed several perceptual-cognitive skills that
high-performance tennis, Triolet, Benguigui, Le underpin effective anticipation in sport. As this
Runigo, and Williams (2013) analyzed 3,000 tennis information indicates, skilled athletes are able to
shots from rallies involving players who were, or pick up postural cues from an opponent early in an
had been, ranked in the top 10 in the world. An action, they are more accurate in detecting familiar-
observable anticipation behavior was defined as ity and structure in evolving sequences of play, and
a movement by the player to the left or right in they have greater knowledge of likely event occur-
advance of the opponent’s ball-racket contact. rences and probabilities. The interaction between
Although the data do not take into account the higher- and lower-level cognitive skills is likely to be
frequency of nonobservable anticipation behaviors dynamic, thereby guiding the manner in which the
(i.e., those when players may be anticipating but visual system is used to extract pertinent informa-
no advance movement is detected), anticipation tion to direct the anticipation process. Figure 13.2
behaviors were only observed on 13.42% of shots. presents a schematic illustration of the potential
The relatively low frequency of anticipation behav- interaction between these various perceptual-cogni-
iors potentially highlights the tendency of players tive skills. The relative importance of each of these
to hedge their bets and to undertake some form of skills is likely to vary as a function of constraints
cost–benefit analyses in an ongoing manner during that are unique to the task, situation, and athlete
rallies, considering that a correct anticipation judg- (Williams, 2009). Previously in this chapter we
ment would carry with it a significant benefit (i.e., referred to various published reports that indicate
permitting the player more time to prepare for and how task (e.g., number of players), situation (e.g.,
execute the next shot) and an incorrect judgment strategic intention), and athlete (e.g., individual
would carry a significant cost (i.e., moving in the strengths and weaknesses, anxiety, fatigue) con-
wrong direction and probably losing the point). straints influence the manner in which information
But the most interesting finding was that a large is processed. Thus far, however, few attempts have
portion of the observable anticipation behavior been made to highlight systematically how these
occurred over 140 ms before the opponent’s ball- different skills interact in a single experiment.
racket contact. Considering a visual reaction latency In a fairly recent exception, Roca et al. (2013)
of 200 ms, these data suggest that players were directly manipulated the task constraints using a
anticipating based on information available over soccer simulation that required players to respond
340 ms in advance of the shot. This anticipation to film sequences that involved a near and far task
behavior, assumed to be based on information manipulation. Players viewed sequences from the
other than postural cue pickup from the opponent perspective of a central defender in soccer. In the
(Abernethy et al., 2001), was highly accurate (83% near task, the offensive pattern of play commenced
of anticipation behavior was in the direction in in the defender’s half of the field, whereas in the
which the ball was ultimately hit). far task, the sequence of play started with the ball
The previous findings highlight a strong role in the opponents’ half of the pitch. Visual gaze
for contextual information and the associated data and retrospective verbal reports of thoughts
higher-level cognitive factors during anticipation, were taken as players attempted to anticipate what
suggesting that the importance of postural cues option the opponents would select (i.e., pass, shoot,
may have historically been overemphasized in the dribble). The data revealed that skilled players used
research literature (for a review, see Cañal-Bruland different search strategies compared with their
& Mann, 2015). Moreover, such findings support less-skilled counterparts and that these varied as
the notion that anticipation training should include a function of the near and far task manipulation.
translational information that favors integration of Skilled players employed more fixations of shorter
cognitive processes and an understanding of their durations to more areas of the display in the far task
relative importance, rather than exclusive reliance compared with the near task, whereas less-skilled
Player
Probability
assignment
Visual
search
behavior
Pattern Postural
recognition cue utilization
Task Situation
Anticipation judgment
Figure 13.2 The potential interaction between perceptual-cognitive skills and constraints during anticipation judgments.
E6768/Horn/F13.02/565547/mh-R2
Reprinted by permission from A.M. Williams, “Perceiving the Intentions of Others: How Do Skilled Performers Make Anticipation Judg-
ments?” Progress in Brain Research, 174, (2009): 73-83.
players’ gaze behavior was differentiated between Table 13.1 Gaze Data for Skilled and Less-Skilled Soccer
tasks only by a greater number of fixations in the Players Relative to Near and Far Task Constraints, Mean
far task compared with the near task. Similarly, (± SD)
the skilled players spent more time fixating on Skilled Less skilled
teammates, opponents, and areas of free space in Near Near
the far task in comparison with the near task, in Search rate Far task task Far task task
which they spent more time fixating on the player Number of fixations 13.95 8.17 7.01 5.64
in possession of the ball. The less-skilled players (±1.92) (±1.85) (±1.23) (±1.05)
displayed no such differences between task condi- Number of fixation 7.31 4.14 3.53 3.11
tions. Gaze data are presented in table 13.1. locations (±1.37) (±0.58) (±0.83) (±0.64)
A novel coding system was used to analyze the Fixation duration (ms) 332 598 745 887
verbal reports. Articulations were coded relative to (±61) (±205) (±174) (±173)
their focus on postural cues, pattern recognition, or Adapted by permission from A. Roca et al., “Perceptual-Cognitive
situational probabilities. Although clear differences Skills and Their Interaction as a Function of Task Constraints in
were evident across skill groups, the more interest- Soccer,” Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 35, no. 2 (2013):
144-155.
ing finding was the observation that the importance
of the three categories of perceptual-cognitive skills
differed across the task constraints. In the far task,
skilled players relied more on thought processes A similar novel approach was used in a more
related to pattern recognition, whereas in the near recent study by Cocks, Jackson, Bishop, and Wil-
task, they relied more on postural cues and situ- liams (2015) in which it was reported that the rela-
ational probabilities. These data are presented in tive importance of these perceptual-cognitive skills
figure 13.3. differ with anxiety; greater reliance was placed on
2.5
Far task
Near task
2.0
Mean frequency scores

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Postural cues Pattern recognition Situational probabilities
a Statement categories
2.5
E6768/Horn/F13.03a/565548/mh-R1 Far task
Near task
2.0
Mean frequency scores
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Postural cues Pattern recognition Situational probabilities
b Statement categories
Figure 13.3 Mean frequency scores (SD) per trial of verbal statements relative to the perceptual-cognitive skills referred to by (a)
skilled and (b) less-skilled soccer players under near and far task constraints.
E6768/Horn/F13.03b/565549/mh-R1
Adapted by permission from A. Roca et al., “Perceptual-Cognitive Skills and Their Interaction as a Function of Task Constraints in Soccer,”
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 35, no. 2 (2013): 144-155.
low-level (such as postural cue usage) rather than (which are often extraneous or irrelevant), leading
high-level (such as shot sequencing and court posi- to greater error in movement execution and com-
tioning) cognitive processes when in an anxious promised performance.
state. Such findings are consistent with existing More research is needed to examine how the
theoretical postulates that assert that the increased importance of each perceptual-cognitive skill varies
cognitive load induced by high anxiety leads to dynamically as a result of task, situation, and indi-
greater salience and prioritization of bottom-up pro- vidual constraints. Innovative research efforts in
cessing, concurrent with degradation in top-down this area will permit advancement of theoretical
control (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007; knowledge and serve as an empirical basis for the
Janelle, 2002). As a consequence, motor planning design of training programs to facilitate the acqui-
is highly susceptible to stimulus-driven influences sition of anticipation.
Developing Anticipation and Williams, Ward, Bell-Walker, and Ford (2012)

used this approach to examine the antecedents of
Facilitating Skill Acquisition anticipation in elite high-performing, elite low-per-
forming, and nonelite soccer players. No differ-
In the first half of this chapter, the focus was on
ences were found among the three groups in the
identifying the various perceptual-cognitive skills
number of hours accumulated per year in practice
that underpin anticipation, as well as illustrating
activities or in competition. The high-performing
some of the methods and measures that have been
group, however, had accumulated significantly
employed to identify the underlying processes
more hours in non-coach-led play-related activity
associated with skilled anticipation. In the second
in soccer compared with their low-performing elite
half of the chapter, we turn our attention to the
counterparts, and both elite groups had accumu-
implications of this work for performance enhance-
lated significantly more hours compared with the
ment and skill acquisition. First, we highlight how
nonelite group. Similar findings were reported by
the practice activities in which athletes engage and
Roca, Williams, and Ford (2012) using samples of
the nature of the instruction influence the devel-
soccer players stratified into high and low perform-
opment of anticipation. Second, we consider how
ing based on their performance on film-based tests
simulation in all its various guises, coupled with
of anticipation and decision making. Around 20%
feedback and instruction, may be used to facilitate
of the variance in test performance was accounted
the development of anticipation. Finally, we look
for by the hours accumulated in non-coach-led play
at three foci of work that have examined the most
during childhood (Williams & Ford, 2013). Overall,
effective conditions, instructions, and structure of
these studies suggest that the hours accumulated
practice for training anticipation in sport.
in non-coach-led play has a positive influence on
the development of perceptual-cognitive skills.
Practice Activities The authors speculated that non-coach-led play
Since the seminal work of Ericsson, Krampe, and activities (such as street or backyard soccer) pro-
Tesch-Römer (1993) on deliberate practice theory, vide abundant opportunities for discovery learning
several researchers have employed questionnaires because players engage in activities in which they
and training diaries to retrospectively examine practice technical and tactical skills together as in
the developmental history profiles of elite athletes the match situation. It is argued that children have
(see Côté, Murphy-Mills, & Abernethy, 2012; Ford, the natural inclination to recreate the types of activ-
Hodges, & Williams, 2014). The focus of these stud- ities seen during match play, creating opportunities
ies has been on identifying the nature and quantity to mimic the demands of competition. Moreover,
of practice activities in which athletes have engaged by definition non-coach-led practice activities
across different stages of development. Scientists are likely to be devoid of explicit and augmented
have differentiated between activities in the main instruction and feedback, encouraging implicit
sport of eventual expertise (including coach-led learning, which has been shown to facilitate skill
practice, non-coach-led practice or play, and com- retention and resilience under pressure (Jackson
petition activity), as well as in other sport activity & Farrow, 2005). In contrast, traditional coach-led
engaged in during their careers (Ford & Williams, practice activities tend to overemphasize drill- and
2012, 2013; Ford et al., 2012). grid-based activities (termed training-form activity)
A recent extension of this retrospectively based rather than activities that more naturally replicate
work has been to focus specifically on those activ- the demands experienced during match play, such
ities that promote the development of perceptu- as small-sided and conditioned games (termed play-
al-cognitive expertise. The typical approach in this ing-form activity; see Ford, Yates, & Williams, 2010).
research has been to use standard film-based tests Moreover, coach-led practice sessions are known
of anticipation to classify skilled and less-skilled to be heavy on the provision of explicit instruction
athletes into high- and low-performing groups. and feedback (Ford et al., 2010).
Practice history profiles are then administered to Although evidence supporting the importance
participants in an attempt to identify what early of engagement in sport-specific training activities
sport activities and experiences differentiated those is compelling and strongly grounded in theories of
who developed into high- versus low-performing specificity of practice (Lee, 1988; Proteau, 1992),
groups. correlational evidence suggests that engagement
in non-sport-specific practice activities may Most researchers have focused on improving the
positively affect the development of perceptu- ability of athletes to pick up postural cues (e.g., see
al-cognitive skills. Specifically, athletes at elite Smeeton, Williams, Hodges, & Ward, 2005; Wil-
training institutes in Australia who are perceived liams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002). Although
by coaches to be good at anticipation in adulthood early research suffered from various design issues,
are characterized by having accumulated consid- such as the absence of control groups and transfer
erable experience in other related sports early in tests, the findings have been resilient in demon-
development (Weissensteiner, Abernethy, & Farrow, strating the value of such training in improving
2009; Weissensteiner, Abernethy, Farrow, & Müller, performance in the laboratory and on field-based
2008). Although causality should not be inferred transfer tests. The practical utility of such training
from correlational data, the authors suggest that programs is now well accepted (Williams, Causer,
some transfer of perceptual-cognitive skills across Ford, Logan, & Murray, 2012), although evidence
related sports may occur. Some data certainly sug- to document the widespread use of such interven-
gest that perceptual-cognitive skill transfers from tions in high-performance sport is limited (Hendry,
one related sport to another, such as field hockey to Murphy, Williams, & Hodges, 2016). As such, this
soccer and vice versa (Smeeton, Ward, & Williams, rather robust knowledge base has not been effec-
2004), although this conclusion does not imply that tively translated to the end users in a manner that
engagement in related sports has advantages over would result in systematic implementation.
participation in the targeted sport for excellence.
Perhaps the key point to emerge from this section
is that practice activities need to provide opportu-
Application of Motor Skill Acquisition
nities for athletes to engage in anticipation so that Research to Perceptual-Cognitive
the key knowledge and skills underpinning these Skill Learning
judgments can be acquired in multiple and contex-
tually varied environments and conditions. What Compared with the anticipation literature, research
is required are pseudo-experimental interventions examining the acquisition of motor skills is far more
in actual field settings where scientists can work extensive and has revealed conditions of practice
with coaches to understand the types of practice that promote skill acquisition. From this well-estab-
activities and methods of instruction that promote lished literature, three concepts have been identified
the acquisition of the perceptual-cognitive skills and incorporated in to perceptual-cognitive train-
underlying anticipation. ing, namely, the effects of training with anxiety,
the role of implicit learning, and the contextual
interference effect.
Simulation Training
A challenge for coaches is how to provide ath- Training with Anxiety
letes with sufficient and suitable opportunities to Several researchers have highlighted how stressors
enhance anticipation. Creating practice sessions such as anxiety (Williams & Elliott, 1999) affect
that specifically develop the use of perceptual-cog- anticipation and its underlying processes in sport.
nitive skills such as postural cue utilization and Stressors such as anxiety and fatigue decrease
pattern recognition is difficult. An option is to use performance efficiency, as determined by changes
some form of simulation to re-create the types of in gaze behaviors and verbal reports of thoughts,
situations experienced during competition. Several and negatively influence performance effectiveness,
scientists have attempted to develop simulation reducing response accuracy and often increasing
protocols using film, animation, or virtual reality response time (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992; Eysenck et
(Ward, Williams, & Hancock, 2006). The typical al., 2007). Furthermore, anxiety has been shown
approach is to re-create the performance situation to have a greater effect on top-down cognitive pro-
by filming the action from the player’s perspective cesses such as the use of contextual information
(e.g., the penalty kick in soccer or return of serve compared with bottom-up processes such as pos-
in tennis). These filmed images are then presented tural cue usage (Cocks et al., 2015). As anxiety on
to athletes, enabling them to try to anticipate what a task increases, greater reliance is placed on bot-
will happen next and providing ample opportunities tom-up processing as top-down processing becomes
for feedback and instruction (for recent reviews, see impaired. In light of empirical work highlighting
Broadbent, Causer, Williams, & Ford, 2014; Causer the effect that anxiety has on process and outcome
et al., 2012). measures of performance, logic would argue against
the wisdom of designing practice sessions that do Researchers examining a similar question in
not attempt to mimic the demands of competition elite-level sport have yielded more encouraging
during practice. A few recent reports have focused findings. Alder, Ford, Causer, and Williams (2016)
on the benefits of training under pressure on the examined the effects of high- and low-anxiety
development of perceptual-cognitive skills. during video-based training of anticipation in
Nieuwenhuys, Savelsbergh, and Oudejans (2015) badminton. To increase anxiety for the high-anxi-
examined the effect of high- and low-anxiety train- ety group, participants were told that their pretest
ing for police officers facing a shoot-or-don’t-shoot scores were in the bottom 20% of the group. In
decision-making task. In contrast to the authors’ addition, during training the coach was instructed
previous work using simple aiming tasks in which to induce greater anxiety by stating that the partic-
positive effects of training with anxiety were found ipants’ performance was not at the required level
(Oudejans & Pijpers, 2009, 2010), both training and that they needed to improve. In the low-anxiety
groups experienced more anxiety and executed conditions, participants received no such feedback
more false-positive responses under high anxiety on performance. Similar anxiety-provoking meth-
in the retention test compared with low anxiety. ods were used in the high-anxiety pre- and posttest.
This finding suggests that training with high In the low-anxiety posttest, both the high-anxiety
anxiety on tasks that involve complex cognitive and the low-anxiety training groups demonstrated
judgments may not be as beneficial when compared greater accuracy compared with the control group.
with simpler aiming tasks. The notion that anxiety In the high-anxiety posttest, the high-anxiety
imposes attentional load is broadly accepted and training group maintained accuracy, whereas per-
is clearly implicated in these findings. In simple formance for the low-anxiety group declined com-
aiming tasks, competition for attentional realloca- pared with the low-anxiety posttest (see figure 13.4).
tion is minimal and spare attentional resources are Although this topic requires much more research,
likely available to accommodate demands exerted the indication is that training with high anxiety has
by anxiety. In situations requiring complex judg- potential benefits for the acquisition of anticipation.
ments, attentional load may not be accommodated A key consideration seems to be the availability of
because of attentional capacity limitations. In such extra capacity to accommodate additional loads
cases, interventions that reduce load itself may be imposed by emotions. Capacity limitations reached
necessary to realize performance benefits that may or exceeded during training under anxiety, whether
come from training with anxiety. due to the complexity of the task or the relative
36
High anxiety training
Low anxiety training
*
Number of correct trials (n = 36)
30
Control *
24
18
12
Low anxiety High anxiety Low anxiety High anxiety
Pretest Posttest
Testing session
Figure 13.4 Mean (± SD) number of accurate trials (n = 36) for the high-anxiety, low-anxiety, and control group on the video-based
badminton task across high- and low-anxiety conditionsE6768/Horn/F13.04/565550/mh-R2
in the pre- and posttests. *p < .05.
Adapted by permission from D. Alder et al., “The Effects of High- and Low-Anxiety Training on the Anticipation Judgements of Elite Per-
formers,” Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 38, (2016): 93-104.
skill level of the performer, will compromise the significantly affect the retention and transfer of
effectiveness of training programs. Moreover, suc- these skills. Limited attention has been given to
cessfully training under anxiety is likely critical for the structure of practice in anticipation training
effective transfer to future competitive situations. in sport (Memmert, Hagemann, Althoetmar, Gep-
pert, & Seiler, 2009). Broadbent and colleagues
Implicit Learning approached this topic by investigating whether
As discussed earlier in this chapter, the expert the contextual interference (CI) effect, a robust
advantage in anticipation appears to be based on finding from the motor-learning literature, could
both the ability to identify key sources of informa- be extended to perceptual-cognitive skills train-
tion and the capacity to extract and use information ing. The CI effect refers to how a random schedule
from these sources. Numerous researchers have of practice results in superior learning compared
therefore investigated the most effective approach with a blocked structure of practice (Magill & Hall,
to instructing and informing developing athletes 1990). Broadbent, Causer, Ford, and Williams (2015)
to enhance those skills. Early approaches pro- trained intermediate tennis players to anticipate
vided athletes with explicit instructions about the three distinct tennis shots (groundstroke, volley,
mechanics of the action. Learning benefits were smash shot) in either a blocked or random struc-
found compared with control and placebo groups ture of practice. In contrast to the findings from
(Abernethy, Wood, & Parks, 1999). Since this early the motor-learning literature, no differences were
work, however, researchers have become aware found between the two groups across practice. Com-
of the potential limitations of explicit instructions pared with the blocked group, however, the random
and the potential instructional and stress resistance group demonstrated superior response accuracy in
benefits of implicit learning (Jackson & Farrow, the laboratory retention test and reduced decision
2005; Smeeton et al., 2005; Williams et al., 2002). time in the field-based transfer test, supporting the
Implicit learning is generally defined as the process previous research on the CI effect (see figure 13.5).
whereby skills are acquired largely independent This finding contradicts one explanation from the
of awareness and cognitive effort. Therefore, the motor-learning literature for the CI effect, namely
process or strategies by which to complete the skill the action plan reconstruction hypothesis. This
cannot be verbalized or expressed (Masters, 1992). hypothesis stresses the need of a motor program
Abernethy, Schorer, Jackson, and Hagemann to be retrieved and reconstructed during a random
(2012), using an anticipation task in handball, schedule of practice for long-term learning benefits
assigned novice athletes to four different training to be found (Magill & Hall, 1990). With the recent
groups based on the instructional approach they findings from the perceptual-cognitive skills lit-
received. The training groups received either explicit erature, this definition of the hypothesis may be
instructions or discovery learning (verbal cueing questioned.
or color cueing), or they undertook a matching Broadbent, Causer, Williams, and Ford (2017)
judgment task to encourage implicit learning. The completed two experiments to investigate the under-
discovery-learning groups and the implicit-learning lying mechanisms of the CI effect in anticipation
group formulated a lower number of rules related training. The random group demonstrated superior
to the specific anticipation task compared with learning compared with the blocked group, verify-
the explicit group, highlighting the comparatively ing that the CI effect extends to perceptual-cognitive
implicit nature of learning that occurred in these skills training. Furthermore, support was shown
two groups. All groups (apart from the color cueing) for the action plan reconstruction hypothesis using
showed improvements in performance compared a dual-task paradigm. The authors proposed that
with the control group, yet in a transfer test to a the terminology be changed to response plan recon-
stress situation only the implicit-learning group struction hypothesis such that for an upcoming task
showed performance superior to the control groups a person must retrieve the appropriate response
(see also Farrow & Abernethy, 2002; Smeeton et plan and engage in more effortful reconstructive
al., 2005). This finding highlights the benefits of processes to regenerate the response plan for sub-
implicit learning because of its robustness under sequent performances. This modification allows a
stress and anxiety. consistent explanation for both motor and nonmotor
tasks. Moreover, the findings extended the cognitive
Practice Structure effort explanation for the CI effect and proposed an
Besides different instructional approaches used alternative hypothesis highlighting the role of error
during training, the structure of practice can processing and the potential implicit underpinning
100
90
80 *
Response accuracy (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
Random
10 Blocked
0
a Pretest Training I Training 2 Training 3 Retention test
100 E6768/Horn/F13.05a/565551/mh-R2 400
90
350
80
300
Response accuracy (%)
70
*
Decision time (ms)

250
60
50 200
40
150
30
Blocked (RA)
100
20 Random (RA)
Blocked (DT) 50
10 Random (DT)
0 0
b Pretest Retention test
Figure 13.5 (a) Mean (SD) response accuracy (RA; %) for the blocked and random groups in a video simulation tennis anticipation
task in the pretest, three training sessions, and 7-day retention test. (b) Mean (SD) response accuracy (RA; %) and decision time (DT;
E6768/Horn/F13.05b/565552/mh-R3
ms) in the field pretest and 7-day transfer tests for the blocked and random group. *p < .05.
Reprinted by permission from D.P. Broadbent et al., “Contextual Interference Effect on Perceptual-Cognitive Skills Training,” Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise 47, no 6 (2015): 1243-1250.
to the benefits of a random structure of practice topic in high-performance sport contexts. In con-
(Broadbent et al., 2017). trast to the copious amounts of published research
on physical and physiological contributors to
high-performance sport, a void remains in regard
Future Research to the identification and investigation of various
Recommendations components of anticipatory behavior as they might
affect performance. In addition, innovative training
In general, the area of anticipation remains rela- methods that can enhance the acquisition of the
tively unexplored. This conclusion is somewhat underpinning perceptual-cognitive skills need to
surprising given the perceived importance of the be developed.
More sophisticated research designs should be used

because they may allow greater insight into current
Summary
research gaps. For example, rather than relying on Our goal in this chapter was to emphasize the
retrospective protocols, longitudinal approaches could importance of anticipation in sport and to offer
be used to examine the practice activities of athletes considerations for how the underlying perceptu-
as they travel down the path toward expertise. Such al-cognitive skills are developed. In the first half of
longitudinal designs may allow greater understanding the chapter, we reviewed the key perceptual-cogni-
about the ideal age and skill level to begin various tive skills underpinning anticipation and the way
types of training programs and the optimal challenge in which these have typically been measured. We
points for athletes along the development pathway provided evidence that skilled athletes possess
(Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004). Furthermore, researchers superior perceptual-cognitive skills relative to their
should embrace technological advances. Virtual real- less-skilled counterparts, including superior ability
ity displays are now a much more affordable option to pick up postural cues, greater accuracy in detect-
that may better mimic the competitive environment. ing familiarity and patterns in evolving sequences
Similarly, advances in neuroscientific techniques, of play, and superior ability to assign probabilities
such as mobile electroencephalography (EEG), may to potential event outcomes. An enhanced ability
now be used because more dynamic response par- to use these perceptual-cognitive skills is strongly
adigms offer great promise in delineating the brain evidenced by the use of more effective and efficient
processes of experts during anticipation. Multimethod gaze behaviors. The relative importance of these
and cross-disciplinary research is needed to promote perceptual-cognitive skills is assumed to vary
improved understanding of the processes and mech- dynamically depending on the unique confluence
anisms underpinning anticipation. of task, situation, and athlete constraints. In the
Although the number of research studies inves- second half of the chapter, we focused on how sys-
tigating the role of contextual information in antic- tematic training programs may be developed using
ipation has increased in the last decade or so (e.g., simulation coupled with instruction and feedback.
Crognier & Féry, 2005; Farrow & Reid, 2012; McRob- We highlighted a number of issues related to condi-
ert et al., 2011), much more research is needed to tions of practice such as the importance of different
understand the circumstances in which contextual instructional approaches and practice schedules.
information should or should not be used by ath- The current state of knowledge has matured to
letes to inform their judgments. Additionally, more the point where we can confidently advocate for
research is required to understand how athletes use the translation of current knowledge into broadly
either postural cues or contextual information to implementable coaching recommendations that can
anticipate effectively and how they may prioritize be tailored to effective sport-specific training pro-
certain sources of information depending on the grams across multiple sports. The potential exists
circumstances. The findings from such research for this body of knowledge to inform other applied
should affect how these skills are then trained and domains outside sport in which decisions must be
whether interventions should focus on one or all of made in unpredictable, dynamic environments that
the underlying perceptual-cognitive skills. Limited can be facilitated by training programs. A number
research has been conducted to examine whether the of unanswered questions remain, and we encourage
use of contextual information can be trained and, if more empirical work in this area to create a stronger
so, what the most appropriate manner is to present focus on evidence-based practice that will continue
this information to athletes (for exceptions, see Broad- to benefit aspiring athletes across multiple sports.
bent, Ford, O’Hara, Williams, & Causer, 2017; Gray,
2015; Williams, Herron, Ward, & Smeeton, 2008).
Clearly, a more multifaceted approach to the study of
references
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cially given the now common prevalence for sports mation pick-up in squash. Perception, 19, 63–77.
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analyze, and provide feedback to athletes about the Expertise and the perception of kinematic and situational
prevailing tendencies of upcoming opponents (Causer probability information. Perception, 30, 233–252.
& Williams, 2015). A strong need remains for system- Abernethy, B., & Russell, D. (1984). Advance cue utili-
atic research programs to help guide evidence-based sation by skilled cricket batsmen. Australian Journal of
practice in these areas (Cañal-Bruland & Mann, 2015). Science and Medicine in Sport, 16, 2–10.
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14
Exergames
to Enhance
Physical Activity
and Performance
Deborah L. Feltz, PhD  Stephen Samendinger, PhD
Abstract
Motivation is a key issue relative to the initiation and maintenance of conditioning in
physical activity and sport contexts. Exercise video games, or virtual-reality enhanced
exercise, have become a popular motivational technology that can be used to promote
physical activity. Exergames can boost the appeal of exercise, training, or physical reha-
bilitation by shifting the focus away from its aversive aspects (e.g., exertion, fatigue,
boredom) to novel, engaging, and even online social games. The first exergames were
developed in the 1980s and were designed to hook up to stationary bikes, but the current
mode of exergame delivery is as diverse as the selection of games, encompassing as
many software applications as there are hardware devices, from watches to phones to
television consoles. In this chapter, we describe the current state of knowledge in exercise
video games (exergames), including exergame modalities and typical uses of exerga-
mes. We also identify and explain the conceptual approaches that have been used to
increase physical activity and training through exergames. These methods include goal
setting, self-determination theory, flow, and group dynamics. We end the chapter by
focusing on issues in the current research on group dynamics approaches to exergames
and associated directions for future research.
247
248 Feltz and Samendinger
N
umerous reports show that children and The popularity of exergames continues to
adults have not been meeting recommended increase. Market data show that exergames repre-
physical activity guidelines (Troiano et al., sented 20% of all game sales in 2011, up from 5%
2008; Tucker, Welk, & Beyler, 2011; Centers for in 2007 (Hewitt, 2013). In April 2013 the President's
Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Motivation Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition launched
is a key issue in the physical inactivity epidemic an initiative to highlight active video games as one
(Dishman, 2001). Correspondingly, in the compet- way to help Americans lead more active lives. With
itive sport context, athletes also struggle to stay this increase in popularity, an increasing amount
motivated to do the conditioning work (especially in of research has examined the use of these games
off-season) necessary to stay physically fit in their to improve physical, social, or cognitive outcomes.
sport (Huber, 2013; Paccagnella, 2005). Because Much of the research in this newly developing
time and commitment are required to initiate and field encompasses the evaluation of exergames to
maintain a regular exercise program, especially for increase energy expenditure, increase time spent
those whose lives are busy, losing that motivation in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA),
is easy. improve disability, and influence various parame-
Exercise video games, or virtual-reality enhanced ters of fitness (Gao & Chen, 2014; Peng, Crouse, &
exercise (more commonly referred to as exergames), Lin, 2013). Further, research with exergames has
have become a popular motivational technology to evaluated whether acute or routine play can influ-
promote physical activity. We use the definition of ence cognitive function (e.g., Anderson-Hanley et
exergames proposed by the American College of al., 2012) and improve the physical activity of people
Sports Medicine (ACSM) as physical activities that with disabilities (e.g., Wiemeyer et al., 2014). But
are technology driven and that require physical the main purpose of this chapter is not to review
exertion to play the game (Witherspoon, 2013). these outcomes. Rather, we focus in this chapter on
Further, exergames require limb or trunk move- a review of the motivational aspects of exergames
ment (large muscles rather than simple hand and to enhance various performance or physical activity
finger movements) as the primary interface with the outcomes.
technology (Straker et al., 2015). Thus, interactive The chapter is divided into three sections. First,
games that are sedentary but involve sport learn- we describe the current state of knowledge in exer-
ing of rules and position play would be excluded gaming, including exergame modalities and typical
from this category. Within this definition, however, uses of exergames. Next, we overview the concep-
exergames can include any structured form of play tual approaches that have been used to increase
that involves goals, rules, and challenges. Exerga- physical activity and training through exergames.
mes are different from exercise videos in that the These methods include goal setting, self-determi-
participant can interact with the technology in an nation theory, flow, and group dynamics. We then
artificial environment that is computer generated. focus on issues in the current research on group
The computer-simulated reality can mimic a real dynamics approaches to exergames and associated
environment or can be created for an imagined directions for future research because much of the
environment. research in this new area of exergame technology
Exergames can boost the appeal of exercise, is going to that topic. The chapter concludes with
training, or physical rehabilitation by shifting a wrap-up of what exergame designers need to
the focus away from its aversive aspects (e.g., incorporate into their program features to meet both
exertion, fatigue, boredom) to novel, engaging, popular appeal and health goals.
and even online social games. These games can
also eliminate some of the barriers to exercise or
physical therapy, such as scheduling problems, cost Exergame Modalities
of joining exercise programs, and social physique
anxiety that can be associated with performing
and Usage
physical activities in public spaces (Bain, Wilson, The first exergames were developed in the 1980s
Chaikind, 1989; Brunet & Sabiston, 2009). Although and were designed to hook up to stationary bikes
exergames can be used with actual competitive (Staiano & Calvert, 2011), but the current mode of
sport play or practice activities, they have been exergame delivery is as diverse as the selection of
limited primarily (although not completely) to the games, encompassing as many software applica-
enhancement of conditioning in athletes rather than tions as there are hardware devices, from watches
for skill development. to phones to television consoles. Mobile exergames
Exergames to Enhance Physical Activity and Performance 249
include designs engineered to take advantage of ate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), improve
intraphone technology and data network links to disability, and influence various parameters of
other users (Boulos & Yang, 2013). The widespread fitness. Further, research with exergames has
adoption of smartphones has opened the door to evaluated whether acute or routine play can affect
location-aware (using global positioning satellite; cognitive function and improve physical activity
GPS) and movement-aware applications (using levels for people with disabilities. Less research has
internal accelerometers). Sport watches, minicom- focused on psychosocial aspects and determinants
puter tablets, and standalone portable modules of healthy behavior through exergame play. Specific
may use similar hardware features and involve the detail regarding each of these uses is provided in
user in outdoor activity games or exercise. Device the following paragraphs.
programs provide an exciting alternative to indoor
activity, allowing users to record and compete Exercise and Physical Activity
against previous performance in their environment
of choice, such as collecting points for walking Many exergames are structured simply to engage
briskly past landmarks or running with a simula- basic physical activity in the game play scenario,
tion of being chased by zombies (Moran & Coons, involving upper- or lower-extremity movement,
2015). The diversity of exergames being developed or both. Common games include bowling, hula-
is not limited to walking, running, or bicycling; they hoop, walking, running, dance step or musical
can be adapted to use while swimming (Choi et al., instrument simulation, and game brand-unique
2014). Console and computer-based indoor exerga- movement activities. The physical activity is usu-
mes support multiple accessories to enable game ally embedded in a story line, role-play, music, or
play, such as headsets, floor touch pads, handheld activity guide. Gamification describes the inclusion
controllers, cycles, and motion cameras. Exergames of game qualities, such as rewards, levels, and
have also followed the evolution of personal elec- leader boards to create elements of competition and
tronic devices toward hands-free headsets, goggles, enhance engagement. Exercise-based games often
and immersive technologies (Kooiman & Sheehan, entail similar physical activities in a fitness format
2015). Most recently, television cable modules (e.g., or structured regimens of aerobic exercises with
Apple TV) are being updated with advanced pro- or without a virtual trainer. Both physical activity
cessor and memory capability to permit users to and exercise-based exergames are often studied
play games directly from the Internet without the because of the broad appeal of electronic games to
need for a third-party hardware device. The systems multiple diverse populations. Health video games
are also including a mechanism to download apps have cleverly used appealing, developmentally and
to use through the television, and remote control culturally appropriate story lines to immerse users
channel devices play a dual function as game con- and improve health outcomes (Lu, Thompson,
trollers. Many modalities can connect to online Baranowski, Buday, & Baranowski, 2012).
websites, social media, and other applications to The use of exergames to meet recommended
share user performance or health information. To levels of physical activity has met with mixed suc-
our knowledge, no formal evaluation of perfor- cess. Evaluating the efficacy of popular exergames
mance outcomes has been conducted comparing (versus those created in the lab), researchers have
mobile and console exergame modalities. measured various game sessions against multi-
The uses of exergames can be categorized into ple health behavior criteria. Peng and colleagues
three main objectives: (2013) performed a systematic review of the state
of current research (up to March 2011) on the abil-
• to motivate greater physical activity and ity of exergames to satisfy recommended levels of
exercise, physical activity intensity, as well as their efficacy
• to motivate sport skill training and condi- to increase physical activity, focusing exclusively
tioning, and on off-the-shelf existing exergames. Just as with
• to enhance motivation in therapeutic treat- children, however, adults engaging with exergames
ment. often did not meet moderate to vigorous levels of
physical activity in the 28 studies reviewed. Instead,
Much of the research on uses of exergames has the intensity of game activity was classified as light
evaluated their efficacy to meet one of these objec- to moderate. Intensity levels did not quite meet
tives, such as the ability of exergames to increase recommended intensity guidelines, and the authors
energy expenditure, increase time spent in moder- concluded that overall only 3 of the 13 intervention
studies reviewed were able to demonstrate changes and display a third-person image during the game
to baseline amounts of physical activity in child (Nickel, Kinsey, Haack, Pendergrass, & Barnes,
and adult samples. Support is insufficient to deter- 2012). Hoffmann, Wiemeyer, Hardy, and Göbel
mine whether exergames can lead to persistence (2014) developed a game for a cycle ergometer that
with physical activity, in particular, at a moderate adapted the participant’s training workload (using a
level of intensity (Barnett, Cerin, & Baranowski, linear correlation to heart rate) and pedal rate to the
2011). Further, some evidence indicates that simply person’s success in collecting randomly occurring
providing exergames to children, outside the lab, letters with an animated pigeon. Lastly, a high-in-
does not result in increases of physical activity over tensity interval protocol on a cycle ergometer was
nonexergames (Baranowski et al., 2012). combined with a video display user experience for a
Despite the inability for most exergames to training regimen of 6 days per week over 24 weeks
meet physical activity guidelines, exergames have (Feltz et al., 2016). The partner versus no-partner
been shown to improve adherence to and attitudes exergame cycling protocol consisted of 30-min con-
toward physical activity. For instance, older adults tinuous sessions at 75% of maximum, 2- and 4-min
alternating cadence and speed to complete puzzles graduated intervals (60 to 100% of maximum), and
in a virtual environment were distracted such that a sprint interval at 100% of maximum.
they underestimated exercise persistence by 38% New devices and software are coming to market
(Van Schaik, Blake, Pernet, Spears, & Fencott, yearly, offering a training simulation-gaming expe-
2008). Rhodes, Warburton, and Bredin (2009) rience for everything from sport vision acuity to
demonstrated increased adherence to a 6-week downhill skiing. Few offer evidence of performance
cycle exercise schedule in a college-aged sample in a improvements or nonsuperiority comparisons to
videogame cycle condition over self-selected music nonexergame training. But Feltz et al. (2016) did
during cycling condition. In an alternative use of demonstrate an increase in motivation to exert
exergames in schools, researchers found evidence more effort over 24 weeks with an intense exercise
that exposure to exergames during physical educa- cycling game program.
tion classes positively influenced children’s physical
activity beliefs and behaviors (Lwin & Malik, 2012). Therapeutic Treatment
Exergames have been extensively used in a broad
Sport and Physical Training range of therapeutic interventions. The flexibility
Aside from sport-themed exergames, most use of of electronic interactive games is particularly well
active video games with serious and elite athletes suited to the challenges of adapting a physical
takes the form of fitness conditioning and skills activity modality to special populations. Although
training. In addition, multiple sport skill electronic not all therapeutic uses of exergames have been
games don’t require a video display or immersive formally studied, the application of game use in
technology. Yet they satisfy the ACSM definition therapy continues to be a popular alternative or
used in this chapter because they are technology adjunct across numerous physical and psychological
driven and require physical exertion to play the issues. Games can be used to attract or maintain a
game. For example, Fogtmann, Grønbæk, and patient’s participation in therapy or to track perfor-
Ludvigsen (2011) describe an elite handball athlete mance on therapy goals. A recent excellent review
training game aimed at developing psychomotor outlines results for exergame research conducted
skills, including decision making and anticipation with people with burns, cerebral palsy, stroke, limb
awareness. The exergame attempts to mimic real- amputation, Parkinson’s disease, spinal injury, and
istic game situations mixing game hardware and many others (Staiano & Flynn, 2014). Still other
software with tactical real player competition. studies have explored exergames with cardiac reha-
Perhaps more true to the exergame experience, bilitation (Ruivo, 2014), cystic fibrosis (Salonini et
soccer player development, including skills such as al., 2015), balance and postural stability (Vernada-
turning, passing, dribbling, and one-on-one tactics, kis, Gioftsidou, Antoniou, Ioannidis, & Giannousi,
can be another use of exergames (Jensen, Grønboek, 2012), cognitive function in older adults (Ander-
Thomassen, Andersen, & Nielsen, 2014). Another son-Hanley et al., 2012), depression (Rosenberg et
example in fitness training (and similar to the most al., 2010), traumatic brain injury (Grealy, Johnson,
prevalent type of exergame), a high-intensity inter- & Rushton, 1999), and postconcussion return to
val-training exergame was developed using elec- exercise (DeMatteo, Greenspoon, Levac, Harper,
tromagnetic trackers to detect players’ movements & Rubinoff, 2014). Each study generally reaches a
similar conclusion—that evidence is sufficient to activity (Peng, Lin, Pfeiffer, & Winn, 2012; Roem-
justify a role for exergames with traditional thera- mich, Lambiase, McCarthy, Feda, & Kozlowski,
pies, yet further research is needed to assess study 2012). Within self-determination theory, a sense of
weaknesses and long-term benefits. Thoughtful autonomy, competence, and relatedness are viewed
adaptation and new development of games that are as important intrinsic motivators for trying to do
specific to the target disability or therapy will be well at a task (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci,
an important component of success with exergames 2000). Autonomy refers to how much control or
in therapeutic treatment (Wiemeyer et al., 2014). choice a person has over his or her own behaviors,
Although numerous exergames are on the market the need for competence refers to the need to feel
to motivate greater physical activity to reach various mastery or the desire to perform skillfully, and relat-
goals, few have involved researchers or been based edness is the drive for having positive interactions
on motivational theories in product development and feeling connected with others. Providing people
(Lieberman, 1998). In this next section, we briefly with choices over how they engage in a task can
review various conceptual approaches on which enhance the need for autonomy. Competence can
exergames have been based to influence motivation. be developed by providing feedback to participants
about their performance so that they know how
Increasing Physical Activity well they are doing. Giving people opportunities
to develop interpersonal relationships and build
and Performance social connections with one another can foster
relatedness. An example of an exergame based
Through Exergames on self-determination theory is Olympus (Peng et
Behavior change theories and concepts for exer- al., 2012). The game, aimed at sedentary college
game design are important for enhancing the effec- students, involved an immersive story (players
tiveness in increasing physical activity behavior were citizens of ancient Greece training for athletic
and training (Thompson, 2015). Theories can help competitions) in which players had to run (in place),
balance the fun or pure entertainment of a game jump, and sword-fight opponents (using a wand) to
and the serious aspects of behavior change (Thomp- reach Mount Olympus. The game altered various
son, 2015). The conceptual approaches or theories elements (e.g., character customization, dialogue
on which exergames primarily have been based choice, skill improvement choice) to improve auton-
are achievement goals, self-determination theory, omy and competency (e.g., achievements, adjusting
flow, and group dynamics. Most of the games that difficulty levels) (Peng et al., 2012). Results showed
are theoretically based use a combination of these that autonomy- and competency-supportive game
approaches. features led to improved motivation, enjoyment,
recommendation of the game to others, and the
overall rating of the game.
Achievement Goals Additional research has also shown support for
Goal setting, a common procedure for behavior the motivational benefits of autonomy- and com-
change, has been employed within exergames. Gao petency-supportive aspects in exergames (Lyons
and Chen (2014) note that children typically have et al., 2014). Roemmich et al. (2012) manipulated
low self-regulation skills, which is a problem in both autonomy and mastery in an exergame for
self-directed exergames. One strategy that Gao and children and showed that the exergame that was
Podlog (2012) have used has been to help children both autonomy supportive, in terms of providing
with goal setting in exergame play. Gao and Podlog more choices, and mastery oriented was the most
found that children who set specific goals had effective for increasing physical activity.
better health outcomes than those who set vague
and do-your-best goals. Goals can also provide Flow
information regarding a person’s competence and
can be considered a component of self-determina- Flow theory has been used as the basis for enhanc-
tion theory. ing the immersion of exergame play. As advanced
by Csikszentihalyi (1990), when a person is fully
immersed in an activity, it is more pleasurable and
Self-Determination Theory enjoyable. When exergame players are in a flow
Exergames that are based on self-determination state, they are absorbed in the activity and disen-
theory focus on the intrinsic motivators of physical gaged from distractions such that they may not even
perceive themselves to be exercising, which may to exergames are additive, coactive, and conjunc-
increase the likelihood of continued use (Straker et tive. The term coactive group structures suggests
al., 2015). As Straker et al. note, the elements of an two or more persons working independently at the
exergame necessary to promote a flow state include same task, so this common arrangement does not
concentration, challenge, player skills, control, clear truly describe a team. But coactive task structures
goals, feedback, immersion, and social interaction. can socially influence others, and thus they are
Players of exergames who were assessed on their included here. In additive tasks, the group’s perfor-
flow experience reported experiencing flow when mance is simply determined by the sum of all group
they were engaged in more advanced levels of game members’ individual performances. As mentioned,
play (Thin, Hansen, & McEachen, 2011). Research in coactive tasks, two or more people work at the
has also shown that higher perceived flow results same task but independently of each other. Unlike
in greater energy expenditure (Noah, Spierer, Tachi- additive tasks, individuals are not working as a part
bana, & Bronner, 2011). of a group toward a common goal, yet they still can
be influenced by the mere coactive or competitive
Group Dynamics presence of another person through social compar-
ison. In conjunctive task structures, the group per-
More recent conceptual approaches to the exam- formance relies on the weakest member. Members
ination of exergames have used group dynamics work toward a group goal, but goal attainment is
theoretical frameworks. Specifically, playing an determined by the abilities of the member who is
exergame with one or more partners can add social recognized as least capable. Steiner (1972) uses the
elements of cooperation, competition, communica- example of mountain climbers who must yield any
tion, support, and coordination to the game expe- progress to the performance of the slowest climber.
rience (Ede, Forlenza, & Feltz, 2015). Partners and The conjunctive task dynamic is unique and
social support groups can significantly boost moti- obviously differs from scenarios founded on coact-
vation, but not without potential problems, such as ive or additive group results, which are inherently
finding a partner, coordinating time, negotiating prone to motivation losses (e.g., social loafing or
different exercise goals, and meeting a partner’s social compensation). To capitalize on the con-
performance at any given activity. Furthermore, junctive task structure for motivation gains (versus
although group dynamics afford opportunities to avoiding potential losses brought on by the weakest
employ motivation gain mechanisms inherent in member), the group dynamic effects of upward
cooperation and competition, they also have the social comparison must exert their influence. Fur-
potential to have a negative effect on individual thermore, when a group member perceives that she
and group motivation and goals, and ultimately or he is instrumental (i.e., key to the group’s perfor-
performance. Group dynamics broadly cover mance at a high level) and values the outcome of
intra- and intergroup cooperation and competition. the group effort, motivation is thought to be highest
Whether the group consists of only two people or (instrumentality-value model; Vroom, 1964; Karau
many, whether it is socially oriented (i.e., based on & Williams, 1993).
relationship or social motivations) or task oriented The motivation gains incurred by team members
(i.e. shared performance goals), multiple dynamics in a conjunctive task have been labeled the Köhler
determine immediate and long-term outcomes. effect (Kerr & Hertel, 2011). Studying a club rowing
Many excellent reviews have been written about team in the 1920s, Otto Köhler noted that perfor-
the use of group dynamics in sport and exercise mance on a physical task (biceps curls) by weaker
(see, for example, chapter 10). In the following rowers was better when their efforts were yoked
paragraphs, the theories regarding group dynamics to stronger rowers. This increased motivation was
are applied specifically to the use of exergames to based on rowers’ understanding that their shared
enhance performance and physical activity. task would end when weaker members became
Exergames that are based on group dynamics exhausted and quit (i.e., a conjunctive task struc-
principles have relied on Steiner’s (1972) typology of ture). In addition, the greatest motivation gains
group task structures that are applicable to exerga- came when performance discrepancy was moderate
mes. Steiner described the following task structures and partners did not perceive performance differ-
that can be applied to exergames, which include ences as too great.
at least some level of dependency and cooperation The Köhler effect emphasizes the weaker part-
within the group. The task structures most relevant ner’s effort as indispensable to team success. This
indispensability perception and the associated boat on a park lake). One player may slow to cause
desire for success have been theorized as key to a turn and steer clear of obstacles in the game, but a
the motivation gain (Kerr et al., 2007). Also inte- consistently slow player will result in an inability to
gral is an upward social comparison by the weaker move forward, because the team’s discrepant speed
partner (Kerr et al., 2007). The weaker partner may will cause the boat to run aground. Cooperation,
either set a goal to improve his or her performance synchrony, and teamwork result in game success,
or decide to compete with the stronger partner. as does the performance of the weakest player. To
Either way, comparison with a stronger partner is increase the potential motivation, designers can
thought to be critical to the Köhler effect. To date, also link one team of SwanBoat runners to compete
other possible explanations for the Köhler effect against another team, potentially enhancing the
have not been clearly demonstrated, such as when a motivation to work as a team.
group identity is adopted in a team demanding high
performance (Gockel, Kerr, Seok, & Harris, 2008). Exergames With Virtually Presented Partners
Kerr and Hertel (2011) have published a thorough
review of possible moderators for the Köhler group Partnering with another person can have its own
dynamic effect. challenges because problems arise from locating
Several lines of research have demonstrated that and coordinating time to exercise with partners and
Köhler motivation gains applied to exercise and the potential variability of the companion’s exer-
exergame conditions build on the robust stability of cise goals. With the technologies available, group
this group dynamic effect. Weber and Hertel (2007) dynamic principles may now have an effect on the
completed a meta-analysis of inferior group member exergame group even if members are separated by
motivation gains (outside exergame research), time or distance. Group member performance can
finding that conjunctive task structures measured be virtually presented and occur asynchronously,
favorably to additive and coactive settings. and recorded video can be played back when con-
Another benefit of exergames is the adaptability venient for the other members. Researchers have
of the exercise partner and the user–partner rela- used this method when substituting an experi-
tionship. Exergame technology permits the use of mental confederate for a group team member and
live, virtually presented, and software-generated then manipulating the replay to enhance potential
virtual partners. The research on these types of social or task effects. Results of a series of studies
partner or group dynamics is reviewed in the fol- suggest that working out with a virtually presented
lowing sections. superior partner in a conjunctive setting can
improve persistence motivation on exercise tasks
with normal-weight people (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin,
Exergames With Present Partners
2011; Feltz, Irwin, & Kerr, 2012; Forlenza, Kerr,
Obviously, participating in an exergame with Irwin, & Feltz, 2012; Irwin, Scorniaenchi, Kerr,
live partners (e.g., friends, family, exercise group Eisenmann, & Feltz, 2012; Kerr, Forlenza, Irwin,
mates) is inherently appealing to many people, & Feltz, 2013) and obese people (Samendinger,
and the shared experience can enable motivation Beckles, Forlenza, Pfeiffer, & Feltz, 2015). These
through group dynamics principles. Any exergame studies have used a single-session abdominal plank
researcher interested in harnessing the potential exercise (as a simple muscular persistence task) and
benefit of group dynamics using present (i.e., real aerobic cycling during which the player can watch
human) partners should carefully consider task themselves and their virtually presented partner.
and task structure in game and protocol design. A PlayStation 2 (PS2) gaming module with EyeToy:
For example, conjunctive exercise-task structures Kinetic software served as a platform to display the
with the dyads may serve as an example of how to images on a video screen combined with clips of a
arrange team members’ task demands to result in trainer demonstrating the exercises (illustrated in
motivation gains. SwanBoat is one such exergame, figure 14.1).
designed to engage a team of treadmill runners Team performance in these settings was always
in a cooperative racing game (Ahn et al., 2009). based on the teammate who quit first, and the
Partner treadmills are connected so that both run- subject was provided feedback that implied that
ners’ speed determines the progress of a boat and the virtually presented partner was superior (i.e., to
differences in speed will veer the boat to one side establish a conjunctive setting). If the partner being
or the other (i.e., like a two-person peddled swan presented over the video connection is believed to
team interdependence (and, to a lesser degree,

team identity) was sufficient to increase the user’s
perceptions of affiliation and to affect subsequent
behavior. Participants also failed to recognize the
social responses they demonstrated in affiliating
and cooperating with their computer teammate
over the 50-min experiment. Nass and colleagues
note that this prolonged interaction differs from
a general tendency to anthropomorphize objects,
as one might do when briefly yelling at a piece of
dysfunctional equipment. Likewise, other research
has reinforced that people can cooperate with and
respond to perceived computer personalities just
Figure 14.1 An abdominal plank exercise as they would to humans, even following their
demonstrated by a virtually presented trainer. computer teammate’s suggestions (Parise, Kiesler,
Sproull, & Waters, 1999). Media equation recognizes
be live, the potential to influence the performance that many people interact with media naturally and
motivation effects may occur as if the teammates unconsciously, as if the content represented reality
were sharing the same space. (Reeves & Nass, 1996). A user’s relationship with
a computer-generated partner may even be strong
Exergames With Virtual Partners enough to invoke social facilitation of performance
Virtual (software-generated) characters have been (Mumm & Mutlu, 2011).
a ubiquitous feature of exergames, often taking the Besides task and task structure, the virtual
form of trainer or competitor. Software-generated partner appearance may be another potential group
partners (SGP) are also a cooperative team option, dynamics moderator that influences the success
appearing to provide support during exercise or as a of the social relationship between a human and
character fundamental to the story. Exercising with software-generated partner. Work with nonhuman
an SGP offers several advantages (e.g., availability, interactive characters (e.g., robots or androids, rela-
feature adaptability, user autonomy, reduced social tional agents, avatars) obviously entails concerns
concerns) and a way to adjust abilities automati- of the human user’s likability and acceptability
cally over time to a level that the user always finds of their nonhuman character. As early as 1970,
motivating. The advantages have not escaped com- Masahiro Mori was credited with warning android
mercial designer or researcher attention in terms of creators of the potential eeriness of representations
supplying users a flexibility to create a character, that are too human-like. The uncanny valley (Mori,
game story, or exercise protocol that suits mass 1970) helps to explain why people are comfortable
appeal (or experimental design). with characters that are perceived as human-like,
A primary explanation for why virtual partners but only up to a point. On the edge of this comfort
and virtual competitors are effective representa- exists a valley of discomfort in which the charac-
tions of human counterparts can be found in the ter’s imperfections become strange and unsettling
social actors (CASA) paradigm (Nass, Fogg, & Moon, (MacDorman & Ishiguro, 2006). Movement, or
1996) or media equation (Reeves & Nass, 1996). This animation, can significantly heighten a person’s
paradigm posits that the social dynamics of human comfort with a virtual character, but it also may
interaction with computers are similar to human intensify negative perceptions. Movement may
interactions. People respond socially to computers signal lifelike qualities that are eerie or conflict
and apply social rules to their interactions with with other character features, decreasing trust
them. Nass and colleagues observed that people and likability. Mori uses corpses, zombies, and a
could even perceive computers as teammates and lifelike prosthetic hand as examples of a person’s
experience team interdependence dynamics similar expectations for the nonhuman character eerily not
to a strictly human team. When partnered with a matching what they would presume for a human
computer to rank desert survival items in impor- (Ho & MacDorman, 2010). This unease with a
tance, participants changed the list they created computer-generated or robotic exergame partner
individually to conform to rankings suggested may interfere with group dynamics and negate any
by their computer teammate. The researchers potential motivation gain (see figure 14.2 for com-
suggested that simply creating a user–computer puter-altered or computer-generated examples). Ho
Feltz, 2016). For 3 weeks, participants were to walk

where they chose and when they chose (suggested
minimum was three times per week) and were
able to monitor their walks with the smartphone
app tracking map, alongside a virtual partner who
was always slightly ahead and never quit first.
Performance feedback was also displayed in terms
Figure 14.2 Dynamics within the group may be enhanced or
of time elapsed, pace, and distance. Although part-
inhibited by the user’s response to a partner, whether human, a
computer-altered likeness, or computer generated.
nered walkers persisted in each walk slightly more
than control did, the difference was not significant.
Results of these virtual partner conjunctive task
structure experiments are encouraging, but more
and MacDorman (2010) have developed indices to work is required to boost the motivation gain to be
measure user perceptions through three semantic as robust as has been observed in human–human
differential subscales of humanness, eeriness, and conjunctive exercise groups. If upward social
attractiveness. Instructions ask the subject to rate comparison and team indispensability are cru-
their partner on a scale from 1 to 5 on questions cial constructs to realizing motivation gains with
similar to the following examples: the Köhler effect, what might happen if the team
• Artificial (1) to natural (5) member not only focused on the group performance
goal but also worked with teammates in competi-
• Synthetic (1) to real (5)
tion against another team? To address this question
• Reassuring (1) to eerie (5) and strengthen the factors in this group dynamic,
• Ordinary (1) to supernatural (5) investigators have attempted to add intergroup com-
• Crude (1) to stylish (5) petition to the conjunctive group structure (Moss,
2015). Lount and Phillips (2007) have demonstrated
Software-generated partners may not elicit a motivation gains when persons were partnered with
positive reaction to group dynamic principles to the a superior out-group member, relying on in-group–
same level as live or virtually presented partners out-group category diversity to increase competitive
would (Anderson-Hanley, Snyder, Nimon, & Arciero, arousal. This increase in competition is partially
2011; Feltz, Forlenza, Winn, & Kerr, 2014; Snyder, founded on theories that propose that identifying
Anderson-Hanley, & Arciero, 2012). To counter with a group naturally invites competition with
motivation losses in team task and social interac- other groups (Turner, 1975). In a nonexergame
tion with a computer-generated partner, the Köhler project, Kerr and Seok (2008) experimented with
motivation gain effect is being trialed in exergame adding an out-group in competition with a superior
settings. Similar to previous virtually presented partner in a team context that was conjunctively
exergame experiments with a conjunctive task envi- structured. The authors also manipulated the level
ronment, exercising with a superior virtual partner of capability discrepancy between the team and
(completely computer generated) does seem to be the out-group to explore whether this perceived
effective in motivating exercise persistence with difference in potential performance moderated a
an abdominal plank task versus exercising alone motivation effect in each subject. Although all the
(Samendinger et al., 2017). As Feltz and colleagues group dynamics at play in this complex in-group–
(2014) noted, however, the motivation effects are out-group conjunctive setting are not clear, the
not as powerful as those experienced with a human researchers found some evidence that intergroup
partner. When examining motivation to persist competition might enhance the Köhler motivation
with cycling during single sessions repeated three gain if the out-group was known to be moderately
times a week for 3 months, a Köhler effect virtual more capable at the competitive task (Kerr & Seok,
partner experimental design was not enough to 2008). Building on this finding, Moss (2015) com-
demonstrate differences from a no-partner control pared a no-partner control to a Köhler conjunctive
condition (Max et al., 2015). condition with no competition and a Köhler con-
The Köhler motivation dynamic has also been junctive condition with out-group competition.
applied to a smartphone walking app, designed so A college-aged sample, using software-generated
that the user is paired with a superior software-gen- partners in an exergame format, was used for
erated partner that can be used in any free-living this experiment. Although both Köhler conditions
environment (Samendinger, Spencer, Pfeiffer, & performed significantly better than control did,
the out-group competition group did not differ in Certainly, serious or manipulative content may
performance from the standard conjunctive task diminish the attractive features of an exergame
group. The out-group competition group, however, (Buday, 2014). Researchers may want to collaborate
tended to enjoy their experience more than those with experienced video game designers to ensure
in the other conditions. The results replicate Köhler an appropriate blend of fun and fitness aspects.
motivation gains using software-generated partners Second, group or partner settings that are con-
but also support the possibility of using conjunctive junctively task based may offer motivation gains,
task out-group competition as an alternative in using a true interdependence of the team members.
improving exergame performance. Questions remain, however, about whether those
group dynamics can be effective outside the lab.
Strategies to create and maintain the user as a
Future Research weaker partner may be challenging to apply to an
Recommendations autonomous game-based situation, free of experi-
menter control. Will exergame users persist in their
Based on the review of the research described in the intensity of performance and sustain activity over
previous sections of this chapter, it is evident that time if they are always the weaker team member?
supplying people with an exergame will not, in and Likewise, challenges exist in providing feedback
of itself, change behavior. Further, game designs do that inspires upward social comparison, because
not consistently help people achieve a desired level this feedback relies on a moderate discrepancy in
of activity intensity. But the appealing attributes partner ability that realistically adjusts as the user’s
of active video games combined with the known performance changes. Further research is required
energy expenditure inherent in them suggest that to determine whether, in free-living conditions,
they are well suited to help large numbers of people varying ability discrepancy (e.g., often weaker,
be more physically active. As public demand for sometimes stronger) is more motivating over time
technology innovation continues to drive advances than a consistent discrepancy between partners.
in home-based device quality and variety, it also is Previously sedentary users may require parameters
pushing rapid change in mobile device use. Immer- different from those of chronic exercisers or ath-
sive goggles, smartphones, watches, and wearables letes. Should the ability of the partner be quantified
automatically prompt software designers to offer in game feedback or indirectly included through
active applications to match mobile capabilities. partner interaction? Simply designing a partner to
Partnered exergames provide the added opportu- look more capable (e.g., by body definition, age, or
nity to leverage cooperative or competitive group weight) is one way to provide a visual portrayal of
dynamic principles to realize necessary motivation the partner as the stronger member, but will these
gains and propel exergames to reach their potential. features increase or decrease motivation? Forlenza
But many gaps remain in the knowledge base that and colleagues (2012) studied human partner age
is fundamental to capitalizing on partnered games. and weight discrepancy in a college-aged sample
One important question is how to incorporate and reported a motivation effect in a conjunctive
what is needed with what is desired. Games task setting with no apparent moderating effect of
designed to foster physical activity, or enhance sport older age or heavier weight. Likewise, weight of
performance, in the average user hold the most human partners (heavier or same weight) did not
promise for exergames. Attention to conceptually seem to influence the motivation of adult obese
based motivation dynamics would seem to be the participants to persist with an abdominal plank
bridge between fun and fitness or performance. Yet exercise (Samendinger et al., 2015). Further work
formal research exploring theory-based principles is needed to examine ability-related characteristics
is limited, across all possible exergame modalities. in computer-generated partners and the effect on
This deficiency may be due, in part, to difficulties motivation of team members. Lastly, an open ques-
applying behavioral theories without sacrificing tion concerns whether designers can successfully
the perceived fun or challenge that many people operationalize the adaptability of multiple game
expect in a game. At this stage in the evolution of features or partner characteristics that might be
exergames, work is insufficient to know whether required to overcome preference and skill variabil-
evidence-based motivation techniques can be ity in the population.
hidden in designs with marketplace appeal so that Third, many gaps in knowledge remain regarding
the games remain enjoyable without an obvious the other optimal characteristics of an exergame
intrusion of specific motivational manipulations. partner. Intrinsic motivation might be best served
by providing users an autonomous choice of part- third person positively or negatively affect user
ner and partner features (Ryan & Deci, 2000). performance and enjoyment? A trainer or coach
Leaving choice to the user, however, runs the risk virtual character avoids the need for the partner to
of interfering with beneficial partner dynamics provide orientation, instruction, feedback, and ref-
programmed into the game. For example, partner ereeing. The inclusion of a third person may serve
discrepancy portrayed in character features may to enhance the perception of the partner as separate
not be compatible with the partner appearance from the game design (i.e., free of unfair advantage
that a user might desire. Perhaps a compromise and more likely to align with the user). If the goal
can be achieved, but motivation effect may decline is to strengthen team social and task relationships,
because user choice undermines potential positive the presence of a figure associated with the game
moderators. Advances in technology also may make design itself may boost in-group or team perceptions.
it easier to push partner realism toward believability Sixth, what interaction and communication
in the form of intelligent, reactive software agents. between user and virtual partner are best, not
With this realism comes concern of falling into only to benefit performance but also to influence
the uncanny valley and disrupting relationship persistence? Research might aim to identify what
dynamics between the user and the virtual partner. mixture of task-oriented and social-oriented part-
Characters created to take advantage of technologic ner interaction is most effective and adaptable for
capabilities may always be unsettling for some multiple user populations. As with human–human
human users. Are users ready for ultrareal soft- relationships, communication is fundamental to
ware-generated partners and artificial intelligence? initiating and maintaining human–virtual partner
Fourth, character choice and control of game relationships in exercise settings (Max, Witten-
flow also underlie the support of player curiosity baum, & Feltz, 2016). Max et al. found that human
and creativity that is present in many sedentary exercise relationships were characterized by robust
video games. When left to the exergame user, how communication inside and outside exercise and
will control align with key elements of game struc- that although communication between exercise
ture? As described in this chapter, task structure partners covered a wide range of topics, it became
and partner interaction are important aspects of more focused during exercise, especially for closer
motivation in teams (see sidebar Narrative Game partners. The interaction of user and virtual partner
Design). Therefore, further research should focus can take advantage of relationship patterns such as
on how to provide game environment choice while these by using verbal and nonverbal conversation
maintaining task structural integrity. Overt user and reactive partner movements that focus on the
knowledge of a conceptual framework built into the relational components (Bickmore & Picard, 2005;
game design, or other group dynamic principles, Reeves & Nass, 1996). Is it enough to create purely
risks exposing the technical mechanics of games social conversation or performance-related encour-
traditionally played for fun or escape, interfering agement? Should the interaction between user and
with game enjoyment. partner include metarelational communication
Fifth, multiple game characters may also moderate (Stafford & Canary, 1991), in which verbal feedback
group dynamics. For example, do team dynamics regarding the actual relationship occurs (e.g., to
change because of a software-generated interme- set roles, check in, express caring and concern)?
diary (i.e. coach, trainer, narrator)? If so, does this Researchers might examine the effect of social
Narrative Game Design
Mimicking the appeal of story and progressive game flow of many nonactive video games, exergames should
consider embedding user–partner interaction in an immersive narrative design. For example, instead of one-time
partner introduction or occasional verbal encouragement, the partner’s self-disclosure and personal characteristics
could be revealed throughout the game, intrinsic and congruent with the evolution of game flow. The virtual partner
reveals more about him- or herself as the game progresses and seeks information about the user through periodic
interaction, much as occurs in real-world relationships. The goal would be to build the team’s social and task-oriented
relationship, foster strategic partner interaction, and immerse the player into the game while she or he simultaneously
discovers more about the partner.
deixis (Levinson, 1998) in partner communication

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PART
V
Motivated
Behavior
As several chapter authors in this section note, are the most current and most supported concepts.
the topic of motivation exhibited or not exhibited Part V opens with chapter 15, in which Richard
in physical activity is of major interest to both Keegan presents a provocative analysis of research
researchers and practitioners in the field. Under- on achievement goals as applied to sport, exercise,
standably, people working in applied settings (e.g., and physical activity. Keegan begins with a brief
physical education instructors, sport coaches at all history of the early theories as well as the more
levels, exercise leaders, personal trainers, strength recent formulations of theory on achievement goals.
and conditioning coaches, athletic trainers, and He then moves to a more critical examination of
physical therapists) have a deep interest in the topic scientific progress in this area, particularly as
of motivation. They wish to identify the motiva- related to the historically predominant theories in
tional strategies, techniques, and methods that can the field. From here, he notes key trends, debates,
be used in their work to benefit students, athletes, and tensions that exist within achievement goals
clients, and patients. research. Keegan next offers his own creative ideas
From a research perspective as well, the pop- for advancing research on achievement goals.
ularity of motivation as a scholarly topic within Keegan concludes by urging achievement goals
physical activity psychology has clearly increased researchers to work together in order to advance
over the decades. The first edition of this text con- the knowledge base on the topic, pointing out that
tained one chapter that had a primary focus on “in a game that nobody can truly win, people will
motivation, whereas the present edition contains remember the way that we played.”
four chapters. The number of theories used in phys- At the beginning of chapter 16, Martyn Stan-
ical activity psychology to provide a framework for dage, Thomas Curran, and Peter Rouse note that
studying motivation and motivated behavior has an increasing amount of scholarly inquiry regard-
also significantly increased. Some of these theories ing motivation and motivated behavior within the
first appeared in other achievement contexts (e.g., physical activity psychology literature is grounded
education), whereas others are more specific to in self-determination theory. This collection of
exercise and sport contexts. The four chapters in theories, mini-theories, and theory extensions fun-
this section provide an overview of the theories that damentally addresses why individuals are motivated
263
264 Part V
to engage, persist, and work hard in achievement cal activity behavior change from a public health
contexts. The authors provide a concise yet compre- perspective. The authors, Stuart Biddle and Ineke
hensive review of this collection of interrelated the- Vergeer, contrast their approach to the bulk of the
ories as well as the more current research work that research on motivated behavior in sport and exer-
has been conducted using these theories. Despite cise settings. Whereas research has traditionally
the impressive amount of knowledge that has been focused on individual and small-group settings,
accumulated over recent decades, more in-depth the authors argue that there is also a critical need
work is needed. Standage and his colleagues iden- to promote health across large populations. Thus,
tify some critical questions and issues that need to their chapter focuses primarily on motivational
be addressed, expressing the hope that this chap- theories, strategies, and techniques that can be used
ter will stimulate thoughtful contemplation of the to create small changes across large populations.
study and application of self-determination theory Biddle and Vergeer outline a behavioral epidemiol-
in physical activity settings. ogy framework that can be used to test important
Coming from a somewhat different perspective, links between physical activity and public health
Thelma Horn and Jocelyn Newton wrote chapter outcomes. They then present an overview of estab-
17 to examine motivated behavior in the physi- lished theories and frameworks that have been used
cal activity context from a lifespan perspective. in the field; they also highlight more contemporary
Their chapter begins by identifying and briefly approaches that may have value. In their identifica-
describing a few motivation-based theories that tion of current gaps in the knowledge base and sug-
incorporate developmental constructs. Drawn from gestions for future work, one particularly relevant
these theories, they select four motivation-related recommendation that they offer is that work in this
constructs—perceived competence, perceived area be conducted within cross-disciplinary teams
autonomy, motivational orientation, and perceived that include specialists from the physical activity
performance control—to discuss from a devel- psychology field along with individuals from across
opmental perspective. Because the research on the social, behavioral, and biological sciences. This
developmental changes in such motivation-related represents a true team approach. This chapter illus-
constructs is relatively sparse, especially research trates the important expansion that has taken place
offering a lifespan perspective, the authors are in the physical activity psychology field since the
able to provide particularly promising suggestions first edition of the text: Our field has expanded, and
for future work. They make the argument that the our research work must do the same.
rather significant changes or adaptations that occur The four chapters in this section of the text
in individuals’ physical, psychological, emotional, provide readers with a comprehensive review of
and sociomoral status as they proceed from infancy the motivation theories that have seen the most
through older adulthood make it imperative that we sustained research support over the past several
examine how such maturationally based changes decades of work in physical activity psychology.
might affect individuals’ motivated behavior within These chapters can and should be used by current
a range of physical activity contexts. and future researchers as a guide to critical issues
A unique contribution to this edition of the that remain to be examined on a topic that is of nota-
text, chapter 18 addresses issues related to physi- ble importance to both scholars and practitioners.
15
Achievement Goals
in Sport and
Physical Activity
Richard J. Keegan, PhD
Abstract
The primary purpose of this chapter is to explore the potential for advancement within
achievement goals research, as it is applied to sport, exercise, and physical activity.
The chapter begins with a brief history of the research and theory in this area. Several
theoretical frameworks now exist, and a large number of studies have demonstrated
correlational associations between achievement goals constructs and key motivational
outcomes. In the second section of this chapter, we consider the nature of scientific
progress, across the history of science, to provide clues about how advancement might
be pursued in our research on achievement goals. Third, and signposted throughout the
chapter, we note key trends, debates, and tensions within achievement goals research
because these themes inform the likely avenues for advancement. Fourth, opportunities
for advancing research in this topic are critically considered. These range from simple
next steps to blue-sky ideas that may be enabled by advances in methodologies and
technology. Future research is recommended to build consensus around these issues: (i)
What exactly is an achievement goal? (ii) What is, and how should we study, motiva-
tional climate? (iii) How can we effectively manipulate achievement goals, and can such
interventions reliably influence key motivational outcomes? (iv) how can situational
achievement goals be measured? (v) Is it possible to experience multiple concurrent
goals rather than exclusively experience one type of goal? Although choosing answers to
these key questions is possible, the actual evidence and consensus of opinion are often
less consistent. Attitudes and strategies for resolving these issues and the surrounding
debates are suggested, based on the history of progress in science.
265
266 Keegan
T
he task for this chapter to focus on the school, sport, and sometimes exercise or health
advancement of achievement goal theories in (Roberts, 2001). Of course, we do not sit down
sport and exercise psychology contexts may with a paper and pen and negotiate these rules
seem challenging. The core version of the theory, each time we participate. In most instances the
which emerged during a seminar series in 1977 at decision is relatively implicit, or subconscious.
the University of Illinois, has remained unchanged The definitions that we adopt in that moment are
for over 35 years. Many researchers still adopt construed to be achievement goals (i.e., our goals
Nicholls’ (1984, 1989) original conceptualization, when we participate in the achievement task). In
particularly in research focusing on sport and each theory of achievement goals, this momentary
physical education. Note, however, that in recent goal involvement (or adoption) is influenced by
years attempts have been made to reformulate various antecedents that include both one’s own
achievement goals research, particularly in the field stable traits and preferences (sometimes called
of education (Elliot, 1999; Elliot & Thrash, 2001). goal orientation), as well as the situational and
Faced with such longevity, does this concept really contextual factors that determine how the task
need advancing? Or is it simply settled? is presented, or framed (sometimes called goal
In this chapter, we explore these questions: climate). As such, achievement goals both direct
establishing the foundations on which we can build and energize behavior, by helping us identify what
(existing knowledge) and contemplating the ways in to pursue and how hard to try. A person can, for
which we might develop opportunities for progress. example, complete a task easily without exerting
The chapter begins with a review and summary of effort, and that outcome is often viewed as better
the 35-year history of achievement goals research than if the person had to try.
in sport and physical activity. Second, to provide As can be seen from figure 15.1, the research
important context and orient ourselves, we consider literature on achievement goals burgeoned between
the very nature of scientific advancement. Third, 1980 and 2010. The concept was adopted by
we identify and review some of the debates and ten- researchers in diverse domains (e.g., education,
sions that have evolved in relation to achievement sport, workplace), and the combined results of this
goals research. Fourth, we explore opportunities research documented the correlates of different
to resolve these tensions and make advancements types of achievement goals (see summaries by
for achievement goals in sport and exercise. This Elliot, 2005; Harwood, Keegan, Smith, & Raine,
chapter is based on the assumption that progress 2015; Hulleman, Schrager, Bodmann, & Harack-
and advancement are possible within this area of iewicz, 2010; Kaplan & Maehr, 2007; Murayama,
research. As such, we examine the core controver- Elliot, & Friedman, 2012; Ntoumanis & Biddle,
sies and explore them to extract key ideas. Based on 1999; Van Yperen, Blaga, & Postmes, 2014). The
these analyses, we conclude that the controversies core findings of two recent reviews are summarized
cannot be resolved by debate and argumentation, in table 15.1, which details the patterns of associ-
but that robust evidence, fair tests, and open ation between achievement goal perceptions and
collaboration will be needed to pursue genuine important motivational indices. Biddle et al. (2003)
advancements. Thus, the primary purpose of this detailed the correlates of achievement goal orien-
chapter is to provide a critical but also future-ori- tations. Harwood et al. (2015) examined the cor-
ented perspective on the topic of achievement goals relates of perceived motivational climate. Reviews
in sport, exercise, and physical activity. of this literature have noted excessive reliance on
cross-sectional methods and, correspondingly,
less use of longitudinal and experimental meth-
History odologies (Harwood et al., 2015; Vansteenkiste,
of Achievement Goal Theories Lens, Elliot, Soenens, & Mouratidis, 2014). Another
trend that can be noted is the gradual increase in
When humans engage in any achievement-related the number of achievement goals hypothesized:
activity—i.e., an activity in which it is possible to two (Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984), three (Elliot &
succeed or fail and thus performance is evaluated Harackiewicz, 1996), four (Elliot, 1999), and six
(cf. Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984; 1989; Roberts, (Elliot, Murayama, & Pekrun, 2011). Specifically,
2001)—we need a way of defining success and fail- the dichotomous achievement goal perspective (e.g.,
ure, good versus bad, or progress versus regress. Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, 1984) was limited
Achievement contexts are defined by the presence to the examination of two achievement goals: task
of some evaluative elements, so they can include or mastery goals (i.e., a focus on attaining task-
Achievement Goals in Sport and Physical Activity 267
2500
Achievement goal research papers

2000
1500
1000
500
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Publication year
Figure 15.1 A graphical history of the number of academic papers per year since achievement goals were first recognized in the literature.
Search was performed on February 21, 2016, using the University of E6768/Horn/F15.01/565555/mh-R2
Canberra Search Database. Search terms = (achievement goal*) AND ((sport) OR (exercise)
OR (physical activity)). Limits were set to include English language only; scholarly and peer review publications with full text available online; journal articles,
books, e-books, and book chapters; and drawn from either “recreation and sport” or “psychology.”
based requirements or improvement) and ego or achieve more with equal effort, or use less effort
performance goals (i.e., a focus on outperforming than do others for an equal performance.
others or avoiding doing worse than others). Our Nicholls, 1984; p. 328, italics added.
discussion begins with that dichotomous concep-
tualization. Using this conceptualization, people will be
One key element of achievement goals theory task-involved when improvements in, or the mas-
was its attempt to assert that the conception of tering of, a skill are primary in determining their
goals encompassed the entire achievement context. sense of competence (and subsequent satisfaction).
Hence, aspects of the task, interpersonal and social, Alternatively, people might be said to be ego-in-
as well as intrapersonal considerations were all volved when their sense of competence is closely
addressed within the parsimonious dichotomous linked to demonstrating performance superior to
framework. Nicholls (1984, 1989) argued that the others. (Note that this could mean either genuinely
individual’s internal sense of competence was a cen- superior performance or an equal performance with
tral consideration in achievement contexts—over less effort exhibited). Because of the assertion that
and above objectively observable measurements— achievement goals reflect the whole achievement
and thus the all-important subjective meaning of context, as noted above, these two definitions of
competence could be defined in at least two ways: success were construed as applying across:
Achievement behavior is defined as behavior • the involvement level of analysis;

directed at developing or demonstrating high • the contextual level (climate); and
rather than low competence. It is shown that
• the predispositional level (orientation).
competence can be conceived in two ways.
First, ability can be judged high or low with ref- In addition, they are separate definitions in their
erence to the individual’s own past performance
own right. One might argue that positing the same
or knowledge [termed either task or mastery
goals]. In this context, gains in mastery indicate
construct at all three levels raises the question of
competence. Second, ability can be judged as what an achievement goal actually is and whether it
capacity relative to that of others [termed either really can exist at all three levels (as discussed later
ego or performance goals]. In this context, a gain in this chapter). Likewise, the relationship between
in mastery alone does not indicate high compe- orientations, climates, and involvement states may
tence. To demonstrate high capacity, one must require further clarification (also discussed later).
Table 15.1 Two Systematic Reviews of Research Using the Dichotomous Theory of Achievement Goals
Task or mastery Ego or performance (direction
Attribute (direction and effect size 0–1) and effect size 0–1)
Self-rated achievement goal orientation
Belief that effort causes success + moderate ~
Belief that ability or talent causes success ~ + moderate
Belief that sport promotes learning and effort + large ~
Belief that sport promotes fitness or health + moderate ~
Belief that sport builds self-esteem + moderate + moderate
Belief that sport promotes good citizenship + moderate ~
Belief that sport facilitates gaining social status ~ + large
Adaptive achievement strategies (e.g., practice, mastery, persistence in
+ (no ES) ~
practice, or exerting effort in competition)
Maladaptive achievement strategies (e.g., avoiding practice, cheating,
− (no ES) ~
deceit, win at all costs)
Perceived competence + small + small
Positive affect + moderate ~
Negative affect − small + small
Prosocial moral functioning + (no ES) ~
Antisocial moral functioning ~ + (no ES)
Choosing challenging tasks and persisting through difficulty (behavior) + small ~
Perceptions of the motivational climate
Task orientation + moderate ~
Ego orientation ~ + moderate
Mastery Approach Goal + moderate ~
Mastery Avoidance Goal + small + small
Performance Approach Goal + small + moderate
Performance Avoidance Goal ~ + moderate
Perceived competence (overall) + small ~
Perceived competence (norm referenced) ~ + moderate
Perceived competence (self-referenced) + moderate ~
Confidence and self-esteem + moderate ~
Physical self-perceptions ~ ~
Objective performance measures + small ~
Perceived autonomy + moderate − small
Perceived relatedness + large − moderate
Intrinsic motivation (overall) + large ~
Intrinsic motivation—to know + moderate ~
Intrinsic motivation—for stimulation + large ~
Intrinsic Motivation—for accomplishment + moderate ~
Identified regulation + moderate ~
Introjected regulation ~ ~
External regulation ~ + moderate
Amotivation ~ + moderate
Compound motivation (e.g., relative autonomy index) + large − small
Negative affect − small + small
Negative thoughts and worries − small + small
Positive affect + moderate − small
268
Task or mastery Ego or performance (direction

Attribute (direction and effect size 0–1) and effect size 0–1)
Attitudes and intentions towards sport or PA involvement + small ~
Adaptive strategies in training or competitions + moderate ~
Maladaptive strategies in training or competition − small + small
Prosocial moral functioning + small ~
Antisocial moral functioning − small + moderate
Age and experience ~ ~
Perfectionism ~ + moderate
Dispositional flow + moderate ~
ES = effect size; + = positive association; − = negative association; ~ = no consistent association.
Data from Biddle et al. (2003) and Harwood et al. (2015).
Within the sport and exercise psychology toward the attainment of normative competence,
literature, Nicholls’ (1984, 1989) formulation of winning or comparing favorably against others.
achievement goal theory has arguably served as the Performance-avoidance goals would focus on the
dominant approach in examining how performers avoidance of normative incompetence, such as
perceive success or failure in achievement contexts losing or comparing poorly versus others (Elliot &
(cf. Keegan, Spray, Harwood, & Lavallee, 2011). A Harackiewicz, 1996; Matos, Lens, & Vansteenkiste,
brief debate occurred about whether the subjective 2007; Skaalvik, 1997). Notably, Elliot’s reconceptu-
definition of success or failure (i.e., competence) alization of achievement goals theory also focused
used in achievement goal theory should extend on goals as analogous to the involvement state
to other aspects of the achievement context, or (termed adoption), recasting goal orientation as a
whether it should focus exclusively on competence wide array of intrapersonal antecedents and goal
(cf. Elliot, 1999). Unfortunately, this debate appears climate as a wide array of interpersonal and social
to have been settled by researchers who continue antecedents. Of course, in doing so, the first steps
to adopt their own preferred assumptions, even were taken away from the parsimony of modeling
in different fields, rather than resolving the issue two goals across all three levels of analysis.
or designing experiments that might enable the The next evolution in achievement goal theory
issue to be resolved. In many cases, more recent involved applying the valence dimension (approach
research has explicitly identified other noncompe- versus avoidance) across both performance and
tence concerns, such as self-presentation or social mastery goals, to develop a 2 × 2 framework
status (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). The main difference (Elliot, 1999; Pintrich, 2000). The valence dimension
is that different “schools” choose to accommodate concerns whether the evaluation of competence
these noncompetence concerns differently, with no is construed in a positive way (i.e., as seeking to
consensus on the best approach. Recent work by demonstrate competence) or in a negative way (i.e.,
Keegan, Spray, Harwood, and Lavallee (2014) con- as avoiding the demonstration of incompetence).
cluded that the considerations of competence are This valence dimension is then laid over the way in
highly related to, and dependent on, other aspects which competence is defined: performance versus
of the achievement context such as autonomy and mastery. Hence in the 2 × 2 approach, a task-based
relatedness. standard can also be either approached (seeking to
In the late 1990s, Elliot and colleagues (e.g., achieve a particular standard or level, or improve,
Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996) noticed that perfor- or exert effort), or avoided (seeking to avoid falling
mance (or ego) goals were not always maladaptive, below a particular standard, failing to improve, or
and they began a debate about how this might be failing to engage meaningfully). In the 2 × 2 model,
possible. Making reference to Atkinson’s (1957, as in the trichotomous model, goals were concep-
1964, 1981) approach–avoidance distinction, they tualized as momentary goal adoptions (similar to
proposed deriving two forms of performance goals: involvement states), and both orientations and cli-
performance-approach and performance-avoidance mate were classified as a multitude of antecedents
goals. This version of achievement goals theory (Elliot & McGregor, 2001).
was termed the trichotomous perspective because Recently, debate has restarted about whether a
it offered three different achievement goals. person’s attempts to surpass an intrapersonal stan-
Performance-approach goals would be oriented dard is an adequate operationalization of mastery
270 Keegan
goals (Martin, 2006; Van Yperen, 2006). This new variety of divergent models have been proposed.
debate, which mirrors proposals made by Harwood, This divergence has generated some controversy
Hardy, and Swain (2000), concerns the type of stan- among researchers in the area (see Harwood et
dard on which people focus. This standard could al., 2000; Harwood & Hardy, 2001; Roberts, 2012;
either be purely task based or focused on people’s Treasure et al., 2001).
intrapersonal standards. To illustrate, learners Another important landmark in achievement goal
could be focused on acquiring a new math skill (i.e., research was the development of the goal-profiling
task-based criterion), or they could try to do better approach. Harwood, Spray, and Keegan (2008) noted
on a second math exam than they did on the first the potential for this approach in exploring athletes’
(i.e., intrapersonal criterion; cf. Vansteenkiste et al., tendency to score high on both task and ego goals,
2014). Researchers using this line of reasoning have low on both, or high on one but not the other. This
broken down the existing mastery goal construct notion centers on the idea that dichotomous achieve-
and created a formal distinction between task-based ment goal orientations (not involvements or climate
and intrapersonal standards—both still remaining perceptions) are orthogonal, so people can score
distinct from normative comparisons as a source of high–high, high–low, or low–low (Roberts, Treasure,
competence information (e.g., Elliot, Murayama, & & Kavussanu, 1996). Table 15.2 provides a summary
Pekrun, 2011). From this work, a 3 × 2 model has of the research in this area, although it seems that
been proposed, wherein people can focus on three since 2008 the only studies to deploy goal profiling
different types of reference points for competence have been based on the 2 × 2 model of Elliot and
information: colleagues (e.g., Barkoukis, Lazurus, Tsorbatzoudis,
& Rodafinos, 2011; Wang, Morin, Ryan & Liu, 2016).
1. The task, objective and absolute measure- Generally, athletes who report an orientation high in
ments such as time, score, or similar; both task or mastery and ego or performance goals
2. The self (i.e., how the person is doing relative (or one high and one moderate) experience a more
to previous performances); or adaptive profile of motivational outcomes. Typically,
3. Normative comparisons (i.e., how the person the explanation for this is that athletes who find mul-
is doing relative to others) tiple sources of satisfaction have more opportunities
to pursue goals and experience success, whereas
When adding the valence component with approach athletes who focus on ego or performance goals, in
and avoidance considerations, people could focus particular, can easily find themselves threatened
on seeking to demonstrate success in each of these by the possibility of failure, that is, not winning (cf.
definitions of competence, or they could focus on Hodge & Petlichkoff, 2000). Goal-profiling research
avoiding the demonstration of incompetence, such based on the 2 × 2 model has denoted clusters of
as, for example, failing to achieve a desired time or participants who can be differentially classified as
score, failing to perform to a level achieved previ- high on all, moderate on all, or low on all (cf. Wang
ously, or comparing badly to others (losing or rank- et al., 2016), or clustering around one main axis of the
ing low in a group). Research examining the 3 × 2 model. For example, Barkoukis et al. (2011) reported
perspective is a relatively recent development and a cluster of approach-oriented athletes who scored
has been focused primarily in educational settings high on both performance approach and mastery
(Vansteenkiste et al., 2014; Mascret, Elliot & Cury; approach. Now, as before, this aspect of achievement
2015; see also Harwood et al., 2000). The findings goals research remains incomplete and, therefore,
(summarized by Vansteenkiste et al.) suggest that equivocal. More work is certainly needed.
different types of motivational regulation and out- In later sections of this chapter, some of the
comes can be associated with the six goals in the 3 more controversial issues surrounding the various
× 2 model. theories that have been strongly debated within the
In summary, achievement goal theory was first literature are addressed. Before we embark on such
examined in relation to the sport and PA context a review, it is instructive to ask whether similar
in the late 1970s and early 1980s by scholars such things have happened in other fields of science and,
as Nicholls, Dweck, Roberts, and Ames. Following if so, how they were resolved in those instances.
publication of these early studies, research bur- From that history we gain some insight into how
geoned, as detailed in figure 15.1. The three decades scientific advancements are typically generated.
following these initial works have included attempts This perspective is examined in the following sec-
to expand the number of goal definitions, and a tion of this chapter.
Table 15.2 Overview of Key Research in Sport and Exercise Using the Goal-Profiling Approach
Theory, analysis
method Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5
Hodge & Petlichkoff (2000): 257 adult rugby players
Dichotomous model, High task–high ego Low task–high ego High task–low ego Low task–low ego n/a
mean split Highest on perceived Higher on perceived Lowest on perceived
competence and competence competence and
importance of physi- importance of physi-
cal self-concept cal self-concept
Dichotomous model, High task–low ego Low task–high ego Moderate task–high Moderate task–low n/a
cluster analysis ego ego
Highest perceived Lowest perceived
competence competence
Wang & Biddle (2001): 2,510 12- to 15-year-olds
Dichotomous model, High task–low ego High task–high ego Moderate task–low Moderate task–mod- Low task–moderate
cluster analysis “Self-determined” “Highly motivated” ego erate ego ego
Higher intrinsic moti- Higher intrinsic moti- “Poorly motivated” “Moderately moti- “Amotivation”
vation, high perceived vation, highest per- Midpoint on most vated, external” Lowest perceived
competence, lower ceived competence, measures Midpoint on most competence, low
amotivation; highest lower amotivation; measures, slightly intrinsic motivation,
PA levels and physical second highest PA more external regu- highest amotivation;
self-worth levels and physical lation lowest PA levels and
self-worth physical self-worth
Wang, Chatzisarantis, Spray, and Biddle (2002): 824 secondary school students
Dichotomous model, Low task–low ego High task–low ego High task–high ego n/a n/a
cluster analysis “Lowly motivated” “Moderately moti- “Highly motivated”
Low perceived com- vated” Highest perceived
petence and intrinsic Moderate perceived competence and
motivation, high competence and intrinsic motivation;
extrinsic and amotiva- intrinsic motivation; highest PA levels
tion; lowest PA levels moderate PA levels
Cumming, Hall, Harwood, and Gammage (2002): 105 adolescent competitive swimmers
Dichotomous model, Low task–moderate Moderate task–low Moderate task–high n/a n/a
cluster analysis ego ego ego
Generally used all More cognitive-spe- Higher motiva-
forms of imagery cific imagery, cognition-specific imagery
the least of the three tive general imagery, than clusters 1 and
clusters and motivation gen- 2, higher motivation
eral mastery imagery general arousal and
than cluster 1 motivational general
mastery imagery than
cluster 1
Harwood, Cumming, and Fletcher (2004): 593 elite young athletes
Dichotomous model, High task–moderate Low task–high ego Moderate task–low n/a n/a
cluster analysis ego Not significantly differ- ego
Highest use of imag- ent from cluster 3 on Not significantly differ-
ery, goal setting, and mental skills (TOPS) ent from cluster 2 on
self-talk in training mental skills (TOPS)
and competition
Barkoukis, Lazurus, Tsorbatzoudis, and Rodafinos (2011): 1,075 elite athletes
Note: 2×2 model, “Mastery oriented” “Approach oriented” “High achievers” n/a n/a
cluster analysis (high mastery (high mastery (high in all four goals)
approach and mas- approach and perfor-
tery avoidance, low mance approach, low
performance goals) avoidance score)
Lower scores on
reported doping
or intention to use
doping
271
272 Keegan
Nature or increasing the accuracy and precision of

measurement, which is extremely limiting.
of Scientific Advancement • When we reach this status, the mere pos-
sibility of future breakthroughs cannot be
In 1894 Albert Michelson addressed the opening of a comprehended, let alone the nature they might
new laboratory at the University of Chicago. Profes- take or the value they may add.
sor Michelson had just been appointed the head of
the new department and would subsequently go on In line with this pattern of symptoms, we must ask
to win a Nobel Prize in 1907. He made the following whether the status of achievement goals research
prediction for the future of physics: in sport and exercise may have reached its nadir.
Such a nadir might be reflected in trends showing
Most of the grand underlying principles have an apparent downturn in the number of publica-
been firmly established, and further advances tions (for example, in figure 15.1, publications were
are to be sought chiefly in the rigorous appli-
down 28% between 2008 and 2013).
cation of these principles. . . . It is here that the
As should be clear from the beginning, this chapter
science of measurement shows its importance—
where quantitative work is more to be desired is based on the assumption that achievement goals
than qualitative work. . . . The future truths of can and will advance, which, of course, presupposes
physical science are to be looked for in the sixth that our current approaches are not yet settled. Before
place of decimals. proceeding, we need to clarify what is meant by
University of Chicago, 1896, p. 159 advancement in science. Historians of science such
as Kuhn (1970), Feyerabend (1975), Lakatos (1970),
The next year, X-rays were discovered and, shortly and Popper (2002) all carefully studied this process—
afterward, radioactivity. Ten years later, Einstein drawing contrasts between normal and extraordinary
articulated his theory of relativity. Fifty years after science (Kuhn) or between progressive and degenera-
Michelson’s speech, the field of quantum dynamics tive paradigms (Lakatos). To illustrate the distinction,
was created. The story is instructive in illustrating consider the story presented in the sidebar Simon’s
a frequently repeated pattern across all of science: New Toy, which may be familiar to many of us from
childhood. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
• Scientists are often very willing to conclude (Merriam-Webster, n.d.) defines a paradigm as “a phil-
that their theories are right. osophical and theoretical framework within which
• Such conclusions permit future science to theories, laws, generalizations and experiments are
proceed only by either applying the theories formulated.” For example, in the case of Simon’s New
Simon’s New Toy
Simon was overjoyed to receive a large Lego castle set for his birthday. He excitedly and carefully unpacked the box
and diligently followed the assembly instructions, believing that any mistakes would reflect badly on him, not the toy
(of course!). He did not play with any other Lego toys while he was building the castle, which might have distracted
him from his important task. After he completed building the castle, he was extremely proud of it, and the brave
knights of Camelot fought many battles against the marauding hoards.
Simon loved the castle playset, and he protected the castle fiercely against attacks from space men, the family
dog, his brother, and from any attempts to tidy it away at night. Over time, however, pieces did go missing or end
up in the wrong place. Simon worked hard to maintain the integrity and accuracy of the original castle. Pieces from
other playsets were not allowed to contaminate the castle. He even built a protection zone around the castle where
brothers and the dog were not allowed to go.
One day, Simon’s baby brother accidentally sat on the castle, and finally it was broken to pieces. With the instruc-
tions in the garbage, Simon was heartbroken. He tried to recreate the perfect castle, but he could not remember
how. Instead, he made new castles, forts, and bases, and he began mixing pieces from different sets. Each day, he
would build and destroy new castles, and new and exciting battles would play out.
In this way, Simon’s understanding of how to build models increased exponentially. He became an expert among
his friends when it came to creating new models out of Lego. You name it; he could build it. He enjoyed sharing
his knowledge of how to build models to suit different scenarios. Simon forgot what it was ever like simply to follow
instructions, play within the constraints of the model, and protect the model in its perfect form. When he was grown
up, he valued the skills he learned by “breaking” numerous models far more than any specific castle or playset.
Toy, we see two distinct approaches to playing, or two • much greater interest in generating knowledge
paradigms. The first involves about how to build and play with the toy,
rather than protecting the model.
• carefully following instructions to rebuild an
ideal model, These two ways of playing can be analogized
• applying it correctly by playing in the right to the two dominant ways of doing science, or
way with the right components, and paradigms.
• protecting the model from harm. Scientific paradigms typically prescribe
Each child who buys the model and treats it this • what is to be observed and scrutinized,
way will build the same model and play with it in • the kind of questions that are supposed to be
a similar manner. The second approach involves asked and probed for answers in relation to
having this subject,
• less regard for carefully replicating a model, • how these questions are to be structured,
• more creativity regarding how the pieces and • what predictions are made by the primary
tools are applied, and theory within the discipline,
The Principle of Parsimony
As noted in an earlier section of this chapter, a clear trend has been an increase in the number of goals, or dimen-
sions, that characterize achievement goals. This expansion has occurred as new theories have been developed. One
core argument against expanding the number of goal definitions has been that it undermines parsimony or elegance
(Roberts, 2012). Such arguments refer to Occam’s razor, a heuristic of logic that has been stated as “Entities are
not to be multiplied beyond necessity,” and commonly interpreted to mean that “The simplest theory or explanation
is always best.” Notably, the law has also been stated as “Among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest
assumptions should be selected” (e.g., Baker, 2003; Sober, 1990, 1996). Ultimately, many of the debates in this topic
have disagreed over where such assumptions should be made (and how explicitly) and thus where such parsimony
should exist (i.e., at the level of concepts and constructs, in the methodology, or at the level of core philosophical
assumptions). Analyzing the parsimony argument in light of well-established debates in the philosophy of science
makes it clear that the concepts of parsimony and elegance involve highly subjective judgments, not objective truths
(Baker, 2003; Courtney & Courtney, 2008; Sober, 1990, 1996). Researchers examining the nature of science and
scientific progress are clear that the principle of parsimony, in particular, should not be used as a fundamental, or
axiomatic, principle, but simply as a fallible heuristic (e.g., Courtney & Courtney, 2008; Gauch, 2003; Sober, 1996).
Heuristics serve a purpose, of course, but they are ostensibly not capable of arbitrating in matters of truth and gen-
uine advancement. One clear consequence of applying the parsimony heuristic in science is conservatism, keeping
things as they are (Courtney & Courtney, 2008; Trafimow & Rice, 2009). An analysis by Lee (2002) critically reviews
important instances in which a parsimonious approach did not guarantee a correct conclusion (in biology). This
analysis concluded that if assumptions of parsimony accompany incorrect working hypotheses, or incomplete data,
they frequently supported false conclusions. Lee noted that such adherence to parsimony without consideration for
justifying it amounts to a tautology—presupposing that the world is simple and then finding it to be so. Lee argued
(2002, p. 218): “A full justification of [a theory] must therefore also demonstrate that parsimony is superior at repre-
senting [the observations or data] compared with other methods . . .” In the end, the parsimony heuristic does not
resolve which of several competing theories is better. Rather, progress is achieved when we are able to formulate
theories into testable hypotheses and design experiments that compare competing theories (Courtney & Courtney,
2008; Popper, 2002). Little if any empirical evidence shows that the world is actually simple or that simple accounts
are more likely to be true than complex ones (Oreskes, Shrader-Frechette, & Belitz, 1994).
In the achievement goal research literature, the principle of parsimony has been invoked to discourage new
formulations of Nicholls’ original theory, or attempts to critique the original model (Biddle, Duda, Papaioannou, &
Harwood, 2001; Roberts, 2001, 2007, 2012; Treasure et al., 2001). At points in the following discussions, we will
consider whether it is more important to maintain (a) a parsimonious representation of achievement goals but with
hidden and complex philosophical and methodological assumptions (cf. Roberts, 2012) or (b) a more complex con-
ceptual representation but based on simpler philosophical and methodological assumptions (cf. Elliot, 1999; Keegan
et al., 2014; Vansteenkiste et al., 2014).
274 Keegan
• how an experiment is to be conducted and the primary paradigms used within any field of
how the results of scientific investigations study, we turn next to an examination of some of
should be interpreted, and the debates or areas of tension that have developed
• what equipment is available to conduct the within the achievement goal research area. Consid-
experiment. eration of these areas of contention can be used to
identify how we can move forward to advance the
The first paradigm in Simon’s example involves knowledge base in the field.
assuming that the ideal model in the instructions
is right, or true, whereas the second approach
assumes that each model or theory is wrong and Attitudes That Enable
improvable. The first approach was characterized
by Lakatos (1970) as a degenerative paradigm,
Scientific Advancement
in which progress comes only from applying an A review of the history of scientific progress (e.g.,
accepted theory or increasing the accuracy of Kuhn, 1970; Lakatos, 1970; Popper, 2002) clearly
measurement (e.g., as illustrated in the Michelson shows that scientific understanding advances
quotation cited earlier). Notably, however, Kuhn most meaningfully when theories are developed,
(1970) called this normal science. refined, disproven, and replaced. What this means
The second approach, in which theories and is that most, perhaps all, of the greatest scientific
models are expendable and change rapidly, was theories that ever existed are wrong in some way.
termed a progressive paradigm by Lakatos, whereas They contain problems such as being unable to
Kuhn chose the term extraordinary science. Popper explain certain findings, or they contradict other
(2002) insisted that most meaningful advances well-supported theories. These arguments applied
in science were produced using progressive, or to Galileo, Darwin, Curie, Einstein, Bell-Burnell,
extraordinary, approaches. Nonetheless, Kuhn Planck, Heisenberg, and more. The excellence of
argued that, historically, periods of normal science their contribution and the reason that their names
had been necessary to accrue information about live on in our collective memory are that they were
each theory or model before it was abandoned. (a) less wrong than the closest competition and (b)
Hence, to stimulate advancements, this chapter wrong in novel and interesting ways that ultimately
refers to the paradigm shifts described earlier and advanced our understanding by allowing us to ask
seeks to generate avenues for this research area new and different questions. The secret to making
to become (or remain) progressive. As such, this progress in science is to be incrementally less wrong
chapter necessarily assumes that each respective and never think that an idea or theory is, in fact,
theory of achievement goals in sport and exercise is true. This understanding of the nature of scientific
fallible (even if it is not always clear how) and open advancement leads to an additional conclusion that
to potential improvements. Historically, and philo- no amount of robust argumentation will settle a
sophically, this approach is the way that advance- debate between two or more fairly established the-
ments have been achieved. At the heart of the ories competing for the same conceptual territory
debate, Popper (2002) and Lakatos showed a level of (for examples see Harwood et al., 2000; Harwood
faith and optimism for science by proposing that the & Hardy, 2001; Treasure et al., 2001; and separately
gradual elimination of errors is at least an indicator Biddle et al., 2001; Pringle, 2000). We need to
of progress, even if the theory is never proved right. develop fair tests that will allow us to discriminate
In contrast, Kuhn’s conceptualization of paradigm between competing theories. To achieve this goal,
shifts did not suggest real criterion for progress, but we must work together to express each theory, or
rather relatively arbitrary shifts in what is perceived version of a theory, in a way that lends itself to such
to be legitimate (see also Wittgenstein, 1958). None comparative testing.
of these philosophers of science argued that great As researchers, we must be brave enough to
theories are proved right or that advances are made expose our theories to testing and falsification (cf.
by becoming more right. Certainly, none of these Popper, 2002). Such an attitude of tolerance (of
sources recognized that a scientific theory can be competing ideas) and collaboration (to test them)
objectively and irrefutably true. Rather, if we are to is closely aligned to Nicholls’ (1989) discussion of
hold any hope of coherent and meaningful progress, how education (and research) should be approached
theories become less wrong. (see also Simon’s New Toy). Thus, the healthiest
Based on this brief review of research paradigms approach for the scientist, and the interactions
and, especially, shifts that can and do occur in of the group, is to assume that all our theories
are wrong. We, as a group, grow and develop by analyze data from questionnaires using correla-
simply finding out how and why our theories are tional methods and models, and we know that
wrong so that we can build better ones. In contrast, correlation is not equivalent to causation (Aldrich,
protecting the status of a preferred theory, or argu- 1995). Even in structural equation modeling, in
ing over which theory is best, is comparable with which the results include neat arrows suggesting
becoming excessively concerned about ego goals. causation, the analyst specified that the arrows
Research does not have to be a winner-takes-all should be there, according to their chosen theory.
competition. Such collaboration is evident if we look All these problems can be balanced by using other
at the size of some authorship teams in other areas methods, as well as more constrained, appropriate
in science. For example, papers emanating from reporting and interpretation of data. In sum, a body
the CERN particle accelerator in Switzerland often of scientific research that relies heavily (sometimes
include numerous authors, and in genetics, Leung almost exclusively) on questionnaires and that does
et al. (2015) included over 1,000 authors. To turn not attempt to recognize and manage the associated
a phrase, in cases such as these, the winner is sci- risks can become blind to both its own limitations
ence, not a specific theory or a specific researcher. and the very truth that it seeks.
Additionally, and importantly, each particular
questionnaire is typically derived from one specific
Codependence of Theories version of achievement goals theory, and it attempts
and Questionnaires to measure only the constructs proposed by that
version of the theory. Determining which theory is
One recurring theme in the literature on achieve- best is therefore almost impossible, because each
ment goals is the reliance on questionnaire meth- questionnaire measures only what its parent theory
odologies, often using cross-sectional sampling. specifies, reminiscent of the previous discussion of
Several reviewers of this body of research have paradigms.
noted this trend and suggested that our reliance If the current preferred methodology of ques-
on cross-sectional questionnaires and correla- tionnaire and correlation does not lend itself to
tion-based analyses should be reconsidered (Biddle directly comparing competing theories, we must
et al., 2003; Harwood, Spray, & Keegan, 2008; develop new measures and methods. If we con-
Harwood et al., 2015). Building our knowledge of sider Moore’s law (Moore, 1965), which is derived
achievement goals by relying heavily on one meth- from developments in computer hardware, we see
odology can be problematic for several reasons. exponential growth in the capability of computers
First, the very mathematics of questionnaire design and technology, accompanied by similar reductions
does not permit inconsistencies; thus, any items that in the associated costs (to the computer users, at
do not strongly load onto a conceptual scale are least). This means that our ability to design new and
omitted. Yet aspects of real subjective experience innovative measures is rapidly improving. Consider
might be expected to vary significantly between the options enabled by wearable devices, neurosci-
people. Second, any questions that load onto more ence, biomarkers, web apps, and the like. Thus, we
than one scale are omitted as cross loading. But we should be able to design new and innovative ways
might expect some constructs to be related because to test and compare the various competing theories
psychological life is interrelated and complex. in achievement goal research. As an example of a
Third, both the design of questionnaires and their possible new measurement approach, Keegan et al.
use in research involves averaging things out across (2014) advocated for the adoption of methods from
large populations. Therefore, if we are looking to meteorology for the study of motivational climate
assess nuances and fine differences in the way or wider motivational atmosphere (Keegan, Spray,
that people experience things, questionnaires may Harwood, & Lavallee, 2010; Keegan et al., 2014).
not be the best method. Fourth, we typically take Earth’s atmosphere is, after all, a complex and cha-
data from questionnaires in one-off cross-sectional otic system, yet meteorologists are able to model it
samples, meaning that changes over time are not and make predictions. Likewise, neural networking
detected. Likewise, because reliability depends on researchers have been able to model the way that
things such as test–retest reliability, our question- humans make decisions (Mnih et al., 2015) and pro-
naires are considered valid only if they measure cess emotions (e.g., Levine & Nadin, 2013; Levine,
things that remain stable over time. Again, this 2007). Although anticipating precisely how such
representation may not reflect the dynamic way methods can be applied to motivation and achieve-
that achievement goals operate. Fifth, we typically ment goals is difficult, it may be an important
276 Keegan
direction to take because the heavy reliance on only experience competence or autonomy is one thing,
one methodology is problematic. Developing new but it’s quite another for a person to then define
and innovative solutions will take time and effort, each of these operationally and monitor moment-to-
but the payoffs will likely be valuable. moment information about whether one’s needs are
being satiated. In principle, a system of orienting
and calibrating the way that psychological needs
Future Research are monitored is both necessary and informative.
Recommendations It would explain a lot about how cognitions, affect,
and behavior are determined in response to the
After we have a new research philosophy, new situation, performance, and feedback. Fundamen-
methodologies, or at least openness to new meth- tally, that may be where achievement goals fit into
odologies, and a new collaborative spirit, to what motivation research at the broad macro level. The
problems should we apply these advancements? In finer details of the micro level (mechanisms and
this section of the chapter, some potential problems systems) remain both highly debated and a notably
or issues are identified relative to future research hard problem. Another worthwhile effort would
on achievement goals in sport and exercise. be to clarify whether achievement goals should
be exclusively applied to achievement contexts or
exclusively applied to the concept of competence.
Defining Achievement Goals This question has been the source of much debate
This first question or issue is a difficult one, because in the literature (e.g., Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Elliot,
achievement goals can exist on many levels. But 1999; Roberts, 2001, 2012).
at an even more basic level is the question about To return to the question raised at the begin-
what happens in the brain when achievement goals ning of this section, debate continues over how to
are adopted or activated. On this latter question, operationalize and measure achievement goals. In
advances in brain scanning technology (CT scans, the beginning, Dweck and Nicholls both adopted
fMRI, and so on) are opening up the possibility of a relatively broad definition of achievement goals,
exploring which areas of the brain are activated or which at times was also treated synonymously with
inhibited in various tasks or under various condi- achievement goal orientations (Ames, 1992; Dweck,
tions (notwithstanding the studies cautioning us 1986; Nicholls, 1984). Vansteenkiste et al. (2014,
against placing too much value on small samples p. 156) described this original conceptualization
and brain imaging; see Button et al., 2013; Ioan- as “an agglomeration of different yet related com-
nidis, 2005). Further, it may be possible to explore petence-based processes, including aims, reasons,
how the nature of tasks or the personality of the feelings, and, in some cases, even attributions
individual influences this process. If we take the (Ames & Archer, 1988). Stated differently, achieve-
view that achievement goals are analogous to a ment goals were conceived of as omnibus constructs
schema or a semantic-meaning network that can (Murayama et al., 2012).” These authors argued that
be activated or primed, then it may be informative the original approach to achievement goals com-
to examine where these meanings are processed bined all the individual’s traits, experiences, and
and stored and which neural processes or func- socialization experiences into one summary func-
tions they appear to feed into. We could also, of tion, called an orientation. Elliot and his collabora-
course, begin to examine whether (or how) the tors (Elliot & Dweck, 2005; Elliot & Murayama, 2008;
nature of these networks varies between countries Elliot & Thrash, 2001; Elliot, 1999) have proposed
and cultures (e.g., Graham & Hudley, 2005; Hickey, a narrower definition of the goal concept, focus-
2003; King & Watkins, 2011; Kumar & Maehr, 2007; ing exclusively on the evaluation of competence
Nolen & Ward, 2008) or as a result of maturation, on the specific task at hand. In contrast, Roberts
as Nicholls first explored in the 1970s and 1980s. (2001, 2012) argues that aspects of autonomy and
New technologies may permit new insights. Taking relatedness are inextricable parts of achievement
a somewhat simplistic perspective, the achievement context but that given the focus on achievement,
goal approach appears to relate to the way that core competence must be primary. This approach would
psychological needs, such as those from self-deter- necessitate permitting an omnibus agglomeration
mination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Ryan & Deci, of competence, autonomy, and relatedness pursuits
2000; see chapter 16), are construed, experienced, (cf. Vansteenkiste et al., 2014). Again, we are faced
and monitored by individuals (or groups, if we with the distinction between a simple conceptual
examine motivational climate). Having a need to framework with complex underlying assumptions
versus simpler assumptions but a more complex climate), and achievement goal involvement (or
conceptual approach. Recent research has explored adoption) is also important. The debate in this
the existence of various types of social goals for the respect has been fierce at times, because this
individual and social environments that promote an issue is also fundamental to competing theoretical
empowering climate (Duda, 2013), a caring climate formulations. From one perspective (described in
(Newton et al., 2007), an autonomy-supportive Keegan, Spray, Harwood, & Lavallee, 2011), the
climate (Jõesaar, Hein, & Hagger, 2012), and more. same distinction between task and ego conceptions
Several reviews of the literature in achievement of success is postulated across the levels of situa-
goals have noted and reflected on this issue and tion or context (climate) and stable intrapersonal
the proposed developments (e.g., Harwood et al., traits (orientation), and these interact to produce
2008; Keegan et al., 2011). The recent attempt by momentary goal involvement (e.g., figure 15.2).
Vansteenkiste et al. (2014) to separate the goals or Certainly, invoking the same constructs at all
aims adopted from the reasons for adopting them, three levels maintains a form of parsimony (cf.
as well as any accompanying feelings, cognitions, Roberts, 2012). Further, because the constructs are
or attributions, may allow researchers to evaluate all measured by correlating subjective perceptions
and reflect on where parsimony is best applied. from the same individual, correlations between
The omnibus approach critiqued by Vansteenkiste perceptions of the climate, orientation, and goal
et al. may be useful as a heuristic in applied prac- involvement tend to be quite reasonable (sum-
tice but may limit advancements in the underlying marized in Harwood et al., 2015). On the other
understanding of achievement goals. hand, we might query whether these constructs
Studying the relationships between traits (or truly exist and are extremely similar in content or
orientations or intrapersonal antecedents), inter- meaning at all three levels of analysis. The simpli-
personal and contextual factors (or motivational fication involved may be more for the convenience
1
Motivational Motivational
goal orientation 2 climate
1. Orientation may bias climate perceptions

4 5
2. Climate influences orientation over time
3 6 (e.g., Lloyd & Fox, 1992)
3. Orientation predisposes individual to adopt

certain goal-involvement states
Momentary goal- (Dweck & Leggett, 1988)
involvement
4. Time spent in involvement state may influence
or modify individual orientation
5. Climate at time of activity influences which

involvement state will be adopted
(Dweck & Leggett, 1988)
6. Momentary goal-involvement of individual and

others around them may modify motivational
Related climate or perceptions of it
motivational
outcomes
Figure 15.2 A representation of Nicholls’ (1984, 1989) achievement goals framework. Theoretical links are shown between goal
orientation, motivational climate and momentary goal involvement, and associated motivational outcomes. Black arrows indicate
E6768/Horn/F15.02/565556/mh-R2
relationships identified by Nicholls, and grey dashed arrows indicate other potential relationships.
Reprinted by permission from R.J. Keegan, An Exploration of Themotivationally-Relevant Behaviours of Coaches, Parents and Peers Across the
Athletic Career Span, (Doctoral thesis): https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/5903; Based on Nicholls 1984, 1989.
278 Keegan
of us, the researchers, than a true representation cult to compare directly (leaving the way open for
of the objective reality. Even if we consider that all interpretation and debate). Both approaches might
scientific theories are merely attempts to represent currently be viewed as lacking detail regarding
reality, not factually true (e.g., Popper, 2002), we exactly how the goal involvement, or adoption,
might wish to question how fair and reasonable is determined by the interaction of person with
it is to impose such a stringently parsimonious environment, but consider the following question.
model onto phenomena we know to be complex: Which approach stands more chance of answering
the social milieu, personalities and traits, and such a question? Which approach offers the most
subjective experiences. appropriate reflection of the reality being studied
A second approach to the goal construct ema- (and could a separate new approach add further
nated from Elliot and colleagues (Elliot & McGregor, value)? Roberts (2012) defends the parsimonious
2001; Elliot & Thrash, 2001; Elliot, 1999, 2005). approach, whereas Vansteenkiste et al. (2014) crit-
While also invoking a different model of goals (the icized such an omnibus approach to achievement
2 × 2 model, as shown in figure 15.2), they argued goals (see also Benita, Roth, & Deci, 2014; Brophy,
that the exact same constructs would not simply 2005; Hulleman et al., 2010; Senko, Hulleman, and
extend to personality (orientation) and social setting Harackiewicz, 2011). Separately, Keegan, Spray, et
(climate). Notably, there is no goal orientation, only al. (2014) contemplated how we might recognize
intrapersonal antecedents. Likewise, they assert and accommodate complexity, offering the terms
no achievement goal climate, only environmental motivational atmosphere to reflect the social and
and social antecedents. Instead, they postulated environmental surroundings and motivational
intrapersonal antecedents and social and contex- landscape to reflect the deep and complex intraper-
tual antecedents of goal adoption (e.g., figure 15.3). sonal backdrop. In this discussion, metaphors were
This creates a notable divide between the original subsequently drawn between the methodological
achievement goals theory, which tends to focus approaches used for atmospheres and landscapes,
on the orientation level, and the subsequent 2 × 2 leading to the proposal of motivational meteorol-
and 3 × 2 models, which focused on the situational ogy for the social and environmental context and
adoption level. To some extent, the two approaches motivational geology for the study of intrapersonal
are measuring different things and thus are diffi- factors.
Variety of Interaction? Variety of environmental

intrapersonal antecedents and social antecedents
(e.g., fear of failure) (e.g., motivational climate)
Momentary goal-
involvement
Ap.
P M
Av.
Related motivational outcomes

Figure 15.3 A representation of Elliot’s (1999) conceptualization of achievement goals—the hierarchical model. In the circle, P =
performance, or ego, definition of competence; M = mastery, or task, definition of competence; Ap. = approach valenced (seeking to
E6768/Horn/F15.03/565557/mh-R2
demonstrate competence); and Av. = avoidance valenced (seeking to avoid demonstrating incompetence).
Reprinted from Sport Psychology, edited by B. D. Geranto, “From ‘Motivational Climate’ to ‘Motivational Atmosphere’: A Review of Research
Examining the Social and Environmental Influences on Athlete Motivation in Sport,” copyright 2011, R.J. Keegan et al., with permission
from Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
In the meteorological model of motivational nation theory (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Ryan & Deci,
atmosphere, detailed in figure 15.4, seven different 2000). Note that rather than isolating competitive
yet interacting domains are suggested (along the achievements from social concerns or the like,
horizontal axis) where an individual may seek to they are presented as inextricably linked and
pursue success or avoid failure. Based on a qualita- within one complex system. On the vertical axis,
tive synthesis of findings of 45 studies, permeable the level of abstraction varies from immediate and
distinctions were drawn between seven domains specific motivational “conditions,” through con-
of motivational influence: textual summary functions (“climates”), up to the
global overall perception of whether and how the
• Competition socioenvironmental milieu influences, and then
• Training and learning supports, one’s needs. The socioenvironmental
• Evaluation “atmosphere,” as in meteorology, is proposed to be
highly fluid, complex, and constantly in motion,
• Emotion
whereas the intrapersonal “geology” is slower to
• Authority change and relatively reflective of personality, emo-
• Social support tions, and affective states. Where the two interact,
• Relatedness a motivational landscape can be traced: complex
atmospheric conditions furiously interacting with
These domains can be mapped onto the three individual dispositions, needs, affective stages, and
psychological needs proposed in self-determi- cognitions. Although it is only a model, and not yet
Global
Motivational atmosphere
Overarching, global concept containing all subclimates and conditions
Contextual
Competition Training and Evaluation Emotional Authority Social support Relatedness

climate learning climate climate climate climate climate
climate
Highly permeable
borders between
climates
Situational
Training and
Competition Evaluation Emotional Authority Social support Relatedness
learning
conditions conditions conditions conditions conditions conditions conditions
Complex interaction of intrapersonal

and environmental influences
Motivational landscape
Competence region Autonomy region Relatedness region
Figure 15.4 Keegan et al.’s (2014) “meteorological model” for understanding the motivational atmosphere.
Adapted from R.J. Keegan et al., “A Qualitative Synthesis of Research Into Social Motivational Influences Across the Athletic Career Span,”
Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, Vol. 6, no. 4 (2014). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Cre-
ative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.
280 Keegan
formalized into a theory, this approach deliberately scientific papers, of which 104 met stringent inclu-
invokes the complexity of meteorology. It is both dif- sion criteria. It further noted that many important
ficult and daunting, yet clearly possible, given that motivational variables were consistently correlated
we receive relatively accurate weather predictions with an athlete’s (or exerciser’s) perceptions of the
every morning. Why did they invoke such explicitly motivational climate construed as either task–mas-
and obviously complex metaphors? The argument tery or ego–performance. Note the emphasis here,
is that this approach would bring parsimony by though, on the subjective perceptions. Technically,
recognizing that we are studying a complex phe- most research findings in motivational climate
nomenon, effectively moving parsimony to the only really demonstrate that “when athletes report
foundational assumptions of the research, and no perceiving that their surroundings promote a
longer a constraint restricting theoretical concepts, particular achievement goal, they also report x, y
measures, findings, and interpretations. Within the or z motivational outcomes.” Immediately, astute
meteorology and geology approaches, question- coaches, parents, and practitioners should (and
naires can still cross-sectionally tap into subjective often do) ask, “OK, so how do I make them feel that
perceptions (those aspects of an experience can be way?” Unfortunately, using cross-sectional (one-off)
shared and scored similarly by many people). But questionnaires to report what athletes perceive tells
this approach then has a clear position in the the- us little about what can actually be done to promote
oretical framework, akin to the broad summary we these subjective perceptions. For example, subjec-
can get of the climate in a city at different points in tive perceptions as measured using questionnaires
the year—a broad averaging of many factors. When frequently vary substantially between athletes who
considering such a model, it becomes clearer that have the same coach or teacher (see, for example,
key details may be missing, and if all we have are Cumming, Smith, Smoll, Standage, & Grossbard,
these questionnaires, then the nature of the gaps 2008; Papaioannou, 1994).
in our knowledge can be identified. Questionnaires Such questionnaire data should not be used to
are not dismissed or rejected, but they are a small inform coaching practice or behavioral recommen-
piece of a bigger, ever-changing, and evolving dations if there is no guarantee they will reliably
ecosystem. Transparent collaborative discussions, influence subjective perceptions. Nonetheless, 57 of
new innovative methodologies, and, ultimately, the correlational studies in Harwood et al.’s system-
direct comparisons between these approaches will atic review (54.8%) made explicit recommendations
be needed to generate advancement. that coaches, teachers, parents, or practitioners
should change their behavior. Relatedly, Smith and
Social and Environmental Influences colleagues (2015) recently attempted to develop
an observational tool for examining motivational
on Achievement Goals climate. The resulting instrument, which showed
Continuing from the preceding allusions to moti- good reliability and validity, demonstrated either
vational climate, another core issue originates with no relationship or tiny correlations (e.g., r = 0.07,
the assertion from Maehr and Nicholls (1980, p. 262) 0.12, and so on) to both athlete perceptions and
that “achievement motivation should be defined in the coaches’ self-perceptions. In fact coaches’ per-
terms of its purpose or meaning for people rather ceptions of the task-involving climate they created
than in terms of overt behaviors or the character- were negatively correlated to the observers’ ratings
istics of situations in which the behavior occurs.” (r = −0.22). Hence, Smith et al. concluded that
This focus on subjective meaning has historically “there are clearly many questions that remain to
been the lynchpin of motivational climate research be answered in relation to how coaches’ percep-
within achievement goals, because it permits a tions of the environment they create impact upon
focus on using questionnaires to assess subjective the quality of athletes’ participation in sport” (p.
perceptions (note that other methods exist for 60) and subsequently that the findings were “in
studying subjective perceptions or experiences and contrast to suggestions that athletes’ perceptions
are quite acceptable). But the focus on subjective of the environment might mediate the relationship
meaning also presents some significant problems. between the objective environment and athletes’
To begin, we must recognize that the question- responses to sport, including the quality of their
naire-and-correlate methodology that follows from motivation.” (p. 61)
this assertion has been extraordinarily fruitful for Likewise, regarding physical education classes,
researchers in this field. The systematic review by Sproule, Wang, Morgan, McNeill, & McMorris (2007;
Harwood et al. (2015) reported 528 peer-reviewed p.1047) concluded: “There is a need to examine
the discrepancy between teachers’ and pupils’ per- The papers of Keegan et al. (2009, 2010, Keegan,
ceptions of motivational climate compared to the Harwood et al., 2014, Keegan, Spray et al., 2014)
behaviorally measured structures. Understanding called for such an unpacking of the motivational
the differences in perception and behavior may climate (or atmosphere) by extensively detailing
help to guide more effective interventions.” In fact, the raw ingredients that athletes reported as influ-
Keegan et al. (2011, p. 35) noted that a more logi- encing their motivation. Before these papers and
cal approach, based on the existing evidence (i.e., findings, the best return on investment (of effort at
subjective perceptions), would be simply to instruct least) was to use cross-sectional questionnaire and
athletes to interpret their motivational surroundings correlation methods. Following these papers, we
as task-involving regardless of whatever behaviors can now start examining the situational influences,
and values might be objectively observed. If sub- and interactions, of specific social interactions in
jective perceptions predict motivational outcomes, determining motivation. Further, we can explore
but our favored methodology offers us no reliable how these exchanges accrue over time and finally
way of influencing those subjective perceptions, gain traction on the issue of socialization of achieve-
what else could we do? ment goals (as identified by Duda, 1993, 2001). Put
As current technological developments bring simply, if perceptions are vital in determining a
new and innovative methodologies within reach, person’s subsequent motivational regulation and
it becomes possible to: related outcomes, then we need to research how
best to influence the way that those perceptions are
• examine the rich and complex social networks formed. On a separate but related point, we should
that athletes experience, often containing also seek to compare different contexts, such as
multiple coaches, various friendships, and different sports, competitive levels, and activities
different family members; (e.g., training versus competing; cf. Harwood et al.,
• track longitudinal and rich, detailed records 2015). Such studies would arguably be more valu-
of interactions between athletes, coaches, and able, albeit more difficult, than adding to the rela-
their social networks and the motivational tive saturation of studies based on cross-sectional
consequences of different combinations; and sampling of subjective perceptions. As Keegan,
• use wearable devices, movement-tracking Harwood et al. (2014, p. 561) concluded:
software, machine learning, biomarkers,
or neuroimaging to remove (or reduce) the Any developments in our ability to capture
subjective elements of reporting how motiva- the complexity in the social determination of
tionally relevant social interactions produce athlete motivation would, arguably, represent
motivational outcomes. a much more significant advancement of the
field than any further studies suggesting that
In these ways, we could begin to understand exactly one concept (or collection of concepts) correlates
what interactions, or what combinations of actions, with another concept.
people, and contexts, lead to specific desirable
perceptions and outcomes. This method may even By borrowing from areas where complexity and
be easier within individual sports, which have cur- chaos have been recognized and accepted for some
rently been neglected in favor of larger samples from time (e.g., meteorology, genetics, ecology), we may
team sports and physical education (cf. Harwood et learn more about motivational atmospheres and
al., 2015). Although the subjective perception of the their role in determining the all-important sub-
environment clearly correlates with motivational jective experiences and perceptions that we cur-
outcomes, particularly cognitive and affective ones rently focus on. Such understanding would enable
(cf. Harwood et al., 2015), we seem to have little a much more informed and nuanced approach to
idea about the fine details of how this perception any attempts we make at influencing achievement
can be generated and influenced. Smith, Smoll, and goals and motivation in sport and exercise. It would
Cumming (2007) concluded by commenting on the change both the way we research achievement
need to “clarify relations between particular inter- goals and the advice we give to practitioners. We
vention elements and various outcome measures” would offer less prescription (e.g., “Coaches should
(p. 54). Similarly, Elliot (1999) speculated that “it is do this”) and more empowerment (e.g., “Here are
also possible that some of the antecedent variables some principles, strategies, and key reflections.
combine together to jointly and interactively predict There is no correct answer, but you can navigate a
achievement goal adoption” (p. 176). way forward and evaluate it for yourself”).
282 Keegan
Influencing Achievement Goals generated by either external stimuli or internal

processes or attributes. Correlation will accom-
Through Interventions pany (neat, linear) causation but does not imply
or prove it (Aldrich, 1995). If we, as achievement
Although a small number of studies have deliv-
goals researchers, wish to claim a critical role for
ered interventions to modify achievement goals,
our research and concepts, then we undoubtedly
experimental interventions are few (e.g., Biddle
need to demonstrate that the specific predictions of
et al., 2003; Harwood, Spray, and Keegan, 2008;
our theories survive robust, fair, scientific tests (not
Harwood et al., 2015). In fact, using a scale of A
simply correlational associations). Coaches, practi-
to D to indicate the quality of evidence provided,
tioners, parents, and governing bodies are becom-
Biddle et al. concluded that “At best, we might con-
ing more informed and have become increasingly
clude that this constitutes category C evidence . . .
skeptical about correlational evidence, and rightly
from outcomes of uncontrolled or nonrandomized
so (Goldacre, 2011). Even where some people may
trials, or from observational studies” (p. 12, italics
be naive to the importance of this message, would
added). The next alternative, category D, was based
it be ethical to continue making recommendations
on consensus because “there is no compelling
based on such modest evidence?
scientific or clinical data to justify the use of cate-
gories A to C” (National Institutes of Health, 1998,
p.52). It is also recognized that such interventions, Measuring Achievement Goals
especially based on randomized controlled trials, in the Moment
can be expensive, difficult, and time consuming.
Because resources and time are often limited, this In the previous edition of this text, Harwood com-
difficulty sometimes leads to multifaceted and mented:
expansive interventions, preventing understanding
of the relations between intervention elements and Today, as almost 20 years ago [add 8 years
specific outcomes (Smith et al., 2007). At present, for this edition], the most challenging research
if we instruct a coach to adopt a specific behavior remains with the antecedents and assessment
of achievement goals at the situational level (i.e.,
or strategy to promote motivation, we are largely
the personal theories of achievement operating
basing that recommendation on correlations
right now, within a given achievement situation).
between subjective perceptions. As a result, if the
Harwood et al., 2008, p.163 (italics added)
coach asks, “Will this work?” we can truthfully
reply only, “In theory.” As noted earlier, competing approaches to achieve-
To justify behavioral recommendations to ment goal theory operationalize the situational
coaches, we arguably must carefully evaluate experience rather differently. Besides the divergence
interventions that focus on the fine-grained tech- in terminology—involvement versus adoption—
niques and strategies that are used to influence subtle variations are seen in the proposed content,
achievement goals and motivational outcomes. Such duration, and accessibility (to measurement) of
interventions could attempt to influence: achievement goals. If we are ever to compare
these competing approaches to achievement goals,
• momentary goal involvement or adoption; enabling measurement at the situational level will
• social and environmental antecedents (moti- be important. Attempts have been made to pursue
vational climate or atmosphere); or this using “crude but practical” single-item assess-
• intrapersonal antecedents (goal orientation), ments in and around performance (e.g., Harwood
as separate from momentary involvement. & Swain, 1998; Swain & Harwood, 1996) or by
reviewing events immediately after performance
Giving coaches, researchers, and practitioners the (e.g., Gernigon, D’Arripe-Longueville, Delignières,
evidence-based techniques for influencing achieve- & Ninot, 2004). Measuring situational experiences
ment motivation would be extremely valuable. Fol- is a problem across many research areas (e.g., flow),
lowing from the previous points about correlational and it is a classic issue in the study of consciousness
designs, our current most popular methodology can (Chalmers, 1995; Dennett, 1996). As noted earlier,
tell us only that perceptions of the self, environment, however, new technology and modeling techniques
and so on co-occur. They do not tell us that one is may soon permit access to momentary experiences.
causing the other (even if arrows are drawn that Thus, future researchers who open up this avenue
might be taken to imply causation). Separately, of inquiry would make a unique and meaningful
they also do not tell us how those perceptions were contribution to the knowledge base.
Multiple Goals meaningful advancements. Hypothetically, is it pos-

sible to pursue normative success to impress peers
In its original formulation, the notion of achieve- and gain influence among the group? Could an ath-
ment goals was based on the idea that a participant lete seek to avoid the demonstration of poor skill to
can only experience either task- or ego-involvement support a valued friend within the team? Can such
at any moment in time (Roberts, 2012). Theoreti- goals be pursued simultaneously? Observations
cally, the two goal states are completely exclusive of behavior or cognitive and affective processes
but can flip frequently and dynamically (Gernigon could likely be better explained and understood by
et al., 2004). Consistent with the consideration of permitting multiple, interacting goal states. Argu-
measuring immediate goal states, this claim has ably, advancements in technology along with new
been extremely difficult to test. At the trait or cycles of theorizing, testing, and comparing will
orientation level, not the involvement level, stud- allow us to answer such a question (again, robust
ies have suggested that task and ego orientations debate will not).
are orthogonal, such that a person might score
high on both, low on both, or a combination (Fox,
Goudas, Biddle, Duda, & Armstrong, 1994; Hodge Summary
& Petlichkoff, 2000). In their 2008 review of the
This chapter was always going to be contentious after
research, Harwood et al. noted that this method
the assumption was made that it would be possible
of profiling achievement goals had received insuf-
to advance achievement goals research. Such an
ficient research attention and clearly warranted
approach requires an initial, foundational assump-
further efforts (see also Cumming, Hall, Harwood,
tion that all the theories that have been articulated
& Gammage, 2002; Fox et al., 1994; Harwood, Cum-
to date contain flaws and require improvement.
ming, & Fletcher, 2004; Hodge & Petlichkoff, 2000).
Nonetheless, this assumption is grounded in the phil-
Unfortunately, however, there is little new progress
osophical tradition of fallibilism (e.g., Popper, 2002),
to report in relation to either traits or orientations
and may well be the basis on which advancements
or involvement states. As before, the collective
are made. Hence, in a chapter mapping out potential
findings from these studies suggest potential ben-
advances within a book designed to both detail and
efits of a high–high profile at the orientation level
stimulate advances in the field, it seemed the most
(high ego orientation complemented by high task;
suitable approach. Like judgments of parsimony and
see table 15.2). This series of findings was inter-
elegance, the judgment as to whether it was the best
esting because ego orientations were often cast
approach may ultimately be subjective. One poten-
as maladaptive, yet the revised suggestion was
tial outcome is for proponents of a specific theory
that highly competitive athletes may benefit from
of achievement goals to strengthen their resolve,
possessing (or developing) an emphasis on task
generate new defenses, and perhaps redouble the
performance, process, and effort. Now as before,
vigor (or volume) of argumentation. That outcome is
however, more research is needed to understand the
not, at all, the aim of this chapter. If you take away
mechanisms involved. Specifically, we know little
a few key messages from this chapter, consider the
about the involvement level of analysis, except what
following:
the theory says, and the principle that we can only
experience one goal state at a time is contradicted • Be tolerant of other researchers and other
by current knowledge of parallel processing in ideas—inclusive even.
cognition (Ranti, Chatham, & Badre, 2015; Simon
• Collaborate and help each other for the benefit
& Newell, 1971; Townsend, 1971, 1990). Further,
of our discipline (and science in general).
relatively little is known about the immediate state
experience of achievement goals because measur- • Promote effort, engagement, and enjoyment
ing the immediate subjective experience remains among the researchers as well as the partici-
problematic. Hence, developing means of assessing pants, children, or athletes.
the immediate experience will be extremely valu- • Be transparent and explicit; never leave
able, noting that experience-sampling methods assumptions unexamined or implicit.
(Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987) and think-aloud • Remember that theories are meant to be
protocols (Ericsson & Simon, 1998) are already the expendable component of science, not
recognized approaches. As argued throughout this researchers (or their efforts).
chapter, allowing the data to speak for itself and
resisting the temptation to fit the data to a preferred Ultimately, in a game that nobody can truly win,
theory is difficult but may ultimately facilitate more people will remember the way that we played.
284 Keegan
Cumming, S.P., Smith, R.E., Smoll, F.L., Standage, M.,

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16
Self-Determination-
Based Theories
of Sport, Exercise,
Motivation
Martyn Standage, PhD  Thomas Curran, PhD  Peter C. Rouse, PhD
Abstract
The scientific study of human motivation addresses the reasons why people are moved
to act. Few contexts illustrate the construct of motivation as acutely as sport, exercise,
and physical activity. Although being active is part of our human nature, research has
shown motivation to be multifaceted and complex, wherein multiple sources can sup-
port or thwart our engagement and wellness. An expanding body of empirical research
has applied self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017) to
understand the social contexts, goals, motives, primes, and orientations that support
health, wellness, and functioning. The overall meta-theory of SDT comprises six interre-
lated mini-theories that are connected by organismic necessities (i.e., basic psychological
needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness) required for healthy functioning and
wellness. Within this chapter, the central components and phenomena addressed within
each of the six mini-theories are presented, and we consolidate key research findings
related to relevant hypotheses. We then turn our attention to two extensions to SDT,
namely the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (HMIEM; Vallerand,
1997) and the dualistic model of passion (DMP; Vallerand, 2015). Again, we synthesize
the main extant research findings. Insight is then provided into how SDT principles
may be applied in and across physical activity domains. Building on our assimilation
of existing empirical research, we identify key gaps in the knowledge base that warrant
attention in future research.
289
290 Standage, Curran, and Rouse
T
he scientific study of motivation addresses the building blocks of the overall SDT framework
why people are moved into action and is (see Ryan & Deci, 2017, for a detailed overview and
concerned with the energization, direction, review). Herein, we will review, synthesize, and
regulation, and persistence of human behavior (de consolidate the extant empirical literature related
Charms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985b). Although moti- to each mini-theory. The purpose is not to provide
vated behavior is evidenced in all aspects of human an exhaustive review of an increasingly expanding
activation and intention, few contexts illustrate it literature, yet instead to present a summary of the
as acutely as those of sport, exercise, and physical material using selected and pertinent works. Next,
activity (Standage & Ryan, 2012). For example, the we turn our attention to a number of extensions
energy required for an elite athlete to persist across that are engrained within the SDT tradition, each
hours of long grueling training seasons, as well as having important implications for understanding
in the face of competitive failure, exemplifies why motivation—namely, the HMIEM and DMP. The
motivation is considered a cornerstone to sport reader is then provided with insight into how SDT
achievement and performance (Standage, 2012). principles may be applied in and across physi-
Similarly, the persistent energy required for adults cal activity domains. Lastly, we draw from our
to engage regularly in exercise or physical activity review of motivational phenomena coupled with
in the face of competing work, family, and social the assimilation of extant empirical literature to
commitments is a testament to the importance of identify gaps in the knowledge base and key areas
motivation for lifelong health and wellness. With for future work.
achievement, health, and well-being outcomes at
the forefront of sport, exercise, and physical activity
agendas, it is not surprising that researchers and Self-Determination Theory
practitioners have shown a continuing interest in SDT is a meta-theory of human motivation, emotion,
understanding the goals, motives, and social con- and personality that is concerned with the quality of
texts that support adaptive, healthy, and sustained motivation, as well as the conditions that support,
engagement. as opposed to thwart, optimal engagement, well-
Many theories have been used to understand ness, development, and growth (Deci & Ryan, 2000;
motivational phenomena within and across sport, Ryan & Deci, 2008, 2017). Based on the theorizing
exercise, and physical activity settings (see Roberts of Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, SDT has evolved
& Treasure, 2012; chapters 15, 17, and 18 in this to form a sophisticated “organismic dialectical”
volume). Indeed, the extant literature is rife with framework of motivation. The organismic propo-
differing perspectives on the nature of motivation sition is that humans are proactive, self-motivated
and motivational processes. In the past two decades, organisms who actively seek optimal challenges
a burgeoning line of contemporary inquiry across and new experiences to master and integrate so that
physical activity domains has been grounded they can shape and optimize their life conditions
within self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & (Ryan & Deci, 2002, 2017; Vansteenkiste & Ryan,
Deci, 2017) as well as its associated extensions—the 2013). Within SDT, it is specified that people coher-
hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic moti- ently refine their interests, values, and preferences
vation (HMIEM; Vallerand, 1997) and the dualistic (intrapersonal level) and strive to integrate into the
model of passion (DMP; Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand social milieu, partly through the internalization
& Houlfort, 2003). This increase in research atten- process (interpersonal level) (Vansteenkiste & Ryan,
tion seems to be commensurate with a movement 2013). Insomuch as SDT considers people proactive
toward more encompassing motivation theories. toward the development of an integrated sense of
Whereas some approaches (e.g., achievement goal self, fully aligned with the environment, it also
theory, self-efficacy theory) focus on competence, recognizes that people are vulnerable to passive,
SDT is distinctive insomuch as it offers comple- fragmented, and nonoptimal functioning (Deci &
mentary motivational resources (e.g., autonomy Ryan, 1985b). Hence, although SDT assumes innate
and relatedness) that must also be met to promote tendencies of growth and assimilation, this process
high-quality forms of motivation and wellness. hinges on the provision of necessary nutriments and
In this chapter, the central motivational phe- social supports that either support or thwart such
nomena proposed within SDT are explained. Fol- integration (i.e., the dialectic component).
lowing an introduction to the main assumptions Recognizing that human activity occurs in
of the theory, we review the central tenets of six actual and perceived social contexts, it is the
interrelated mini-theories that collectively form dialectic between the active self and a person’s
Self-Determination-Based Theories of Sport, Exercise, and Physical Activity Motivation 291
perceived interpersonal social contexts that sup- phenomena have been empirically tested by six
ports or thwarts their active engagement, personal interrelated mini-theories, namely: cognitive
growth, wellness, and development (Deci & Ryan, evaluation theory (CET), organismic integration
1991). Within SDT, three basic psychological needs theory (OIT), causality orientations theory (COT),
are purported to be essential nutriments for this basic psychological needs theory (BPNT), goal
growth and development. These include the need for contents theory (GCT), and relationships moti-
autonomy (i.e., the need to experience activities as vation theory (RMT). Figure 16.1 shows a brief
self-endorsed and purposefully enacted), the need descriptor of each mini-theory (see Ryan & Deci,
for competence (i.e., the need to interact effectively 2017, for a detailed discussion). Although each
within the environment), and the need for relat- of these mini-theories was developed to address
edness (i.e., the need to feel close, connected, and specific motivational phenomena, they are coher-
cared for by important others) (Ryan & Deci, 2017). ently linked, integrable, and organized within the
It is specified within SDT that when these basic broader SDT framework by
psychological needs are satisfied, people thrive and
experience physical and mental wellness, proactiv- • the organismic and dialectical meta-theory
ity, and positive development. In contrast, if these propositions and
basic psychological needs are frustrated, people will • the unifying concept of basic psychological
experience physical and mental ill-being, enerva- needs for autonomy, competence, and relat-
tion, and impoverished development (Deci & Ryan, edness.
2012). Because of the innate origins of the psycho-
logical needs, they are viewed as having functional Our attention now turns to each of these mini-the-
influence irrespective of delineating factors such as ories.
culture, gender, developmental stage, and contexts
(Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Cognitive Evaluation Theory
The SDT framework has developed over the
past five decades by a comprehensive and sys- Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) was the first
tematic program of inductive research. Within SDT mini-theory and is concerned with the study
the broader SDT framework, specific motivational of intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1975). Intrinsic
The six mini-theories of self-determination theory
Causality Basic
Cognitive Organismic Goal contents Relationships
orientations psychological
evaluation theory integration theory theory motivation theory
theory needs theory
Addresses the role Is concerned with Highlights the Elaborates on the Distinguishes Concerned with
that the social the different individual existence of the between intrinsic relatedness as
contextual qualities of differences in three innate and and extrinsic goals the third innate
supports for extrinsically people’s universal basic to explain their need, yet
autonomy and motivated tendencies to psychological role in satisfying emphasizing the
competence play behaviors and orient themselves needs that require and frustrating important role
in the formation of how the social toward fulfillment to basic needs and for supports for
intrinsic context supports environments and achieve optimal the subsequent autonomy and
motivation or thwarts regulate behavior functional and consequences for competence for
internalization in three particular psychological psychological close personal
along the ways (i.e., health and health and relationships to
continuum of autonomy, wellness well-being flourish and
autonomy impersonal, and support health
amotivated and wellness
orientations)
Figure 16.1 Overview of the six mini-theories within the broader SDT meta-theory.
E6768/Horn/F16.01/581653/mh-R3
otivation reflects the prototype of human growth

m The provision of rewards provides an excellent
tendencies within SDT, describing when a person example of how the theoretical tenets within CET
is fully self-regulated and volitionally engages in can help us understand how and why aspects of
activities out of interest and enjoyment without our social environment support or frustrate our
the aid of external rewards or contingencies (Deci intrinsic motivation. To this end, stimuli that occur
& Ryan, 2012). Recognizing the importance of outside people’s volition (e.g., cups, medals, and
understanding the necessary supports for people to scholarships) have three functional elements (cf.
draw inherent satisfaction from activities, CET was Ryan & Deci, 2017). First is a controlling element
developed to provide an organizing structure and that provides pressure on athletes or exercisers
theoretical lens to consider the effects of differing toward specific outcomes or goals. Such controlling
aspects of the social context (e.g., rewards, compe- stimuli undermine intrinsic motivation because
tition, feedback, choice, and evaluations). In short, they socially implant reasons for participation,
it is posited within CET that any event satisfying whereas noncontrolling stimuli support autonomy
a person’s basic needs for competence and auton- and hence foster intrinsic motivation. Second is
omy will enhance his or her intrinsic motivation. an informational element of external stimuli that
Likewise, conditions that are not conducive toward encapsulates the communication of competence
the promotion of competence, or are deemed as relevant feedback (sometimes referred to as “struc-
controlling, impede or meaningfully undermine a ture”). Informational stimuli are perceived as
person’s intrinsic motivation. those that relay feedback regarding improvement,
In the overarching SDT framework, CET is crucial development, and enhanced functioning. Informa-
because it outlines the events that impede versus tional events serve to support intrinsic motivation
enhance athletes’ or exercisers’ intrinsic motivation because they provide a framework for the devel-
(and hence their healthy and long-term adherence opment of competence. Third, within CET, events
to the activity). Impediments to intrinsic motivation that are experienced as undermining of autonomy
common to the sports and exercise domain include or competence can be undermining of any form of
competition when there is pressure to win or a motivation and promoting of amotivation (Ryan &
controlling context (Deci, Betley, Kahle, Abrams, Deci, 2017). In support of CET, a meta-analysis of
& Porac, 1981; Standage, Duda, & Pensgaard, 2005; over 100 studies conducted by Deci, Koestner, and
Standage & Ryan, 2012), contingent rewards (Orlick Ryan (1999) showed that engagement-contingent,
& Mosher, 1978), rules and limits (Koestner, Ryan, completion-contingent, and performance-contin-
Bernieri, & Holt, 1984), athletic scholarships (Ryan, gent rewards, as well as all rewards, all tangible
1980), negative feedback (Thill & Mouanda, 1990; rewards, and all expected rewards, undermine
Vallerand & Reid, 1984), and evaluation (Ryan, intrinsic motivation. Results also showed that pos-
1982), whereas supports for intrinsic motivation itive feedback enhances intrinsic motivation.
in sport and exercise settings include choice (Katz Although lab-based studies show support for
& Assor, 2007), encouragement (Reeve & Jang, CET, within sport, exercise, and physical activity
2006), optimal challenge (Shapira, 1976), task settings, few recent experimental or field stud-
involvement (Standage et al., 2005), and positive ies in real-world settings have tested the major
feedback (Ryan, 1982; Mouratidis, Vansteenkiste, tenets of CET (Standage & Ryan, 2012). Rather,
Lens, & Sederidis, 2008; Standage et al., 2005). Just contemporary support for CET has been gleaned
as important as these external stimuli, though, is from numerous cross-sectional studies that have
the overall interpersonal style in which they are documented the positive effects of informational
provided by socializers (e.g., coaches, exercise feedback and choice to athletes’ and exercisers
instructors, and physical education teachers). Here, intrinsic motivation (e.g., Carpentier & Mageau,
autonomy supportive (i.e., “You might like to”) and 2013; Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005; Mouratidis,
controlling (i.e., “You must”) interpersonal styles Lens, & Vansteenkiste, 2010). Notable exceptions
moderate the effects of external stimuli on intrinsic to these cross-sectional studies are early field and
motivation. For example, when rewards, limits, lab experiments that tested the effects of external
and rules are perceived to be communicated in an rewards and feedback on competence and intrin-
autonomy-supportive manner, intrinsic motivation sic motivation in sport and exercise settings (e.g.,
is reinforced, whereas when they are communicated Thill & Mouanda, 1990; Vallerand & Reid, 1984;
in a controlling manner, intrinsic motivation is Whitehead & Corbin, 1991). In one such laboratory
undermined (e.g., Koestner et al., 1984; Reeve & study, Vallerand and Reid (1984) found that college
Deci, 1996; Ryan, 1982). students’ intrinsic motivation for a balance task was
enhanced by the provision of positive feedback. in the social context), psychological adjustment and
Similarly, Whitehead and Corbin (1991) found that adaptive engagement are yielded. But to the extent
children’s competence and intrinsic motivation for that internalization does not occur or is incomplete,
physical activity was enhanced by positive feedback psychological maladjustment and disaffection are
and eroded by negative feedback, following fitness likely. In short, although a unidimensional view
testing. These early studies notwithstanding, more of intrinsic motivation is conceptualized within
work is sorely needed in sport and exercise to test CET, a multidimensional perspective of extrinsic
the tenets within CET in both experimental and motivation is posited within OIT.
ecologically valid settings. Four distinct types of extrinsic motivation are
described within OIT, ranging from least to most
Organismic Integration Theory autonomous:
Sport is a context in which people can exhibit high • External regulation (i.e., when behaviors are
levels of intrinsic motivation and is unique in this controlled by external contingencies such as
respect when compared with other domains (i.e., tangible rewards and the avoidance of pun-
education, work, health care; Vallerand, 2004). ishments)
Indeed, humans are active creatures by nature and • Introjected regulation (i.e., when behavior is
freely put forth enormous effort and energy into underpinned and directed by intrapersonal
their chosen leisure activities (Ryan & Deci, 2017). sanctions such as shame, guilt, ego enhance-
Undoubtedly, sport can, and does, provide people ments, and pride)
with a vast amount of interest and enjoyment. • Identified regulation (i.e., when behaviors are
Exercise, too, can provide a source of interest and autonomously engaged within as the person
enjoyment for many. Yet Ryan and Deci provide a identifies with the value, purpose, and benefit
nice analogy to distinguish between intrinsic and derived from taking part)
extrinsic reasons underpinning engagement in • Integrated regulation (i.e., when behavior
various physical activity domains by pointing out reflects a person’s identity and aligns with
that people often say they “play” sport but describe her or his other values and goals)
exercise sessions using the word “workout.” The
latter may indicate that exercise sessions are not These four extrinsic forms of motivation are
always the most enjoyable part of a person’s day anchored between amotivation (i.e., a state of
but are often partaken in for instrumental reasons. lacking intention to act or passive engagement
That is, people regularly engage in exercise (and that can arise because of lack of competence, a
to a lesser extent sport) as a means to an outcome belief that the activity is not important, or a lack
separate from that of the task itself (e.g., engaging of contingency between the behavior and desired
in circuit training for enhanced fitness, partaking outcome) and intrinsic motivation on a continuum
in gym sessions to improve appearance, and so on). of autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017). Table 16.1
Organismic integration theory (OIT) is the provides a schematic overview of this motivation
mini-theory within SDT that describes the differ- taxonomy, including regulatory processes, defining
ent forms of motivational impetus underpinning features, and the degree to which the motivation is
engagement in these activities (Ryan & Connell, autonomous versus controlled.
1989). Within OIT, a concept called internalization The primary distinction for comparing moti-
outlines the conditions under which people do, do vation types within SDT has shifted to one of
not, or only partially assimilate extrinsic motives autonomous versus controlled motivation (Deci &
into the self-concept (Reeve, 2012). The theory Ryan, 2008). In this approach, identified regulation,
posits that people are inclined to internalize aspects integrated regulations, and intrinsic motivation
of the social context in such a way as to integrate are forms of autonomous motivation, whereas
extrinsic motivational processes so that they align controlled motivation is formed of introjected
with their ambient goals and values (e.g., accepting regulation and external regulation. Reflecting
the personal relevance of training drills to being a each subset of motivation types, autonomously
good athlete). In other words, people proactively motivated people endorse their own actions and
seek to endorse, as personally important, estab- act with a full sense of volition because they find
lished norms, limits, rules, and behaviors in their the activity to hold inherent interest or personal
sporting environments. To the extent that internal- value (Ryan & Deci, 2006). In contrast, controlled
ization is full (i.e., the self fully accepts experiences motivation is characterized by a person’s behavior
Table 16.1 Schematic Overview of the Self-Determination Continuum Outlining the Types of Motivation Advanced
Within SDT and Related Processes
Intrinsic
Motivation type Amotivation Extrinsic motivation motivation
Type Non-regulation External Introjection Identified Integrated Intrinsic
of regulation
Internalization No No Partial Almost full Full Not required
Defining Lack of Presence of Focus on • Activity valued • Synthesis of Action is based
characteristics • competence external approval (i.e., • Personally identified regu- on interest and
• contingency • constraints self or others) important lations to self inherent satis-
• intention • rewards • ego involve- • Consciously • Awareness faction
• activity value • compliance ment pursued • Congruence
• punishments • internal
rewards and
punishment
Location
on the autonomy
continuum
Controlled motivation Autonomous motivation
Perceived locus Impersonal External Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal
of causality external internal
Adapted by permission from M. Standage and R.M. Ryan, Self-Determination Theory and Exercise Motivation: Facilitating Self-Regulatory
Processes to Support and Maintain Health and Well-Being. In Advances in Motivation in Sport and Exercise, 3rd ed., edited by G.C. Roberts
and D.C. Treasure (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2012), 242. Based on Ryan and Deci (2000).
being governed by external or internal pressures Skevington, 2006), and self-rated exercise effort
such as being coerced, persuaded, or seduced (Deci (Wilson et al., 2004). In sport, arguably the most
& Ryan, 2012). important behavior-related outcome is performance
A major contribution of OIT is that it provides a (Standage, 2012). Here, autonomous forms of moti-
coherent structure through which to conceptualize, vation have been found to positively predict objec-
define, and examine motivation from a quality tive performance data as well as coach ratings of
perspective. A central notion within SDT, whether performance (e.g., Gillet, Berjot, & Gobancé, 2009;
studied as individual regulations or as composites Gillet, Vallerand, Amoura, & Baldes, 2010). Simi-
(i.e., autonomous vs. controlled motivation), is that larly, autonomous motivation has also been shown
manifold benefits result from acting through more to have positive predictive value for swimmers’
autonomous (or high-quality) types of motivation. behavioral persistence in the sport at 10 and 22
A large body of empirical research has supported months (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, & Briere, 2001).
such theoretical reasoning. Indeed, behavioral Complementing the associations with behavior
regulations have been examined as a predictor of or proximal indices of behavior, an abundant body
a wide range of outcomes within sport, exercise, of literature shows that autonomous motivation is
and physical activity settings (see Ntoumanis, 2012; positively related to a number of adaptive indices
Standage, 2012; Standage & Ryan, 2012; Teixeira, of wellness, functioning, and enriched experience
Carraça, Markland, Silva, & Ryan, 2012). Here, we across physical activity contexts (cf. Ntoumanis,
review a selection of these associations. 2012; Standage & Ryan, 2012). These correlates
Autonomous types of exercise motivation (as include psychological well-being and vitality
opposed to controlled motivation) have been shown (Gagné, Ryan, & Bargmann, 2003), adaptive coping
to have positive predictive value for objectively (Gaudreau & Antl, 2008), perceptions of physical
assessed estimates of exercise behavior (Standage, self-worth (Sebire, Standage, & Vansteenkiste,
Sebire, & Loney, 2008), exercise adherence (Rus- 2009), self-esteem (Standage & Gillison, 2007), flow
sell & Bray, 2010), and the maintenance of weight (Kowal & Fortier, 1999), health-related quality of life
loss following an exercise intervention (Silva et (Standage, Gillison, Ntoumanis, & Treasure, 2012),
al., 2011). Likewise, autonomous forms of motiva- and exercise-related barrier self-efficacy (Thogers-
tion have been shown to be positively associated en-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis, 2006). Research has
with behavior-related variables such as intentions also shown autonomous motivation to be negatively
(Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Harris, 2006), self-re- linked with cognitive anxiety (Sebire et al., 2009),
ported exercise behavior (Gillison, Standage, & burnout (Cresswell & Eklund, 2005), social phy-
sique anxiety (Brunet & Sabiston, 2009), feelings of • controlled orientation (i.e., an orientation
unhappiness (Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2005), toward being motivated by internal or exter-
and boredom (Ntoumanis, 2001). nal controls, constraints, and directives and
Alongside the documentation of the manifold interpreting their environments as being
benefits of autonomous motivation, studies also pressurizing and coercive); and
show that controlled motivation exhibits positive • impersonal orientation (i.e., a tendency for
associations with impoverished adjustment (see people to consider themselves as incompetent,
Standage & Ryan, 2012, for a review). Indeed, to act without intentionality, and to interpret
partial or non-internalized forms of motivation environments as providing obstacles to attain-
(viz., controlled composite or introjected and ing desired outcomes) (cf. Deci & Ryan, 1985a;
external regulations) are correlated with higher Ryan & Deci, 2017).
negative affect (Mouratidis et al., 2008), anxiety
(Thorgersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis, 2006), burn- Causality orientations are considered developmen-
out (Jowett, Hill, Hall, & Curran, 2013), and non- tal outcomes stemming from repeated interactions
optimal coping (Amiot, Gaudreau, & Blanchard, between the active, developing person and her or
2004; Gaudreau & Antl, 2008), as well as lower his social context. As Ryan and Deci (2017) point
dispositional flow (Lonsdale, Hodge, & Rose, out, the extent to which people are substantially
2008), health-related quality of life (Standage and persistently exposed to autonomy-supportive,
et al., 2012), and self-esteem (Thorgersen-Ntou- controlling, or amotivating environments, the more
mani & Ntoumanis, 2006). But one finding that likely they are, over time, to develop autonomy ori-
sometimes runs counter to this consensus, and entations, controlled orientations, and impersonal
is particularly noteworthy in physical contexts, is orientations, respectively. These orientations are
the positive link between introjected regulation operationalized as trait processes, as opposed to
and short-term behavioral engagement (Gillison, being context or situation specific, and concern a
Standage, & Skevington, 2011; Pelletier et al., 2001). person’s consistent and stable pattern of thinking
Notwithstanding that people are vigorously moved pertaining to seeking out, selecting, and interpret-
into action by self-worth strivings and the approval ing the initiation and regulation of their behavior
of others, remember that introjects across all domains (Deci & Ryan, 1985a).
Causality orientations make an important con-
• are poor predictors of commitment and long-
tribution to SDT because they describe how trait
term engagement (Pelletier et al., 2001) and
motivational processes can, in a top-down fashion,
• are linked with maladjustment and poor-qual- influence contextual and situational motivational
ity experiential outcomes (e.g., higher anxiety, processes (Vallerand, 1997, 2001). For example,
guilt, and contingent self-worth) (cf. Standage the mindful and self-aware traits of autonomously
& Ryan, 2012). oriented athletes might protect them from move-
ment toward more controlled forms of motivation
In short, then, well-integrated motivation appears
at the contextual level and against frustrations to
to be influential in optimal functioning, whereas
the psychological needs at the situational level. In
partial or non-internalized motivation appears to be
contrast, the defensive and self-conscious traits of
antagonistic to psychological and physical health
athletes with controlled orientation might inhibit
for athletes and exercisers.
their propensity to perceive their motivation as
autonomous at the contextual level and their needs
Causality Orientations Theory as satisfied at the situational level. In incorporating
Whereas the two mini-theories reviewed thus far the individual difference perspective to the other
draw heavily on social contextual processes, causal- mini-theories, then, COT reflects an application of
ity orientations theory (COT) primarily focuses on SDT to the psychology of personality.
trait processes (i.e., individual differences). Within Research has supported the tenets within COT.
COT, it is specified that all people have, to some Specifically, an autonomous orientation has been
extent, differing levels of found to correlate with higher autonomous moti-
vation (Williams, Grow, Freedman, Ryan, & Deci,
• autonomy orientation (i.e., a disposition 1996), task persistence (Koestner, Bernieri, & Zuck-
to orient toward intrinsic motivation and erman, 1992), confidence (Koestner & Zuckerman,
well-integrated extrinsic motivation and to 1994), interpersonal attachment (Bridges, Frodi,
interpret the environment as supportive of Grolnick, & Spiegel, 1983), openness to experience
their autonomy); (Olesen, 2011), and conscientiousness (Koestner et
al., 1992). Conversely, controlled and impersonal in organismic psychology. Within BPNT, needs
orientations have been shown to correlate with are defined as organismic necessities of healthy
higher defensive functioning (Knee, Neighbours, & functioning. Specifically, the three psychological
Vietor, 2001) and controlling socialization (Bridges needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness
et al., 1983; Reeve, 1998), as well as lower com- represent the subset of necessities that are essen-
mitment (Wong, 2000), openness to experience, tial for the physical, psychological, and social
and agreeableness (Olesen, 2011). Autonomous health of the organism (Deci & Ryan, 2012). Three
and controlled orientations have also been found important contributions are made to SDT by BPNT.
to moderate the effect of rewards on situational First, BNPT describes the specific antecedents of
intrinsic motivation, attesting to the notion that behavioral integration and optimal functioning
an autonomous orientation protects people from (Reeve, 2012). Here, the basic psychological needs
threats to in-the-moment intrinsic motivation, are a unifying principle that links social-contextual
whereas controlled orientations do not provide such factors, facilitative or inhibitive of psychological
resiliency (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2011). need satisfaction, to the cognitive, affective, and
To date, however, few studies have examined the behavioral experiences that these needs catalyze
application of causality orientations theory within (Vansteenkiste, Niemiec, & Soenens, 2010). Second,
sport, exercise, and physical activity settings. This the basic psychological needs describe why some
dearth of research is most likely due to the concep- people exhibit positive experiences in sport, exer-
tualization of causality orientations as personality cise, and physical activity, whereas others display
traits rather than context specific. A couple of excep- negative experiences. Psychological need satisfac-
tions are noteworthy. In work designed to examine tion cultivates psychological and behavioral well-
the strength of causality orientations when assessed ness, whereas psychological need frustration leads
within exercise settings, Rose and colleagues (Rose, to psychological and behavioral ill-being (Ryan &
Markland, & Parfitt, 2001; Rose, Parfitt, & Williams, Deci, 2000, 2017). Third, the psychological needs
2005) found that autonomous exercise orientations allow for hypotheses to be made regarding which
were associated with more integrated forms of specific aspects of the sport and exercise environ-
motivation in adult exercisers, whereas controlled ment will be supportive versus inhibitive of optimal
exercise orientations were associated with higher functioning (i.e., those conditions that support
external regulation and self-consciousness. Other or thwart basic psychological needs) (Standage &
studies have sought to prime automatic and uncon- Ryan, 2012).
scious motivational orientations for physical activity In line with BPNT, psychological need satisfac-
tasks and observed similar results (e.g., Banting, tion has been observed to have positive predictive
Dimmock, & Grove, 2011; Brown, Teseo, & Bray, value for numerous adaptive outcomes in sport,
2016; Radel, Sarrazin, & Pelletier, 2009). Here, the exercise, and physical activity settings. These out-
subliminal priming of autonomous orientation led comes include autonomous motivation (McDonough
adults to perform better, invest more effort, increase & Crocker, 2007), positive affect (Mack et al., 2011),
competence perceptions, persist longer, and enjoy vitality (Adie, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2008; Reinboth,
physically active tasks. Drawing from past lab-based Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004), physical self-worth
work (e.g., Friedman, Deci, Elliot, Moller, & Aarts, (Sebire et al., 2009), enjoyment (Álvarez, Balaguer,
2010), it would be interesting to test whether it is Castillo, & Duda, 2009), and persistence and effort
possible to (i) prime the automatic and unconscious (e.g., Curran, Hill, Ntoumanis, Hall, & Jowett, 2016;
motivational orientations within COT by watching Sarrazin, Vallerand, Guillet, Pelletier, & Cury, 2002;
the autonomous engagement or behaviors of others Ntoumanis, 2005; Smith, Ntoumanis, Duda, &
and (ii) prime autonomous engagement with tech- Vansteenkiste, 2011). Likewise, psychological need
nology (e.g., short clips showing examples of targets satisfaction has also been shown to be negatively
autonomously engaged in exercise activities) (Stan- associated with athlete burnout, disaffection, and
dage & Ryan, 2012). These topics should be priorities negative affect (e.g., Bartholomew, Ntoumanis,
of future study within COT for sport and exercise Ryan, Bosch, & Thogersen-Ntoumani, 2011; Curran,
researchers. Hill, Hall, & Jowett, 2014; Lonsdale et al., 2008). In
contrast to psychological need satisfaction but in
Basic Psychological Needs Theory line with BPNT, psychological need frustration is
a predictor of maladjustment in sport and exercise
As with the overarching tenets within SDT, basic with positive correlates that include exhaustion,
psychological needs theory (BPNT) has its roots disordered eating, depression, negative affect,
burnout, and perturbed physiological arousal (e.g., cerned with the content of the goals that people
Bartholomew et al., 2011; Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, pursue. Whereas OIT and CET describe the psy-
& Thogersen-Ntoumani, 2010; Curran et al., 2014). chological processes that give rise to behavior (i.e.,
In considering the essential role that the psy- “Why am I doing this?”), GCT describes the psycho-
chological needs hold for supporting healthy logical processes that give meaning to behavior (i.e.,
development, optimal functioning, and wellness, “What am I doing this for?”). Thus, GCT provides an
understanding the optimal supports is essential. account of what athletes or exercisers are striving
Within BPNT, numerous sport and exercise studies for and how intrinsic and extrinsic aspirational
have provided evidence of the salugenetic role of outlooks differentially affect their motivation and
autonomy, competence, and relatedness supports. psychological wellness.
In particular, supports for autonomy (e.g., provi- Aligned with the SDT tradition, GCT differen-
sion of choice, rationales, and empathy) have been tiates between intrinsic (e.g., growth, affiliation,
found to be positively correlated with a number community contribution, and maintenance of phys-
of adaptive outcomes in physical activity settings, ical health) and extrinsic (e.g., financial success,
including positive affect (Bartholomew et al., 2011), social recognition, and image or attractiveness)
vitality (e.g., Adie et al., 2008; Reinboth et al., 2004; goals (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996). Within GCT,
Rouse, Ntoumanis, Duda, Jolly, & Williams, 2011), intrinsic goals are theorized to be positively asso-
enjoyment (Alvarez et al., 2009), satisfaction (Smith ciated with greater well-being, whereas extrinsic
et al., 2007), exercise intentions (Chatzisarantis, goals are posited to be associated with lower well-
Hagger, & Smith, 2007; Standage et al., 2003; Vier- ness and greater ill-being. The differential associ-
ling, Standage, & Treasure, 2007), and persistence ation between intrinsic and extrinsic goals rests
(e.g., Curran, Hill, & Niemiec, 2013; Pelletier et al., with the extent that they are supportive of basic
2001; Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, psychological need satisfaction. That is, pursuing
2004). Autonomy-supportive interventions have also these various goals has divergent effects on moti-
been successful in enhancing athletes’ self-esteem vation and psychological well-being. For instance,
(Coatsworth & Conroy, 2009), adults’ autonomous participation in pursuit of intrinsic goals, such as
exercise motivation, positive affect toward exercise personal development, affords opportunities for
and exercise attendance (Edmunds, Ntoumanis, basic psychological need satisfaction and greater
& Duda, 2008), and the frequency of leisure-time psychological wellness. By contrast, extrinsic
physical activities and stronger intentions of school- goals, such as the pursuit of fame or enhanced
children (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2009). status, frustrate the psychological needs and confer
In a similar way, supports for athletes’ compe- diminished psychological wellness. An expanding
tence (e.g., positive feedback, structure) have been body of empirical evidence supports the notion
found to have positive predictive value for positive that intrinsic (relative to extrinsic) life goals are
affect, vitality, and performance (e.g., Curran et al., positively linked with well-being and adjustment
2013; Mouratidis et al., 2008; Mouratidis, Lens, & (see Ryan & Deci, 2017).
Vansteenkiste, 2010). And although research exam- Of central importance to GCT is the notion
ining relatedness supports (e.g., warmth, care and that participation underpinned by extrinsic goals
interest) is comparatively sparse in sport and exer- inhibits development and psychological wellness
cise, a handful of studies have documented their even when they are attained (Niemiec, Ryan, &
positive effects for physical education students (e.g., Deci, 2009; Vansteenkiste, Timmermans, Lens,
Cox, Duncheon, & McDavid, 2009; Cox & Williams, Soenens, & Van den Broeck, 2008). Thus, in contrast
2008; Taylor & Ntoumanis, 2007). The relevance of to traditional approaches to goal setting in sport
the basic psychological needs, and their supports to (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2005), psychological well-
optimal functioning in sport, exercise, and physical ness within GCT is determined not so much by the
activity is therefore readily apparent. We return to attainment of goals per se, but by their aspirational
this issue in our discussion of practical applications. outlook (i.e., intrinsic or extrinsic; Reeve, 2012). In
short, within GCT, it is the intrinsic and extrinsic
Goal Contents Theory goal contents, regardless of their attainment, that
divergently predicts well- and ill-being.
Goal contents theory (GCT) describes what people Originally conceptualized at the global level
endeavor to attain in sport or exercise (see Deci (or toward life in general; Kasser & Ryan, 1993),
& Ryan, 2000, for a discussion of the “what” and numerous studies across various domains (e.g.,
“why” of motivation). In other words, GCT is con- health care, education, and work) attest to the
ositive contribution that intrinsic and extrinsic

p high-quality relationships will be those in which
goals make to psychological and social well- and both partners experience and provide supports for
ill-being, respectively (see Ryan & Deci, 2017). In autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Similarly,
sport and exercise, the adaptive and maladaptive the frustration of these basic needs by interpersonal
nature of intrinsic and extrinsic goals is also evi- elements (or need-thwarting contexts or factors)
dent. In exercise settings, intrinsic goals, relative such as conditional regard, cold interactions, con-
to extrinsic goals, have been shown to contribute to trol, and objectification impede need satisfaction
enhanced physical self-worth, vitality, psycholog- and lead to poor-quality relationships (see Deci &
ical well-being, autonomous motivation, and daily Ryan, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2017).
moderate to vigorous physical activity (through To date, research pertaining to RMT has focused
autonomous motivation) (Gunnell, Crocker, Mack, on close and romantic relationships. This body of
Wilson, & Zumbo, 2014; Lindwall, Weman-Josefs- empirical work has shown relationship quality as
son, Sebire, & Standage, 2016; Sebire, Standage, well as functional and wellness outcomes to be
& Vansteenkiste, 2009, 2011). Although limited supported by (i) the satisfaction of the three basic
by the lack of a systematically developed GCT-in- needs (e.g., La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman, & Deci,
formed sport assessment of goals (Standage, 2012), 2000; Patrick, Knee, Canavello, & Lonsbury, 2007),
athletes’ intrinsic goals have been correlated with (ii) autonomous motivation to engage in relation-
higher positive affect, satisfaction, enjoyment, ships (e.g., Blais, Boucher, Sabourin, & Vallerand,
vitality, and effort, as well as lower negative affect 1990), and (iii) the provision of contextual supports
and exhaustion (e.g., Chatzisarantis & Hagger, for autonomy (rather than controlling elements;
2007; Smith et al., 2007, 2011). In contrast, extrinsic Niemiec & Deci, 2013) and mutuality in which each
goals have been associated with higher negative partner provides as well as receives high levels of
affect, exhaustion, and disengagement (Smith et autonomy support (e.g., Deci, La Guardia, Moller,
al., 2007, 2011). Together, these findings substan- Scheiner, & Ryan, 2006).
tiate GCT by supporting the notion that intrinsic Sport, exercise, and physical activity settings
and extrinsic goals confer positive and negative offer numerous and complex reciprocal and non-
behavioral and psychological outcomes in athletes reciprocal relationships that differ in terms of the
and exercisers. authority, degree of mutuality, and structure, as
well as the developmental stage of people within
and across physical activity settings (e.g., rela-
Relationships Motivation Theory tionships among peers, managers or coaches and
The most recent mini-theory added to SDT is rela- athletes, parents and children, exercise instructors
tionships motivation theory (RMT) (Deci & Ryan, and clients, PE teachers and students; see Standage
2014; Ryan & Deci, 2017). As Standage and Emm & Emm, 2014, for a review). Indeed, and spanning
(2014) describe, RMT provides a much-needed the lifecycle from active play to community or
systematic and coherent theoretical perspective to volunteering initiatives with older adults, such
integrate relational aspects with broader contempo- settings offer an ecological platform from which to
rary motivation phenomena (e.g., issues pertaining address some intriguing and potentially influential
to competence, autonomy, differing motivation empirical contributions based on the tenets of RMT
types, diverging goals or aspirations, and vary- (Standage & Emm, 2014). As research into the SDT
ing social contexts; see Standage & Emm, 2014). framework further expands, we urge scholars to
Indeed, within RMT, a motivational account of the engage with RMT as a means of better understand-
dynamics underpinning high-quality relationships ing relational dynamics in sport (e.g., coach–ath-
is provided. From an RMT perspective, the innate lete), exercise (e.g., peer–peer), and physical activity
desire of people to satisfy their need for related- (e.g., teacher–student).
ness will activate the pursuit of relationships and
predict wellness and relational experiences. Yet,
by themselves, such feelings of relatedness are not
SDT-Related Extensions
sufficient to ensure high-quality relational bonds, Alongside SDT’s six mini-theories, a few exten-
relational adjustment, and wellness (Deci & Ryan, sions have emerged to explain related motivational
2014). Importantly, and in line with BPNT, RMT phenomena. Each of these extensions draws its
specifies that relationships will be of the highest philosophical starting point from SDT’s organismic
quality when the needs for autonomy and compe- dialectic principles yet builds on the framework
tence are also supported. Moreover, and even within in important ways. Prominent extensions to SDT
warm relationships, Deci and Ryan (2014) argue that include the following:
• The hierarchical model of intrinsic and In this text, we focus on the extensions to SDT
extrinsic motivation (HMIEM; Vallerand, that have most application for, and have been most
1997), which describes how motivational extensively studied within, sport, exercise, and
processes interact within and between levels physical activity settings. These extensions are the
of generality HMIEM and the DMP.
• The dualistic model of passion (DMP; Valler-
and et al., 2003), which describes motivated
behavior for cherished activities
Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic
• Balanced psychological need satisfaction and Extrinsic Motivation
theory (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006), which An important extension to SDT is provided by Val-
offers an account of the effects of concurrent lerand and colleagues’ hierarchical model of intrin-
autonomy, competence, and relatedness sat- sic and extrinsic motivation (HMIEM; Vallerand,
isfaction 1997, 2001; Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002). The HMIEM
• The self-concordance model (Sheldon & Elliot, emerged from the recognition that social factors,
1999), which proposes a temporal sequence psychological needs, behavioral regulations, and
from goal adoption, to endorsement, to attain- outcomes are observable at different levels of gen-
ment, and its effect on psychological need erality, namely global, contextual, and situational
satisfaction and wellness (see figure 16.2). At the global level, motivation and
Social factors Mediators Types of motivation Consequences
Global
Global perceived
level Global affect
self-determination
Global
Global Global perceived motivation Global
factors competence cognition
IM, EM, AM
Global perceived Global

relatedness behavior
Contextual
level Contextual perceived Contextual
self-determination affect
Contextual motivation
Contextual Contextual perceived Contextual

Interpersonal
factors competence Education Leisure cognition
relations
IM, EM, AM IM,EM,AM IM,EM,AM
Contextual perceived Contextual
Situational
level Situational perceived Situational
self-determination affect
Situational
Situational Situational perceived motivation Situational
factors competence cognition
IM, EM, AM
Situational perceived Situational

Figure 16.2 The hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. IM = intrinsic motivation; EM = extrinsic motivation; AM =
amotivation. E6768/Horn/F16.02/581654/mh-R3
Reprinted by permission from R.J. Vallerand, A Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport and Exercise. In Advances
in Motivation in Sport and Exercise, 2nd ed., edited by G.C. Roberts (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2001), 266.
related processes are akin to an omnibus personal- 2003), but this interplay has yet to be tested in
ity trait reflecting the way in which people gener- sport and exercise. As such, although support for
ally interact with their environment, be that in an the HMIEM model is beginning to accrue in sport
intrinsically, extrinsically, or amotivated fashion. and exercise settings, it will remain a framework
The contextual level represents moderately stable only in theory until further research is conducted
motivational processes that are usually evidenced in to support it empirically within these domains.
specific life contexts (e.g., sport, exercise). Finally,
the situational level reflects motivational processes Dualistic Model of Passion
as they are enacted at the immediate level of initia-
tion (i.e., the “here, right now” of motivation). The Another extension to SDT is the dualistic model of
central thesis of the HMIEM is that social factors, passion (DMP; see Vallerand, 2015, for a detailed
psychological needs, and behavioral regulations review). The DMP builds on SDT by describing the
are dynamic and mutually reinforcing and can be contextual motivational processes underpinning
passed upward (bottom-up effects) and downward engagement in deeply cherished activities. Here,
(top-down effects) across levels of generality (e.g., passion embodies a strong inclination toward a
contextual motivation influences situational moti- sport or exercise that a person loves, finds self-
vation and vice versa), as well as from context to defining, and invests substantial time and energy
context (e.g., motivation for PE influences motiva- in (Vallerand, 2015). The distinguishing conceptual
tion for sport and vice versa) (see Vallerand, 2001). feature of the DMP is that it proposes two types of
The HMIEM is an important extension to SDT passion; the difference between them hinges on
for several reasons. First, it accounts for the real- how the activity is internalized into the person’s
world complexity of motivation, which fluctuates self-concept. In line with OIT, the type of passion
at the situational level (especially in social contexts that a person adopts depends on how personal and
such as sport and exercise) but remains (relatively) environmental factors permit a full versus partial
stable at the contextual or global levels. Second, integration of behavior.
the HMIEM explains the transmission of motiva- Harmonious passion is the first type of passion.
tion as it passes between levels of generality; each It emerges from full behavioral integration through
level has the strongest influence on the one imme- autonomous internalization processes (e.g., auton-
diately below (the proximity principle; Vallerand omy support), in which the cherished activity is
& Lalande, 2011). And third, unlike the OIT and socialized to align with a person’s ambient values
BPNT mini-theories within SDT that describe the and goals (“This passionate activity reflects the
horizontal processes of motivated action (i.e., those qualities I like about myself”; Vallerand et al.,
that operate within levels of generality), the HMIEM 2003). This alignment between person and activ-
integrates both horizontal and vertical processes ity, as we have seen with identified regulation and
(i.e., those that operate both within and between intrinsic motivation, results in a pattern of behavior
levels of generality) in an overarching model. In encapsulated by willful engagement and volition.
short, the HMIEM provides an overview of how The second type of passion is obsessive passion.
the motivational processes described within SDT It emerges from partial behavioral integration,
organically emerge and influence outcomes across through controlled internalization processes (e.g.,
space (viz., level of generality) and time. conditional regard), in which the cherished activity
Research in sport and exercise settings provides is socialized in conflict with the person’s ambient
support for the HMIEM. In line with the top-down values and goals such that it interferes with other
hypothesis, studies show that athletes and PE stu- important priorities (“I often have difficulties con-
dents who report high self-determined contextual trolling the urge to engage in my passionate activ-
motivation also report high levels of self-determined ity”; Vallerand et al., 2003). This conflict between
situational motivation (e.g., Blanchard, Mask, Val- person and activity, as we have seen with intro-
lerand, Sablonniere, & Provencher, 2007; Lonsdale, jected regulation, manifests a pattern of behavior
Sabiston, Taylor, & Ntoumanis, 2011). Likewise, encapsulated by compulsive and rigid engagement
supporting the bottom-up hypothesis, Blanchard to service internal contingencies.
and colleagues (2007) found support for reversed The DMP has a number of unique contributions
causality between motivation at the contextual to make to SDT. Notably, it extends SDT’s conceptu-
level, and motivation at the situational level, in adult alization of intrinsic motivation by describing how
athletes over time. Support is also found in educa- loved and valued activities can be internalized into
tion for a reciprocal association between contextual the self-concept and regulated broadly. As we have
and global motivation (Guay, Mageau, & Vallerand, described, intrinsic motivation refers to an implicit
and spontaneous force emerging from the interaction from an autonomous internalization that confers a
between person and activity at the short-term level, flexible task engagement replete with enjoyment
yet passion extends this theorizing by referring to and satisfaction, whereas obsessive passion emerges
activities that are volitionally endorsed in the per- from a controlled internalization that fosters depen-
son’s self-concept (i.e., passions become part of who dency and ego involvement. Research supports
the person is). The DMP also extends SDT’s concep- these ideas (see Curran, Hill, Appleton, Vallerand,
tualization of extrinsic motivation by describing how & Standage, 2015, for a review). Harmonious pas-
external sources of regulation can encapsulate a deep sion for sport and exercise has been associated
love of the activity. Like extrinsic motivation, the with enhanced moral functioning, positive affect,
passions refer to contextual forms of regulation that flow, subjective well-being, psychological need
have been internalized (to a more or lesser degree). satisfaction, autonomous motivation, and approach
Yet crucially, the passions entail a residual love of tendencies, as well as reduced negative affect and
the activity, which is not implicit to the definition life conflict (Curran, Appleton, Hill, & Hall, 2011,
of even well-integrated forms of extrinsic motivation 2013; Vallerand et al., 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008).
(see Vallerand, 2015). To these extensions, several Obsessive passion for sport or exercise, on the other
studies support the unique contribution of passion hand, has been associated with enhanced negative
on affective and behavioral outcomes (e.g., Bélanger, affect, rumination, rigid task engagement, injury
Lafreniere, Vallerand, & Kruglanski, 2013; Houlfort, and avoidant tendencies, as well as diminished
Philippe, Vallerand, & Ménard, 2013; Vallerand et moral functioning and positive affect (Bureau et al.,
al., 2003, Study 2). That is, within these studies the 2013; Rip, Fortin, & Vallerand, 2006; Vallerand et al.,
effects of passion have been shown not to change 2003, 2008). In short, the quality of intrapersonal
in the presence of motivation regulation within the outcomes in sport and exercise lean on the type
statistical analyses. of passion at play; hence, the DMP represents an
According to the DMP, harmonious and obsessive important extension to the overall SDT framework
passion should show markedly different associa- (see the sidebar Techniques to Develop Harmoni-
tions with cognitive, affective, and motivational ous Passion and Avoid Obsessive Passion and the
outcomes in sport and exercise (Vallerand, 2012). sidebar Practical Applications Related to SDT for
This occurs because harmonious passion derives practical applications of SDT-based theories).
Techniques to Develop Harmonious Passion

and Avoid Obsessive Passion
Given that past empirical studies show that harmonious passion underpins a number of adaptive outcomes, its
development should be supported in sport and exercise settings. To this goal, harmonious passion occurs when
activities are internalized without contingency (i.e., for their inherent benefits), permitting a pattern of behavior
encapsulated by willful engagement, volition, and personal endorsement (Vallerand, 2015). This internalization can
likely be facilitated within environments that are autonomy supportive (Mageau et al., 2009). Coaches and parents
can offer autonomy support by providing athletes with opportunities to share opinions and make meaningful choices
(Black & Deci, 2000). These socializers can also use rationales to aid a full internalization of athlete expectations
and provide acknowledgment of negative affect when conflicts arise (Reeve, Jang, Carrell, Jeon, & Barch, 2004).
Because of its undesirable consequences in sport and exercise, though, practitioners should avoid enabling the
development of obsessive passion. One form of socialization that has particular relevance for obsessive passion is
conditional regard (Curran et al., 2015). Conditional regard is an intrusive interpersonal style that socializes by the
manipulation of self-conscious affect (i.e., guilt and shame) using contingencies of approval and love withdrawal (e.g.,
“If you win, then I will approve of you”; Barber, 1996). The links between conditional regard and obsessive passion are
especially acute because the damaging regulatory features of obsessive passion (i.e., compulsive, insecure, and rigid
engagement) emerge predominantly as a function of contingent self-worth that presages guilt and shame in failure
(Mageau, Carpentier, & Vallerand, 2011), and guilt and shame are the very levers of compliance in socialization by
conditional regard. To prevent the development of obsessive passion, then, coach and parent education is required
that both elucidates the costs of conditional regard and provides practical strategies aimed at reducing its use.
Among these strategies might be a provision of support, warmth, and acceptance, especially when athletes have
tried but failed, and an effort to avoid invoking guilt and shame through “If . . . then” contingencies (Rogers, 1951).
Practical Applications Related to SDT
A notable strength of SDT lies in the ability of the constructs to be targeted for intervention (see Standage, 2012; Standage
& Ryan, 2012, for sport- and exercise-related reviews, respectively). Social environments that support basic needs serve
to facilitate the internalization process and enhance physical and psychological wellness (see figure 16.3 for examples
of behavioral characteristics underpinning need-supportive and need-thwarting social contexts). As with competence
support (structure), relatedness support (involvement) should be characterized by autonomy support rather than pres-
sure and control. In the absence of autonomy, attempts to support competence and relatedness may be perceived as
controlling. Thus, a thorough understanding of the qualities and nature of environments that support or thwart the needs
holds importance to practitioners seeking to foster adaptive forms of motivation. Methods of transferring the tenets of
SDT into practice have been gleaned from an impressive body of empirical contributions (e.g., Deci, Ryan, & Williams,
1996; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). And although interventions have been less numerous, a plethora of trials (Duda et
al., 2014; Gourlan, Sant, & Boiche, 2014; van Hoecke, Delecluse, Bogaerts, & Boen, 2014) and protocols (Blackford et al.,
2015; Rouse et al., 2014) are emerging. To date, interventions have relied on face-to-face interactions to deliver SDT-based
content, although recent attempts have been made to develop web-based or mobile health (mHealth) interventions (Frie-
derichs et al., 2015; Moreau, Gagnon, & Boudreau, 2015). More discussion of this issue is contained in the next section.
Need-supportive and -thwarting behaviors
Autonomy Competence Relatedness
Supportive Thwarting Supportive Thwarting Supportive Thwarting
• Provide meaningful • Use of extrinsic • Create clear and • Provide negative • Develop high- • Be hostile,
rationales rewards to direct understandable competence quality interpersonal unfriendly, or
behaviors instructions, feedback relationships aggressive in
• Encourage and link guidelines, and interactions
behaviors to valued • Induce internal expectations • Foster an • Dedicate
outcomes or goals pressures and unorganized and psychological • Actively exclude
sanctions such as • Foster optimally chaotic social resources such as people
• Provide authentic guilt and shame challenging tasks context time and energy
choice and goals • Employ negative
• Undermine choice • Highlight and • Show unconditional conditional regard
• Acknowledge and • Use improvement- criticize mistakes positive regard
accept the person’s • Restrict focused (or task- • Act distant and
thoughts and opportunities for involving) feedback • Provide information • Express empathy neglectful
feelings questions that is vague and and interest
• Provide positive unclear • Use cold and
• Provide • Fail to address the competence • Be authentic in abrupt language
opportunities person’s concerns feedback • Use ego-involved actions and
for initiative feedback or behaviors • Pay little attention
• Use controlling and evaluative strategies to others in
• Use noncontrolling directive language interpersonal
language • Fail to cater for interactions
differentiated
ability levels
Figure 16.3 Example of strategies that are characteristic of promoting need-supportive and need-thwarting social contexts.
E6768/Horn/F16.03/581655/mh-R2
Future Research our understanding of motivational processes in
Recommendations sport, exercise, and physical activity. Nevertheless,

a number of limitations and gaps remain in the
We have described an impressive body of research sport, exercise, and physical activity literatures that
from an SDT perspective dedicated to advancing require attention. First, a major challenge for this
research community is to improve methodological research designs examining relationships between

quality, placing specific attention on appropriate multiple levels of influence over time as well as
research design, complimentary and appropriate between individuals require statistical approaches
statistical analyses, and valid measurement tools. that go beyond single-level analytical methods (e.g.,
Second, gaps in the SDT literature are particularly multiple regression and path analysis) to consider
wide for certain mini-theories (i.e., CET, GCT, COT, the multilevel data structures (e.g., multilevel and
and RMT). A comprehensive overview of specific longitudinal mixture models; Heck & Thomas,
limitations and gaps is beyond the scope of this 2015).
chapter, but we encourage readers to reflect on the The need for more rigorous research methodol-
major challenges highlighted in our review. Here, ogies is emphasized by the recent accrual of data
we focus on the broader literature gaps and needed indicating that associations between SDT constructs
research directions from an SDT standpoint. are not only reciprocal but also unstable. For exam-
ple, when autoregressive paths act as statistical
Need for Improved controls, relationships between the psychological
needs and levels of engagement in sport and school
Methodological Quality are only emerging late in study periods (i.e., from
One of the most important limitations to the SDT middle to end of season or semester, but not from
literature relates to research design and associated start to middle of season or semester; Curran et al.,
analyses. Of course, notable longitudinal and 2016; Jang, Kim, & Reeve, 2012; Reeve & Lee, 2014).
experimental studies have been conducted (e.g., The implication here is that it is only changed in the
Edmunds et al., 2008; Friederichs et al., 2014; psychological needs, not initial levels, that yields
Gagne, Ryan, & Bargmann, 2003), yet the empirical change in engagement. This finding is important for
basis of SDT in sport, exercise, and physical activity SDT researchers to reconcile, because it calls into
leans heavily on cross-sectional data. These data question the veracity of conclusions based solely on
provide a useful heuristic of instantaneous rela- cross-sectional (viz., initial level) associations. In
tions between motivational constructs but assume short, then, as SDT research in sport and exercise
that causal processes are static, time invariant, advances, multiple time-point measurement stud-
and linear (Gollob & Reichardt, 1991). Collectively, ies combined with appropriate statistical analyses
such assumptions are at odds with the organismic should be a priority for future investigation.
starting point of SDT, and in particular its account Just as critical to the advancement of the SDT
of the dynamic “dialectic” interplay between social literature is the systematic development of valid and
contexts, as well as among goals, needs, regula- reliable measurement tools. We note that studies
tions, and behaviors (as they unfold across space in sport, exercise, and physical activity have an
and time; Vallerand, 1997). As a result, we have overreliance on self-reported measures, often using
a dearth of knowledge about the nonlinearity of adapted instruments developed in other domains
constructs within SDT, and most notably how they (e.g., Subjective Vitality Scale, Ryan, & Frederick,
mutually interact through reciprocal association 1997; Teacher as a Social Context Questionnaire,
(see Standage & Ryan, 2012). Belmont, Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1988).
In light of such design limitations, researchers These measurement issues leave three gaps in the
would do well to look at the longitudinal and literature. First, we know little about how perceived
dynamic interplay among SDT constructs. Pro- motivational processes within SDT correspond with
cesses within SDT are dynamic and multidimen- objective measurements of motivation and behav-
sional. As such, they require designs and analyses ior (e.g., step counts, MVPA, observed behavioral
that capture the ongoing interplay among key engagement), which is especially important for
constructs to predict changes and outcomes of key tests of the ecological validity of SDT (Standage &
importance in sport, exercise, and physical activity Ryan, 2012). Second, without adequate information
settings (e.g., key biomarkers of health, objective regarding the domain-level psychometric properties
activity levels, quality of life, athletic performance, of instruments, researchers cannot be certain of the
and behavioral persistence). One such approach is validity of interpretations based on their construct
diary studies employing within- and between-per- associations (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Third,
son designs that have been used within the extant to facilitate the development and refinement of
SDT literature (e.g., Gagne et al., 2003; Reis, Shel- items couched within SDT, participatory input at
don, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000; Ryan, Bernstein, all stages of the process (e.g., item development,
& Brown, 2010). Key to expanding our knowledge item refinement) would help translate the measure-
is to accompany the advances in research design ment of key tenets and processes to the intended
with appropriate statistical analyses. To this end, physical activity setting (Standage & Vallerand,
2014). Following the development of such tools, of instantly synchronizing data to provide real-
item response theory (IRT) could provide a valu- time assessments of steps taken, energy expended,
able method of identifying the most appropriate distance walked or run, calories burned, and so
and reduced set of items to employ (Standage & forth. Here, the feedback provided by computers
Vallerand, 2014). Indeed, the use of IRT would be and related devices can be perceived as need
especially well suited for research examining the supportive (e.g., provide informational feedback,
dynamic interplay among SDT-related constructs, optimal challenge, and choice) or need thwarting
wherein participant burden is a consideration. It (i.e., provide ego-involving information, are overly
is clear that there is currently a substantial gap controlling, and restrict choice and challenge). Test-
to address in the literature in terms of developing ing the extent to which we can develop engaging
psychometrically sound instruments of SDT con- activities and enjoyable tasks that are deliverable
structs that are anchored in the specific domain electronically and are psychologically need sat-
of measurement. In particular, systematically isfying in their own right would be a significant
developed measurement tools are needed to assess development. Moreover, mobile health interventions
such constructs as need thwarting in exercise, need should offer cost efficiency when compared with
support in sport, need frustration in exercise, and the labor intensive, teach-the-educator models that
sport goal content. have dominated exercise and physical activity inter-
vention to date (Standage & Ryan, 2012). Thus, we
view the translation of SDT tenets into the mobile
Need for Further Research health space as an exciting avenue of future work.
on Selected Mini-Theories
Besides the need for the methodological advances Summary
described in the previous section, a number of
gaps in the sport, exercise, and physical activity Within the meta-theory of SDT, motivation is con-
literature require attention. The most understudied sidered a complex and multifaceted phenomenon fed
mini-theory within SDT is RMT. As we have already by numerous sources. Some sources are experienced
discussed, relationships within sport, exercise, and as controlling and acting on the self, whereas others
physical activity settings offer an ideal ecological stem from within the self and represent volition and
platform from which to address some intriguing growth. Herein, we have reviewed extant research
and potentially insightful empirical contributions that demonstrates the multiple advantages of more
based on tenets within RMT. Herein, we identify autonomous motivations as well as intrinsic goals in
just two (see Standage & Emm, 2014, for a broader facilitating and supporting achievement, wellness,
discussion). First, a particularly intriguing pos- and functioning in sport, exercise, and physical
sibility would be to study the dynamic interplay activity contexts. A number of social conditions that
among parents who adopt contrasting parenting support rather than thwart autonomous engagement,
styles and the strivings, wellness, and behaviors growth, development, and wellness by affording
of their children (e.g., one parent who is high in basic need satisfaction (as opposed to need frustra-
provision of need support coupled with one who is tion) have been discussed, and practical steps to set
high in need thwarting; Standage & Emm, 2014). the basis for these advantages have been identified.
Second, an interesting path would be to examine Drawing and extending on existing work, we iden-
the “mutuality” effect that has been shown by tified a number of gaps in knowledge and provided
SDT-related work (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010). Specif- suggestions for future work. We hope that this
ically, studies could examine whether high-quality chapter will stimulate thoughtful contemplation of
interaction among those who autonomously help the study and application of SDT in physical activity
others (e.g., sports coaches, volunteers) leads to settings and encourages several lines of meaningful
both the receiver and the provider experiencing future inquiry to the benefit of high-quality sport,
greater well-being through satisfactions for their, exercise, and physical activity experiences.
and the recipients’, autonomy, competence, and
relatedness (see Standage & Emm, 2014).
Finally, mobile technologies are and will con-
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17
Developmentally
Based Perspectives
on Motivated Behavior
in Sport and Physical
Activity Contexts
Thelma S. Horn, PhD  Jocelyn L. Newton, PhD
Abstract
The primary focus of this chapter is to examine motivated behavior in sport and physical
activity contexts through the use of a developmental lens. Such a perspective is based
on the assumption that significant quantitative and qualitative changes occur across
the lifespan in individuals’ physical, psychological, cognitive, mental, and emotional
status. Thus, the socioenvironmental factors that either enhance or undermine motivated
behavior can differ significantly as a function of a person’s maturational age or stage.
We begin this chapter with a brief summary of three major theories of motivation that
have been found to be applicable to the sport and physical activity context and that
each contain some relevant developmental components. At the end of that section, we
identify four psychological constructs (e.g., perceived competence, perceived autonomy,
motivational orientation, and perceived performance control) that are common to all or
most of the theories and that appear to be highly linked to motivated behavior. Then, in
the second section of this chapter, we examine each of these constructs so that we can
delineate developmental patterns. We conclude the chapter with an identification and
brief discussion of key issues that remain to be addressed. Expounding on these issues,
we provide some suggestions for future research.
313
314 Horn and Newton
P
erhaps no psychological construct is more cen- We begin this chapter by providing a brief
tral to performance and behavior in achieve- overview of three theories of motivation that are
ments contexts than is motivation. Just enter- applicable to the physical activity context and that
ing the keywords “motivation and achievement” contain some relevant developmental components.
into any scholarly database will return literally At the end of that section, we identify several psy-
thousands of research- or theory-based references. chological constructs that are common to all or most
On the more applied side, practitioners are also of the theories and that appear to be highly linked
quick to identify motivation as a key issue in their to motivated behavior. Then, in the second section
work. Teachers, coaches, physical therapists, ath- of this chapter, we examine each of these constructs
letic trainers, parents, and exercise leaders all look in a more in-depth way so that we can delineate
for the magic elixir that might generate high levels developmental patterns. We conclude the chapter
of motivation in their students, athletes, clients, with a section that identifies key issues that remain
and children. to be addressed, along with some suggestions for
Given the importance of the construct of motiva- future research.
tion, what does it actually entail? That is, what do
we mean when we say that we want people to be
motivated to achieve in school, work, sport, exer- Theories on Motivated
cise, rehabilitative, and physical activity settings?
At a practical level, motivation can be defined to
Behavior in Sport
mean three things: the motivation to participate, and Physical Activity Settings
to persist, and to work hard to achieve desired
outcomes (Harwood, Spray, & Keegan, 2008; Weiss As is clear from the chapters contained in this part
& Amorose, 2008; Weiss, Amorose, & Kipp, 2012; of the text, a number of theories have been devel-
Weiss & Phillips, 2015). So, as parents, we might oped to examine motivation (or motivation-related
want our children to be motivated to join a sport constructs) in achievement contexts. But only a few
program (participation), to continue in that activity incorporate a clearly delineated developmental per-
across time (persist), and to exert effort in learning spective. The first and most well developed of these
new skills and performing well in that sport (work is competence (effectance) motivation theory that
hard to achieve desired outcomes). Similarly, a was primarily framed by Susan Harter (1978, 1999,
square dance teacher working in a senior citizens 2012) using basic concepts from Robert White’s
facility would want the same or similar things (i.e., (1959) theory of effectance motivation. White’s
would want the targeted adults to join the program, original premise was that people are uniquely
to stay with the activity even after the class ends, motivated to have an effect on their environment.
and to work hard to learn the steps and reach an Thus, they engage in mastery attempts in an effort
optimal health-oriented level of exertion). to develop or demonstrate competence. If, or when,
Although other chapters in this text also focus such mastery attempts result in success (observable
on motivation in physical activity contexts, the effect on their environment), feelings of joy, happi-
primary purpose of this chapter is to examine ness, or pleasure result and motivation to continue
the construct from a developmental perspective. task engagement is present. Harter added the notion
Using such a lens begins with the assumption that that a person’s competence motivation can vary
significant quantitative and qualitative changes across achievement domains (e.g., social, cognitive,
occur across the lifespan in physical, psychological, physical). Furthermore, her model proposes that
cognitive, mental, and emotional status. Simplis- mastery attempts by people that result in success at
tically, this means, for example, that a 6-year-old optimally challenging tasks and that are met with
child understands and experiences the world much socioemotional support from significant others will
differently than does a 12-year-old. Thus, if we are result in high perceptions of competence in that
the directors of a youth motor skill development domain, along with correspondingly high percep-
program and want to enhance not only the learning tions of performance control (i.e., personal belief in
but also the motivational orientation of these two their ability to control future performance outcomes
children, we would need to structure the learning in that same domain). Such high self-perceptions
environment in a different way for the two children. lead to feelings of pleasure that are important for
That distinction is the essence of this chapter—to maintenance or increase in effectance or compe-
understand how individuals’ motivated behavior in tence motivation.
physical activity and health contexts might differ The second theory that lends itself well to devel-
as a function of their maturational age or stage. opmental examination is one originated by Carol
Developmentally Based Perspectives on Motivated Behavior in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts 315
Dweck (1999, 2006, 2012) that focuses on individ- and her colleagues (Eccles, 2007; Eccles (Parsons),
uals’ conceptualizations regarding the malleability Adler, Futterman, Godd, Kaczala, Meece, & Midgely
of human traits or abilities. A person who holds a 1983; Simpkins, Fredricks, & Eccles, 2015). The
fixed mind-set believes that a specific human trait larger version of the model proposes that import-
or ability (e.g., intelligence, sport competence) is ant socializers within a child’s social environment
invariant (cannot be changed). In contrast, a person (e.g., parents, teachers) hold both general beliefs
who holds an incremental mind-set regarding (e.g., gender role and other cultural stereotypes,
intelligence or sport competence believes that this domain-specific values, attitudes) that originate in
attribute or ability can be developed, changed, or large part from the sociocultural milieu of which
improved with practice and persistence. A person’s they are part, as well as child-specific beliefs (e.g.,
mind-set can vary across context (e.g., a person perceptions of individual child’s domain-specific
could hold a fixed mind-set in the academic domain competencies, expectancies for child’s achieve-
but a malleable one in the health domain). ment). These two belief sets combine to affect the
The research to date has provided support for the socializers’ behaviors toward and with the individ-
positive influence of an incremental mind-set on ual child (e.g., degree and amount of role model-
behavior, performance, physical and mental health, ing, interactive play, encouragement, provision of
motivation, and motivationally oriented behaviors opportunities, feedback). Such socializer behaviors,
across a range of contexts (e.g., academics, physical in turn, affect the child’s own perceptions, interpre-
activity, sport, health) (e.g., Burnette, 2010; Dweck tation of experiences, attitudes, values, beliefs, and
& Master, 2009; Jowett & Spray, 2013; Plaks & expectancies for success within each domain, which
Chasteen, 2013; Renaud-Dubé, Guay, Talbot, Taylor, ultimately influence her or his achievement-related
& Koestner, 2015; Schleider, Abel, & Weisz, 2015; behaviors, interest, engagement, and performance
Vella, Cliff, Okely, Weintraub, & Robinson, 2014). in each achievement domain.
Specifically, people who endorse an incremental A more specific version of this model has also
mind-set are more likely to demonstrate a mastery been developed to focus on the role of parents
orientation to tasks, focusing on learning and (e.g., Fredricks & Eccles, 2004; Simkins, Fredricks,
improvement. They respond to setbacks adaptively & Eccles, 2012). Considerable research support
because they reason that the failure is a result of (including longitudinal study designs) has been
factors that they can change through effort and hard accumulated to demonstrate the value and efficacy
work. In contrast, a person who endorses an entity of both models in relation to a variety of achieve-
mind-set is more likely to assume a performance ment domains (e.g., academics, sport, music) (see
orientation for tasks, focusing on outperforming reviews by Eccles, 2007; Horn & Horn, 2007; Simp-
others to demonstrate competence or avoid appear- kins et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012).
ing incompetent. When confronted with setbacks, If we look across the major theories of motiva-
people with an entity mind-set experience negative tion, we can identify some social psychological
emotions and attribute their failure to global, stable constructs that are common to all or most of the
factors (i.e., I’m not smart or strong enough) (see the theories (see similar lists forwarded by Balish,
sidebar Potential Effects of Implicit Theories of Abil- McLaren, Rainham, & Blanchard, 2014; Li & Lee,
ity on Motivated Behavior for a practical example). 2004; Weiss et al., 2012). These constructs include
The third developmentally based theory on people’s perceptions of (a) competence or ability,
motivated behavior is the expectancy value of (b) personal autonomy or agency, (c) the reasons
achievement motivation model developed by Eccles or motives underlying their participation (e.g., their
Potential Effects of Implicit Theories of Ability

on Motivated Behavior
Consider a female adult who is learning to play tennis. If she believes that athletic skill or ability is incremental (i.e.,
it can be improved with hard work), she will focus on learning tennis skills like the forehand and backhand as her
end goal (skill mastery) and demonstrate persistent hard work and belief in her ability to learn this new skill. But if
she believes that athletic skill or ability is fixed (i.e., you either have it or you don’t), she will be more likely to focus
on outperforming the other women in her tennis class (performance orientation), feel helpless in her ability to learn
this new skill, and experience negative emotions (hopelessness or anxiety) when she is confronted with a setback.
316 Horn and Newton
motivational orientation), and (d) performance loading on the second) in early childhood to 5
control or attributions. Although other constructs separate self-perception factors in mid- to late child-
also appear within these theories, these four may hood (scholastic competence, athletic competence,
be particularly relevant to motivation across a peer acceptance, behavioral conduct, and physical
range of sport and physical activity contexts. In appearance), to 8 in adolescence (previous five plus
the following sections, we examine each of these job competence, close friendships, and romantic
motivation-related constructs from a developmental relationships), to 12 or more in young adulthood and
perspective. Each of the following four sections beyond. Furthermore, the particular domains and
begins with an explanation or definition of one of subdomains that characterize the young, middle,
the motivation-related constructs. This discussion and late adulthood years may also vary somewhat
is followed by a review of the research on develop- as a function of stage of the lifespan (see summary
mental progressions within that construct. by Harter, 2012).
A second developmentally based change is seen
concerning the way in which people perceive and
Perceptions evaluate themselves in relation to competence
of Competence or Ability across the achievement domains. A summary of
these changes as described by Harter (1999, 2012)
Perceived competence refers to people’s perceptions with specific applications or examples within the
or beliefs about their ability to perform or learn the physical domain is provided in table 17.1. As this
necessary skills in an achievement-related task or summary indicates, children’s self-descriptions at
context. The construct can be measured in a rather the youngest age levels (3-4 years) are based on
broad way (e.g., a person’s perception about her concrete behaviors, activities, relationships, and
ability in a particular achievement domain such personal characteristics. Correspondingly, their
as academics, sport, or music). But it can also be evaluations of their physical competencies are
measured relative to a particular activity within generally egocentric and positive—even unrealis-
that broad domain (e.g., math, baseball, singing) tically so and are often accompanied by an offer
or even in reference to a more specific skill within to demonstrate such competence. At this stage or
an activity (e.g., multiplication, batting, hitting age, children do not appear capable of, or interested
the high notes) (see also chapter 4 in this volume). in, using peer comparison to evaluate their own
As several scholars have argued (e.g., Elliot & abilities. Thus, their perceptions of competence in
Dweck, 2007; Weiss et al, 2012), people’s perception achievement domains may be based primarily on
of competence or ability for tasks within a particular adult feedback (e.g., “I know I’m a good runner
achievement context (e.g., math, music, art, theater, because my teacher said so”), simple task accom-
hockey, tennis, square dance, rock climbing) may plishment, the extension of effort (e.g., “I tried really
be the most important correlate of their motivation hard to run fast, and then I did”), and some use
to participate, persist, and work hard at that activ- of temporal comparisons (e.g., “When I was four,
ity. The results of research studies across a range I couldn’t read, but now I can”). As Harter noted
of physical activity settings and age levels provide (2012), gender differences are already evident at
support for this perspective (see, for example, Balish this age in that boys exhibit a stronger tendency to
et al., 2014; Lemoyne, Valois, & Guay, 2015). focus on skills and abilities (e.g., “I can skate,” “I
Developmental progressions. Harter and her col- can count to 10”) in their self-descriptions whereas
leagues (see summaries in Harter, 1999, 2012) have girls are more apt to refer to social, relational,
conducted numerous studies to examine possible and emotional states (e.g., “I play with Sarah,” “I
developmental patterns in regard to competence have two grandpas and two grandmas who live
motivation. Two such changes may be particularly in Michigan”). Of course, such gender differences
relevant to the physical domain (see also summaries in self-description are mirrored in the differential
with application to the physical domain by Horn, ways in which parents and other significant adults
2004; Sebastian, Burnett, & Blakemore, 2008). First, interact and communicate with boys and girls,
the number of domains that people are able to thus suggesting that observed differences in young
differentiate with regard to self-evaluative percep- children’s self-evaluations are socially induced
tions and their contributions to global self-worth (either through the behaviors of significant others
appears to increase with age, from a minimum of or through other sociocultural means).
2 basic factors (cognitive and physical competence At the next developmental level (ages 5-7),
perceptions loading on first factor and peer accep- children begin to focus on more specific com-
tance, behavioral conduct, and physical appearance petencies (e.g., distinguishing between different
Table 17.1 Developmental Progressions in Perceptions of Competence: Early Childhood to Late Adolescence
Example self-statements as related to the physical
Age or stage Self-evaluation processes across achievement domains domain
Very early c hildhood • Competence perceptions based on concrete and specific • “I can kick this ball really far—probably across the ocean.”
(3-4 years) skills, abilities, characteristics, and relationships • “Watch me kick this ball really hard!”
• Self-appraisals often unrealistic and inaccurate (over-esti- • “I can jump farther now than when I was 3.”
mation of performance competencies)
• Common use of actual demonstrations of ability
• Some use of temporal comparisons
Early to middle • Persistence of inaccuracies in self-evaluation and positive • “I am really good at running, jumping, and skipping.”
childhood perceptions of personal competence still common • “I am going to be a baseball player, and I’m going to play
(5-7 years) • Beginning to group similar skills and abilities for the Detroit Tigers!”
• Identification of future intentions in relation to compe- • “Robert got to bat twice. I only got up once.”
tence • “Last year, I couldn’t hit the ball very far, but this year I
• Some use of social comparison for purposes of fairness can.”
and task completion information (e.g., child engaged in
task looks at peer’s work to determine how to complete
the task)
• Continued use of temporal comparison
Middle to late • Increasing ability to group abilities and competencies in • “I’m good at batting in softball but not so good at field-
childhood formation of personal competence assessments ing.”
(8-10 years) • Realization that self-attributes can be both positive and • “I know I’m good at sit-ups because I got the highest score
negative in my class.”
• Increased ability and inclination to use social or peer com- • “I got the lowest score in my class in push-ups, and I felt
parison to evaluate own competencies really stupid.”
• Increased ability to know, recognize, and experience • “I’m not so good in math, but I’m really good in soccer. My
self-conscious emotions (pride, shame) parents are proud of that.”
• Increased accuracy of self-evaluations
• Ability to form an evaluation of global self-esteem or
self-worth and to distinguish the importance of various
domains
• Internalization of others’ standards and opinions
Early adolescence • Increasingly differentiated perceptions of self that can • “I am kind of shy and quiet in class and with my teachers.
(11-13 years) vary significantly across social contexts But with my best friends, I am very talkative and funny, and
• Increase in self-consciousness and sensitivity to peers’ I laugh a lot.”
evaluations • “I don’t like gymnastics anymore. To be good, you have to
• Increase in use of perceived physical appearance as pri- be short, a size 2, and have no curves. That’s so not me!
mary correlate of global self-esteem or self-worth My parents say body size shouldn’t matter, but they don’t
• Continued use of social or peer comparison (mostly near know anything about it.”
or known peers) • “We did a new game in PE class last month. I’m not very
• Switch in standard of evaluation from effort to ability good at it. No matter how hard I tried, I didn’t seem to get
any better. Some of my friends were really good by the last
week.”
Middle adolescence • Expansion of social or peer comparison to include • “I got the Most Valuable Player award on my high school
(14-16 years) unknown but relevant others volleyball team, but I’m not even ranked in the state polls,
• Decrease in global self-esteem or self-worth from early to and that’s where you need to be to get recruited to play in
middle adolescence college. So, I’m not really thinking about playing in college
• Instability of overall sense of self because of contradictory anymore.”
perceptions of self across different domains and in differ- • “I want to be a really nice person to everyone, but some-
ent contexts (e.g., “How can I know who I am when I am times I just get mad at what someone said, and I go off
so different with my friends and my parents?”) on them.”
• Ability to see discrepancy between real self and ideal self • “My parents want me to take more shots in basketball
• Awareness that significant others (e.g., parents, peers, games, but my coach gets mad at me if I do.”
friends, teachers or coaches) may have widely varying
opinions and standards
Late adolescence • Increasing sense of self-agency • “Because I’m pretty good at water polo (but not so good
(17-19 years) • Development of “possible” self rather than “ideal” self at basketball), I think I’m going to find a college where I
• More realistic in self-appraisal can play on the club water polo team rather than keep
• Higher-order abstractions that allow person to deal cogni- trying for a basketball scholarship.”
tively with discrepant selves • “I really enjoy training for, and running in, distance events,
• Increase in self-esteem from late adolescence into young because I keep improving my times.”
adulthood
• Decreased discrepancy between ideal and real self-image
• Decrease in (but not disappearance of) social comparison
as comparison with personally defined goals increases
Based on Harter, 2012.
317
318 Horn and Newton
types of throwing) but remain quite positive and however, their peer comparison group expands to
inaccurate in their self-evaluation. They continue include unknown but possibly relevant peers (e.g.,
to use temporal self-comparison and are now able where I stand relative to all high school juniors in
to use peer comparison but primarily for purposes my state or in my country). In addition, during these
of judging fairness or to obtain information about first two periods, perceived physical appearance is
task demands or requirements and not so much for increasingly used as a primary correlate of overall
evaluation of their own task abilities. or global self-worth.
By the third stage of childhood (ages 8-10), chil- Not surprisingly, these first two periods of
dren begin to use peer comparison for purposes of adolescence can be tempestuous as evidenced by
evaluating their own competence. In the physical a general decline in overall or global self-esteem
(particularly the competitive sport) domain, they from early to middle adolescence. Furthermore,
also exhibit greater use of performance outcomes people in the middle adolescence group may have
(especially simplistic sources such as winning and a somewhat unstable overall sense of self because
losing) to evaluate their own competence (e.g., “I of contradictory perceptions of self across different
must be really bad at soccer because my team loses domains and in different social contexts and their
every game”). Their evaluation of their competence realization that important others in their lives may
in a particular domain, activity, or skill is also have quite different expectations and standards for
more accurate, and they exhibit the more complex them. In addition, many may perceive a large dis-
ability to evaluate themselves in both positive and crepancy between their “real” self and their “ideal”
negative ways in the same activity. In terms of the self (what they think they are and who they want
evaluations of significant others (especially adults), to be). Adolescents who survive and thrive through
children at this age or stage seem capable of inter- this period, however, can and do arrive at the end of
nalizing the standards and expectations of others late adolescence (age 19) and into young adulthood
and experience self-conscious emotions (e.g., pride (age 25) with a sense of self-agency and a strong
or shame) in the self-evaluation process. Finally, multifaceted self-identity (e.g., “I know who and
they have the cognitive ability to formulate and what I am”). They also have a strong vision of their
express a sense of global self-worth or self-con- “possible” self (e.g., “I know who I want to be, and
cept and to begin to perceive differences in the I know how to get there”) and are more realistic in
importance of subdomains to their own sense of their self-appraisals (e.g., “I know what I am good
themselves (e.g., “I’m not really that good at sports, at and what I’m not so good at, so I’ll choose to
but I’m really good at science. That’s good because do what I have competence in”). Correspondingly,
I love science!”). their perceptions of competence within particular
Harter (2012) and colleagues have also delineated achievement domains are based as much (or more)
the changes that occur in the adolescent years, dis- on self-comparisons or mastery experiences than
tinguishing between the early (ages 11-13), middle on performance outcomes or peer comparisons.
(ages 14-16), and late (ages 17-19) adolescent years. As noted earlier, Harter (2012) has also detailed
Over these three age spans, perceptions of the self more negative (even pathological) trajectories that
become increasingly differentiated as adolescents people can take as they move from early child-
figure out that they may have different personas hood to adulthood. Both the positive and negative
as a function of who they are with (e.g., “I am an sequences are based on the interaction or intersec-
introvert in class, an extrovert with my friends, tion of cognitive and social factors (i.e., effects of
and in-between with my parents”). In the early and cognitive maturation combined with the influence
middle adolescent years, self-consciousness is high, of particular significant others and the influence of
due in part to the physical puberty-related changes the sociocultural milieu that surrounds the child,
that are occurring. The feedback of peers becomes adolescent, and young adult).
increasingly important as a source of competence The developmental trajectory of people’s implicit
information and as a correlate and even predictor beliefs about the nature of human abilities (e.g.,
of overall or global self-esteem. In the first two intelligence, physical skill competence), as based
periods of this adolescent time, peer comparison on Dweck’s (1999, 2006) theory is less explicit
is a key source of competence information, but than Harter’s (1999, 2012). Research studies, how-
with somewhat different sources. That is, in the ever, have established that implicit beliefs about
first period (ages 11-13), adolescents tend to use important constructs such as sociomoral skill and
near or known peers (i.e., those in their class, on intelligence are present in early childhood (e.g.,
their team, or in their school). As children prog- Giles & Heyman, 2003; Gunderson, Gripshover,
ress through the middle adolescent years (14-16), Romero, Dweck, Goldin-Meadow, & Levine, 2013).
Furthermore, rudimentary implicit conceptions of ducted in different contexts and examining different
ability, along with their associated and differential dimensions of implicit theories (e.g., personality,
affective, motivational, and behavioral outcomes, intelligence, academic competence, physical compe-
have been stimulated in children as early as the tence), clearly supported the notion that people who
preschool and kindergarten years (e.g., Cimpian, hold an incremental view of any human ability are
Arce, Markman, & Dweck, 2007; Zentall & Morris, advantaged as they progress through particularly
2010). As Gunderson and colleagues showed, par- challenging transitional times. Furthermore, as
ents’ relative use of process (incrementally based) Yeager and his colleagues showed in two studies,
as opposed to person (fixed or entity-based) praise relatively brief and easily delivered interventions
with their toddlers (ages 14-38 months) was predic- can affect such differential transition trajectories.
tive of their children’s incremental mind-sets at 7
to 8 years of age. This finding is clearly consistent
with the parent-version of the expectancy value Perceptions
model proposed by Eccles (Eccles, 2007; Fredricks
& Eccles, 2004) suggesting that parents serve as
of Personal Autonomy
interpreters of their child’s early engagement in an A second construct that is highly related to moti-
achievement context. Thus, a parent’s reactions and vated behavior is perceived autonomy. At a broad
behaviors (e.g., feedback, evaluation) within that level, the term perceived autonomy has been used in
context can certainly affect the type of mind-set the psychology-based literature to refer to a number
that the child develops (see the sidebar Performance of concepts, including self-determination, personal
Feedback Laced With Implicit Theories for more agency, self-governance, and independence (Van
applied examples). Petegem, Vansteenkiste, & Beyers, 2013; Zimmer-
Other developmental research associated with Gembeck & Collins, 2003). In relation, specifically
Dweck’s (1999, 2006) theory has examined the to achievement contexts, two perspectives are rel-
influence of implicit beliefs on successful naviga- evant. In the first, perceived autonomy is defined
tion of significant developmental transitions. Using or conceptualized as personal independence (i.e.,
both correlational as well as brief intervention the extent to which the person perceives ability to
treatments, Yeager and his colleagues examined make decisions, act, and think without reliance
the impact of entity versus incremental beliefs on on others), which is contrasted with a sense of
students transitioning from junior to senior high personal dependence (i.e., the person’s actions,
school (Yeager, Johnson, Spitzer, Trzsniewski, decisions, and thoughts are perceived to rely, or
Powers, & Dweck, 2014) and from high school to are dependent, on others) (Darling, Cumsille, &
college (Yeager, Walton, Brady, Akcinar, Paunesku, Martinez, 2008; Smetana, Campione-Barr, & Daddis,
Keane et al., 2016). Similarly, Blackwell, Trze- 2004; Steinberg, 2002). The second perspective
niewski, and Dweck (2007) used correlational and on perceived autonomy is based on tenants from
experimental procedures to examine the effects of self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000)
the two different mind-sets on the progress of junior and specifies that people’s perceptions of autonomy
high students. In the physical education setting, are defined in terms of self-endorsed or volitional
Warburton and Spray (2008) conducted a 12-month functioning versus controlled or pressured func-
longitudinal study with students transitioning from tioning (i.e., the motives or reasons behind their
primary to secondary school levels. The combined behaviors or actions). Self-endorsed functioning is
results of these studies, despite their being con- characterized by a sense that the person is engaging
Performance Feedback Laced With Implicit Theories
A college basketball player is fouled late in a close game and has the opportunity to shoot two game-altering free
throws for her team. In the success outcome, she makes both free throws. Her coach could provide her with incre-
mental feedback (e.g., “See, Amelia, all that hard work in practice last week has really paid off!”) or fixed feedback
(e.g., “Nice work, sharp shooter!”). In contrast, consider the failure side of this, in which the same player misses the
two crucial free throws. Her coach can say, “Looks like we need to work on free-throw shooting before practice next
week!” (incremental feedback) or “We’re going to need to figure out how to keep the ball out of your hands late in
the game so that one of our better free-throw shooters is more likely to get fouled” (fixed feedback).
320 Horn and Newton
in the activity or behavior willingly and in accord as curfews, alcohol and drug use, wearing safety
with her or his own personal values while pressured gear); and (d) multifaceted domains that reflect
or controlling functioning reflects a sense that the issues that overlap across domains (e.g., adoles-
action or behavior is coerced or forced by others cent’s choice of friends may be personal to her
(Ryan, Deci, Grolnick, & LaGuardia, 2006; Van or him but prudential to parent). From a healthy
Petegem et al., 2013). Interestingly, recent studies developmental perspective, some study results have
(e.g., Chen, Vansteenkiste, Beyers, Soenens, & Van suggested that a developmental progression (differ-
Petegem, 2013; Van Petegem, Beyers, Vansteenkiste, ent trajectories) may occur in relation to different
& Soenens, 2012) have verified that the two dimen- domains; perceived autonomy develops first in the
sions of perceived autonomy are conceptually and personal domain (e.g., early adolescence), followed
empirically distinct from each other, that people can by socioconventional and, finally, the prudential
exhibit different combinations of the two, and that domain (late adolescence) (Daddis & Smetana,
the two dimensions may exert differential effects 2005; Smetana et al., 2004; Wray-Lake et al., 2010).
on people’s psychosocial health and well-being. Such potential developmental trajectories are, at
The value of high levels of perceived autonomy this point, still preliminary because they appear
within achievement contexts has been demon- to vary somewhat as a function of gender, family
strated in relation to levels of self-determined socioeconomic status, birth order, and culture
motivation and motivated behavior in a variety of (Fousiani, Van Petegem, Soenens, Vansteenkiste,
sport, physical activity, and health-based contexts & Chen, 2014 and Smetana et al., 2004).
(see, for example, Amorose & Anderson-Butcher, Over the past decade, some researchers (Wray-
2015; Ferrand, Martinent, & Bonnefoy, 2014; Sebire, Lake et al., 2010; Daddis, 2011; Smetana et al., 2004)
Jago, Fox, Edwards, & Thompson, 2013; Teixeira, have examined longitudinal changes that might
Carraca, Markland, Silva, & Ryan, 2012; Van den occur from middle childhood through adolescence
Berghe, Vansteenkiste, Cardon, Kirk, & Haerens, in the way in which parents and their children nego-
2014). Further detail regarding this research can be tiate the decision-making process. The modes of
found in chapter 16. Given that the second perspec- decision making are often assessed using self-report
tive on perceived autonomy (self-endorsed volitional questionnaires that include a continuum ranging
functioning) is covered in more depth later in this from (a) parent makes decision without discuss-
chapter, only the developmental progressions rela- ing with child; (b) parent asks child’s opinion but
tive to the first perspective on perceived autonomy parent makes final decision; (c) parent and child
(decision making) are covered in the following discuss and then make decision together; (d) parent
section. and child discuss and then child makes final deci-
Developmental progressions. Despite the quan- sion; (e) child makes decision on own. The general
tity and quality of the research that supports the results of this research suggest a sequential progres-
value of perceived autonomy (defined as perceptions sion across the middle childhood through the late
of personal independence in decision making) in adolescent years from a unilateral parent decision
relation to healthy living and positive psychosocial and ending with a unilateral child (young adult)
well-being, relatively little research has been con- decision-making state. Furthermore, some evi-
ducted to examine its developmental progressions. dence suggests that this progression results in the
But some writers and scholars (e.g., Allen & Loeb, most positive psychosocial growth. More specific
2015; Steinberg, 2002; Zimmer-Gembeck & Collins, research (Wray-Lake et al., 2010) suggests that the
2003) suggest that perceived autonomy may be biggest rise in teen autonomy may occur between
particularly relevant during the adolescent years. the ages of 15 and 17 years. Again, however, the
Complicating the study of developmental ages corresponding to each of the continuum points
changes in perceived autonomy is that multiple varied with domain (i.e., the beginning and end
domains must be considered. In relation to decision points for children’s decision-making involvement
making within the family, four domains have been in relation to the personal domain occurred earlier
identified and measured (e.g., Smetana et al., 2004; than did their autonomy in relation to the pruden-
Wray-Lake, Crouter, & McHale, 2010): (a) personal tial domain). More recent research (e.g., Oudekerk,
(e.g., decisions about child’s clothing, hairstyle, Allen, Hessel, & Molloy, 2015; Allen & Loeb, 2015)
decorating one’s bedroom); (b) socioconventional has suggested that children and adolescents who
(e.g., manners, etiquette, household chores); (c) are not encouraged or allowed by their parents to
prudential (issues that have potential negative develop a sense of personal autonomy within the
consequences for child’s health and safety such family (i.e., parents who retain full control through-
out the adolescent years) exhibit problems with and student), and the structure becomes more
personal autonomy in other social situations. That formal. Increased emphasis is placed on students’
is, as older adolescents or young adults, they may ability rather than their effort, and evaluation tends
lack the ability to resist peer pressure. As Allen and to focus on the products of learning as opposed to
Loeb argue, the development of personal autonomy the process. Performance outcomes (e.g., achieve-
likely begins within the family. If it is not developed ment test scores, class rank) become more public,
within that context by the end of the adolescent and social comparison becomes more pronounced.
period, it can cascade in a negative way (Oudekerk Comparable longitudinally based research
et al.) into adult friendships and relationships. studies (e.g., Ntoumanis, Barkoukis, & Thogersen-
Again, however, these researchers caution about Ntoumani, 2009; Jaakkola, Wang, Piipori, & Liuk-
the universality of these developmental trajectories konen, 2015; Rutten, Boen, Vissers, & Seghers, 2015;
because differences may certainly occur across Taylor, Spray, & Pearson, 2014) have been conducted
cultures and social classes. to examine changes that might occur in the moti-
vational orientations of middle school to junior or
Motivational Orientation early high school students in physical education
classes. Although some support was found for the
Decades of research on the topic of motivation idea that amotivation increases with age or years
and motivated behavior across a range of achieve- in physical education and autonomous (or intrinsic)
ment contexts (see chapter 15) have verified that motivation decreases, the most consistent findings
people hold different motives or reasons for their suggest that interindividual variability in motiva-
willingness to participate, persist, and work hard tional change is relatively high and that external or
in a particular context (i.e., they can differ in social factors (e.g., the amount of autonomy support
motivational orientation). Rather simplistically, a provided by teachers, perceived needs satisfaction,
person’s motivation in any particular achievement the broader physical education and school climate)
context can be located on a continuum that ranges can ameliorate any potential decline over age or
from highly self-determined or intrinsic (e.g., “I stage in self-determined motivational orientation.
work hard every day in my cardio-boxing class Within the youth sport area, Harris and Watson
because I want to keep getting better and more fit”) (2014) conducted a cross-sectional descriptive study
to highly non-self-determined or extrinsic (e.g., “I to examine age-level differences in motivational ori-
am going to play another year of high school tennis entation in three groups of swimmers that included
because my parents have promised to buy me a new a younger group (ages 7-10), an older group (ages
car if I do.”). Although the tennis player and the 11-14), and a high school group (ages 15-17). Study
cardio-boxing student may exhibit equal amounts results suggest that extrinsic motivation increased
of motivated behavior, they are clearly doing so significantly across the three age ranges. At this
for different reasons. In general, research has sup- point, longitudinal studies of motivational orienta-
ported the comparatively higher value of a more tion within the sport context are certainly needed.
self-determined form of motivation as opposed to We could hypothesize that the same environmen-
a non-self-determined form of motivation across a tal changes that occur in the academic classroom
range of sport, exercise, and physical activity con- (Harter, 2012) also occur in the youth sport setting.
texts (see summary of this research in chapter 15). That is, as children go from initial entry into the
Developmental progressions. Research con- youth sport setting and move up to higher levels
ducted in the elementary and secondary education of competition and training, the coach–athlete
context (see summary by Harter, 2012) suggests relationship (similar to the teacher–student rela-
that a rather dramatic decline occurs in children’s tionship) can become less personal and greater
intrinsic motivation toward academic work across emphasis is placed on performance outcomes and
the elementary and secondary school years. This peer comparison (e.g., tryouts are used to select
decline is most prominent as children and adoles- only the most talented). Thus, finding that intrinsic
cents move from one educational level to the next. motivation levels decline across youth sport age
One explanation for such developmentally based groupings when measured at the group level would
changes is based on the way in which the school not be a surprise.
environment is structured. Specifically, as children Research studies with youth athletes (see
move from the elementary to the secondary grades, reviews by Weiss & Amorose, 2008; Weiss et al.,
the classroom climate becomes more impersonal 2012) generally suggest that many or most children
(less socioemotional interaction between teacher begin participation in a particular sport program
322 Horn and Newton
for p
rimarily intrinsic motivational reasons (e.g.,
“I want to play softball because it’s fun”; “I want
Perceptions
to learn new skills”). Although it might be desir- of Performance Control
able that such a self-determined or autonomous
orientation would continue from initial entry into Perception of performance control is a broad
a particular sport and through the subsequent umbrella term that generally refers to people’s per-
levels that characterize talent development, recent ceptions or beliefs about the causative factors for
research studies suggest that elite athletes (adoles- their performance outcomes within achievement
cent level and above) can and do exhibit a range contexts. Although a variety of perspectives have
of motivational orientations for their sport (e.g., been used to investigate this broader construct, it
Almagro, Saenz-Lopez, Moreno-Murcia, & Spray, is probably best examined within the area of attri-
2015; Gillet, Vallerand, & Rosnet, 2009; Kimball, butions, particularly within the work of Bernard
2007; Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004). In particular, Val- Weiner who proposed (1985) an initial model and
lerand (1997; Vallerand, Pelletier, & Koestner, 2008) then subsequently updated it (e.g., 2007, 2010) to
and others (e.g., Green-Demers & Pelletier, 1998; include two processes (intrapersonal and interper-
Treasure, Lemyre, Kuczka, & Standage, 2007) have sonal). The first process hypothesizes that people
suggested that elite athletes may exhibit varying who experience success or failure outcomes in
motivational orientations toward different aspects an achievement context that is important to them
of their sport participation and training. They may, typically search for a cause for that outcome (e.g.,
for example, be primarily intrinsically motivated for “Why did I fail to master that task?” or “Why did
overall participation in their sport (e.g., “I continue our team win the regional championship?”). A
to play because I do love the game”) but exhibit a range of potential answers to those questions could
less intrinsically oriented but still self-determined certainly be advanced and, according to attribution
(e.g., integrated or identified forms of motivation) theory, can be categorized by locus (internal versus
motivational orientation toward the training aspect external), stability (stable or constant versus unsta-
(e.g., “I will work hard in the off-season not because ble or temporary), and controllability (under or not
I love it but because I know I have to in order to under my personal volitional control). The resulting
play at this level”). If this is the case, then a key combination of explanations are hypothesized to
question might be when, where, and how children have significant impact on people’s expectancies
(or more likely adolescents) who exhibit both talent for future outcomes in that task as well as on their
and interest in a particular sport can shift from a emotions related to that perceived outcome (e.g.,
primarily intrinsic motivation for their activity (“I pride, shame, guilt). In turn, these reactions are
choose to play field hockey because it’s so much prime determinants of their future motivated behav-
fun”) to a motivational profile that is a bit more ior (see the sidebar Potential Effects of Attributions
diversified and that incorporates the more elite on Subsequent Motivated Behavior).
concept of high levels of training that may not be The research that has been conducted to exam-
so much fun (but still retains at least some self-de- ine these hypothesized intrapersonal connections
termined orientation). It might be hypothesized that between people’s attributions and their affective
young athletes who enter the sport in childhood reactions as well as their subsequent motivated
and progressively move up to more competitive behavior has provided support across a range of
levels with age may need to make a developmental physical contexts including competitive sport (see
shift in motivational profiles at the early to middle reviews by Allen, 2012; Coffee, 2010; Hanrahan
adolescent stage (e.g., ages 13-15 years), which may & Biddle, 2008) as well as other physical activity
correspond to the second level (specializing years) contexts (e.g., Nickel & Spink, 2010; Nickel, Spink,
in Côté and colleagues’ (Côté, 1999; Côté, Baker, & Andersen, & Knox, 2014). Over the past decade,
Abernethy, 2007; chapter 25 in this volume) devel- researchers in the sport and physical activity field
opmental model of sport participation (DMSP). (see, for example, Coffee, 2010; Coffee & Rees, 2008;
Adolescents who cannot make such a shift and who Rees, Ingledew, & Hardy, 2005) have (a) modified
perhaps develop a completely external orientation the attributional categories to include additional
toward training (e.g., “I run during the off-season components such as globality (e.g., “Does my poor
only because my coach is making me do so” or performance at serving in tennis generalize to
“If I don’t exert 110% in the end-of-practice wind all racquet sports?”), (b) examined the potential
sprints, I won’t start the next game”) may either effects of the interaction of the categories, and (c)
end up in a burned-out state or discontinue their developed instrumentation to measure the revised
sport participation. construct. Although the attributional construct
Potential Effects of Attributions on Subsequent Motivated Behavior
A cross-country runner who attributes a poor performance in an early-season race to an ankle injury and perceives
that attribution to be internal (cause is within myself), unstable (only a temporary cause of performance failure), and
potentially controllable (can be overcome with dedicated rehabilitation work) can still maintain positive perceptions
of competence (e.g., “I am still good at my sport”) and an expectation of success at the end-of-the-season regional
or state competition. Thus, his motivation to continue working hard is maintained. But attribution of the early-sea-
son loss to lack of ability (“I don’t really have the endurance to run this distance” or “I don’t have the type of body
needed to be good at the varsity level”) (an internal, stable, and uncontrollable cause) would be expected to result in
decreased expectations of future success at that competitive level and probably decreased motivation to work hard.
Similarly, an older adult who begins an exercise walking program but who suffers a knee injury after 3 weeks and
who attributes that injury to “the aging process” might perceive that cause to be internal, stable, and uncontrollable
(“I’ll never get younger; thus I’ll never be able to exercise or have any success at it”). Therefore, her perception of
competence at the activity is compromised, and her motivation to rehabilitate and continue participation may cer-
tainly be undermined.
has typically been examined at an individual level,

more recent research (e.g., Allen, Coffee, & Green-
Future Research
lees, 2012; Coffee, Greenlees, & Allen, 2015) has Recommendations
incorporated a group dimension (i.e., attributions
that individual team members make for their team’s In the following sections of this chapter, we iden-
collective performance). tify two potential directions for future research on
Developmental progressions. In a series of early motivated behavior
research studies, Nicholls (1978; Nicholls & Miller,
1984) examined children’s understanding of abil-
ity and effort as causes of task performance as a
Developmentally Based Research
function of age. Using the results of this research, As noted earlier in this chapter, more research is
four levels of development were identified. At the needed to validate, modify, or refute the devel-
first and youngest age levels (5-6 years), children do opmentally based patterns specified in previous
not distinguish or differentiate between effort and sections of this chapter because they have typically
ability (e.g., both are perceived to be the same or been developed and examined in other achievement
“smart students are hard workers”). At the second contexts (e.g., education). Whether these progres-
level (7-9 years), however, children do perceive some sions can be consistently and accurately applied
differences between the two but attribute outcome within the physical domain needs further exam-
primarily to effort. At level 3 (10-12 years), chil- ination. Obviously, longitudinal research designs
dren begin to differentiate or distinguish between would be particularly valuable, but cross-sectional
ability and effort but are somewhat inconsistent studies in which comparative age groups are
about which they use to explain performance selected based on theory-driven developmental
outcomes. Finally, at level 4 (age 12 and above), ages or stages can also provide useful information
children exhibit understanding of the differences relative to changes that might occur across age.
between the two causes of performance outcomes The interested reader should see recommendations
and recognize that ability is a factor that limits the for truly developmentally based research that have
effect of effort (i.e., if someone has low ability for been provided by Weiss and colleagues (e.g., Weiss
a task, then hard work or effort cannot completely & Bredemeier, 1983; Weiss & Raedeke, 2004; chapter
overcome that limitation). Furthermore, they may 26 in this volume).
believe that someone who expends a great deal of As noted earlier in this chapter, more research is
effort to reach success at a particular task may have needed to examine potential changes in children’s
limited ability. Subsequent work by others provided and adolescents’ motivational orientation as they
support for the developmental sequences specified move from the recreational level in their sport up to
by Nicholls in the academic domain (e.g., Folmer, the various competitive and select levels. In chapter
Cole, Sigal, Benbow, Satterwhite, Swygert, & Ciesla, 25 of this volume, Côté and colleagues use the DMSP
2008) as well as in the physical domain (see sum- and the corresponding personal assets framework
mary of this work by Horn, 2004; Li and Lee, 2004). (PAF) to identify potential physical and social
324 Horn and Newton
environmental factors that may be important in the activity literature in general, a large amount of
development and maintenance of youth interest (a interindividual variability is clearly present in the
term that is relevant to motivational orientation) in degree to which individuals in physical activity
their sport across the age-group levels. Similarly, contexts exhibit motivated behavior as well as in
Weiss and colleagues (2012) have used basic needs the psychological constructs that are presumed to
theory to provide ideas about the ways in which underlie motivated behavior. Within the sport and
perceptions of competence, autonomy, and related- physical activity field, a number of important fac-
ness in children and adolescents can be enhanced. tors have been identified that may exert substantial
Another interesting focus area would be to exam- influence on people’s motivation-related self-per-
ine motivational orientations in elite-level athletes ceptions. These items include both environmental
(e.g., collegiate level) as they retire from their sport factors (e.g., task structure and setup, task instruc-
and move into their young adult (working) years tion) (see, for example, Brown, Teseo, & Bray, 2015;
(see initial studies by Reifsteck, Gill, & Labban, Drews, Chiviacowsky, & Wulf, 2013; Heidrich &
2016; Sorenson, Romano, Azen, Schroeder, & Salem, Chiviacowsky, 2015; Magaraggia, Dimmock, & Jack-
2015). Because their motivational orientation for son, 2014; Stone, Harrison, & Mottley, 2012; Vella
their sport and the accompanying physical activity et al. 2014) as well as social factors (e.g., feedback
(e.g., the training) that they were required to do from significant others, implicit beliefs of signifi-
during their college years may have been less than cant others, parenting styles, motivational climate
autonomous in nature (possibly even completely established by coach, teacher, exercise leader) (see,
externally regulated by “playing for a scholarship”), for example, Brummelman, Crocker, & Bushman,
when and how can they recapture a more self-de- 2016; Chiviacowsky & Drews, 2014; Draper, Grobler,
termined orientation toward physical activity? Do Micklesfield, & Norris, 2015; chapters 7 and 16 in
they quit all physical activity for a time? Or can they this volume; Girelli, Hagger, Mallia, & Lucidi, 2016;
move immediately to engagement in other forms of Horn, 2016; Horn, Lox, & Labrador, 2016; Newton,
physical activity for intrinsic reasons? Goulet, & Heidelberger, 2016; Rascle, LeFoll, Char-
As discussed in an earlier section of this chapter, rier, Higgins, Rees, & Coffee, 2015; Vella et al., 2014).
some interesting research has been conducted in For practical examples of the potential influence of
educational contexts (e.g., Blackwell et al., 2007; different types of feedback from significant others
Warburton & Spray, 2008; Yeager et al., 2014, 2016) to in the competitive sport setting, see the sidebar
examine if and how children’s or adolescents’ implicit Performance Feedback Laced With Attributions.
theories of ability might affect their adjustment and It is important, however, to examine the influ-
performance outcomes at the next academic level. Cer- ence of these socioenvironmental factors in rela-
tainly, more research in physical activity and health tion to developmental age or stage. For example,
contexts could be conducted across other important based on developmental progressions specified for
developmental transition periods. This investigation perceptions of competence (see table 17.1) as well
could include (a) from early to mid-childhood, (b) from as for perceptions of performance control, it could
high school to college, (c) from college to career, (d) be hypothesized that the most effective forms of
into and out of parenthood, (e) from career to retire- feedback provided by teachers, parents, coaches,
ment, and (f) from pre- to posttraumatic event (e.g., and exercise and other physical activity leaders
health issue) (see example studies listed in table 17.2). might vary as a function of the age of the perform-
ers (see also discussion by Horn, 2004; Partington,
Cushion, & Harvey, 2014) or the stage in the learn-
Influence of Socioenvironmental ing process at which they are (e.g., Finkelstein &
Factors as Function of Developmental Fishbach, 2012).
Age or Stage Similarly, as noted earlier in the section on
perceived autonomy, research in the parenting
A second major recommendation is to expand the styles research literature has suggested that there
knowledge base relative to the socioenvironmen- may be an optimal developmental progression
tal factors that affect individuals’ perceptions of concerning decision-making. Such research might
competence, autonomy, control, and motivational also be conducted to examine effective transfer of
orientation, especially because those factors may decision making in the sport domain (e.g., from
exert differential effects as a function of people’s primarily coach determined to primarily athlete
developmental age or stage. Consistent with the determined). Recent qualitatively based research
research and theory in the psychology of physical (Salusky, Larson, Griffith, Wu, Raffaelli, Sugimura,
Table 17.2 Expanding the Developmentally Based Research on Motivated Behavior to Other Age Groups and Domains:
Some Example Studies
Example studies Primary focus of study
Allender, Cowburn, & Foster Review of qualitative studies conducted to examine children’s and adults’ reasons for participation or nonpartic-
(2006) ipation in sport and physical activity with emphasis on changes that occur over time or developmental stage
Appleby & Dieffenbach (2016) Qualitatively based study investigating elite masters cyclists’ involvement in competitive sport
Appleby & Fisher (2009) Use of critical feminist theory to examine elite runners’ perspectives on training from pre- to postpregnancy
Boiche, Chalavaev, & Sarrazin Longitudinal study designed to assess potential changes in adolescents’ gender-stereotyped attitudes regard-
(2014) ing sport competence and sport value
Burnette (2010) Three-part study examining how implicit beliefs about weight affect self-regulation skills in dieting and health
management
Burnette & Finkel (2012) Twelve-week study conducted to test the efficacy of an incremental beliefs intervention on dieters’ regulation of
their body weight following dietary setbacks
Cherry, Brown, Kim, & Age-group comparison study of the social and physical activities that are linked to health across adulthood
Jazwinski (2016) (21-101 years)
Gunderson et al. (2013) Longitudinal study investigating the impact of type of parental praise (praise of effort versus praise of inherent
characteristics) during free-play contexts from ages 1 to 3 years on a child’s implicit theory of intelligence (fixed
versus malleable) at ages 7 to 8
Hirvensalo & Lintunen (2011) Comprehensive review of the literature on physical activity levels, correlates, and determinants across the lifes-
pan
Hollings, Mallett, & Hume Interview study conducted with 11 elite track and field athletes at the junior level, 5 of whom ultimately reached
(2014) the elite senior level (international sport participation and success) and 6 of whom never reached elite senior
level; interview responses analyzed to identify potential characteristics separating the two
Keegan, Middleton, Henderson, Qualitative study conducted to identify the socioenvironmental factors that motivate physical activity or seden-
& Girling (2016) tary behavior in adults
Knerr, Bowen, Beresford, Examination of attributional beliefs that middle-aged women have about obesity (is it due to diet, physical activ-
& Wang (2016) ity, or genetics?) and their potential influence on physical activity and nutrition as mediated through perceived
self-efficacy for weight control.
Knights, Sherry, & Ruddock- Review of the literature on factors affecting elite athletes’ end-of-career transition
Hudson (2016)
Lyons, Kaufman, & Rima (2015) Examination of the relationship between implicit theories of body appearance (entity versus incremental) and
self-reported levels of physical activity in female undergraduate students
Martin & Woods (2012) Focus group study to identify methods to sustain long-term adherence to structured physical activity after a
cardiac event
Robinson, Rudisill, & Goodway Examination of effect of mastery motivational climate on perceived physical competence in preschool children
(2009)
Sanders & Winter (2016) Interview study with 7 adult elite triathletes who moved to the professional level
Sarkisian, Probaska, Davis, Intervention study designed to test efficacy of an attributional retraining curriculum in enhancing physical activ-
& Weiner (2007) ity and health-related quality of life in sample of sedentary older adults
Smith (2016) Overview of recent work in sport sociology examining experiences of older women in sport
Solberg, Halvari, & Ommund- Test of intervention to enhance autonomous motivation and perceived competence in sample of older adults in
sen (2013) exercise setting, with possible effects on subjective vitality and well-being
Stewart, Chipperfield, Perry, Two-year longitudinal study examining the effects of attributing illness to “old age” on health and well-being of
& Weiner (2012) older adults
Torregrosa, Ramis, Pallares, Longitudinal and qualitative study of Olympic athletes moving into and through retirement
Azocar, & Selva (2015)
Willard & Lavalle (2016) Retrospective interview study examining the retirement experiences of elite ballet dancers
& Guzman, 2014) has identified a four-step cycle conducted to investigate when and how children
through which adolescents proceed in the develop- and adolescents can best assume responsibility for
ment of ownership of demanding roles (i.e., learning their own motivation, behaviors, and activities.
to assume responsibility). Corresponding research Other researchers (e.g., Jowett & Spray, 2013)
in the sport and physical activity domain might be have found that elite athletes may endorse both an
326 Horn and Newton
Performance Feedback Laced With Attributions
During a crucial play, a college football quarterback effectively “reads” the defense and calls out an audible to change
the play, resulting in a first down for his team. When coming off the field, his coach yells out, “Anthony, great decision
on that play. Obviously, you really watched that game film carefully in yesterday’s practice!” This comment is an example
of effective feedback in that the coach attributes the player’s success to something internal (decision-making skill)
that was under the player’s control (intense studying of film). Conversely, the coach might use ineffective feedback
by saying, “Anthony, you really got lucky with that call!”
A child comes home upset that her friends can all jump rope and she cannot. Her parents can provide effective
feedback by saying, “You’ve never jumped rope before. Why don’t we get a jump rope out of the garage and practice
together?” This suggestion communicates to the child that her failure is something she can control and potentially
change with practice. In contrast, ineffective feedback from her parents might sound something like, “You’re probably
too short to jump rope. Let’s go play with your dolls.” The latter attribution implies to the child that she does not have
the physical attributes necessary to be successful at the physical skill and that practice or mastery efforts on her
part may not even result in success.
incremental and an entity theory regarding sport type of climate or goal orientation be introduced or
competence. When can or when should both mind- encouraged? At what age or stage is it OK for the
sets be encouraged in physical activity participants? coach to expect or demand successful performance
Does this vary across contexts (e.g., competitive outcomes for some tasks (e.g., catching an easy
sport versus recreational sport, physical activity infield pop-up in softball, making an easy layup
versus exercise)? in basketball)? When (at what age or competitive
Although an autonomy-supportive leadership level) is it acceptable to include some elements of a
style is generally recommended for coaches, teach- performance-oriented climate (e.g., unequal playing
ers, and other sport or physical activity leaders, time, intrateam rivalry)? A good start to answering
more research is needed to determine what that these developmentally based questions within the
means for people of different ages or stages. Based context of youth and young adult sport has been
on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), provided by Keegan and colleagues (Keegan, Spray,
autonomy within achievement settings does need Harwood, & Lavallee, 2014) in a recent synthesis of
to be combined with structure (e.g., Curran, Hill, research on social motivational influences across
& Niemiec, 2013; Flett, Gould, Griffes, & Lauer, the athletic career span.
2013; Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). But the question
that then might be asked is exactly how the ratio
between the two constructs would vary with age or Summary
developmental stage. What types of choices can be The primary purpose of this chapter was to examine
provided to older and more elite athletes that might motivated behavior in sport and physical activity
not be as effective when provided to younger and contexts from a developmental perspective. Four
less-developed participants? Does this vary across particular constructs that appear to underlie moti-
context (for interesting research and commentary vated behavior (perceived competence, perceived
on this issue, see Cowan, Taylor, McEwan, & Baker, autonomy, motivational orientation, and percep-
2012)? tions of performance control) were identified, and
In relation to achievement goal orientation and potential developmental progressions within each
motivational climate, some writers (e.g., Harwood, were specified. Given the rather significant changes
Spray, & Keegan, 2008; chapter 15 this volume) or adaptations that occur in people’s physical, psy-
have pointed out that a performance-oriented chological, emotional, and sociomoral status as they
achievement goal orientation as well as a more proceed from infancy through adulthood, we need
performance-oriented motivational climate, when to examine how such maturationally based changes
combined with high levels of mastery orientation might affect people’s motivated behavior. To this
(both individual and climate level), has been point, the research literature on such developmental
found to be effective (and maybe even beneficial) changes within the sport and physical activity con-
at older ages and competitive levels in the youth text is still relatively scarce. We ended the chapter
sport setting. But at what age or stage should this with suggestions for future work in this area.
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18
Public Health
Perspectives
on Motivation
and Behavior Change
Stuart J.H. Biddle, PhD  Ineke Vergeer, PhD
Abstract
This chapter addresses behavior change for physical activity, mainly from a public health
perspective. We briefly cover established concepts, theories, and frameworks before
outlining some important contemporary approaches, identifying knowledge gaps, and
suggesting future research directions. Physical activity is best seen within a movement
continuum ranging from sedentary behavior to highly vigorous activity. Such diverse
movement behaviors take place in various contexts. Moreover, conventional social-cog-
nitive theories of motivation may not be sufficient for understanding physical activity
from a public health standpoint. Wider social and environmental considerations are
also required in adopting an integrative theoretical approach and promoting physical
activity at the population level. In addition, we need to recognize that people operate
under both reflective and more automatic forms of motivation, the latter requiring greater
understanding in the physical activity context. Notions of habit and the nudging of
behavior are important considerations in this field. A team science approach is required
to shift population levels of physical activity, and psychologists play an important role
in behavior change.
333
334 Biddle and Vergeer
I
t is widely understood and accepted that physical contrast to large gains in health in a small minority
activity has a number of well-known health ben- of people. The latter will leave the health of the
efits. The challenge is how to enable more people population largely unaffected and may widen social
to be more physically active and less sedentary, inequalities.
so the often-used objective is to get “more people, A useful introductory framework to under-
more active, more often.” Especially important here standing physical activity and sedentary behavior
is “more people,” because this aspect reflects the change is the behavioral epidemiology framework
public health approach we emphasize in this chap- (Sallis & Owen, 1999), as shown in table 18.1.
ter. In addition, a great deal of interest has recently Having established satisfactory ways to assess the
focused on sedentary behavior, which refers to behavior of interest (e.g., physical activity), the next
too much sitting rather than too little exercise. phase of this framework is to test whether the links
Although the focus of this chapter will primarily between physical activity and health outcomes are
be on physical activity, we will also mention the important. If this is established, it is necessary to
important area of sedentary behavior. understand the factors associated with (correlates)
Traditionally psychologists have been inter- or causing (determinants) physical activity. This
ested in individual and small-group behavior. approach should lead to behavior change interven-
This emphasis remains important because many tions that, if successful, could be rolled out to the
health-related actions we take involve individual broad population in the translational phase. All five
decision making or are influenced by our immedi- phases have important implications for psychology,
ate social context, such as through social support. as suggested in table 18.1.
But this is not the full story. Besides individual Typically, exercise psychologists have focused
psychology and decision making, we also need on moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA),
to promote health across large populations, often reflecting the emphasis placed on this in national
through environmental changes or, as we discuss and international guidelines. But movement falls
later, more subtle nudges toward health behavior along a continuum of various intensities and forms
change. of sedentary and active behaviors, as shown in its
Public health has the goal of affecting the health simplest form in figure 18.1. Sedentary behavior
of communities rather than just individuals alone. and light physical activity are highly correlated
As stated by Powell (1988), “The public health in so far as reductions in sedentary behavior (i.e.,
importance of various conditions is judged by their sitting time) are likely to lead to increases in light
impact on the vitality of society as a whole rather physical activity, such as standing and light ambu-
than any individual” (p. 16). Therefore, public lation (Mansoubi, Pearson, Biddle, & Clemes, 2014).
health strategies aimed at increasing physical activ- Contrary to popular belief, sedentary behavior and
ity need to reach the largest population possible. MVPA are not highly correlated, because the latter
Public health gains can be made by creating small behavior takes up a tiny proportion of the day for
changes across large populations. This result is in most people (Dempsey, Owen, Biddle, & Dunstan,
Table 18.1 Behavioral Epidemiology Framework Applied to Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior
Application to physical Application to sedentary
Phase Description activity behavior Possible roles for psychology
1 Assessing the behavior How do we assess physical How do we assess sedentary Application of psychometrics to
activity? behavior? self-report measures
2 Establishing an association To what extent is physical To what extent is sedentary Mental health outcomes
between the behavior and activity associated with various behavior associated with vari-
health health outcomes? ous health outcomes?
3 Correlates or determinants of What are the key correlates or What are the key correlates Psychological correlates of
the behavior determinants of participation in or determinants of sedentary behavior
physical activity? behavior?
4 Interventions to change behav- How best can we increase levels How best can we decrease Psychological issues in behavior
ior of physical activity? levels of sedentary behavior? change, including motivation
5 Translating findings How do we roll out effective How do we roll out effective Application of psychological
solutions to change physical solutions to change sedentary principles to research transla-
activity behavior? behavior? tion (e.g., messaging)
Public Health Perspectives on Motivation and Behavior Change in Physical Activity 335
2014) and the two behaviors can both take place

to greater or lesser degrees across the day; that is,
one does not necessarily replace the other. Each Policy
element of this continuum may have different
health outcomes, measurement issues, correlates,
and intervention challenges. Finally, note that the
movement behaviors shown in figure 18.1 can take Environmental
place in various contexts, which also will have
implications for correlates and behavior change.
Exemplars of movement behaviors and contexts
are shown in table 18.2.
Social
The central purpose of this chapter is to examine
behavior change for physical activity, primarily
from a public health perspective. As stated nearly
three decades ago (Dishman, 1988), psychologists
are not the only contributors to this field. Important Individual
contributions have also been made by people in
behavioral and health economics, epidemiology,
and behavioral medicine. We will briefly cover
established theories and frameworks before out- Figure 18.2 Ecological framework.
lining some important contemporary approaches. E6768/Horn/F18.02/578861/mh-R2
We then identify some knowledge gaps and suggest
some directions for future research. Psychological Correlates
Note that a number of psychological and non-
psychological correlates of physical activity could of Physical Activity
underpin intervention efforts. Reviews typically Several reviews have addressed psychological
categorize correlates into sociodemographic, biolog- correlates of physical activity for young people
ical, behavioral, sociocultural, and environmental (Biddle, Atkin, Cavill, & Foster, 2011). For example,
factors, in addition to psychological correlates. This for preadolescent children, Sallis, Prochaska, and
approach is consistent with an ecological frame- Taylor (2000) reported that physical activity is pos-
work approach (see figure 18.2) that recognizes itively associated with intentions and preferences.
individual, social, environmental and policy/soci- For adolescents, reviews have found that higher
etal influences on behavior (Sallis & Owen, 2015). levels of perceived competence are associated with
greater physical activity (Biddle et al., 2011). In
addition, perceived behavioral control is associated
with greater physical activity for adolescents when
using prospective designs (Uijtdewilligen et al.,
2011). Achievement orientation has been identified
MVPA
Light by Sallis et al. as being positively associated with
physical physical activity in adolescents, a finding confirmed
Sedentary activity by others (van der Horst, Chin A. Paw, Twisk, &
behavior Van Mechelen, 2007) and that appears to be best
Figure 18.1 A movement continuum. reflected by a mastery (task) goal orientation.
E6768/Horn/F18.01/578859/mh-R3
Table 18.2 Example Movement Behaviors and Contexts
Movement behavior
Context Sedentary behavior Light physical activity MVPA
Home TV viewing Household chores Home gym (e.g., exercise bike)
Work Desk-based office work Standing Heavy manual work
Travel Car travel Public transport with some walking Active transport
Community Theater Social dance Sport participation
Surprisingly, self-efficacy and enjoyment have could loosely group these into several domains,
not been consistently associated with higher levels such as sport, exercise, dance, martial arts, and
of activity across some reviews of cross-sectional incidental lifestyle activities. Recent decades have
evidence (Sallis et al., 2000; Van der Horst et al., also seen the development of a relatively new
2007). But a positive and consistent association domain of holistic mind–body orientated movement
for self-efficacy on changes in physical activity practices in which physical exercises are embedded
for children and adolescents has been observed in holistic philosophies of well-being. Yoga and tai
(Craggs, Corder, van Sluijs, & Griffin, (2011). As chi, which have cultural roots in India and China,
we have stated, are the best known of these, but various “West-
ern-born” practices, such as 5Rhythms, Biodanza,
Simple associations between physical activity and Nia would also fit this domain (Brown &
and self-reported enjoyment may mask more Leledaki, 2010; Vergeer, 2016). Although all these
subtle feelings of satisfaction, importance and domains, and the activities within them, include
value attached to physical activity. Some physi- forms of physical activity, each has its own unique
cal activities, particularly during participation, physical and psychosocial features that make them
may not elicit pure “fun” or “enjoyment” per se, attractive, or not, to different subpopulations.
but could be associated with feelings of satis- Although we find a number of recurring themes
faction or pleasure. (Biddle, Mutrie, & Gorely, across domains in participation motives, such as
2015, p. 163) physical competence, health and fitness, enjoyment,
In adults, evidence shows that physical activity and social connectedness (Allender, Cowburn,
has positive associations with enjoyment, expected & Foster, 2006), many variations and additional
benefits, intention, perceived health, self-motiva- motives have also been noted. Motives can be
tion, self-efficacy, and stage of behavior change, specific to activity type. For example, although
and negative associations with barriers and mood appearance-related motives are often strong for
disturbance (Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, & Brown, exercise (Frederick & Ryan, 1993), self-expression,
2002). The strongest evidence is for self-efficacy, aesthetics, and creativity are common motives in
and this link is likely to be more important for dance (Alter, 1997). Therefore, a matching effect
behaviors that require significant effort, such may be present between the unique physical and
as high-intensity exercise. Overall, however, the psychosocial features of different forms of physical
association between psychological variables and activity and the individual needs, interests, and
adult physical activity is inconsistent, except for values of the people who are attracted to them. The
self-efficacy (Bauman et al., 2012). variations of motives across different activities and
their links with participation are also important
considerations for the organizations and industries
Individual supplying these activities and are increasingly rec-
Participation Motives ognized as major players in delivering public health
objectives for physical activity (Eime et al., 2015).
Besides recognizing the correlates of physical Motives are not stationary and can change over
activity, understanding people’s stated reasons or time, as a function of both involvement in an activ-
motives for involvement is important. Participation ity and lifespan development. For example, Park,
motives represent the reasons people give for their Riley, Bedesin, and Stewart (2016) reported that
participation in forms of physical activity. These most yoga practitioners had different participation
motives are generally assessed among people who motives or discovered new motivational aspects
already do the activity, although occasionally rea- after they started. Moreover, in a review of quali-
sons or objectives for participation are assessed at tative studies, Allender et al. (2006) noted motive
the beginning of engagement. Ingledew and Mark- themes like experimentation for young children,
land (2008) noted that participation motives reflect body shape, and new social networks for teenagers;
“the contents of individuals’ goals for participating sense of achievement and support networks for
in a particular domain of behaviour” (p. 808), com- adults; and health benefits for older adults.
prising the types of outcomes or experiences that An important question from a public health
people aim to gain or avoid. perspective is the extent to which participation
Each of the many forms of physical activity has motives are related to behavior. Although a range
its own cultural origins and dynamic history. We of studies have linked participation motives to
physical activity behavior in various ways, theoret- conduct of complex behavioral interventions pro-
ical work on the relationship between motives and pose that a theoretical understanding of the likely
behavior is relatively new. Ingledew, Markland, and process of change is needed in the early stages of
Ferguson (2009) presented a three-level model in planning an intervention (Craig et al., 2008).
which they suggested that the relationship between In physical activity research, a common approach
participation motives and exercise behavior is has been to adopt intraindividual and interpersonal
mediated by regulatory motives, a concept based theories; social and environmental theories have
in self-determination theory (SDT; see later in this been less commonly used (Bartholomew, Parcel,
chapter), and reflecting the autonomous or con- Kok, & Gottlieb, 2001; Biddle, Hagger, Chatzisa-
trolled nature of people’s motivation. Participation rantis, & Lippke, 2007). Although the health belief
motives themselves were seen as influenced by model could be considered a seminal approach to
dispositional motives, which represent people’s life health behavior theory (Becker et al., 1977), it has
goals. The model thus proposes that dispositional been more common in physical activity research
motives influence participatory motives, which, in to use what could be called the big three theories:
turn, influence regulatory motives, which influ-
ence behavior. Ingledew, Markland, and Strömmer • Social cognitive theory (SCT): Bandura, 1986
(2014) added the construct of gain to their model, • Transtheoretical model (TTM): Prochaska &
referring to what people have actually attained or Marcus, 1994; Prochaska, Norcross, & DiCle-
avoided through their engagement, whether they mente, 1994
initially sought this outcome or not. They argue • Theory of planned behavior (TPB): Ajzen, 1991
that motives and gains may influence outcomes
interactively, because effects on behavior may be Other approaches that have been used include
different depending on whether motives are met self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2002)
with corresponding gains or not. Although this and the health action process approach (HAPA;
model is mostly framed within the SDT frame- Schwarzer, 1992). Combinations of theories have
work and has been applied chiefly in the exercise also been proposed, including the transcontextual
context, the model offers intuitive appeal to wider model (Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, &
applications across other physical activity domains Biddle, 2003) and integrated behavior change model
and may, for example, provide an explanatory for physical activity (Hagger & Chatzisarantis,
framework for the matching hypothesis in which 2014). Each of the approaches listed has a partic-
the features of different physical practices appeal to ular emphasis, such as beliefs and attitudes (TPB)
different people because of different dispositional or perceptions of competence (SCT). Some of the
motives. Finding new reasons for participation, approaches are based on different stages of decision
such as those reported by Park et al. (2016) among making or behavior, while retaining elements of
yoga practitioners, could be interpreted in light of other theories (e.g., TTM, HAPA).
the gains construct. Rhodes and Nasuti (2011) analyzed trends across
10 journals every two years between 1990 and 2008.
The journals were prominent for publishing studies
Theories on physical activity behavioral science. As shown
of Physical Activity Behavior in figure 18.3, the number of papers referring to
a theoretical approach has increased. SCT, TPB,
Interventions designed to increase levels of phys- and TTM have remained prominent, and SDT has
ical activity have usually been based on a theory been increasingly used across the later periods.
or theories, or at least they are theory informed. Environmental frameworks increased greatly over
A theory has been defined as “a set of interrelated the 10-year period, as did the use of a multitheory
constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions approach. Interestingly, a large number of studies
that present a systematic view of phenomena by reported using no theory (data not shown on figure
specifying relations among variables, with the 18.3). Rhodes and Nasuti reported that only 37%
purpose of explaining and predicting the phenom- of studies in the 1990s cited using any theory,
ena” (Kerlinger, 1973, p. 9). Put simply, a theory whereas this rose to 43% from 2000. Intervention
is a “coherent description of process” (Michie, studies were most likely to use SCT or a multitheory
West, Campbell, Brown, & Gainforth, 2014b, p. 22). approach. Speaking to such studies, a recent review
Indeed, guidelines concerning the development and of theory-based interventions designed to increase
70
60 SCT
Number of studies 50 TTM
TPB
40
SDT
30
Environ
20
Multi
10
Other
0
1990-1998 2000-2006 2008
Review time periods
Figure 18.3 Use of theories across studies from 10 journals, 1990 through 2008. SCT: social cognitive theory; TTM: the transtheoretical
model; TPB: theory of planned behavior; SDT: self-determination theory; Environ: environmental theories; Multi: multitheory approaches.
E6768/Horn/F18.03/578862/mh-R1
Data from Rhodes & Nasuti (2011).
physical activity showed that small to medium will ask ourselves, “Can I do this behavior?” which
size effects were evident for such approaches, but reflects self-efficacy, a key element of SCT.
no one theory was superior. Interventions using Bandura defines perceived self-efficacy as
a single theory tended to achieve stronger effects
than those using multiple theories (Gourlan et al., people’s judgements of their capabilities to
2016). But various combinations of theories were organise and execute courses of action required
to attain designated types of performances. It
included in such an analysis, and the authors called
is concerned not with the skills one has but with
for caution in interpreting this finding. More work judgements of what one can do with whatever
is required on testing single versus multiple theory skills one possesses.
interventions.
Bandura, 1986, p. 391
We have provided a comprehensive overview of
the key theories applied to physical activity else- Bandura identifies four main sources of self-effi-
where (Biddle et al., 2007, 2015). In this section, we cacy beliefs: prior success and performance attain-
will summarize the big three theories that are most ment, imitation and modeling, verbal and social
commonly found in the physical activity literature: persuasion, and judgments of physiological states.
social cognitive theory, theory of planned behavior, Performance attainment is thought to be the most
and transtheoretical model. Later, we consider a powerful source of efficacy expectations because
broader approach for behavior change. it is based on personal experience of success and
failure. Self-efficacy is a popular topic of study
Social Cognitive Theory and is often shown to be an important correlate of
physical activity. Recent systematic reviews provide
Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory (SCT) some support for SCT and self-efficacy in physical
suggests that we learn and modify our behaviors activity interventions (Ashford, Edmunds, & French,
through interaction between personal, behavioral, 2010; Olander et al., 2013; Williams & French, 2011).
and environmental influences. We reflect on our
actions, particularly in respect to the consequences
of our behaviors (referred to as outcome expectan-
Theory of Planned Behavior
cies) and our own capabilities (efficacy expectan- The TPB (Ajzen, 1985) proposes that intention is
cies). Thinking about consequences in physical the immediate antecedent of behavior and that
activity could be simply thinking about the benefits intention is predicted from attitude, subjective norm
and costs of being more active. For capabilities, we (normative beliefs), and perceptions of behavioral
control. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) suggested that some actions, such as not being physically active.
the attitude component of the preceding theory Anticipating such negative feelings is thought to
of reasoned action model is constructed from the assist in carrying out intentions. Sandberg and
beliefs held about the specific behavior, as well as Conner (2008) conducted a meta-analysis of stud-
the value perceived from the likely outcomes. Such ies investigating anticipated regret across multiple
beliefs can be instrumental (e.g., “Being physically behaviors and found a clear effect on both inten-
active helps me control my weight”) and affective tion and behavior. Being conscientious is having a
(e.g., “Exercise is satisfying”). Note that attitudes tendency to strive to achieve, be self-disciplined,
have both cognitive and affective elements. The and orderly. This trait is likely to be developed
affective elements of attitude have usually been through planning physical activity (e.g. specific
shown to be superior for behavior change (Rhodes, exercise sessions), keeping a record of what you
Fiala, & Conner, 2009). Normative beliefs (subjective do (self-monitoring), setting clear and measurable
norms) comprise the beliefs of significant others goals, and getting feedback on progress.
and the extent that the person wishes to comply
with such beliefs. Perceived behavioral control Transtheoretical Model
(PBC) is defined by Ajzen (1988) as “the perceived
ease or difficulty of performing the behavior” (p. The transtheoretical model (Prochaska & DiClem-
132) and is assumed “to reflect past experience as ente, 1982) is a stage-based approach, whereas SCT
well as anticipated impediments and obstacles” (p. and TPB are best described as more continuous or
132). Subjective norms are less strongly correlated linear in their orientation. The TTM proposes that
with intention and behavior than PBC; the latter behavior change involves moving through a set of
usually shows moderate to strong associations stages. The model is a framework that encompasses
(Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002). both the when (stages) and the how of behavior
In Hagger and colleagues’ (2002) meta-analysis, change. Elements of the TTM include both processes
a correlation of 0.51 was reported between intention (strategies) of change and moderators of change,
and behavior. Thus, one topic of interest in public such as decisional balance (weighing the pros and
health is how to close the gap between stated inten- cons of change) and self-efficacy. Research concern-
tions and actual behavior. Rhodes and de Bruijn ing the TTM in physical activity is now extensive
(2013) suggest that about 36% of people will be (Marshall & Biddle, 2001; Mastellos, Gunn, Felix,
classified as unsuccessful intenders, supporting Car, & Majeed, 2014; Riemsma et al., 2002).
the notion of a gap between intention and behav- The five stages of precontemplation, contempla-
ior. Factors that may enhance or detract from good tion, preparation, action, and maintenance, along
translation of intentions into behavior are referred with applications to psychology, are described in
to as moderators of this link. table 18.3. The stages of change are concerned
Rhodes and Dickau (2013) reported an analysis with the temporal patterning of behavior change.
of 38 potential moderators from 57 studies and By also identifying processes of change, we are
found that the most consistent was intentional better able to understand why and how this tem-
stability, although evidence was also found for the poral shift might take place. Processes of change,
role of anticipated regret and conscientiousness. therefore, become the important active ingredients
The stability of intentions over time may partly in interventions to help people progress through
be a function of the length of time between stated the stages. Typically, 10 processes of change have
intentions and actual behavior. Intentions typically been identified, and they include cognitive and
fluctuate over time. We can help maintain the sta- behavioral strategies. The meta-analysis of physical
bility of intentions by using “implementation inten- activity TTM studies by Marshall and Biddle (2001)
tions,” which are self-regulatory strategies (goals showed that movement from precontemplation to
and plans) that involve specifying when, how, and contemplation and from preparation to action are
where performance of the behavior will take place. characterized by sharper increases in the use of
According to Gollwitzer (1999), implementation behavioral processes compared with other stage
intentions help people move from a motivational transitions.
(intentional) phase to a volitional (behavioral) Weighing the advantages of change (pros) against
phase, ensuring that intentions are more likely to the disadvantages or costs (cons) is the decisional
be converted into action. Anticipated regret refers balance exercise at the core of the TTM. Research
to the desire to avoid feeling guilt or regret about suggests that in the early stages of behavior change,
Table 18.3 Stages of Change in the Transtheoretical Model

Is there an intention
Is the criterion level to meet the criterion Application and
of physical activity Current physical level of physical Possible statement strategies from
Stage met? activity activity? reflecting stage psychology
Precontemplation No Little or no physical No “I won’t or I can’t do Use of educational
activity physical activity.” approaches to help
people move toward
contemplation
Contemplation No Little or no physical Yes “I might do some Appraise pros and
activity physical activity.” cons to change
Preparation No Small changes in Yes “I will do some physi- Build self-efficacy
physical activity cal activity.”
Action Yes Physically active for Yes “I am already physi- Seek social support
less than 6 months cally active.”
Maintenance Yes Physically active for Yes “I have been physi- Set and appraise
more than 6 months cally active for some goals
time.”
the cons outweigh the pros. Those in preparation see behavioral involvement that are more self-deter-
more equality between the pros and cons, whereas mined rather than controlling (Ryan & Deci, 2000a,
those who are in maintenance will perceive more 2000b). A meta-analysis by Chatzisarantis et al.
pros than cons. Changing perceptions of pros and (2003) confirmed that intentions to undertake
cons, therefore, may assist in behavior change and physical activity behavior are increasingly strongly
could be done at a population level, through, for associated with more self-determined reasons for
example, mass media campaigns. Moreover, self-ef- the behavior. Moreover, a systematic review by Teix-
ficacy increases with each stage progression in the eira et al. (2012) showed similar patterns for actual
TTM, although the pattern of change may be nonlin- exercise involvement. In addition, they showed that
ear. The largest changes seem to be from preparation satisfying the need for competence was strongly
to action and from action to maintenance (Marshall associated with participation in exercise.
& Biddle, 2001). Longer-term changes in physical A hybrid of SDT and TPB has been proposed
activity behavior have yet to be demonstrated using by Hagger and colleagues, and they have referred
the TTM, although the approach remains popular to this as the transcontextual model (Hagger &
with health professionals. Chatzisarantis, 2016; Hagger et al., 2003). Here,
motivation to undertake a behavior in one context
might carry over into a similar but different context,
Other Theoretical Frameworks such as the influence of school physical education
In addition to the big three theories used in on physical activity in leisure time. Such a trans-
physical activity research and described earlier, fer may be due to a number of reasons, including
other frameworks have come to prominence. Still enhancement of self-efficacy, need satisfaction, or
others show promise but have been less used. For increased enjoyment and competence.
example, self-determination theory has become a In their integrated behavior change model,
popular approach in physical activity psychology Hagger and Chatzisarantis (2014) combine elements
(Gourlan et al., 2016; Rhodes & Nasuti, 2011). This from the TPB, HAPA, and SDT. Moreover, they con-
multifaceted theory concerns reasons for adopting sider both conscious and reflective motivation, typ-
a behavior (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) and ically included in the theories just listed, alongside
the satisfying of psychological needs. Essentially, less conscious, automatic modes. Such automaticity
an optimal intrinsic motivational state is derived is largely lacking from social cognitive theories.
from various intraindividual and social context We discuss this in more detail later in this chapter.
influences, including an autonomy-supportive envi- An increasingly cited approach is that of the
ronment, the satisfying of the needs for competence, HAPA framework, which uses stages (noninten-
autonomy and social relatedness, and reasons for tional, intentional, action) alongside continuous
constructs from other theories. Some claim researchers have clearly identified with one theory,
that HAPA is superior to other social cognitive but others have used parts of several theories or
approaches because of its combination of stage frameworks. The latter might best be described
and continuous approaches (Lippke, Ziegelmann, as theory informed. Indeed, at the time that these
& Schwarzer, 2005). The model combines stages theories were becoming popular frameworks within
with self-efficacy, pros and cons, risk perception, the physical activity research field, several authors
intentions, and goal setting, and it has been tested suggested some form of integration or mapping of
in physical activity research (Lippke et al., 2005). constructs across theories (Biddle, 1999; Biddle
Despite these more integrated approaches, physi- & Mutrie, 2001; Brawley, 1993; Maddux, 1993). In
cal activity researchers have clearly tended to adopt that way areas of overlap could be identified. More
an approach that reflects individual and psycho- recently, Michie et al. (2014b) have not only identi-
logical frameworks and theories. This approach is fied 83 theories of health behavior change but also
not optimal given that physical activity behavior have mapped the interconnectedness between the-
is multifaceted and operates at different levels ories using network analysis. A few theories were
from the individual to wider society, as is needed found to feed directly into the development of sev-
for a public health approach. Bartholomew et al. eral others, such as the TTM to 6 other theories, SCT
(2006) use a broad approach in outlining various to 12, and TBP to 17. Overlap between constructs
intervention methods for changing health behavior. from different theories led to the development of
These approaches are shown in table 18.4. Although the theoretical domains framework (TDF; Cane,
many methods operate at the individual level (e.g., O’Connor, & Michie, 2012; Michie, Atkins, & West,
knowledge, attitudes, capability), other methods 2014a). This framework has identified 14 domains,
designed to change behavior focus on social norms originally from 128 constructs and 33 behavior
and networks, environments, organizations, com- change theories. Michie et al. (2014a) stated that
munities, and policy. Few of these latter approaches the TDF was developed in response to requests from
have been adopted in physical activity research. researchers interested in implementation but who
“were aware of the large number of such theories
and their overlapping constructs” (p. 87). The TDF
Overlapping Constructs and Theories was then developed as “an integrative framework
The core theories used in physical activity research synthesising key theoretical constructs used in rele-
over the past few decades have had a strong indi- vant theories” (p. 87). The domains and constructs
vidualistic and social cognitive orientation. Some are shown in table 18.5.
Table 18.4 Methods and Levels of Analysis for Health Behavior Change
Level or focus of methods proposed Example method Example linked theory or framework
Individual Tailoring Transtheoretical model
To increase knowledge Active learning Social cognitive theory
To change awareness and risk perception Fear arousal Protection motivation theory
To change habits, automatic behavior, and Implementation intentions Theory of planned behavior
action control
To change attitudes Persuasive communication Attitude theories
To change social influence Modeling Social cognitive theory
For skills, capability, and self-efficacy Coping skills Relapse prevention theory
Higher environmental levels Advocacy Agenda-building theory
To change social norms Mass media Diffusion of innovations theory
To improve social support and social networks Use of lay health workers Theories of social networks and social support
To create health-promoting organizations Team building Organizational development theory
To create health-promoting communities Grass-roots organizing Models of community organization
To create healthful public policy Media advocacy Policy windows theory
Adapted from Bartholomew et al. (2006).
Table 18.5 The Theoretical Domains Framework

Domain Example construct
Knowledge Knowledge of health condition
Skills Competence
Memory, attention and decision processes Decision making
Behavioral regulation Self-monitoring
Social or professional role and identity Social identity
Beliefs about capabilities Self-efficacy
Optimism Optimism
Beliefs about consequences Outcome expectancies
Intentions Stability of intentions
Goals Implementation intentions
Reinforcement Rewards
Emotion Affect
Environmental context and resources Organizational culture
Social influences Social norms
Adapted from Michie et al. (2014a).
Behavior Change Wheel ronmental restructuring, restrictions, education,

persuasion, and incentivization. Interventions are
and COM-B Frameworks likely to have more than one intervention function
operating, such as including education and envi-
We have made the point that physical activity ronmental restructuring. A good example of this
intervention approaches to date have been narrowly might be the introduction of a sit-to-stand desk in
focused on individual constructs. To encompass a the workplace (environmental restructuring) that
truly public health approach, social, environmen- has an education component covering the potential
tal, community, and policy frameworks are also benefits and use of the desk.
required. Bringing a number of these elements The third element of the BCW comprises the
together is the parsimonious behavior change wheel policy categories that can be used to deliver the
(BCW) (Michie, Atkins, et al., 2014a; Michie, van intervention functions. These can include guide-
Stralen, & West, 2011), a framework that addresses lines, environmental or social planning, communi-
various levels, including individuals, groups, and cation and marketing, legislation, service provision,
communities. The BCW contains three key ele- regulation, and fiscal measures. Physical activity
ments: sources of behavior, intervention functions, interventions most commonly use guidelines (e.g.,
and policy categories. national physical activity guidelines), marketing
The three main sources of behavior (B) are (e.g., mass media campaigns), and service provision
proposed to be capability (C), opportunity (O), and (e.g., provision of people, programs, and facilities).
motivation (M), hence the “COM-B” approach. Under- The BCW recognizes a dual-process approach to
standing the specific behavior in question is critical. motivation through both reflective and automatic
Physical activity, for example, can take many forms, processing. Reflective approaches are common
such as through its intensity (e.g., light physical in psychology; people process information, think
activity, moderate to vigorous physical activity; see and reflect, and then, possibly, act out the behav-
figure 18.1) and type (e.g., muscle-strengthening ior. Automatic processing, however, is at a lower
exercise, sports, dance). The COM-B framework level of conscious processing. Behaviors might
allows an analysis of the physical and psychological occur through either environmental nudging or
capabilities to undertake the behavior, the social gut-reaction acts driven by affective responses, but
and physical opportunities, and both reflective and with little forethought or planning. For example,
automatic forms of motivation (see later). weighing the pros and cons (see discussion on the
The intervention functions are the types of inter- transtheoretical model) is a clear case of reflective
ventions that might be delivered and can include motivation. After the reflective decision-making
coercion, training, enablement, modeling, envi- processes have taken place, the behavior in question
Team Science
A public health approach to increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary behavior requires more than behavior
change psychologists. The notion of team science is an important one in which disciplinary boundaries are reduced
or eliminated in an effort to seek answers to tough problems. For example, the issue of measuring physical activity
might require input from technology experts, whereas interventions to increase cycling to work are likely to need
the expertise of geographers or city planners. What would constitute your science dream team? Take a topic (e.g.,
walking to school for a child, reducing sitting in the workplace, increasing recreational sport participation) and draw
up your dream team for a successful behavior change intervention.
may or may not be undertaken. On the other hand, idea is consistent with behavioral choice theory
some behaviors will be undertaken in a much more advocated by Epstein and colleagues in studies on
automatic way, such as climbing the stairs because sedentary behavior and physical activity (Epstein,
they are easily accessible and attractive. Little 1998; Epstein & Roemmich, 2001). Behavioral
thought may have gone into it. Making the stairs choices are made on the assessment of the accessi-
accessible or attractive is a strategy that reduces bility of the behavior and the liking (reinforcement
the need for reflective motivation and is likely to value) of the behavior.
trigger more automatic processing. Kremers et al. (2007) demonstrated that seden-
tary behavior in the form of screen viewing has a
habitual component for many young people. Dutch
Habits and Nudging adolescents completed questionnaires assessing
in Behavior Change screen viewing and habit strength for screen view-
ing, and a moderately strong correlation was found
Automatic processing is associated with notions between the two. Kremers and Brug (2008) also
of habit. The goal of nearly all health behavior showed that intentions were unrelated to behavior
change, including physical activity, is to make the in adolescents with strong habits, and the research-
desired behavior a habit or to eliminate bad habits. ers suggested that interventions to decrease seden-
Habits involve behavioral patterns learned through tary behavior should not just provide information to
context-dependent repetition. A mental association increase motivation. Reducing sedentary behavior
is made between the situation and behavior. Sed- may require disrupting environmental factors that
entary behavior (sitting time) is a clear example of automatically cue habitual behaviors.
behavior being strongly driven by habit. When a Because habits are formed through repetition,
particular context is encountered, such as arriving time and repetition are required to break one habit
home after work, people often automatically cue the and replace it with another. Few interventions have
habitual response of, say, sitting on the sofa and been explicitly based on habit formation or habit
turning on the TV. Some physical activity behav- change, although Lally and Gardner (2015) have
iors can become habits through repetition, such made some suggestions. These include identifying
as leaving the house for work on foot or by bike, the cues for specific behaviors through self-moni-
rather than by car. toring. This way, people can identify situations in
In novel contexts, behavior is more likely to be which they perform unwanted habitual behavior.
regulated by conscious decisions through intentions They can then either avoid the cue or develop strat-
(reflective processing), but in familiar contexts egies so that when the cue occurs, the behavioral
behavior will be much more affected by habit response to the cue is something more active. Thus,
(automatic processing). Given the high frequency unwanted habits could be broken by restructur-
of many sedentary behaviors, such as sitting in ing personal environments or programming new
front of the TV, such behaviors can easily become responses to existing environments. A strategy
habitual. Similarly, car use becomes habitual for could involve intervening at a point when people
many through high-frequency usage. Making envi- are changing the environment in which they live
ronments highly conducive to physical activity, such or work. Within existing environments, placing
as by making them attractive and accessible, should reminders in the contexts where unwanted habits
help make physical activity more habitual and will are performed can provide a useful reminder to
lessen the need for reflective decision making. This implement an alternative response.
Gardner and colleagues (Gardner, Phillips, & Roland, & Marteau, 2013). Whether these are the
Judah, 2016; Phillips & Gardner, 2016) have made most effective, or even effective at all, is open to
an interesting distinction in the context of habit and debate, but the research does provide important
physical activity. For example, “for more complex information on the acceptability of interventions—
behaviors such as exercise, however, the distinction something often lacking in our field.
between habitual deciding (instigation) and habit- Nudging, referred to as the influence of “choice
ual doing (execution) becomes meaningful” (Phil- architecture,” often involves altering small-scale
lips & Gardner, 2016, p. 70). Making a distinction social and physical environments to cue desired
between instigating and executing health behaviors behaviors (Hollands et al., 2013). A typology by
from a habit perspective requires further study Hollands et al. proposed that choice architecture
in the context of physical activity and sedentary interventions could involve altering properties, the
behavior (see Gardner et al., 2016). placement of objects or stimuli, or both in com-
Based on behavioral economics, the concept bination. Altering properties, for example, might
of nudging has been proposed (Marteau, Ogilvie, involve changing the physical ambience, labels
Roland, Suhrcke, & Kelly, 2011). Behavioral eco- (e.g., food), or size of a product. Altering placement
nomics is closely aligned with what psychologists might involve changing the availability or proximity
understand as behavior analysis, with its roots of a product. Priming and prompting could involve
in Skinnerian conditioning. Behavioral econom- changes to both properties and placement.
ics refers to the “combination of microeconomic In an analysis of nudging and various health
concepts, principles, and measures along with behaviors, Hollands et al. (2013) found that over
concepts, principles, and experimental methods 70% of studies focused on diet and just under 20%
developed by behavior analysts” (Madden, 2000, focused on physical activity, the majority of which
p. 6). Put simply, it “seeks to combine the lessons tried to nudge behavior through changes to the
from psychology with the laws of economics” ambience and design of the environment. A well-
(Dolan, Hallsworth, Halpern, King, & Vlaev, 2010, known example is providing signage at the foot of
p. 12), and is “designed to understand factors that stairs to encourage walking rather than standing
influence choice among alternatives” (Roemmich still on a parallel escalator (Bellicha et al., 2015),
et al., 2008, p. 1011). sometimes with changes to the ambience of stairs
Nudging occurs when behaviors are encouraged too (see Boutelle, Jeffrey, Murray, & Schmitz, 2001).
through little or no incentive rather than through Equally, we can be nudged into unhealthy
highly directive or so-called nannying approaches, behaviors. The norm in public places, such as
such as through government policies and legis- hotels, is often to find easily accessible and attrac-
lation. Interestingly, a review concluded that the tive elevators, or lifts, and inaccessible stairs. This
public acceptability of government interventions to circumstance has probably happened to people so
change behavior is greatest for the least intrusive many times that on encountering the hotel lobby,
type of interventions (Diepeveen, Ling, Suhrcke, they automatically use the elevator, giving little or
Tailoring Interventions in Public Health Settings
A common suggestion is that we need to tailor interventions to suit certain people or groups better. One size does not
fit all. But is this statement contradictory given that public health approaches are attempting to bring about change
across large sections of society and whole populations?
Successful public health interventions may require multiple levels of influence for behavior change—on the
individual, on the environment, in societal norms, and in policy. Each one can feed other elements. Moreover, if
individual decisions are highly proximal to the person, then policy or social norms might be more distal influences,
but no less important. On this basis, we need to attend to what might appear distal influences to establish enabling
environments that allow physical activity to be a viable option for the individual. Tailoring approaches for certain
groups or individuals, therefore, is not contradictory in a public health approach, although it may be difficult to do
in some cases on any large scale. Moreover, clear synergy exists between the various levels of influence. A person
can enact an intention to be active much more easily if the social norms and physical environment are positive and
supportive. Tailored approaches beyond that may then enhance the chances of successful behavior change. How
might this be applied to active commuting?
no thought to seeking out the stairs. As Marteau et referring to decision making. It could be argued,
al. (2011) say, “Nudging certainly works. Shaping therefore, that these factors are crucial to physical
environments to cue certain behaviors is extremely activity participation. But more distal factors, such
effective, unfortunately often to the detriment of as societal conditions or the environment, will
our health” (p. 263). shape how these individual decisions are made or
Nudging and behavioral economics inform us even if such decisions can, or will be, acted out at
that affective responses are also important. Delayed all. Let us not pit one approach against another—
consequences of our behavior, such as long-term both are important. That said, we have overempha-
health benefits, are often discounted and seen sized individual and psychological factors, and we
as less important, whereas more immediate rein- need to redress the balance for a true public health
forcement can powerfully shape behavior (Marlatt, approach. A key gap in current thinking is how
2000). More automatic forms of motivation can be to integrate the best of diverse approaches. How
strongly influenced by simple likes and dislikes, can we shape environments and have people be
a circumstance in which behaviors follow quick sufficiently motivated or have appropriate inten-
and less reflective processes. For example, we may tions to undertake the behavior? Environments are
choose to buy a phone based on its looks and feel important, but often not enough. Many roads have
more than its functionality. In the same way we may sidewalks (pavements), but that does not guarantee
choose a certain physical activity, such as walking that people will walk. Other conditions need to be
to work, based on little conscious decision making in place, including wider environmental support,
beyond a simple liking for being outside. Of course, social norms, personal intent, and so forth.
if the route to work is unattractive (e.g., polluted, Within the context of sport and exercise psychol-
busy roads to cross), it will be less likely to be used ogy, we propose the following future directions as
than a route that is accessible and attractive to walk. being important for consideration in the context of
For that reason, as behavioral scientists, we must increasing population levels of physical activity.
seek to find ways of making physical activity attrac- First, physical activity takes many different forms
tive and affectively pleasing, and emphasize this across a continuum of movement, from sedentary
approach more than focusing on longer-term health behavior to highly vigorous physical activity. This
outcomes (Ekkekakis & Dafermos, 2012; Ekkekakis, range of activity level requires more consideration
Vazou, Bixby, & Georgiadis, 2016). For example, when designing studies. Physical activity is not a
research has shown that the combination of a high singular entity. For example, we need to know more
reinforcing value and liking of physical activity is about how correlates and determinants might differ
associated with a 33% greater participation rate for across these various forms of movement.
children’s MVPA (Roemmich et al., 2008). Physical activity also takes place in multiple
contexts, and this variety may partly determine
the influences on participation and possibly the
Future Research psychological outcomes derived. Research needs
Recommendations to continue to distinguish between interventions
in different settings, such as schools, the work-
It should be clear from what we have written so place, active transport, and leisure-time pursuits.
far that approaches to motivating behavior in the Although the gym is important for some people,
context of public health require a broader approach it is by no means the only setting for encouraging
than the conventional one adopted through social physical activity.
cognitive theories and frameworks. But that is not Physical activity is an important element of public
to say that social cognitive theories have no place health and, as such, population-wide approaches
in public health. They provide valuable frameworks need to be adopted. Investigation and intervention
for how people might change their behavior and must occur at multiple levels from the individual to
what mechanisms might be at play. Moreover, they social, environmental, and policy levels. We refer
provide information on likely active ingredients of to the behavior change wheel (Michie et al., 2011)
change, at least at the individual level. Indeed, the as a good example of how behavior change oper-
factors that might influence physical activity will ates at different levels. Intervention studies need to
operate on a continuum from more distal factors to map elements of the wheel into proposed behavior
those that are more proximal. On that basis, typical change actions and strategies.
psychological factors reported in the literature will Of course, one such level of behavior change
operate at a more proximal level, particularly when will be the individual, and here we need to place
more emphasis on the affective elements of physical is still required to test how such strategies can be
activity, including feelings about different types implemented.
of physical activity and affective reactions during Finally, self-monitoring is a powerful behavior
and after physical activity. This aspect is likely to change technique and links clearly to the popu-
be more important than distal health benefits to larity of wearable technology. Although we know
be accrued from physical activity. For example, that such devices can be highly useful in initiating
although more severe forms of exercise may be par- behavior change, longer-term adherence to wearable
ticularly beneficial for health, that attribute may be devices has yet to be studied in detail. Moreover, to
irrelevant if the affective response to participation what extent do we need to wear such devices over
is quite negative. Research needs to test to what time before a behavior becomes habitual and firmly
extent people need information on health benefits placed within the behavioral maintenance phase? In
or strategies that maximize positive affective and addition, some people will not find self-monitoring
behavioral reinforcement (Ekkekakis et al., 2016). and aspects of the quantified self appealing. What
Besides using theories as guiding frameworks do we offer these people so that they might benefit
for interventions, we should also consider common from less-intrusive forms of self-monitoring? Signs
constructs across key theories and the potential of in public places, such as those stating time to walk
using these as the active ingredients and behavior a certain distance between destinations, might be
change techniques for increasing physical activity. It one surrogate form of self-monitoring, or at least
is probably not a good thing that theories dip in and prompting, that requires further investigation. This
out of favor and that some become quite fashionable effort needs to be done jointly with the people we
over time. A more useful approach may be to decide are trying to assist.
what constructs are important and predictive rather
than be wedded to a certain theory. That said, the
evidence favors, albeit marginally, the use of single Summary
theories over multiple theories in interventions. But This chapter has addressed issues of physical activ-
given the complexity of achieving genuine public ity from a public health perspective. The objective
health change, researchers need to consider various of a public health approach is to increase physical
approaches, including mapping effective behavior activity in as large a population as possible rather
change techniques (see Gardner, Smith, Lorencatto, than in just a few people. Based on the idea that
Hamer, & Biddle, 2016). This effort might include different types of movement can be placed along
a close examination of the common constructs a continuum ranging from sedentary behavior to
across theories. highly vigorous physical activity, we make the case
Behavior can be influenced by less conscious that a public health approach must recognize these
processing of cues. Such implicit approaches need different types of movement and the contexts in
better integration alongside conventional reflective which they take place.
approaches to motivation. Moreover, greater atten- We have summarized the psychological cor-
tion is needed concerning the role of habit and habit relates of physical activity participation and sug-
breaking, which may differ across types of move- gested that a broader approach is now needed.
ment. Sedentary behavior should be a rich area for Moreover, the theories and frameworks adopted
the investigation of habit breaking because of the in exercise psychology have failed to recognize
strongly habitual nature of sitting. Developments approaches grounded in social, environmental,
in thinking concerning different types of habitual and policy theory. A combination of these may be
behavior are also important future directions. optimal. Moreover, additional frameworks require
Moreover, allied to the notion of habit and more testing, including those featuring the concepts
automatic forms of processing, nudging changes of habit and nudging. This approach would be
in behavior is an important direction for research. consistent with the behavior change wheel, which
In addition, this approach is highly appealing to recognizes both reflective and automatic forms of
policy makers, including governments. But we motivation, alongside capability and opportunity,
need to know more about how such approaches can as important sources of behavior.
be implemented across the movement continuum Certainly, psychologists have an important role
and in different contexts. The majority of nudge to play in public health approaches to physical activ-
work has been in nutrition, so challenges remain ity. But this role could likely occur within cross-dis-
about how feasible and cost effective physical ciplinary teams that include other specialists across
activity nudge-based interventions might be. The the social, behavioral, and biological sciences in a
area holds great promise, but a great deal of work true team science approach.
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PART
VI
Health
The five chapters in part VI present discussions case study, Ekkekakis explores the broad base of
related to the link between health and sport, exer- support (including meta-analyses and randomized
cise, and physical activity. Involvement in physical controlled trials) for physical activity as a valuable
activity pursuits can produce meaningful positive treatment or preventative technique despite the
health benefits but can also introduce challenges relative lack of support for its application in the
to health such as injury or burnout. The chapters medical field. The chapter ends with recommen-
in this section collectively introduce readers to this dations for the field.
important area of the physical activity psychology In chapter 20, Jeffrey Martin provides a discus-
field. sion of sport and exercise psychology research as it
In chapter 19, Panteleimon Ekkekakis presents a applies to individuals with physical disabilities. The
provocative discussion concerning the connection chapter begins with an examination of identity as a
between physical activity and mental health. What key consideration, in relation to not only the health
makes his chapter unique is his persuasive argu- and psychosocial well-being of individuals with dis-
ment that an antiexercise bias exists in the medical abilities but also potential participation in sport and
literature regarding the value of physical activity physical activity. Martin then addresses the role that
as a treatment or intervention for several forms of selected personality factors might play in relation
mental illness. Ekkekakis notes that this chapter to disability sport. As an example of work within
does not so much focus on whether physical activity this broad research area, he specifically focuses
and exercise can benefit mental health but rather on on Wounded Warriors. He provides a review of the
why these activities have yet to be implemented by research to date and highlights the psychosocial
medical organizations and providers in a broad way. benefits of taking up sport after acquired disability.
A historical overview of five decades of contrasting Like the other chapters in this text, Martin presents
views of the value of exercise in relation to mental limitations in the current research base as well as
health is followed by a summary and commentary suggestions for future research. More research will
on the principles of evidence-based medicine (EBM) be needed on this topic to enable us to understand
as the de facto standard in most fields of health and meet the needs of all movers.
care. This section may be especially valuable for Diane Wiese-Bjornstal, Andrew White, Kristen
researchers working in this area of study because Wood, and Hayley Russell wrote chapter 21 with
current graduate curricula often do not contain a focus on the psychological study of injury and
information on this topic. Using depression as a rehabilitation among participants in sport, exer-
351
352 Part VI
cise, and other physical activity settings. This for additional longitudinal research, especially
area of study, referred to by the authors as sports intervention studies.
medicine psychology, examines psychological Finally, in chapter 23, Nancy Gyurcsik, Christo-
influences that are evident during three phases of pher Shields, Miranda Cary, and Lawrence Brawley
the injury process: preinjury, postinjury, and the provide readers with an overview of the research
period known as return to sport. Wiese-Bjornstal and theory regarding the use and value of physical
and her colleagues provide a review of the research activity for individuals living with chronic diseases.
on each of these phases. They also include a section The authors note in their introduction that this
devoted to psychological interventions that have chapter focuses on “physical activity as a tertiary
been used by various professionals in the field who prevention strategy that people living with chronic
work with injured physical activity participants. disease should use to mitigate against the deteri-
In their suggestions for future research on this oration of physical function, independent living,
topic, Wiese-Bjornstal and her coauthors make a and quality of life.” The broad focus of this chapter
strong case for employing more multidisciplinary topic leads the authors to examine the research
approaches to assessment, health care, and psycho- and theory relative to two particular and prevalent
logical interventions. chronic diseases: arthritis and diabetes. Within
In chapter 22, Alan Smith, Christine Pacewicz, each of these respective sections, the authors out-
and Thomas Raedeke examine the knowledge base line and summarize the current knowledge base
on athlete burnout, a potential negative outcome of and then speak to knowledge gaps and provide
competitive sport participation that is of interest recommendations for future research. As Gyurcsik
to scholars, practitioners, and athletes. They open and her coauthors note, chronic diseases currently
the chapter by explaining how athlete burnout is account for 60% of all deaths worldwide, with esti-
defined in contemporary research and how burn- mates expected to reach 73% by 2020. Given that
out is measured, as well as prevailing theoretical many chronic diseases can be better self-managed
perspectives that have informed research on this through regular physical activity, it is important
topic. They then summarize the predominant lines for researchers and scholars in our field to identify
of contemporary research on athlete burnout, with ways to successfully promote active living among
primary emphasis on the study of burnout within those challenged by chronic disease.
motivational and perfectionism frameworks. The field of sport and exercise psychology is
Research within these frameworks has been grow- not bounded by the concerns of competitive sport
ing substantially and has meaningfully enhanced participants; it includes a rich array of human
understanding of athlete burnout. Smith and his movement contexts, opportunities, and challenges.
colleagues then share several important knowledge Clearly, the five chapters in this section reflect
gaps and associated research directions that offer the extension of our field to focus on a range of
promise for advancing the literature. They focus physical and mental health concerns and a diverse
on assessment issues, the consideration of social population of movers. Thus, readers of this text
factors that may exacerbate or mitigate burnout, should gain a broader view of the field of physical
the fit of the athlete and organization, and the need activity psychology.
19
Physical Activity
and Mental Health
in the Era
of Evidence-Based
Medicine
Panteleimon Ekkekakis, PhD
Abstract
The line of research investigating the effects of physical activity and exercise on mental
health was the original seed that in the late 1960s gave rise to the field of exercise psy-
chology. Although textbooks and review articles published within the discipline of exercise
psychology unanimously proclaim that physical activity and exercise have significant ben-
eficial effects on a wide range of mental health variables, including anxiety, depression,
and cognitive function, these claims are persistently disputed in the medical literature.
Moreover, although clinical practice guidelines in several countries recommend physi-
cal activity or exercise as an option for the treatment of depression, physicians remain
reluctant to implement these guidelines. What might explain this apparent violation of
the principle of evidence-based medicine? Focusing on the treatment of depression as an
illustrative case study, this chapter discusses signs of antiexercise bias in the medical
literature, underscores the role of the mass media in propagating confusion about the
strength and quality of the evidence, and highlights the importance of promoting critical
appraisal as a remedy. Recommendations are provided for both enhancing the research
literature and fostering critical appraisal in ways that can mitigate bias and promote
informed interpretation of research data on physical activity and mental health.
353
354 Ekkekakis
T
he line of research investigating the asso- (e.g., national health care systems or for-profit
ciation of physical activity or exercise with corporations), prescribing physicians (most under a
mental health was the original seed that in variety of institutional or corporate pressures), and
the late 1960s gave rise to the field of exercise psy- patients (recipients of various, often confusing and
chology. The numerous overviews of this prolific conflicting, messages) are all active agents within
research typically follow a similar structure. After this complex system. Their decisions are influenced
surveying various types of evidence, including by numerous factors, of which scientific evidence
epidemiologic studies, cross-sectional compari- is only one. The mass media act as a catalyst in
sons, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), narra- shaping the behavior of these players, often in ways
tive reviews, and meta-analyses, most overviews that are inconsistent with the scientific evidence.
conclude that physical activity and exercise have Therefore, if we are to comprehend why physical
positive effects on a wide array of mental health activity has yet to become integrated into clinical
outcomes, such as depression and anxiety. In the practice in the field of mental health, we need to
closing paragraphs of these publications, authors adopt a broad perspective that encompasses the
commonly comment on the potential of physical scientific evidence but also extends beyond it.
activity as a cost-effective intervention for promot-
ing public mental health, bemoaning the fact that
this potential remains unfulfilled. A 50-Year Chronicle
Offering yet another such summary here would
be neither novel nor particularly valuable. Instead,
of Contrasting Views
what could be a more meaningful contribution is a Scientific evidence is, to a surprising extent, in
critical analysis of the reasons delaying the transi- the eye of the beholder. Well-meaning and knowl-
tion of this undoubtedly intriguing line of research edgeable scientists can examine the same body of
to clinical application. Thus, the focus of this evidence and arrive at different conclusions. This
chapter differs from the norm, reflecting a change outcome has certainly been the case with the data
in the question that is now at the forefront, from on the role of exercise in mental health. As will be
whether physical activity and exercise can benefit seen in the following sections, views have been
mental health (for a comprehensive account on this, divided in most cases (though not always) along
see Ekkekakis, 2013a) to why physical activity and disciplinary lines. Exercise scientists often blur the
exercise have yet to be implemented in treatment line between impartiality and advocacy, and, on
pathways on a large scale. The chapter begins by the opposite side, many psychiatrists and clinical
offering a broad historical overview of contrasting psychologists express skepticism or even denial.
views regarding the role of exercise and physical
activity in relation to mental health. In the second The 1960s and 1970s
section, a synopsis of the fundamentals of evi-
dence-based medicine (EBM) is provided, followed The spark that led to the development of exercise
by an analysis emphasizing the rising need for crit- psychology arose from a case of interdisciplinary
ical appraisal of RCTs and meta-analyses published tension. In December 1967, psychiatrists Pitts and
in the medical literature. To provide an overall McClure published a controversial article in the
perspective on these issues, depression, one of the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine, in
most prevalent mental health disorders, is used as which they argued that exercise-induced elevations
an illustrative case study. The chapter concludes in lactate increase the risk of anxiety attacks in
with recommendations for future research. patients with anxiety. The Pitts-McClure hypothesis
The central message of this chapter is that sci- was subsequently criticized and ultimately refuted.
entific evidence, even evidence published in the Nevertheless, it captured the attention of the media
most prestigious journals, exhibits a remarkable and the medical community. As the idea became
degree of malleability and susceptibility to bias. more broadly known, speculations that exercise
Moreover, it is crucial to remember that both can raise the risk of anxiety attacks grew bolder
research and clinical practice are embedded within (e.g., Pitts, 1971) despite the absence of evidence.
a broader social, political, and economic system. The growing popularity of this idea was quickly
Governments (e.g., career politicians in charge recognized by exercise scientists as a potential
of departments of health), guideline developers impediment to efforts to introduce exercise in
(e.g., panels of experts, many with disclosed or clinical practice. William Morgan, who is widely
undisclosed conflicts of interest), health insurers recognized as the father of exercise psychology in
Physical Activity and Mental Health in the Era of Evidence-Based Medicine 355
North America, conducted the first studies con- best be described as a potpourri of speculations” (p.
ceived as a direct response to Pitts and McClure. 374), and the “studies of physical fitness effects on
In their introduction, Morgan, Roberts, and psychological health are poorly designed” (p. 386).
Feinerman (1971) wrote that, although Pitts and A psychiatrist agreed, stating that “the enthusiastic
McClure “imply that physical activity may evoke support of exercise to improve mental health has
undesirable psychologic changes,” numerous anec- a limited empirical basis and lacks a welltested
dotal observations suggest otherwise: “ ‘Normal’ rationale” (Hughes, 1984, p. 76).
individuals invariably report that they feel better
following physical activity” (p. 423). Contrary to The 1990s
expectations, however, anxiety and depression
scores after treadmill and cycling exercise did not Views continued to diverge during the 1990s. One of
differ from scores after supine rest in those initial the chapters in the landmark report by the surgeon
studies. Nevertheless, Morgan et al. (1971) insisted general in the United States on physical activity and
that “even though significant psychologic changes public health was devoted to the benefits for mental
were not observed, the majority of the subjects health (United States Department of Health and
tested in these studies reported that the exercise Human Services, 1996). The committee of experts
bouts were exhilarating and they ‘felt better’ fol- who compiled the report concluded that “physical
lowing the exercise” (p. 425). The failure to detect activity interventions have benefitted persons from
this anecdotally reported “feel-better” effect was the general population who report mood distur-
attributed to the questionnaires used. bance, including symptoms of anxiety and depres-
Using new measures that first became available sion, as well as patients who have been diagnosed
at that time, namely the StateTrait Anxiety Inven- with non-bipolar, non-psychotic depression” (p.
tory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) 136). Only 3 years later, the first-ever report by the
and the Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr, surgeon general on mental health was published
& Droppleman, 1971), Morgan (1973) subsequently (United States Department of Health and Human
reported another series of small studies in which Services, 1999). Physical activity and exercise
exercise was indeed found to result in reductions were not listed among the recognized methods of
in state anxiety and mood disturbance. These new treatment for anxiety and depression, a designa-
findings enabled Morgan (1973) to proclaim that tion that was assigned only to psychotherapy and
these data “seriously challenge the PittsMcClure pharmacotherapy. Physical activity was mentioned
hypothesis” because they demonstrated that “mus- as one of an “ever expanding list” of “informal”
cular exertion reduces, not increases, state anxiety” interventions for coping with stressful life events,
(p. 114). alongside “religious and spiritual endeavors” and
“complementary healers” (p. 232).
The 1980s
The 2000s
The first studies by Morgan inspired numerous
similar studies by other investigators. By the 1980s, At the turn of the 21st century, as public and pri-
the “feel-better” effects of exercise had come to be vate health care systems tried to control escalating
regarded by exercise scientists as almost self-evi- costs, physical activity and exercise recaptured
dent. Morgan (1981) confidently asserted that “the the interest of researchers and policymakers as
‘feeling better’ sensation that accompanies regular potential cost-effective treatments. For example, the
physical activity is so obvious that it is one of the Somerset Health Authority, a regional health board
few universally accepted benefits of exercise” (p. in southwest England, commissioned a systematic
306). Far from being universally accepted, however, review of the evidence on the effects of exercise on
the psychological benefits of exercise were seen mental health. Particularly for depression, the panel
as dubious by other scientists. For example, in a of experts, consisting of distinguished exercise
high-profile review published in American Psychol- scientists, concluded that “the evidence is strong
ogist, two psychologists commented that, although enough for us to conclude that there is support for
“the psychological benefits of fitness training, a causal link between physical activity and reduced
especially jogging, have been propagandized by clinically defined depression,” emphasizing that
the popular press” (Folkins & Sime, 1981, p. 373), “this is the first time such a statement has been
the “status of theorizing about the processes that made” (Biddle, Fox, Boutcher, & Faulkner, 2000,
might explain physical fitness training effects can p. 155).
356 Ekkekakis
At the same time, however, the conclusions In the case of anxiety, one meta-analysis sum-
of a meta-analysis published in the prestigious marizing 7 RCTs found a pooled effect of 0.02 (95%
British Medical Journal by an epidemiologist and confidence interval from −0.20 to 0.24). The authors
a psychiatrist were very different. Despite finding thus concluded that the evidence indicates “no
that exercise reduced depression much more than significant benefit of aerobic exercise for the treat-
control treatments (pooled effect size of 1.1), Lawlor ment of anxiety disorders” (Bartley, Hay, & Bloch,
and Hopker (2001) argued that “the effectiveness 2013, p. 38). Moreover, according to the analysis,
of exercise in reducing symptoms of depression “evidence-based treatments of anxiety disorders
cannot be determined because of a lack of good (cognitive behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy)
quality research on clinical populations with ade- have outperformed aerobic exercise in the few trials
quate follow up” (p. 1). In fact, a synopsis of the that compared them head to head” (p. 38). Therefore,
meta-analysis in the opening pages of that issue discussing the clinical implications of their analysis,
of the journal (“This Week in the BMJ”) appeared the authors stated that “current evidence does not
under the striking title “Effectiveness of Exercise support the use of aerobic exercise as a primary
in Managing Depression Is Not Shown by Meta- treatment for the symptoms of anxiety disorders”
Analysis.” Although this negative portrayal of the (p. 38). On the other hand, a systematic review on
evidence has been criticized as inconsistent with the same subject examined 12 RCTs and reached a
the actual data (Brosse, Sheets, Lett, & Blumenthal, different conclusion: “The majority of studies con-
2002; Callaghan, 2004; Landers & Arent, 2007; cluded that, as a treatment for elevated anxiety or
Mutrie, 2002; Rethorst, Wipfli, & Landers, 2009), the anxiety disorders, exercise offers benefits compara-
meta-analysis by Lawlor and Hopker (2001) remains ble to established treatments, including medication
one of the most oft-cited articles on the subject. or cognitive behavioral therapy, and better than
those of placebo or waitlist control” (Stonerock, Hoff-
man, Smith, & Blumenthal, 2015, p. 551). Thus, the
Current State of Affairs authors stated that, despite certain methodological
Divergent or even contradictory assessments of the limitations, “exercise could be a useful, affordable,
evidence are still common and cover a wide range of accessible treatment for anxiety” (p. 553).
mental health outcomes. In the case of depression, In the case of cognitive health, a topic of
a meta-analysis of 13 RCTs examining the effects of extraordinary societal concern, the divergence
exercise on clinically diagnosed depression found between various assessments of the evidence base
a pooled effect of −0.40 (95% confidence interval is similarly striking. Working under the auspices
from −0.66 to −0.14), which approximates what is of the Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
commonly considered a medium effect (0.50). The tion, a panel of experts from medicine and public
authors, however, concluded that “exercise at most health evaluated 30 studies (22 RCTs) examining
has a small benefit in relieving symptoms of depres- whether physical activity and exercise interventions
sion in patients with clinically diagnosed depression can maintain or improve the cognitive function
in the short term” (Krogh, Nordentoft, Sterne, & of community-dwelling older adults. The panel
Lawlor, 2011, p. 535) and “the available evidence does specifically “considered whether [the evidence] is
not support the use of exercise for long-term benefit sufficient to support public health interventions
in patients with clinically diagnosed depression” (p. and clinician recommendations of exercise for
537). On the other hand, another meta-analysis of preserving or improving cognition in older adults”
13 RCTs, also purporting to summarize the effects (Snowden et al., 2011, p. 714). The conclusion was
of exercise on individuals with depression, found that “the available data from these intervention
a pooled effect of −0.77 (95% confidence interval studies were insufficient for determining whether
from −1.14 to −0.41), which is commonly consid- physical activity or exercise interventions improve
ered a large effect. The authors concluded that their cognition in older adults” (p. 714), in large measure
analysis showed “a significant large overall effect due to methodological shortcomings such as lack of
favoring exercise intervention” and a “moderate” blinding and intention-to-treat analyses. Similarly,
effect “when only studies with high methodological another systematic review of 12 RCTs also found
quality were included in the analysis” (Josefsson, “no evidence in the available data from RCTs that
Lindwall, & Archer, 2014, p. 259). Accordingly, they aerobic physical activities, including those which
stated that “physical exercise may be recommended successfully improve cardiorespiratory fitness, have
to the mildly and moderately depressed individual” any cognitive benefit in cognitively healthy older
(p. 270). adults” (Young, Angevaren, Rusted, & Tabet, 2015,
p. 2). Regarding Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive Although disagreements between scientists are
impairment, the summary statement from the con- common and unsurprising, it could be argued that
sensus conference convened by the National Insti- a 50-year history of discrepant views is remark-
tutes of Health was also unenthusiastic. Physical able and worthy of investigation in its own right.
activity was grouped together with “other leisure Large-scale efforts in recent years have been aimed
activities,” such as club membership, attendance of at reducing ambiguities in reporting, reviewing,
religious services, painting, and gardening. Refer- and interpreting scientific data. Prominent initia-
encing an earlier version of the aforementioned sys- tives include the development of the Consolidated
tematic review by Young et al. (2015), the available Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT; Boutron
data were characterized as merely “preliminary” et al., 2008; Calvert et al., 2013; Schulz, Altman,
(Daviglus et al., 2010, p. 180). & Moher, 2010), the Preferred Reporting Items for
This portrayal of the evidence was widely crit- Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses (PRISMA;
icized. Flicker, Liu-Ambrose, and Kramer (2011) Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009), and the
characterized the report by the National Institutes Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Devel-
of Health as reflecting a “very negative view” (p. opment, and Evaluation (GRADE; Guyatt, Oxman,
465) that contrasts sharply with what they per- Schünemann, Tugwell, & Knottnerus, 2011; Guyatt
ceived as “a large and relatively consistent pool et al., 2008). With these safeguards in place, how is
of animal and human data” (p. 466). Going even it still possible for different groups of investigators
further a few years later, these authors asserted that to address the same question, review the same liter-
“current evidence strongly suggests that exercise ature, but arrive at strikingly different conclusions?
does have benefits for cognition—and critically, The answer lies in a concept as old as science itself,
the magnitude of the benefit can exceed that of namely bias (Ioannidis, 2005).
pharmaceutical approaches” (Nagamatsu et al., It is uncontroversial to suggest that most exercise
2014, p. 944). Similarly, Ahlskog, Geda, Graff-Rad- scientists are also unapologetic exercise advocates.
ford, and Petersen (2011) argued that the “National The literature contains many examples of overinter-
Institutes of Health State of the Science Statement pretation of results from cross-sectional or observa-
took a nihilistic view of exercise as a disease-mod- tional surveys, poorly controlled experiments, and
ifying influence on cognition or dementing illness” meta-analyses of small, methodologically weak,
(p. 877). Examining a much wider swath of data, and heterogeneous studies (Ekkekakis, 2008, 2013b;
including results from animal and human neuro- Ekkekakis & Backhouse, 2009). As Salmon (2001)
scientific investigations, the authors emphasized has justly pointed out, claims for the benefits of
that exercise uniquely offers the dual advantage of exercise for mental health “have tended to antici-
attenuating the progression of neurodegenerative pate rather than reflect the accumulation of strong
processes (while also facilitating neuroplasticity) evidence” (p. 36). In recent years, however, specific
and countering the effect of vascular risk factors. social, political, and economic circumstances have
They argued that “exercise should not be over- contributed to the emergence of notable signs of
looked as an important therapeutic strategy” (p. antiexercise bias in the medical literature (Naci &
876). Considering the totality of the emerging data Ioannidis, 2013). These represent a new reality that
(e.g., Farina, Rusted, & Tabet, 2014; Groot et al., has yet to be fully acknowledged and discussed.
2016; Prakash, Voss, Erickson, & Kramer, 2015),
the Alzheimer’s Association issued a statement
reflecting a sense of exasperation: “The evidence Appeal and Shortcomings
has now reached a point that it can no longer remain
simply an exercise in academic discussion. The
of Evidence-Based Medicine
public should know what the science concludes” Modern medical practice is expected to be based
(Baumgart, Snyder, Carrillo, Fazio, Kim, & Johns, on the principle of EBM (Guyatt, Rennie, Meade, &
2015, p. 722). Specifically, Cook, 2015; Straus, Glasziou, Richardson, & Haynes,
2011), a movement that formally first appeared
The Association believes there is sufficiently
in the 1990s (Evidence-Based Medicine Working
strong evidence, from a population-based
perspective, to conclude that regular physical Group, 1992; Sackett & Rosenberg, 1995; Sackett,
activity and management of cardiovascular risk Rosenberg, Gray, Haynes, Richardson, 1996).
factors (diabetes, obesity, smoking, and hyper- Although its rise has not been without resistance
tension) reduce the risk of cognitive decline and (Gupta, 2003; Miles, Polychronis, & Grey, 2006;
may reduce the risk of dementia. (p. 718) Williams & Garner, 2002), it has been meteoric.
358 Ekkekakis
Today, EBM has become the de facto standard in systematic reviews, meta-analyses, RCTs) when
most fields of health care (Montori & Guyatt, 2008). issuing clinical practice guidelines. In an idealized
Therefore, for physical activity and exercise to be EBM scenario, clinicians would consult the latest
integrated in treatment pathways for mental health evidence-based guideline or the latest systematic
disorders, the first step is that the supporting evi- review or meta-analysis on the condition of interest,
dence must be recognized by guideline development identify the treatment option that has been found
panels and prescribing physicians as convincing in to be the most effective and safe, and proceed with
terms of efficacy and safety (primarily), as well as the treatment of patients.
acceptability, effectiveness (i.e., efficacy demon- The main appeal of EBM is the promise that
strated in real-world, pragmatic settings), and cost it can help eliminate arbitrary clinical decisions
effectiveness. and instead promote decisions based on research
Because exercise science curricula typically do evidence (e.g., Antman, Lau, Kupelnick, Mosteller,
not contain modules on EBM (or evidence-based & Chalmers, 1992). Despite this potential strength,
practice, more broadly), many exercise scientists however, the real-world implementation of EBM
may remain unaware of how evidence is defined has caused many researchers and practitioners to
within the EBM framework (Amonette, English, view EBM with skepticism. A crucial problem is
& Ottenbacher, 2010; Elder, Pujol, & Barnes, 2003; that, within the EBM framework, clinical practice
Faulkner, Taylor, Ferrence, Munro, & Selby, 2006). hinges on the quality of the evidence and, as is
This lack of awareness of EBM rules may explain becoming increasingly clear, the findings of a large
the numerous expressions of frustration about portion of the medical research literature must be
the failure of physical activity and exercise to be considered invalid (Ioannidis, 2005). For example,
introduced in clinical practice in the field of mental a recent critical evaluation of 185 meta-analyses
health (Berk, 2007; Callaghan, 2004; Daley, 2002; on the effectiveness of antidepressants (i.e., the
Donaghy, 2007; Donaghy & Taylor, 2010; Faulkner pinnacle of the EBM hierarchy of evidence) found
& Biddle, 2001; Otto, Church, Craft, Greer, Smits, that those meta-analyses that included an author
& Trivedi, 2007; Richardson, Faulkner, McDevitt, affiliated with the manufacturer of the drug being
Skrinar, Hutchinson, & Piette, 2005; Stanton, evaluated were 22-fold less likely to include negative
Rosenbaum, Kalucy, Reaburn, & Happell, 2015; statements about the drug than other meta-analyses
Stathopoulou, Powers, Berry, Smits, & Otto, 2006; (Ebrahim, Bance, Athale, Malachowski, & Ioan-
Tkachuk & Martin, 1999). For example, evidence nidis, 2016). Examples of RCTs tainted by financial
from basic neuroscientific research with animal and other conflicts of interest abound, some even
models, no matter how intriguing, is not considered having resulted in fraud charges and well-publi-
evidence within the EBM framework. Correlational cized multibillion-dollar settlements (e.g., Le Noury
studies, whether cross-sectional or prospective, et al., 2015; Lexchin, 2012).
are viewed as having minimal value as a basis for
treatment and are thus typically ignored by EBM
guideline developers. Likewise, satisfying the cri-
teria for demonstrating causation (Hill, 1965) is of
little relevance within EBM.
EBM has formalized its own hierarchy of evi- Systematic reviews,
dence (see figure 19.1). At the top of the hierarchy, meta-analyses
signifying the strongest types of evidence, are Randomized controlled
systematic reviews and meta-analyses of RCTs. trials (RCTs)
Just below are multiple large (ideally, multicenter) Cohort
RCTs with consistent results. At the bottom of the studies
hierarchy, signifying the weakest types of evi- Case-control
dence, are clinical observations and the opinions studies
of experts. Scientific organizations, such as the
Case series,
American Psychiatric Association, and independent case reports
review bodies, such as the Agency for Healthcare
Editorials, expert opinions,
Research and Quality in the United States and the anecdotal observations
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
in the United Kingdom, typically seek evidence Figure 19.1 The hierarchy of evidence recognized within the
only from the top levels of the hierarchy (i.e., EBM framework.
E6768/Horn/F19.01/581241/mh-R1
Most Clinicians Are Not Trained experienced reviewers needed up to 12 hr to extract

the necessary information to conduct a proper inde-
to Conduct Meaningful pendent appraisal of the methodological quality of
Critical Appraisals studies included in a systematic review (Oxman,
2004). This figure must be considered in conjunc-
Another challenge in the implementation of EBM
tion with the estimate that, on average, 75 new RCTs
is that the push for RCTs, systematic reviews, and
and 11 clinically relevant systematic reviews are
meta-analyses has introduced an assortment of sta-
published in the literature daily (Bastian, Glasziou,
tistical concepts and a technical lexicon unfamiliar
& Chalmers, 2010).
to most clinicians. Surveys indicate that neither
medical students (e.g., Caspi et al., 2006; Lai & Teng,
2011; Windish, Huot, & Green, 2007) nor practicing The “Safeguard” of Peer Review
physicians (e.g., Freeman & Sweeney, 2001; Godwin EBM relies heavily on the peer review system as
& Seguin, 2003; Shuval, Shachak, Linn, Brezis, & the guarantor of evidence quality and integrity, but
Reis, 2007; Young, Glasziou, & Ward, 2002) possess the bias and unreliability of the peer review system
the methodological and statistical knowledge that have been extensively documented (e.g., Kravitz et
would enable them to meaningfully evaluate RCTs, al., 2010; Rothwell & Martyn, 2000). Peer reviewers
systematic reviews, or meta-analyses (see the side- report devoting less than 3 hr to a manuscript cri-
bar Can There Be a Shortcut to Critical Appraisal?). tique (Lock & Smith, 1990; Snell & Spencer, 2005;
Moreover, for most clinicians, the expectation Yankauer, 1990). Readers of systematic reviews
that they must consult and critically appraise and meta-analyses probably assume that reviewers
research evidence as a routine part of their daily and editors have verified at least the most essential
practice is perceived as unrealistic (Ghali, Saitz, pieces of information (e.g., that effect sizes were
Sargious, & Hershman, 1999; McAlister, Graham, calculated correctly and the pooled effect reported
Karr, & Laupacis, 1999; McColl, Smith, White, & in the analysis is, therefore, accurate). Verification
Field, 1998). Physicians report spending approxi- of effect sizes, however, is rare (Vintzileos, Carvajal,
mately 20 min reading a research article (Tenopir, & Islam, 2013). Reviewers report that they do this
King, Clarke, Na, & Zhou, 2007) but, when timed, “never” (67%) or “infrequently” (19%). Thus, up to
this turns out to be closer to 3 to 5 min (Alper et 70% of systematic reviews and meta-analyses have
al., 2004). In approximately two-thirds of the cases, been found to contain errors of various degrees of
physicians read only the abstract and acknowledge severity (Gøtzsche, Hróbjartsson, Maric, & Tendal,
that they rely on peer reviewers and journal editors 2007; Jones, Remmington, Williamson, Ashby, &
to ensure that studies are methodologically sound Smyth, 2005; Tendal et al., 2009).
(Saint et al., 2000). To put the 3 to 5 or even 20 In sum, although EBM emerged with undoubt-
min into perspective, according to one estimate, edly good intentions and is commonly portrayed as
Can There Be a Shortcut to Critical Appraisal?

EBM leaders recognize that bias in the medical literature can undermine the EBM movement. Because educating
all clinicians on the intricacies of research methodology is not a realistic immediate goal, two solutions have been
devised, each with considerable limitations.
First is the appearance of several so-called secondary journals (e.g., Evidence-Based Mental Health) that present
summaries of RCTs and meta-analyses written by staff writers or invited commentators. These summaries offer at
least some evaluative remarks but, predictably, are also susceptible to errors and bias.
Second, some EBM proponents encourage bare-bones appraisals focusing on only a few key methodological
features, namely whether (a) group allocation was concealed (e.g., randomization took place at a remote site, the
randomization sequence was secured in a locked file, and randomization information was contained in sealed and
opaque, sequentially numbered envelopes), (b) the statistical analyses followed the intention-to-treat principle (i.e.,
all participants were analyzed in the groups to which they were initially allocated), and (c) outcome assessors were
blinded to group allocation. Medical informatics specialists have even proposed that the process can be automated
by software, parsing text for keywords such as “randomized,” “concealment,” and “intention-to-treat.” Critics counter
that this trend trivializes the process of critical appraisal.
360 Ekkekakis
a moral imperative in all fields of health care, its implications of this finding, it is unsurprising that
practical implementation is hindered by substantial the meta-analysis was vehemently criticized by
challenges. The success of the movement in the authors with ties to the pharmaceutical industry
coming decades will hinge on whether the advo- (e.g., Fountoulakis & Möller, 2011). Neverthe-
cates of “healthy” EBM will succeed in establishing less, this finding was confirmed in a subsequent
adequate defenses against the rising specter of bias. meta-analysis using patient-level data (Fournier et
The following sections illustrate these challenges. al., 2010). Second, using Freedom of Information Act
The application of exercise as a potential treatment requests to obtain documents from the U.S. Food
for depression serves as an apt and instructive and Drug Administration (FDA), Turner, Matthews,
example of the processes that may be triggered Linardatos, Tell, and Rosenthal (2008) revealed
when a noncommercial treatment enters an arena that pharmaceutical companies had manipulated
long dominated by for-profit treatments. evidence on the efficacy of antidepressants by selec-
tively publishing data that demonstrated efficacy,
withholding data that did not, and presenting nega-
Depression tive results as if they were positive. Compared with
as an Illustrative Case the complete data set held by the FDA, published
data reflected an average inflation of the effect size
Depression is the leading cause of years lived with compared with placebo of 32%, with a range from
disability globally (Lopez, Mathers, Ezzati, Jami- 11% to 69% for individual drugs.
son, & Murray, 2006) and is projected to become Several health care systems seeking to lower
the leading cause of disability in high-income coun- costs responded to these reports by instituting
tries by 2030 (Mathers & Loncar, 2006). Given the “stepped care” (or “stepped collaborative care”)
impact of depression on global health, evaluations approaches for the treatment of depression. In
of methods for its treatment are commonly featured these models of care, people with subthreshold,
in the most prestigious medical journals. One might mild, or moderate depressive symptoms (i.e., most
reasonably surmise that such evaluations would be patients with depressive symptoms in primary care)
subjected to the strictest standards of peer review, should be offered low-intensity treatments, such as
both before and after publication. software-delivered psychotherapy, self-help books,
As noted in the introduction, developing an and physical activity. Costlier and more intensive
understanding of the societal, political, and eco- options, namely antidepressant drugs and face-to-
nomic context in which research is embedded is face psychotherapy, should be limited mainly to
crucial. Ioannidis (2005), in his provocatively titled cases of severe depression.
article “Why Most Published Research Findings Specifically, the guideline by the National Collab-
Are False,” pointed out that bias is not distributed orating Centre for Mental Health and the National
uniformly across research fields. Rather, certain Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2010)
circumstances raise the risk of bias. For example, in England states that “for people with persistent
“the greater the financial and other interests and sub-threshold depressive symptoms or mild to
prejudices in a scientific field, the less likely the moderate depression,” physicians should offer “a
research findings are to be true” (p. 698). With this structured group physical activity program” (p.
in mind, it should be emphasized that clinically 213) as one of the low-intensity treatment options.
relevant research on possible exercise benefits is Similarly, the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines
not being published during a neutral period but Network (2010) states that “structured exercise may
rather at a time of unprecedented activity and be considered as a treatment option for patients
interest in the role of exercise in medicine (Jonas with depression” (p. 10). The guideline issued by
& Phillips, 2009). the American Psychiatric Association (Gelenberg
For the treatment of depression, 2008 was a et al., 2010) does not explicitly mention exercise as
watershed year, punctuated by two publications that part of the treatment pathway. Nevertheless, using
set in motion major developments on a global scale. language that has been criticized as “vague” (Cos-
First, a meta-analysis by Kirsch et al. (2008) showed grove et al., 2012), the text states that “if a patient
that popular new-generation antidepressant drugs with mild depression wishes to try exercise alone
(fluoxetine, venlafaxine, nefazodone, paroxetine) for several weeks as a first intervention, there is
were no more effective than placebo for patients little to argue against it” (p. 30).
with mild and moderate initial depressive symptom Despite these guidelines, there is no indication
severity. Given the enormous ethical and economic that physical activity and exercise are presented
as treatment options by physicians. An analysis of account that the treatment of depression has always
patient records from the National Health Service been a lucrative market for commercial therapies,
(NHS) in England contains no mention of physical namely pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. A
activity (Richards et al., 2012). In other coun- survey in France illustrates the typical distribution
tries, physicians report dispensing general advice of market shares in the absence of a stepped-care
regarding physical activity but are reluctant to refer model (Dumesnil et al., 2012): 82.6% of general
patients to exercise as treatment for depression practitioners prescribe pharmacotherapy, either
(Hermens, Muntingh, Franx, van Splunteren, & alone (44.4%) or in combination with face-to-face
Nuyen, 2014). There appears to be “considerable psychotherapy (38.2%). Although exercise currently
reluctance in some parts of the medical commu- claims no part of the depression treatment market,
nity to acknowledge the benefits of exercise in the it has the potential to be a competitor mainly
treatment of depression” (Kirsch, 2010, p. 172). because of the cost and risks associated with
This reluctance may stem, in part, from ignorance. current treatment options. For most patients, anti-
Surveys in the United Kingdom (Weiler, Chew, depressant drugs do not lead to remission despite
Coombs, Hamer, & Stamatakis, 2012), the United an array of adverse side effects. Psychotherapy
States (Cardinal, Park, Kim, & Cardinal, 2015; is expensive and often inaccessible, especially at
Connaughton, Weiler, & Connaughton, 2001), and rural locations. Thus, many patients seek options
Canada (Vallance, Wylie, & MacDonald, 2009) show that are safe, inexpensive, and easily accessible.
that exercise (i.e., its principles of testing and pre- Physical activity and exercise could be well-suited
scription, its clinical applications, its physiology, options for such patients. In an extensive survey of
and certainly its neurobiology) is not covered to any patients diagnosed with depression, exercise was
meaningful extent in medical curricula. judged to be as effective as the most effective anti-
Another possibility worth considering is that depressant (venlafaxine) and as having the highest
physicians are exposed to confusing and contra- benefit-to-burden ratio among the 30 most common
dictory messages about the extent and quality of (formal and informal) antidepressant treatments
the research evidence. Like clinical psychologists (Parker & Crawford, 2007).
in an earlier survey (Faulkner & Biddle, 2001), The introduction of stepped-care approaches
physicians report being unaware of any evidence to treatment in major markets, such as the United
supporting a beneficial role of physical activity and Kingdom, has raised concerns among the pharma-
exercise in treating depression (Searle et al., 2012; ceutical and psychotherapeutic industries. Authors
Stanton, Franck, Reaburn, & Happell, 2015). Even who acknowledge serving on the speaker bureaus
physicians who agreed to participate in a clinical of pharmaceutical companies, for example, have
trial investigating the effects of physical activity on asserted that “there is no scientific ground to deny
depression reported that they were “not aware of mildly depressed patients the use of antidepres-
any evidence that would assist their clinical judg- sants” (Fountoulakis, Veroniki, Siamouli, & Möller,
ment in recommending physical activity to patients 2013, p. 8). These authors characterized any guide-
presenting with depression” (Searle et al., 2012, p. line recommending “the utilization of ‘alternative’
16). Therefore, statements reinforcing the impres- treatment options (e.g., exercise and psychotherapy)
sion that evidence on the antidepressant effects of in mildly depressed patients and pharmacotherapy
exercise is nonexistent or equivocal probably play only for the most severe cases” as “mistaken” (p.
a role in sustaining the unwillingness of physicians 1). The same authors assert that “the data on the
to prescribe exercise. For example, commenting on efficacy of exercise are either negative or do not
the guideline of the American Psychiatric Associa- exist” (Fountoulakis & Möller, 2012, p. 745) or “do
tion, critics have pointed out that “the lack of cited not exist at all” (Fountoulakis, Samara, & Siamouli,
supporting evidence in the executive summary, 2014, p. 113).
exclusion of exercise as a recommendation for Following the publication of the stepped-care
mild to moderate depression in the Recommended guideline by the National Collaborating Centre for
Modalities for Treatment figure, and the wording Mental Health and the National Institute for Health
(i.e. ‘little to argue against it’) suggest that the and Clinical Excellence (2010) in the United King-
clinician should not consider exercise as a firstline dom, a series of RCTs and meta-analyses claiming
intervention even for mild depression” (Cosgrove et to show that physical activity and exercise have
al., 2012, p. 187). no effect on depression began to appear in lead-
When considering possible motives in promoting ing medical journals (Blake, 2012; Schuch & de
confusion among physicians, one should take into Almeida Fleck, 2013). Most were conducted in the
362 Ekkekakis
United Kingdom or were the products of collabora- not be given as standard. Indeed, recommend-
tions between British and other European medical ing exercise to very depressed patients may
researchers. The fact that the United Kingdom worsen any thoughts of “failure” if they are
appears to be the common denominator of most unable to comply with the recommendation.
of these studies could be due to various reasons, (Daley & Jolly, 2012, p. 2)
including that the NHS, because of its prominence,
is a closely monitored test case. If physical activity Similarly, according to an opinion piece in the Jour-
and exercise demonstrate cost effectiveness within nal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh,
the NHS, other health care systems around the globe “based on the results of this clinical trial, clinicians
would likely seek to adopt the same model. should not advise people with depression that physi-
cal activity will increase their chances of recovering
from depression” (Mead, 2012, p. 325). Targeting the
The Unprecedented Case news media and the public at large, a press release
of the TREAD-UK Trial by the University of Bristol (2012) quoted a senior
Arguably one of the most intriguing publicity cam- investigator as saying that “this carefully designed
paigns in which physical activity was portrayed as research study has shown that exercise does not
ineffective in treating depression was the one that appear to be effective in treating depression.” In
accompanied the publication of the results from the conventional EBM scenario, the results of RCTs
the TREAD-UK trial in the British Medical Jour- undergo careful peer review, both before and after
nal (Chalder et al., 2012a). The TREAD-UK was a publication, and are subjected to additional critical
large RCT (N = 361) designed to investigate, per appraisal by guideline development panels and indi-
its protocol, “whether physical activity can be an vidual clinicians before reaching clinical practice.
effective treatment for depression within primary However, the nexus between clinical research and
care” (Baxter et al., 2010, p. 6). It was a two-arm the mass media has created an alternate pathway
trial, in which one arm received usual care and the that permits the wide dissemination of potentially
other received usual care plus a physical activity biased interpretations of RCT results to recipients
facilitation intervention, the aim of which was to with limited ability for meaningful critical appraisal
encourage participants to perform 150 minutes of (see figure 19.2).
moderate or vigorous activity per week. Usual care In fact, the results of the TREAD-UK trial dif-
consisted of the full range of treatments available fered substantively from media portrayals. The
within the NHS, namely pharmacotherapy, refer- researchers had hoped that the physical activity
rals to psychotherapy, specialized mental health facilitation intervention would successfully manip-
services, and, importantly, even exercise-on-pre- ulate the level of physical activity. This, however,
scription programs. The authors concluded that did not happen; the two arms of the trial did not
“there was no evidence that participants offered differ significantly in the proportion of participants
the physical activity intervention reported improve- classified as physically active. Thus, it became clear
ment in mood” despite the fact that “participants that the trial could not fulfill its stated purpose (i.e.,
allocated to the intervention group reported more investigate “whether physical activity can be an
physical activity during the followup period than effective treatment for depression within primary
those allocated to the usual care group” (Chalder care”). This failure led to certain unorthodox steps,
et al., 2012a, p. 1). These claims were publicized including a deviation of the analytic procedures
by a multipronged media campaign. from those specified in the published trial protocol
In editorials aimed at physicians in England and a revision of the independent variable of the
and Scotland, invited commentators argued that trial in the trial registry.
the results of the TREAD-UK trial necessitate the Specifically, per the trial protocol, the physical
rescission of the guideline that recommended activity data would be analyzed by (a) an intergroup
physical activity as an option for the treatment of comparison “at 4 month followup” (the primary
depression. According to an editorial in the British outcome endpoint) and (b) “in a repeated measures
Medical Journal, analysis conducted using 4, 8 and 12 month fol-
lowup data” (Baxter et al., 2010, p. 5). Both planned
for patients who are well managed on usual analyses were nonsignificant (p = 0.08 and p =
drugs or psychological treatments (or both), 0.71, respectively) because the proportion of phys-
advice and support to be physically active does ically active participants increased substantially
not seem to offer additional benefit and should in both groups (see figure 19.3). Deviating from
Alternate pathway
Message Beliefs of
Press dissemination physicians,
release through patients, policy
mass media* makers*
Publication
Conventional EBM pathway
Evidence Guideline
Influence
Prepublication Postpublication development
RCT synthesis with on clinical
peer review peer review with critical
critical appraisal practice
appraisal
Figure 19.2 Conventional EBM pathway and alternate pathway to influencing clinical practice. RCT = randomized controlled trials;
* = agents with limited or no ability for critical appraisal.
E6768/Horn/F19.02/581242/mh-R4
the protocol, the researchers found a significant 100

intergroup difference only after collapsing the Physical activity facilitation
physical activity data from all three followup time Usual care
>1,000 MET • minutes per week (%)
points. Although this statistical analysis cannot 80

support this conclusion, the researchers neverthe-
less claimed that “the intervention increased self 63
60 58
reported physical activity and this effect was sus-
52
tained for 12 months” (Chalder et al., 2012a, p. 7).
Moreover, the study hypothesis in the trial regis- 49
40
try (isrctn.com/ISRCTN16900744) was revised, from 43
40
“Does physical activity . . . change the outcome in 27
depression” to “Does facilitated physical activity,”
20 25
thus retroactively replacing the independent vari-
able of the study. When confronted by critics about
Group by time interaction p=0.71
the misleading portrayal of the trial results in the 0
media, the lead investigator responded: “We did not Baseline 4 months 8 months 12 months
evaluate ‘exercise’ or even ‘physical activity’ but the Time
effect of our intervention on depression. The head-
Figure 19.3 Proportion of participants characterized as phys-
line that ‘exercise is no help for depression’ clearly ically active (>1,000 MET-minutes per week) in the two arms of
goes beyond our findings” (Lewis, 2012, p. 1). How- TREAD-UK. E6768/Horn/F19.03/581243/mh-R2
ever, none of the statements by the investigators to Data from Chalder et al. (2012a).
the press regarding the alleged ineffectiveness of
“exercise” was retracted or corrected.
Greater insight is gained when the results are same time, using the same design (usual care versus
juxtaposed to trials investigating various forms usual care plus intervention), the same outcome
of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), including measure of depression, and with patients reporting
CBT delivered via the Internet (Kessler et al., 2009), similar baseline levels of depression. All trials led
through self-help books (Williams et al., 2013), and to the conclusion that the addition of CBT to usual
in face-to-face sessions (Wiles et al., 2013). These care significantly improved effectiveness. The jux-
trials are comparable to TREAD-UK because they taposition demonstrates that the usual-care group
were conducted by overlapping groups of investi- from TREAD-UK was remarkably more effective
gators in the United Kingdom at approximately the than the usual-care groups from the other trials,
364 Ekkekakis
achieving levels of effectiveness comparable with, fact, received “unusual care” (Freedland, Mohr,
or even better than, that of usual-care-plus-CBT Davidson, & Schwartz, 2011), somehow increasing
groups (see figure 19.4). This result suggests that its antidepressant effectiveness to extraordinary
the usual-care group of the TREAD-UK trial, in levels (also see Stubbs et al., 2016).
35
Chalder et al. (2012b) PA Facilitation
Kessler et al. (2009) Internet-delivered CBT
Wiles et al. (2013) Face-to-face CBT
Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) score
30 Williams et al. (2013) Guided self-help CBT
Severe
25
20
Moderate
15
Minimal
Reference healthy college student sample

10
Baseline 4 months 6 months 8 months 12 months
Time
35
E6768/Horn/F19.04a/581244/mh-R2 Chalder et al. (2012b) Usual care
Kessler et al. (2009) Usual care
Wiles et al. (2013) Usual care
Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) score
30 Williams et al. (2013) Usual care
Severe
25
20
Moderate
15
Minimal
Reference healthy college student sample

10
Baseline 4 months 6 months 8 months 12 months
Time
Figure 19.4 Comparison of TREAD-UK (Chalder et al., 2012b) to comparable RCTs of face-to-face CBT (Wiles et al., 2013), Internet-de-
livered CBT (Kessler et al., 2009), and guided E6768/Horn/F19.04b/581245/mh-R2
self-help (book-based) CBT (Williams et al., 2013).
What may account for the atypical improvement needed, rather than more box ticking” (Iacobucci,
in the usual-care group? By the eighth month (end 2013, p. 1). Among those leading this fight was the
of the intervention), 49.4% of the participants in the general-practice section editor of the British Medical
usual-care group (compared to 63.2% of those in Journal, who approved the TREAD-UK article for
the physical activity facilitation group) exceeded the publication. This editor is on record arguing that
criterion of 1,000 MET-minutes per week for being the promotion of physical activity should not be
considered physically active, a threshold equal to the responsibility of general practitioners: “Let us
222% of the minimum level of physical activity not be foolish enough to accept responsibility for a
commonly recommended for health promotion task we cannot deliver. There are many aspects of
(i.e., 150 minutes × 3 MET = 450 MET-minutes practice where we can make a difference. This is not
per week). This rate of participation is the highest one” (MacAuley, 2006, p. 888). These exhortations
ever recorded in a physical activity promotion aptly illustrate that the context in which research
trial in a primary-care setting (Orrow, Kinmonth, is embedded can influence whether or not evidence
Sanderson, & Sutton, 2012). Although the reasons will translate to clinical practice.
for this are unclear, one might reasonably speculate
that, unlike what they usually do in their daily Other “Negative” RCTs
practice, the primary-care physicians enrolled in
this study did what the guideline recommends. and Meta-Analyses
First, they discussed physical activity as a treat- Although the TREAD-UK trial attracted extraor-
ment option with their patients. Second, they had dinary international attention, it is not the only
the patients complete physical activity logs (four example of the nexus between flawed clinical
times over 12 months), a practice known to prompt research and the mass media. The report on the
more activity, possibly by acting as self-regulatory massive (N = 891) OPERA trial, published in the
feedback (Waters, Reeves, Fjeldsoe, & Eakin, 2012). prestigious medical journal Lancet, concluded that
Consequently, some of the patients who agreed “exercise sessions do not live up to their promise
to participate in the trial but were subsequently as a treatment for depression in elderly residents of
assigned to usual care decided to initiate physical care homes” (Underwood et al., 2013, p. 48). The
activity on their own. Although this crucial piece authors asserted that this “clear and conclusively
of information was omitted from the British Medical negative” result came about despite “robust meth-
Journal article, an unspecified number of usual care odology” and “a strong theoretical grounding” (pp.
patients were “offered exercise prescription schemes 47–48). The accompanying press release by the
by their [general practitioners] as ‘consolation’ for University of Warwick, titled “Exercise Proves to
not being randomized to facilitated physical activ- Be Ineffective Against Care Home Depression,” was
ity” (Chalder et al., 2012b, p. 63). quoted by numerous media outlets. Only later, in
Readers who can appreciate the severity of these a process evaluation, did the authors concede that,
methodological concerns, as well as the discrep- in fact, it was impossible to implement the exercise
ancies between the results of the trial and their intervention as originally planned because the care
portrayal in the press, may wonder how this trial home residents were much older (mean age 86.5
was published in the prestigious British Medical years, range 65–107 years) and more frail than
Journal. It is thus important to point out that at anticipated (Ellard et al., 2014).
the time the TREAD-UK report was undergoing In the Danish DEMO (Krogh, Saltin, Gluud,
peer review, the General Practitioners Committee & Nordentoft, 2009) and DEMO-II trials (Krogh,
of the British Medical Association was engaged Videbech, Thomsen, Gluud, & Nordentoft, 2012),
in intense lobbying to rescind a rule according to researchers compared groups of depressed patients
which general practitioners would receive financial engaged in aerobic or resistance exercise with
incentives from the government if they adminis- groups engaged in other modalities of exercise (e.g.,
tered a short physical activity questionnaire and combinations of stretching, toning, and low-inten-
provided consultation to patients about increasing sity aerobic activities). Although these alternative
their physical activity levels. The physicians argued modalities of exercise were performed up to a level
that the incentive did not fully compensate them for of perceived exertion considered to correspond to
the time required for this procedure. When the rule moderate intensity (i.e., sufficient to stimulate fit-
was rescinded, the decision was hailed as a victory ness gains), the groups were described as control
that would allow general practitioners “to get back groups. Finding that all groups exhibited large
to [their] real job of providing care where it is most and clinically meaningful decreases in depression
366 Ekkekakis
during the treatment periods, the researchers con- from small or poorly controlled studies, regardless
cluded that exercise was ineffective in lowering of the direction of these results. Instead, adequately
depression among depressed adults. A headline powered, placebo-controlled, pragmatic trials are
in the leading Danish newspaper Politiken read urgently needed.
“Common Perception That Exercise Works Against Second, researchers should familiarize them-
Depression Is Wrong” (Thomsen, 2015). selves with the reporting standards recognized
Investigators involved in the TREAD-UK and within EBM, including CONSORT (Calvert et al.,
DEMO trials have also published systematic reviews 2013; Schulz et al., 2010) and PRISMA (Moher et al.,
and meta-analyses on the effects of exercise on 2009). Within the somewhat mechanical approach
depression, consistently concluding that exercise to the evaluation of study quality that has been
has negligible or no beneficial effects (Cooney et established in EBM, the words used in describing
al., 2013; Cooney, Dwan, & Mead, 2014; Krogh et
al., 2011; Krogh, Speyer, Gluud, & Nordentoft, 2015). • how group allocation was concealed,
One reviewer, who disclosed receiving financial • whether the analyses complied with the inten-
support from a pharmaceutical company, told the tion-to-treat principle, and
press: “From a health authority point of view, it is • whether outcome assessors were blinded to
quite clear that with the current knowledge, one group allocation are exceptionally important
should not expect any substantial antidepressant because these elements are often the only
effects of setting up exercise programs for patients criteria used by reviewers in grading study
with depression” (Brooks, 2010). Another reviewer, quality.
interviewed by a global news agency, cautioned
that “one has to be careful saying [exercise] was as Third, the promotion of the critical appraisal
effective as other therapies” (Seaman, 2013). Except skills of students, researchers, peer reviewers, jour-
for some authors characterizing these negative nal editors, granting agency officials, journalists,
statements as unjustified (e.g., Blumenthal & Ong, and the public at large must become a chief strategic
2009), the methods and conclusions of the reviews objective. Instead of shying away from the topic of
have remained unchallenged and their conclu- bias, journal editors, conference organizers, and
sions continue to be cited in the medical literature the leadership of exercise psychology organizations
at a high rate. One critical appraisal, however, should lead initiatives to investigate, expose, and
demonstrated extensive methodological problems prevent bias in research on physical activity and
(Ekkekakis, 2015). Most of these problems stem mental health (see the sidebar The Challenge of
from questionable inclusion and exclusion criteria, Exercise Psychology Achieving Societal Relevance).
a crucial methodological element described by Ioan- Despite ongoing efforts to integrate physical activity
nidis (2010) as “a magnificent tool for selecting the into health care, few exercise science and kinesi-
data that we like, and for reaching the conclusions ology curricula, especially at the undergraduate
that we have already reached before running an level, include courses designed to prepare future
analysis” (p. 170). For example, studies in which one professionals to conduct critical appraisals of RCTs
type of exercise (e.g., aerobic) was compared with and meta-analyses. Curriculum developers should
another (e.g., stretching, toning) were included as consider filling this void as a high-priority agenda
treatment-versus-control studies. On the other hand, item. Resistance to move in this direction stems
several studies in which exercise interventions from the belief that undergraduate students may
resulted in large effects were selectively excluded. be unprepared for advanced methodological and
Reanalyzing the same data set after correcting erro- statistical concepts. However, formats that highlight
neous or arbitrary choices raised the pooled effect the practical implications of these concepts, such
size from medium (0.62) to large (0.90). as the “guided journal club” (Ahmadi, McKenzie,
Maclean, Brown, Mastracci, & McLeod, 2012), may
be appropriate for advanced undergraduate students
Future Research and should be considered.
Recommendations
The following recommendations can be made for Summary
the future. First, researchers interested in the role The introduction of physical activity or exercise in
of physical activity or exercise in mental health clinical guidelines for the treatment of depression
should reassess the value of obtaining more results represents the culmination of research efforts over
The Challenge of Exercise Psychology Achieving Societal Relevance
Approximately half a century after its inception, exercise psychology must establish its societal relevance by devis-
ing effective solutions to important societal problems. Improving public mental health through cost-effective, safe,
and accessible interventions is one avenue toward achieving this strategic objective. As discussed in this chapter,
however, promoting physical activity and exercise in clinical practice is proving difficult and controversial within the
EBM framework. So far, exercise psychology has remained silent, seemingly content in reiterating assertions about
the benefits of exercise for mental health within its own disciplinary books and journals. The exercise psychology
literature contains no acknowledgments of the emergence of contrarian views, no discussions on bias, and no critical
appraisals of RCTs and meta-analyses.
Whatever the underlying reasons, it could be argued that this nonengagement is hindering the cause of achieving
societal relevance. Especially in the United States, kinesiology curricula are among the most popular pathways to
medical and other health-related graduate programs. This circumstance represents a unique opportunity to sensitize
future generations of clinicians not only to the benefits of exercise for mental health but also to the complex processes
fueling antiexercise bias in the clinical research literature (e.g., see Naci & Ioannidis, 2013).
several decades. This historic step, however, has changing global clinical practice norms rarely lends
had no measurable influence on clinical practice itself to simple, straightforward interpretations.
and the behavior of prescribing physicians. This Instead, scrutiny and a healthy dose of skepticism
chapter focused on the misinformation and con- are warranted. As exercise and physical activ-
fusion surrounding the strength and consistency ity move closer to the arena of clinical practice,
of the evidence on the antidepressant effects of the need to equip practitioners with the skill set
physical activity and exercise as a possible culprit. required for critical appraisal will become increas-
The methodological and analytic details of modern ingly apparent.
RCTs and meta-analyses are exceedingly com-
plex, making the prospect of meaningful critical
appraisal by most physicians, and certainly most references
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20
Disability,
Physical Activity,
and Psychological
Well-Being
Jeffrey J. Martin, PhD
Abstract
The primary purpose of this chapter is to discuss sport and exercise psychology research
as it applies to people with physical disabilities. I present work from multiple theoretical
perspectives (e.g., athletic identity), across a range of sport and physical activities (e.g.,
surfing, mountain climbing, wheelchair rugby, Pilates), and as applied to several disabil-
ity conditions (e.g., cerebral palsy, spinal cord injury). Furthermore, the research work
that is reviewed has been conducted with physical activity–based recreation participants,
elite sport competitors (e.g., Paralympians), and injured war veterans (e.g., wounded
warriors). Research findings unique to disability sport and exercise are presented with
the hope of expanding and challenging the readers’ typical views on various topics that
may have been previously informed by research involving only able-bodied people. As the
reader will discern, the effect of an acquired disability along with prior athletic history
has a profound effect on whether people with disabilities engage in sport and assume
an athletic identity or eschew sport completely. For people who do take up sport after an
acquired disability, such as wounded warriors, the psychosocial benefits are numerous
and often life changing. Many knowledge gaps remain, however, and future researchers
are urged to disentangle the processes by which some able-bodied athletes who acquire
a disability refuse to participate in sport whereas other newly disabled people with no
prior sport experience embrace sport. Researchers are also urged to design research that
can determine the precise mechanisms by which sport helps injured military veterans
recover and enjoy strong quality of life.
375
376 Martin
D
isability sport athletes share much in in knowledge and offer suggested directions for
common with all athletes (Martin, 2017; future research.
Martin & McCaughtry, 2004). The excitement
and challenge of competition and the camaraderie
of being part of a team are reasons that all athletes Athletic Identity
participate in sport. Similarly, exercisers with dis-
I do have some friends and family members that
abilities struggle with body image issues just as
because I’m in a wheelchair don’t believe that I
able-bodied people do. But despite the many simi- can ever be an athlete. . . . If I was an NHL goalie,
larities between able-bodied athletes and athletes it still wouldn’t matter, I’d still be, you know, the
with disabilities within sport and physical activity girl in the wheelchair and wouldn’t be an athlete
(PA) settings, many differences exist, ranging from to them.
performance challenges to the marginalization of Spencer-Cavaliere & Peers, 2011, p. 302
disability sport. The challenges involved in the
exercise process (e.g., pushing a wheelchair in the Athletic identity refers to the degree to which a
snow) and the social evaluation processes (e.g., person identifies with the athletic role (Brewer, Van
social physique anxiety) present in health clubs may Raalte, & Linder, 1993). Having a strong athletic
be much more salient for people with a disability. identity as an able-bodied athlete can be protective
The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide when athletes acquire a disability by helping them
a review and commentary on research relative to adjust to their impairment (Hawkins, Coffee, &
the psychological well-being of sport and physical Soundy, 2013). But as the preceding quote suggests,
activity participants with disabilities. Obviously, many athletes with disabilities are not supported
this broad topic could include a range of physical in their athletic endeavors. When significant ele-
activities (e.g., competitive sport, rehabilitation, lei- ments of a person’s identity, such as an athletic
sure), a wide variety of different types of disabilities identity, are invalidated by important others, the
(e.g., intellectual, physical), as well as a plethora of person may experience diminished self-regard.
psychological outcomes (e.g., self-esteem). Clearly, Positive feedback in valued areas from significant
such a broad review would be beyond the scope of others is important because it is positively related
a single chapter. Thus, in this particular chapter, I to quality of life and confidence (Groff, Lundberg,
present sport and PA work that is illustrative of the & Zabriskie, 2009).
range of research being conducted. In particular, I Martin and colleagues (Martin, Mushett, &
cover research conducted with people with physical Eklund, 1994; Martin, Mushett, & Smith, 1995; Sha-
disabilities (e.g., spinal cord injuries, or SCI) but do piro, 2007; Shapiro & Martin, 2010) discovered a self
not examine research conducted with people with and social athletic identity. They suggested that the
intellectual impairments (see recent reviews of this distinction between self and social reflected per-
research by Hassan, Dowling, & McConkey, 2014, ceptions that although these athletes viewed them-
and Hutzler & Korsensky, 2010) or chronic diseases selves (i.e., self-identity) as genuine athletes, they
(see chapter 23 in this volume). I include research on recognized that others (i.e., social identity) often
a range of physically based activities (e.g., surfing, did not. This dynamic is not limited to able-bodied
wheelchair rugby), as well as participant types (e.g., individuals’ judgments because athletes with minor
Paralympians, wounded warriors). My intent is to disabilities have also displayed similar attitudes
present and discuss research that has the potential toward athletes with severe disabilities (Wickman,
to expand and challenge readers’ views on various 2007).
topics that may have been previously informed by The able-bodied public’s resistance to viewing
research involving only able-bodied individuals. athletes with disabilities as genuine athletes may
In the following sections of this chapter, I have reflect a bigger phenomenon rooted in the long-
selected three particular topics to examine. First, standing debate about what sports qualify as “real”
I examine athletic identity and articulate the role sports (Lagaert & Roose, 2014) and influential
that disability and sport play in identity processes dominant cultural narratives such as prolympism
such as adjusting to an acquired disability. I then (Donnelly, 1996). Prolympism is the ideology that
discuss a historical giant in the field of psychology: privileges Olympic and professional sport and sug-
personality. Finally, I discuss the psychological gests that being the best is what counts most. At
benefits of sport and PA for wounded warriors. the same time prolympism marginalizes all other
Relative to each of these topics, I discuss gaps forms of sport (Donnelly, 1996). One plausible
Disability, Physical Activity, and Psychological Well-Being 377
explanation is that sport, particularly elite sport, trary to the dominant cultural narrative is difficult.
is viewed as emblematic of strength and skill. In Indeed, many athletes with disabilities do not refute
contrast, disability is often equated with illness a disability identity:
and incompetence. When faced with such incon-
gruous definitions, people downgrade disability I don’t know: You just can’t get away from it. It’s
sport to reflect their assumption that disability always there. It’s always a bit annoying because
sport performance must therefore be less valuable I can’t really do all the things I want to do.”
than able-bodied sport. People appear to employ Huang & Brittain, 2006, p. 358
similar logic when evaluating able-bodied sport. For
The preceding athlete incorporated disability into
example, an elite world-class marathoner is more
his identity as a function of the permanence of a
likely to be viewed as an athlete than is a slightly
disability. Elite British and Taiwanese disability
overweight jogger who runs very slowly.
athletes with SCI were aware that many able-bodied
Hence, this phenomenon may also be part of a
people reduced them to a medical category (e.g.,
larger bias whereby the public awards greater ath-
she has a SCI) and assigned their impairment onto
letic status and value to athletes who they consider
them as their “master identity status” (Huang &
the best versus athletes who are less accomplished
Brittain, 2006, p. 359). Athletes who accepted this
(Donnelly, 1996). Qualities such as time devoted
perspective were viewed as having identities that
to practice, personal excellence, hard work, and
reflected being impaired.
various idiosyncratic ancillary benefits (e.g., team
jackets) of sport participation are relevant to many I like to think that I am just an elite athlete, but
athletes. But such experiences and qualities appear the circumstances we are in and the treatment
less relevant to the public compared with the social we get in many ways makes me feel that I am
comparison processes (i.e., who is the best) assim- just a disabled athlete. So how can I expect the
ilated from a culture that idealizes being the best public to regard me as just an athlete? I think
and winning. it’s very difficult.
Some athletes with disabilities reject being Huang & Brittain, 2006, p. 366
labeled as having a disability (Wickman, 2007).
Such rejection may be a way to avoid self-judg- The preceding quotation illustrates the feelings or
ments of incompetence because incompetence is perceptions held by an elite athlete with a disability
antithetical to being an athlete and having a strong who leaned toward an elite athlete identity (not an
athletic identity. The following quotation illustrates elite athlete with a disability) but expressed mixed
how one athlete with a SCI reframes disability as a feelings. Because he perceived that the public
transportation issue: viewed him as a disabled athlete, he also had feel-
ings reflective of being an elite disabled athlete.
I am no different to anyone else. I can use an Participants in both the Le Clair (2011) and
escalator though I cannot use the stairs. . . . I see Huang and Brittain (2006) studies were aware of
myself as someone that goes around on wheels, the paradox of rejecting both a disability identity
but just a normal person. and a disability sport identity while simultaneously
Huang & Brittain, 2006, p. 360 participating in disability sport. Some Swedish
wheelchair racers rejected both disability and dis-
About the term disability, a swimmer notes: ability sport identities (Wickman, 2007).
“No, I never have and I never will (use the term).” My identity is not disability sport. How do you
Le Clair, 2011, p. 1120 practice disability sport? Do you injure yourself
a bit more or what? . . . I can play basketball,
The preceding quote is a repudiation of the negative swim, play table tennis—but how do you practice
elements (e.g., incompetent) that disability often disability sport? It doesn’t exist.
reflects (Le Clair, 2011). But rejecting the term dis- Wickman, 2007, p. 157
ability is a difficult task because it involves resisting
multiple stereotypical and discriminatory labels The athlete expressing the previous sentiment
(e.g., incapable, less than) over time and across rejected disability sport because it prevented him
various contexts. Huang and Brittain (2006) found from constructing an identity as both able-bodied
that only 4 of 21 athletes developed a nondisabled and as an athlete (Wickman, 2007). The partici-
identity, indicating that crafting an identity con- pants in Wickman’s study, elite wheelchair racers,
378 Martin
had identities as elite athletes, not elite disability (e.g., running ultramarathons) and their current
athletes. The elite wheelchair athletes defined disability self as less able (e.g., fatigued after a
disability sport athletes as participants who had 10-min workout) resulted in this adamant belief.
very severe disabilities (e.g., no arms and legs). In The combination of participant’s narrow definition
the Wickman (2007) study, participants defined or of an athlete based on physical function commen-
redefined disability in such a way as to preclude surate with being able bodied and the lack of other
themselves from being disability sport athletes. criteria commonly used to define an athlete (e.g.,
People with newly acquired disabilities lose training, being on a team) resulted in athletic
an identity grounded in being able bodied. For identity foreclosure. Identity foreclosure refers to
instance, all 12 people in a recent study reported a a failure to even explore potential activities (e.g.,
loss of identity when acquiring a disability (Craw- sport), thereby short-circuiting any chance of
ford, Gayman, & Tracey, 2014). Profound changes developing an identity in that area. Thus, personal
in physical ability and appearance contribute to definitions of what it means to be an athlete had
identity loss. People with a newly acquired dis- profound implications. Whereas some athletes
ability have to rediscover a new identity (Levins, with disabilities define themselves as elite athletes,
Redenbach, & Dyck, 2004). As suggested earlier, others create definitions that serve as self-imposed
participating in sport can be a reminder of lost barriers to participation.
capabilities. But evidence also indicates that sport Other prior able-bodied athletes attempt to estab-
can aid the process of adapting to having a disability lish an athletic identity and fail as illustrated in the
(e.g., Levins et al., 2004; Green, 2012). following quotation:
A major adjustment for many people is incorpo-
rating a disability identity into their prior able-bod- I used to be very coordinated and my body
ied identity. Changing or establishing a new iden- would work in poetry to do things I wanted to do.
tity, often referred to as identity negotiation, is Sports gave me a great sense of enjoyment, pur-
pose and sense of self and I now spend most of
facilitated in settings such as sport in which new
my time trying not to fall on my face from a small
skills and knowledge can be gained and integrated crack in the ground. Playing sports is not graceful
into the self (Swann & Bosson, 2010). Anderson and it is not poetic and beautiful. It is ugly and
(2009) interviewed 13 girls in disability sport and it has been more of a source of depression for
reported that other athletes, parents, and siblings me to try than anything else.
served to validate disability sport. Teammates who Crawford et al., 2014, p. 12
had disabilities were particularly valued because
they were viewed as having a deeper understanding This phenomenon is not restricted to disability
of what it was like to be a disability sport female sport. After their skills diminished, some elite
athlete. able-bodied athletes did not want an identity that
Besides focusing on social support, athletes in they viewed as having less status then their prior
the Perrier et al. (2012) study with strong athletic identity provided (e.g., being viewed as a recre-
identities focused on training, improving, and ational athlete instead of an elite athlete). The
reaching their goals. They also focused on the inability to perform at a prior level of competi-
proximal past, present, and future and did not dwell tiveness may cause both able-bodied athletes and
on the distant past and their prior able-bodied life. athletes with a disability to cease participating in
For example, avoiding cogitating on past able-bod- sport (Sparkes & Smith, 2002).
ied athletic accomplishments seen as superior to In summary, as the research studies reviewed
current accomplishments is helpful in promoting in the previous paragraphs indicate, many factors
a future improvement-oriented focus. Importantly, influence athletic identity in athletes with disabil-
not all participants in the Perrier et al. (2012) study ities. Much of the research reviewed has focused
developed athletic identities. Perrier and colleagues on the role of an acquired disability. Becoming an
interviewed 11 athletes with varied athletic experi- athlete with a disability after a traumatic injury can
ences. Three former able-bodied athletes asserted be empowering for prior able-bodied nonathletes.
that they no longer participated in sport and were In contrast, able-bodied athletes who acquire a
not athletes, because their impairments prevented disability may shun sport because they view an
them from being athletes. According to Perrier et athletic identity as a disabled athlete as less than
al. the contrast between the view of their former what they were as an able-bodied athlete. But as
able-bodied selves as being much more functional the previous findings illustrate, many athletes
employ unique definitions of disability, athletics, Gentner, Patel, & Muccio, 2012; Ungerleider & Gold-
and eliteness that encourage or prevent them from ing, 1991). Both Greenleaf et al. (2001) and Shannon
assuming an athletic identity. et al. (2012) reported that all Olympians in their
research used mental skills. As a result, Martin et
Personality al. (2011) argued that the potential lack of learned
mental skills means that athletes with disabilities
Acquiring a disability can have a profound effect on may need to rely on innate psychological strengths
a person and literally change who he or she is. Per- (e.g., personality characteristics).
sonality is often thought to be a stable and enduring In one of the first studies done in disability
element of who a person is. But extreme adverse sport, Goldberg and Shephard (1982) examined 17
life events such as some acquired disabilities are male athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI). They
associated with changes in personality traits (Lock- sought to determine if athletes who were more
enhoff, Terracciano, Patriciu, Eaton, & Costa Jr., active differed in personality from athletes who
2009). One of the most common personality models were less active as well as if they differed from
is the big five factors (Roberts, 2009). The big five able-bodied norms (Cattell, Cattell, & Cattell, 1993).
factors are extraversion, openness to experience, Athletes who were more active were different on 3
conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism. of the 16 factors compared with able-bodied norms.
Adverse life events tend to influence selected facets Specifically, the high-active group was more ven-
of neuroticism, openness, and agreeableness. In turesome and intelligent but less tough minded.
contrast, extraversion and conscientiousness do Compared with the low-active group, the more
not appear to be influenced by extreme life events; active athletes were more emotionally stable and
instead, they act as coping resources that enable venturesome but less practical. Where significant
people to maintain their mental health (Lockenhoff differences occurred, the high-active group scored
et al., 2009). more favorably on two personality factors compared
with both norms and the moderate-active group
I’ve changed so much since, and feel a better and less favorably relative to norms and the mod-
person now. In fact, my whole personality has
erate-active group on one personality factor. These
changed. I don’t have much of my able-bod-
findings lend some credence for the potential role
ied self left because I’ve changed so much as
a person. What I’ve learned so far has made it of positive personality characteristics in training.
all worth it. In a more recent study, Martin and colleagues
(2011) compared elite-level athletes who made the
Smith & Sparkes, 2005, p. 1099
Paralympic team with those who narrowly missed
According to Roberts (2009, p. 140), person- making it. Results showed that the Paralympians
ality traits are “relatively enduring patterns of were higher in tough mindedness and lower in
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that reflect the anxiety than athletes who failed to make the team.
tendency to respond in certain ways under certain Recent research on mental toughness has indicated
circumstances.” Just like mental skills, personality that mentally tough athletes are highly motivated,
characteristics might make the difference between confident, and focused (Bull, Shambrook, James,
winning and losing or achieving a personal best & Brooks, 2005). The personality factor of tough
performance. For example, a common personality mindedness also reflects a determined and strongly
characteristic, such as conscientious, may contrib- motivated person. A personality factor of anxiety
ute to an athlete’s developing detailed performance reflects the disposition to be tense, worried, and
plans, which in turn aid performance. prone to experience emotional highs and lows.
Martin et al. (2011) suggested that the imbal- Anxious athletes in sport are typically described the
ance between mental and physical training, often same way, but their anxiety experiences are specific
found in all athletes, is exacerbated for athletes to sport competition and sporting environments.
with disabilities. For instance, 27% of the 2010 Martin et al. (2011) argued that their findings
Paralympians sampled by Dieffenbach and Statler paralleled a large body of research in sport psy-
(2012) indicated they did no mental preparation chology indicating that anxiety impairs sport
before the Paralympics. In comparison, research performance. The findings on tough minded-
with Olympians, spanning the last 25 years, sug- ness, and the questions representing this factor,
gests much higher rates of mental skill use (e.g., suggest that athletes who reported they were
Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001; Shannon, determined, resolute, and made decisions based
380 Martin
on facts and logic (versus intuition) made the role of risk and thrill seeking, as illustrated by the
Paralympic team, whereas athletes who reported following quotation:
being weaker in these qualities did not make the
team. The effect sizes were moderate to large and There is something about being on that line. . . .
indicated that group membership (i.e., making Being near the edge of control and maybe you
vacillate, you are slightly beyond that, and you
the team or not) accounted for between 25 and
pull it back in and, and the feeling that, you know
40% of the variance in tough mindedness and that generates. There’s something about being
anxiety, respectively. on the edge that is attractive.
Gioia and colleagues (2006) found that athletes
Tangen & Kudlacek, 2014, p. 7
with SCI scored higher than nonathletes on extra-
version. The authors noted that although extra- Another recent research effort in the positive
version may be an outcome of sport participation, psychology area has targeted three dispositional
extraverted individuals are likely drawn to sport, psychological characteristics (i.e., grit, hardiness,
particularly team sports. In another study Goran and resilience) to predict sport engagement and
and colleagues (2012) compared able-bodied profes- life satisfaction in wheelchair basketball players
sional basketball players to wheelchair basketball (Martin, Nash, Lewis, & Dent, 2015). Grit was
players. The able-bodied basketball players scored significantly related to sport engagement and unre-
higher on emotional stability, dominance, liveli- lated to life satisfaction, whereas hardiness was
ness, and privateness, whereas the groups were strongly related to life satisfaction and unrelated
similar on the remaining 11 characteristics. to sport engagement. Resiliency, relative to grit
A unique personality trait is sensation seeking and hardiness, had a more moderate relationship
(Zuckerman, 1971), which overlaps with extraver- to both life satisfaction and sport engagement. This
sion and a need for change (Zuckerman, Bone, pattern suggested that resilience, which reflects
Neary, Mangelsdorff, & Brustman, 1972). Zuck- people’s ability to cope with stress and trauma,
erman et al. (1972) noted that sensation seeking was potentially of value in promoting meaningful
is related to an “uninhibited, non-conforming, engagement in both sport and life. In contrast,
impulsive, dominant type of extraversion” (p. 319). grit, which reflects passion and perseverance for
Sport psychology researchers have speculated that long-term goals, and hardiness, which reflects a
participants in sports such as mountain climbing life of commitment, control, and challenge, were
and skydiving are higher in sensation seeking potentially valuable in more selective ways. These
compared with people who do not engage in those, findings reaffirm that distinct personality-like char-
or similar, sports. acteristics can play important roles in promoting
People with disabilities have reported that their well-being of athletes with disabilities.
major motivation to explore the outdoors (e.g., In summary, as the research studies reviewed
hiking) was because of the risk involved. At the in this section have suggested, there is support
same time other participants avoided the outdoors for a host of diverse personality factors and their
precisely because of the danger (Burns, Watson & potential role in disability sport. These personality
Paterson, 2013). Tangen and Kudlacek (2014) con- factors include selected constructs (i.e., neuroti-
ducted a study designed to investigate sensation cism) from the big-five factor model to more con-
seeking in risky disability (e.g., extreme skiing) temporary positive psychology grounded constructs
sports. Four extreme skiers with spinal cord injury such as grit and resilience. Sensation seeking may
(SCI) were interviewed, and analysis of the resulting be particularly relevant to involvement in selected
data revealed a diverse set of responses about the disability sports.
Extreme Sports and Fear
One paradox ripe for understanding is that a potential source of fear of extreme sports for able-bodied people is
experiencing a serious injury. People with disabilities who participate in extreme sports have already acquired a
severe injury, and sometimes that injury is from a sport (e.g., paragliding) that might be considered the epitome of
a sensation-seeking activity. An investigation of extreme disability sport participants’ views on that paradox would
be fascinating.
Wounded Warriors Carless, Sparkes, Douglas, & Cooke, 2014). Camp

participants engaged in sport (e.g., wheelchair
basketball), recreation (e.g., caving, kayaking), and
I was instantly drawn to the adrenaline high of
informal (e.g., dinner conversations) and formal
the intense focus and flow of the Pilates environ-
(e.g., mental skill discussions) activities. In their
ment. I was equally horrified at the complete
total inability I had to connect my body as a first study, Carless et al. (2013) interviewed and
whole unit. I had only experienced working on observed 11 injured ex-military personnel. The
isolating the training of muscles in order to obtain researchers presented the results as life stories
strength, and to suddenly see my body as one and thus documented the participants’ experi-
force, stabilizing, supporting, coordinating and ences over time. Two distinct psychosocial-themed
connecting, was the most overwhelming and benefits emerged. First, participants framed their
empowering realization. I was blown away by the camp experiences as helping them reengage in the
instructor’s ability to read my posture and gait everyday activities of life and giving them a sense
patterns, to constantly alter my training needs of purpose. For example, the ability to talk with
and reinvent material adaptable to my personal
other ex-military participants who understood
injury, as well as fine-tune the path forward, and I
the military culture helped them reengage in life
experienced movement in the most fundamental
and functional way possible.” socially. The time away at camp was also seen
as renewing some participants’ sense of purpose
Special forces soldier, Bowman, 2015, p. 169
by strengthening marital relationships through a
The preceding quotation obtained from a military greater appreciation of their spouses.
veteran with a disability reflects his positive reac- The second theme was tied to exploration. It
tion, both in the moment and for the future, to was about the opportunity to try something new
an experience with a nontraditional activity (i.e., (e.g., archery), to feel respected and cared about by
Pilates). As we know from the general sport and staff and other participants, and to enjoy quality
exercise psychology literature, the psychological facilities (e.g., a single room with TV and Wi-Fi).
benefits of physical activity (PA) and sport include Participants’ recognition of these benefits was likely
anxiety reduction, increased positive mood states, a result of the contrasting military experiences they
and enhanced self-regard. Thus, these are reasons had (e.g., sleeping on the ground) and where strict
to believe that sport and PA can be used to alleviate conformity to orders was the norm. A final part of
the depression, anxiety, and chronic pain that war this theme included a feeling of being inspired by
veterans often experience. fellow participants, both through interactions with
PA experiences are often social in nature fellow participants who had a different disability
and therefore can result in social benefits (e.g., and those who had the same disability. Some of
increased social support; Caddick & Smith, 2014). the feelings of inspiration appeared from observing
Many recovering war veterans had participated in a similar other (i.e., role model) accomplishing a
daily fitness programs and were athletes when able challenging physical task (e.g., kayaking). Car-
bodied. As a result, those who are injured while in less et al. (2013) asserted that the dynamics went
service may also be attracted to PA and adventure deeper than a simple “If he can do it I can do it,”
and sport programs. Sport can restore lost camara- and were the result of respect and admiration of
derie and feelings of belongingness when military the commitment and hard work necessary for the
life is over. For instance, one Paralympic athlete role model’s success.
indicated that he was able to substitute his Paralym- Carless and colleagues also reported in-depth
pic team sense of belonging for his military sense of on two participants from the same 5-day training
belonging (Day, 2013). War veterans are often seen camp (Carless et al., 2014). One participant, Stuart,
as possessing desirable qualities for elite-level sport reaffirmed the value of engaging in the various
participation such as self-discipline and motiva- sport and adventure activities as part of a group
tion for hard physical training within a structured and the social support derived from shared expe-
environment where team goals have priority over riences with teammates (i.e., military background
individual goals (Brittain & Green, 2012). and adjusting to a disability). Sam, who had to
In one of the most extensive investigations in this manage chronic pain, noted that adventure and
area, the effects of a 5-day and 5-night residential sport training reestablished his confidence in his
adapted sport and adventure training camp were physical abilities. Sam was also able to refute his
examined across a series of three studies (Carless, perception that a person couldn’t be fit and strong
2014; Carless, Peacock, McKenna, & Cooke, 2013; while in a wheelchair. This change in perspective
382 Martin
enabled him to develop a sense of assurance that in ities and the value of having meaningful life goals
the future, when he would regularly use a wheel- that gave their lives purpose (Burke & Utley, 2013).
chair, he would have a positive attitude toward Other researchers have examined sport and the
being in a wheelchair. natural environment. For instance, the benefits of
In the final study, Carless (2014) sought similar- surfing (Caddick, Smith, & Phoenix, 2014; Fleis-
ities across the life stories of six soldiers attending chmann et al., 2011), whitewater rafting (Dustin,
the 5-day camp. The trauma that produced the Bricker, Arave, Wall, & Wendt, 2011), mountain
participants’ injuries also caused them to struggle climbing (Burke & Utley, 2013), and Outward Bound
with adjusting to their disability and the related life (Hyer, Boyd, Scurfield, Smith, & Burke, 1996) have
changes (e.g., altered career aspirations). Personal all been documented. Caddick et al. examined
interactions during the sport adventure camp were the influence of surfing (i.e., the blue gym) on the
a catalyst for less self-focused rumination and more well-being of 15 male veterans diagnosed with
social engagement. One participant reported, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A life his-
tory research approach was used across a period
I don’t know but maybe one of the benefits is of 1-1/2 years, and results indicated that surfing
giving guys a chance to meet other guys who’ve served as a respite from the difficulty associated
been through something like they have. That’s
with PTSD. The positive effects did not last beyond
why I’m talking about this to you today I suppose,
so someone else might hear something in my
the time spent in the water surfing. However, the
story that fits their life, that makes them feel like participants’ subjective well-being was positively
they’re not going through stuff alone. influenced by pushing PTSD into the background
and promoting a focus on the present. These results
Carless, 2014, p. 1447
are consistent with a case study conducted by
Carless (2014) concluded that most participants Fleishman et al. (2011) with a polytrauma patient
experienced positive psychosocial growth from the that demonstrated the positive effects of surfing.
camp activities. Specifically, opportunities to be Another water-based activity, scuba diving, has
engaged with other injured veterans in meaningful also been effective in promoting both the physical
activities (e.g., mountain climbing) that were enjoy- and mental health of wounded warriors (Buckley
able and affirming in a supportive atmosphere, and & Raulerson, 2013). In addition to nontraditional
that were opposite the autocratic military ethos, outdoor sports like surfing and scuba diving, Pilates
were cited as factors responsible for their growth. has been used by Royal Danish Ballet dancers to
Many of the preceding observations were help Danish wounded warriors recover (Bowman,
reported by Burke and Utley (2013), who inter- 2015). Finally, besides surfing, scuba diving, and
viewed injured veterans about training for and ballet, horseback riding has shown promise. Also
climbing Mt. Kilimanjaro. Participants were inter- known as equine assisted psychotherapy, the use
viewed before the climb, as well as during and after of horses for mental health treatment has a long
the descent. In addition, participant observations history (Kruger & Serpell, 2006), and a recent
were conducted. Three themes were identified. review suggests that animal-assisted therapies can
First, despite the physical difficulty of the climb be effective (Maujean, Pepping, & Kendall, 2015).
(e.g., prolonged exposure to high altitude) and Lundberg, Bennet, and Smith (2011) examined
impairment effects (e.g., pain from prosthetics), all the effect of sport and PA in the natural environ-
participants demonstrated commitment and deter- ment on quality of life (QOL), mood, and compe-
mination that appeared to be largely a function of tence. Study participants, all with an acquired
the challenge of climbing. In turn, their adaptive disability or PTSD diagnosis, engaged in 5 days
responses were seen as promoting their recovery of therapeutic adaptive sport (e.g., Nordic skiing,
(Burke & Utley, 2013). Second, the climbers also water skiing) or physically active recreation (e.g.,
provided extensive functional (e.g., helped each fly fishing, canoeing). Participation in both adaptive
other with physical tasks) and emotional (e.g., sports and recreation activities resulted in reduced
humor) social support to each other. Finally, the negative mood states (i.e., tension, depression, and
climbers engaged in active behavioral coping before anger) and increased perceived sport competence
(e.g., extensive physical training) and during (e.g., from pre- to postintervention.
frequent rest breaks) the climb as well as cognitive In summary, as the research reviewed in the
coping during the climb (e.g., positive self-talk). previous paragraphs indicate, sport and PA can cer-
The researchers concluded that the climb aided in tainly have positive therapeutic effects on wounded
developing a deeper understanding of their capabil- veterans’ physical and psychosocial health. More
specifically, participating in sport after acquiring a motivation model. In particular, they note the lack
disability can reaffirm veterans’ exercise or athletic of research on how possible future identities help
identity that was dormant during the initial trauma people cope with major life events such as a life-
of their accident. Second, mastery experiences can altering accident. Similarly, they speculate about
strengthen specific self-efficacy cognitions (e.g., how lost possible future identities are involved
being able to balance on a surfboard) all the way in coping with a major life event. From a sport
to global self-esteem perceptions. Third, social perspective, we can speculate that Paralympic
support, especially from similar others, can pro- aspirations and a future identity as an elite athlete
mote momentary feelings of group cohesion all the may help people cope with an acquired disability.
way to deeper bonding that is a result of prolonged In contrast, holding on to a past identity as an
engagement in multiday experiences. Fourth, sport elite abled-bodied athlete may hinder coping with
and PA in the natural environment (i.e., green an acquired disability. Research examining these
exercise) may have additional mental health-related questions is needed.
benefits beyond PA alone (Barton & Pretty, 2010;
Pretty, Peacock, Sellens, & Griffin, 2005). Mediators and Moderators
of Personality Effects
Future Research Much of the personality research in disability sport
Recommendations and exercise psychology has been conducted using
primarily descriptive research approaches. One sug-
Some former able-bodied athletes embrace opportu- gestion for future researchers would be to examine
nities to engage in disability sport, whereas others possible mediators or moderators of the potential
actively resist it. To this point, we do not know effects of personality. Given that the influence of
exactly what explains this difference. Here I recom- personality is often distal in nature, researchers
mend research that delves into this topic—athletic should consider examining how personality might
identity—as well as the role of personality and the influence more proximal cognitive (e.g., self-effi-
benefits of physical activity in veteran populations. cacy) or behavioral (e.g., goal setting) causes of
sporting behavior, such as superior training.
Athletic Identity Role A second avenue for future inquiry might be
for Rejection or Engagement in Sport to examine whether the big-five factors and sport
participation interact and play a role in how people
Some qualitative research indicates that those with disabilities adapt and adjust to their acquired
who eschew participation may anticipate negative disability. For example, it would be interesting to
self-evaluations because of negative societal feed- know whether people who acquire a disability and
back linked to assuming a lower-status athletic are high in extraversion and conscientiousness are
identity as a disability athlete. These athletes appear more likely to use sport as a coping mechanism to
to view disability sport as something less than help them deal with the challenges of acquiring a
able-bodied sport. This potential explanation of why disability. A related research question is whether
some athletes eschew disability sport is speculative, those same personality characteristics help athletes
and continued research is clearly needed to examine manage retiring from sport when that time comes.
why some people with acquired disabilities embrace The preceding suggestions would likely involve the
sport and others reject it. use of a longitudinal research approach, a design
A second possible direction for examining that has not been used much in research in the field
the psychological dynamics involved in former of disability sport psychology.
able-bodied athletes’ choice to reject sport would be
to use theories of motivation incorporating temporal
selves. Perrier et al. (2012) provided a glimpse into
Benefits of Sport to Veterans
the value of understanding individual perceptions of One major shortcoming of extant research is that
past, present, and future selves in sport and physical the precise mechanisms that might explain why
activity. Researchers should consider using theories sport and PA programs are beneficial often cannot
of motivation incorporating temporal selves (i.e., be discerned. Few pre–post research designs have
past, present, future selves) and their influences on been done with comparison groups. For example,
behavior. Oyserman and James (2011) discuss pos- veterans involved in the 5-day sport and adventure
sible research directions using their identity-based camps (Carless et al., 2013, 2014; Carless, 2014)
384 Martin
engaged in many formal and informal activities cognitions (e.g., sport engagement). The extension
ranging from eating breakfast with fellow partici- of personality research into positive psychology (e.g.,
pants to attending mental skills training sessions grit) has promise for explaining why athletes with
and caving. Based on the research design, we disabilities may persevere in sport contexts, despite
cannot know whether mastery experiences, shared a host of challenges. Similarly, the role of sensation
social reality support, exposure to nature, or other seeking may also help us understand the attraction
factors were responsible for positive outcomes. of risky sports (e.g., mountain climbing) in those
Second, given the close quarters of the 5-day who have already experienced a serious accident that
camp referred to in the previous paragraph, a may have been, in part, a function of the allure of
return to a military style of communal living and such dangerous and exciting sports. Finally, injured
the support and cohesion in such environments military veterans have found sport and other nontra-
cannot be discounted. For instance, many of the ditional activities (e.g., Pilates) to provide a host of
benefits of physical activity may be a function of benefits. A fuller understanding of the influence of
the therapeutic relationships established with other a military identity and the military culture in sport
participants and even the researchers conducting participation is yet to be fully realized.
the study. Hence, one suggestion for future research
involves conducting long-term follow-up research.
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21
Sports Medicine
Psychology
Diane M. Wiese-Bjornstal, PhD, CCC-AASP  Andrew C. White, MA 
Kristin N. Wood, MA, ATC  Hayley C. Russell, PhD
Abstract
Sports medicine psychology refers to the psychological study of injury and rehabilitation
among participants in sport, exercise, and other physical activity settings. Psychological
influences on sport injury and rehabilitation are evident during preinjury, postinjury,
and return to sport periods, as well as in the use of interventions during these times.
Preinjury theory, research, and professional practice literature includes the identifi-
cation of psychological vulnerability or risk factors and the importance of education,
attitudes, and behaviors in injury prevention efforts. Postinjury evidence demonstrates
that a complex variety of psychological, psychiatric, and psychosocial responses and
coping strategies manifest during acute and chronic injury and rehabilitation periods
and influence outcomes such as recovery and return to play. Mental skills training and
social support intervention strategies employed by psychology, sports medicine, and
kinesiology professionals enhance protective and resilience factors among athletes and
exercisers. Evidence shows that the psychological prevention and care of sport injuries
is an important aspect of research and professional practice in sports medicine, kinesi-
ology, and psychology because of the connections to performance, health, and quality of
life among diverse physical activity populations. Directions for future research include
the need for additional studies within physical activity contexts beyond competitive
sport and improved understanding of optimal risk-taking behavior in physical activity
as beneficial to child development and injury prevention. Future research should also
embrace multidisciplinary approaches to psychological assessment, treatment, and
intervention in sports medicine contexts and the exploration of specific coping resources
such as religiosity and spirituality as eliciting beneficial coping mechanisms in sport
injury prevention and recovery.
387
388 Wiese-Bjornstal, White, Wood, and Russell
A
thletes, exercisers, dancers, and other phys- with an examination of preinjury issues (e.g., stress
ically active people face the risk of sport reactivity influences on injury vulnerability) and
injuries with every movement. The actual then moving to a review of postinjury topics (e.g.,
occurrence of such injuries (or even the anticipa- psychological distress among injured participants
tion of them) can result in significant effects on the during rehabilitation). The third section focuses on
physical and psychosocial well-being of participants psychological interventions as relevant to psychol-
within these contexts. The field of study labeled ogy, sports medicine, and kinesiology professionals.
as sports medicine psychology encompasses the Closing sections identify gaps in the current sports
various roles that psychology plays within sports medicine psychology knowledge base and provide
medicine contexts. Among these, it incorporates suggestions for future research.
theory, research, and professional practice con-
cerning the psychological, behavioral, and social
aspects of injury prevention and rehabilitation Preinjury Psychology
among physically active participants, as well as Theory, research, and professional practice in
the psychological roles and influences of those relation to preinjury psychological aspects reflect
who coach, train, and care for them as part of their themes of vulnerability and prevention. Vulnerabil-
multidisciplinary sports medicine teams (Wiese- ity refers to the susceptibility or risks of physically
Bjornstal, 2014). active participants to injury, whereas prevention
This chapter focuses on injuries occurring within refers to psychoeducational efforts to reduce
diverse groups of physically active participants, injury vulnerability through changing attitudes,
including competitive and recreational athletes, behaviors, and social systems. The substantial
exercisers, dancers, and extreme or outdoor sport body of literature reviewed next is relevant to these
participants. More specifically, the term sport inju- dimensions.
ries refers to injuries that
• occur in the context of competitive sport or Vulnerability to Sport Injuries

other physical activity participation, A significant body of literature confirms that psy-
• involve some level of medical evaluation or chological factors contribute to sport injury vul-
treatment, and nerability through cognitive, affective, behavioral,
• hinder physical activity participation or and social influence mechanisms. The predominant
training. conceptual model used to identify and examine
these psychological factors is the stress and injury
In studying the psychological landscapes of sport model initially developed by Andersen and Wil-
injuries and rehabilitation experiences, it is import- liams (1988) and subsequently revised by Williams
ant to consider the uniqueness of participants, and Andersen (1998). This model identifies psycho-
injuries, and circumstances. Flint (1998a, 1998b) social precursors, or antecedents, to sport injuries
provided pivotal discussions about the psycho- and specifies the mechanisms by which they influ-
physiological differences among sport injuries, ence injured individuals’ vulnerability through the
highlighting the importance of considering injury stress response process. Psychosocial antecedents
onsets (e.g., macrotrauma, microtrauma), defini- include general categories of personality (e.g.,
tions (e.g., time loss, reporting practices, pathology), trait anxiety, hardiness), history of stressors (e.g.,
and physical sequelae (e.g., severity, tissue healing) major and minor life event stress), and coping
in the context of designing research studies that resources (e.g., coping behaviors, social support),
integrate sport psychology and sports medicine to which directly and interactively influence the stress
understand athlete responses to injury. response or reactivity of individual athletes in
With this background in mind, the primary potentially stressful sport situations. Hypothesized
purposes of this chapter are to provide an over- to have direct effects on vulnerability to injury are
view of the theory, research, and professional the core mechanisms of the stress response, which
practice surrounding the psychological aspects include increased muscle tension and attentional
of sport injuries and to use this review to identify deficits. This stress response results from athletes’
gaps in the knowledge base from which to draw cognitive appraisals of demands, resources, and
implications for future research in sports medicine consequences in potentially stressful sport envi-
psychology. The first two sections of this chapter ronments. Psychological interventions theorized
follow a chronological injury sequence, beginning to temper the stress response and thus reduce
Sports Medicine Psychology 389
injury vulnerability include cognitive restructur- & Prapavessis, 2005). Even positive major life event
ing, relaxation skills, and imagery, among others. stress often shows a similar relation to sport injuries
Reinforcing the continued popularity of the stress and comparable conjunctive effects. For example,
and injury model, Johnson, Tranaeus, and Ivarsson Petrie, Deiters, and Harmison (2014) found that
(2014) identified 26 studies conducted between 2006 collegiate football players reporting high positive
and 2013 that examined the predictions of model major life event stress missed more days because of
components and paths using a variety of research injury when they were also low in coping resources
methodologies (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, and such as mental toughness and family social support.
prevention intervention). Minor life event stress, studied under constructs
Much of the past and present research on the such as daily hassles and everyday problems, also
stress and injury model has focused on the anteced- appears predictive of sport injuries (Ivarsson, John-
ent factors. Appaneal and Habif (2013) identified son, & Podlog, 2013).
and reviewed 70 such studies; 86% of them revealed Although far less research has been devoted to
a significant relationship between one or more the core mechanisms of the stress and injury model
antecedent factors and sport injuries. In particular, (i.e., the attentional and physiological changes
higher levels of anxiety (a personality antecedent), indicative of a stress response as direct contribu-
higher incidence of major life event stress (a history tors to injury vulnerability), the predictions have
of stressors antecedent), and lower levels of coping received support. Measures of peripheral vision on
resources appear to have been the most studied, practice (low stress) days and game (high stress)
and most supported, psychological antecedents days showed that narrowing of peripheral vision
to sport injuries. Other personality trait and state under stress mediated the relations between neg-
factors recently examined in the research literature ative major life event stress, psychological coping
include mood state, dispositional optimism, and skills, and sport injuries among high school soccer
obsessive passion. Research on mood states shows players (Rogers & Landers, 2005). Their results
that negative moods, particularly fatigue, are pre- supported the core predictions of the stress and
dictive of injury (Hadala, Cebolla, Baños, & Barrios, injury model, and identified the attentional change
2010; Wiese-Bjornstal et al., 2012). Longitudinal of peripheral narrowing as a mechanism connect-
examination of dispositional optimism as a poten- ing the stressful situation (game day) and the
tial antecedent of injury showed higher levels to stress response (narrowed vision) to sport injury
be predictive of a lower likelihood of injury among vulnerability.
college-aged sport participants (Wadey, Evans, The predicted influence of psychological inter-
Hanton, & Niel, 2013). Additionally, dispositional ventions in reducing sport injury vulnerability
optimism moderated the relation between stress through influences on the stress response core has
coping and injury time loss among state-, national-, also received limited research attention. Only a few
and international-level athletes (Ford, Eklund, & studies have been done recently. In support of the
Gordon, 2010). Within a sample of professional interventions aspect of the model, Maddison and
dancers, obsessive passion (in which the participant Prapavessis (2005) found that a preinjury cognitive
feels negative, controlling pressure to engage) was behavioral stress management intervention among
maladaptive with respect to its relationship to injury at-risk young adult male rugby players was effective
risk behaviors, as mediated by dance dependence in reducing injury time loss compared with the
(Akehurst & Oliver, 2014). at-risk control group, exerting influence through
Among the history of stress factors, major life mechanisms of increased coping resources and
event stress (the positive or negative effect asso- decreased worry. Johnson, Ekengren, and Ander-
ciated with major life event stressors or changes sen (2005) assigned high-injury-risk male and
such as starting at a new school or death of a family female elite soccer players to mental skills training
member) has received extensive consideration. A or control conditions and observed lower injury
consistent, but not universal, finding is that neg- incidence for the mental skills training group. A
ative major life event stress is predictive of sport study of adolescent soccer players demonstrated the
injuries (Mann, Bryant, Johnstone, Ivey, & Sayers, effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention
2016; Steffen, Pensgaard, & Bahr, 2009). Competitive program in reducing injury risks (Ivarsson, John-
sport athletes affected by conjunctive effects, mean- son, Andersen, Fallby, & Altemyr, 2015).
ing those with the combination of high negative One of the limitations of the stress and injury
major life event stress and low coping resources, are model is that it does not contextualize injury vul-
particularly vulnerable to sport injuries (Maddison nerability beyond the psychological influences.
Therefore, biomedically based models such as the players as significant contributors to ACL injury
dynamic recursive model of sport injury (Meeu- (Grooms & Onate, 2015), reinforcing the importance
wisse, Tyreman, Hagel, & Emery, 2007) are also of training perceptual and attentional skills as a
useful for sport and exercise psychologists because preventive strategy.
they accommodate consideration of psychological From a public health perspective, Finch (2006)
factors as part of multifactorial models of injury eti- presented a six-step conceptual framework for trans-
ology (i.e., the causes of sport injury). In this model, lating research into sport injury prevention practice
intrinsic risk factors (e.g., history of injuries, high (TRIPP). Cognitions (e.g., beliefs and attitudes
stress reactivity) lead to injury-predisposed athletes. about and commitment to safety) and behaviors
Exposure of predisposed athletes to extrinsic risk (e.g., using safety equipment, modifying behavior
factors (e.g., officiating tolerance of illegal play, in alignment with safety practice) are central to the
coaches exerting excessive performance pressure) effectiveness of prevention efforts. Finch empha-
results in injury susceptible athletes. The injury sized a psychosocial and ecological perspective,
susceptible athletes engage in sporting activities saying that “knowledge of the safety/injury culture
in which they may encounter inciting events (e.g., of the sport is important to understand cues to
unanticipated collisions, environmental hazards) action and how best to work with sports to improve
that are the direct mechanisms or causes of injury. safety” (p. 7). Finch and Donaldson (2010) described
The identification of specific intrinsic and extrinsic a RE-AIM sports setting matrix (RE-AIM SSM) (i.e.,
psychological risk factors highlighted in this model reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and
has the potential to allow the targeting of interven- maintenance) directed toward instigating preven-
tions toward these factors to reduce risks. tion efforts in community sports. Examples of the
As the research cited in the previous paragraphs psychological factors within the multilevel model
clearly suggests, a number of psychological factors included support for coaches, communication strat-
render some sport participants more vulnerable egies, and attitudes of club officials. This model has
to injuries than others. This knowledge benefits framed several research projects and systematic
injury prevention efforts, and a corresponding reviews, such as one examining the effectiveness
body of research, reviewed in the next section, has of musculoskeletal injury prevention exercise pro-
examined the role of psychology in sport injury grams in team sports (O’Brien & Finch, 2014).
prevention. Among the limitations of the injury prevention
literature, however, is the atheoretical nature of
many studies designed to test the efficacy and effec-
Prevention of Sport Injuries tiveness of prevention measures. In their systematic
Several conceptual models have emerged using review of sport injury prevention research studies,
systematic and evidence-based approaches to McGlashan and Finch (2010) found that social and
injury reduction through considerations of risk and behavioral science theories and models guided sport
protective factors. The psychological way in which injury prevention research projects less than 11%
athletes perceive and interact with the physical of the time. They advocated for theory-driven work
environment is one emerging area of investigation using cognitive and behavioral change mechanisms
relative to sport injury prevention. For example, in improving prevention efforts. Keats, Emery, and
the ecological dynamics framework (Leventer, Finch (2012) and Chan and Hagger (2012a) both
Dicks, Duarte, Davids, & Araújo, 2015) identified recommended the integration of self-determina-
behavioral processes and the dynamics of interaction theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) with the theory
tions between athletes and environments relative of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) in promoting
to contact injuries among team-sport athletes. Psy- adherence to sport injury prevention behaviors.
chological constructs such as perceptual and atten- Finch et al. (2014) used the health belief model
tional skills are important to injury mechanisms to study the beliefs of youth Australian football
and preventions within this framework. Leventer players about neuromuscular training programs.
et al. recommend educating and training athletes to In line with the health behavior model, Deroche,
recognize affordances (i.e., opportunities for action) Stephan, Woodman, and Le Scanff (2012) found
that can enable them to avoid risky situations in that perceptions of similarity to injured athletes
open-environment contact sports. Neuroscience and perceived control over injury risks predicted
work on the mechanisms of noncontact anterior perceived risks of injury among judokas.
cruciate ligament injuries (ACL), for example, shows Other prevention models used in the sport injury
distracted attention and contact with balls or other field include epidemiological and systems models.
Kerr, Roos, Schmidt, and Marshall (2013) used an frameworks. The development of these early con-
epidemiological triangle model (i.e., host, agent, ceptual models provided the impetus for expand-
environment) to review social environmental ing research on psychological responses to sport
influences on sport injury risks and recommended injuries, although findings were largely confined
prevention strategies for implementation by sports to competitive sport contexts.
medicine professionals. Social environmental Recent research on postinjury responses has
influences identified in their review included employed disablement models (Vela, 2008; Vela
parents, teammates, coaches, media, policy and & Denegar, 2010b) as well as a transcontextual
legislation, and sports medicine professionals. model of treatment motivation based on self-de-
Salmon, Goode, Lenné, Finch, and Cassell (2013) termination theory (Chan, Hagger, & Spray, 2011).
used a systems-based risk management framework Disablement models arose from sociological schol-
to identify causal factors for injury in facilitated or arship in the 1960s and were primarily construed
led outdoor physical activities such as climbing, using evidence-based clinical practice findings
caving, cycling, skiing, and horse riding. Among from several medical professions such as physical
the supported causal components of the systems and occupational therapy (Snyder et al., 2008).
model were several psychological factors, such as Vela and Denegar (2010b) interviewed physically
inadequate mental or emotional condition, judg- active adults with orthopedic injuries as a means
ment errors, failure to follow policies, and improper of describing the disablement process in sport
motivation. injuries based on four components that included
A substantial body of theory and research has impairments, functional limitations, disability,
focused on psychological factors associated with and quality of life. Quality of life represented
vulnerability to sport injuries as well as their pre- psychological problems such as uncertainty and
vention. Even with this body of work, however, fear, stress and pressure, mood and frustration,
significant evidence gaps remain because of the overall energy, and altered social relationships and
complexity of human attitudes and behaviors and is a primary outcome of concern in clinical sport
the diversity of participatory environments. Despite rehabilitation (Parsons & Snyder, 2011). Valovich
the substantial effort directed to safety, sport inju- McLeod, Bay, Parsons, Sauers, and Snyder (2009),
ries do occur in significant numbers. Therefore, the for example, found that injured adolescent athletes
next section examines psychological responses to reported lower health-related quality of life than
sport injuries. did their uninjured peer athletes. Russell (2014)
used the disablement measure developed by Vela
Postinjury Psychology and Denegar (2010b) to examine outcomes related

to the psychological aspects of returning to play
Research shows that after sustaining sport injuries, among surgically repaired ACL athletes and found
complex blends of psychological, psychiatric, and that reinjury anxiety, perceived percent recovery,
psychosocial responses manifest during acute and and perceived limitations to ability were all signifi-
chronic rehabilitation, and these varying responses cantly correlated with perceived disablement at 9
affect participants’ outcomes such as recovery and months postsurgery. Research has also supported
return to play. To provide frameworks for examin- the predictions of the transcontextual model in
ing this myriad of responses, scholars from a variety treatment motivation; a study among recreational
of disciplines have used several conceptual models and professional athletes with moderate to severe
and psychological theories, as reviewed next. sport injuries showed that “athletes with higher
autonomous motivation in sport may be more likely
to be autonomously motivated in their rehabilitation
Conceptual Models and Theories when injured” (Chan et al., 2011, p. 83).
Early work on psychological responses to sport The conceptual model most frequently used in
injuries relied on theories common within the the postinjury research literature is the integrated
general psychology literature of the times, such as model of psychological response to the sport injury
adaptations of the grief process (Evans & Hardy, and rehabilitation process (see figure 21.1). Several
1995; Rotella, 1985), stress process and cognitive papers (e.g., Wiese-Bjornstal, Smith, & LaMott, 1995;
appraisal (Wiese & Weiss, 1987), and biopsycho- Wiese-Bjornstal, Smith, Shaffer, & Morrey, 1998)
social (Brewer, Andersen, & van Raalte, 2002) have outlined the collaborative derivations of the
models. The integrated rehabilitation model of Flint model, which integrates components from several
(1998b) merged psychology and sports medicine other theories to depict the process of p
sychological
responses to sport injury, rehabilitation, and return itative study designs. For example, Madrigal and
to play. The development of the model served Gill’s (2014) results using a case studies approach
both research and clinical practice functions, with injured collegiate female athletes supported
and research from a diverse array of studies has not only individual differences in responses but
supported the predictions (see recent review by also the dynamic nature of psychological responses
Wiese-Bjornstal, 2014). Within this model, the core such as mental toughness, hardiness, and opti-
dynamic cycle derives from the transactional theory mism. Ruddock-Hudson, O’Halloran, and Murphy
of stress in which stress occurs as a process of (2012, 2014) also showed individual differences and
transaction or exchange between the person and the dynamic fluctuations in psychological responses
environment (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). Cognitive to injury among male Australian rules football
appraisals affect how people think, feel, and behave players. A study by Evans, Wadey, Hanton, and
in stressful situations such as sport injuries, thus Mitchell (2012) found that sport injury is a stressor,
encompassing the dynamic cognitive, affective, and providing support for the central prediction of the
behavioral cycles identified at the core of the model. integrated model of psychological response to the
An early review of literature identified a number of sport injury and rehabilitation process. They com-
moderating and mediating factors (Wiese-Bjornstal pared male competitive golfers with rugby union
et al., 1995) that mapped onto an interactional players, finding specific but unique stressors within
approach to understanding the dynamic field their sport injury experiences to include medical,
(Lewin, 1939) of personal and situational factors sport, social, and financial demands that differed
influencing psychological responses to injury. The dynamically based on the stage of the injury process
preinjury influences of the stress and injury model as predicted by the model.
(Andersen & Williams, 1988) are included at the top The many conceptual models and theories dis-
of the schematic to identify their continued effects cussed point to the complex and dynamic nature
on the response to injury and rehabilitation process. of psychological responses to sport injuries. In
Temporally, recognition, response, reconciliation or line with the predictions of the integrated model
readjustment, and return frame the general progres- of psychological response to the sport injury and
sion of longitudinal or dynamic cycles of cognition, rehabilitation process (Wiese-Bjornstal et al., 1998),
affect, and behavior oscillating over the rehabilita- a recent systematic review of psychosocial factors
tion period in a recycling, vortex, or spiral fashion associated with sport injury rehabilitation outcomes
(Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009). confirms that cognitions, affect, and behavior are
A comprehensive attempt at simultaneously the core psychological themes related to outcomes
testing several premises of the integrated model (Forsdyke, Smith, Jones, & Gledhill, 2016). The next
of psychological response to the sport injury and section articulates specific examples of each of
rehabilitation process with a sample of intercolle- these themes as evident in the research literature.
giate athletes provided support for the major pre-
dictions of the model (Wiese-Bjornstal et al., 2012). Cognitive, Affective,
Specifically, psychosocial variables predicted sport
injury, sport injury served as a stressor, and neg- and Behavioral Responses
ative affect was both a predictor and consequence Dynamic cycles of cognitions, affect, and behavior
of sport injury. In this study, the use of a matched represent the psychological responses to sport inju-
uninjured control group drawn from the same sport ries that influence physical and psychological out-
teams allowed the researchers to attribute observed comes over time. Wiese-Bjornstal (2010) describes
psychological changes in injured athletes directly cognitions as interpretations, appraisals, or beliefs
to the actual injury experience rather than to other related to sport injury, such as sense of loss, pain
negative stressors shared by both injured and perceptions, or perceived recovery progress. Affect
uninjured teammates (e.g., poor team performance, encompasses emotions such as frustration, rein-
school exam periods, or coach pressures). jury anxiety, or sadness resulting from specific
Research guided by the integrated model of injury-related cognitions, as well as moods, feel-
psychological response to the sport injury and ings, and core affect, such as feeling lethargic or
rehabilitation process has generally focused on energized, or good or bad. Behaviors are efforts,
examining the predictions about dynamic cycles of actions, or activities that injured athletes engage
individual cognitions, emotions, and behaviors over in, such as malingering, rehabilitation adherence,
the course of injury, rehabilitation, and return to and help seeking. Outcomes refer to the results,
play, through the use of both quantitative and qual- effects, or consequences of rehabilitation processes
Preinjury Stress factors
response
History of Coping
Personality Interventions
stressors Sport injury resources
Response to sport injury and rehabilitation process
Personal factors Situational factors

Injury Sport
• History • Type
• Severity • Level of competition
• Type • Time in season
Cognitive appraisal
• Perceived cause • Playing status
• Recovery status Goal adjustment • Practice vs. game
Rate of perceived recovery • Scholarship status
Individual differences
• Psychological Self-perceptions
Social
personality Belief and attributions
• Teammate influences
self-perceptions Sense of loss or relief
• Coach influences
self-motivation Cognitive coping • Family dynamics
motivational orientation
• Sports medicine team
pain tolerance
influences
athletic identity
coping skills • Social support provision
psychological skills • Sport ethic/philosophy
history of stressors Environmental
mood states • Rehabilitation
• Demographic
environment
gender
• Accessibility to
age
Recovery outcomes rehabilitation
ethnicity
socioeconomic status Psychosocial
prior sport experience Physical
• Physical
use of ergogenic aids
physical health status
disordered eating
Behavioral response Emotional response

Adherence to rehabilitation Fear of unknown
Use of PST strategies Tension, anger, depression
Use/disuse of social support Frustration, boredom
Risk-taking behaviors Positive attitude/outlook
Effort and intensity Grief
Malingering Emotional coping
Behavioral coping
Figure 21.1 Integrated model of psychologicalE6768/Horn/F21.01/565559/mh-R4

response to the sport injury and rehabilitation process.
Reprinted from “An Integrated Model of Response to Sport Injury: Psychological and Sociological Dynamics,” by D. M. Wiese-Bjornstal,
A. M. Smith, S. M. Shaffer, & M. A. Morrey, 1998, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 10, p. 49. Copyright 1998 by the Association for
Applied Sport Psychology.
393
(e.g., functional outcomes, reinjury, or returning to tive appraisals of sport injuries) and moods (more
play). These components are predicted to influence global, diffuse, longer-lasting feeling states such as
each other. For example, attainment of certain out- anxiety or depressed moods) (Mainwaring, Hutchi-
comes triggers renewed cognitions, which in turn son, Camper, & Richards, 2012; Wiese-Bjornstal,
influence affect and behaviors. Behaviors influence White, Russell, & Smith, 2015). Among the more
outcomes, which lead to revised cognitions. Each prevalent affects examined are reinjury anxiety
component reflects aspects of the coping process by or fear of injury (Prugh, Zeppieri, & George, 2012;
which individuals attempt to manage the stresses of Wadey et al., 2014), fear of movement tied to pain
sport injuries, such as through cognitive, affective, catastrophizing (Parr et al., 2014), mood states
and behavioral coping strategies. Early studies used (Cahalan, Purtill, O’Sullivan, & O’Sullivan, 2015;
prospective (i.e., preinjury baseline), longitudinal, Van Wilgen, Kaptein, & Brink, 2010), and frustration
repeated measures research designs to document (Clement, Arvinen-Barrow, & Fetty, 2015). Gener-
injury-induced dynamic changes in cognition (e.g., ally, the literature supports that negative anxieties,
perceived recovery) and affect (e.g., depression) fears, and moods are detrimental to physical and
(Smith et al., 1993), an approach less evident in psychological recovery outcomes. Evidence also
recent quantitative research. supports predicted linkages between cognitions
Recent examples of cognitions examined in the and emotions, such as the connections between per-
psychological responses to sport injuries research ceived recovery, psychological readiness, and fear of
include perceptions of competence, hardiness, ath- reinjury among ACL-injured athletes (Ardern, 2015).
letic identity, and attentional focus. Perceptions of Clinical mental health issues such as depression
competence proved to be an important component are also evident among injured athletes (Appaneal,
of successful return to play among adolescent ath- Levine, Perna, & Roh, 2009). For example, the
letes (Podlog et al., 2013). Wadey, Evans, Hanton, results of Appaneal et al.’s study showed higher
and Neil (2012) showed that adult mixed-sport depression in injured high school and intercollegiate
athletes high in hardiness used a broad selection athletes compared with healthy athlete controls,
of problem- and emotion-focused coping strate- and, as expected, observed declines in depression
gies, whereas athletes low in hardiness used more scores across recovery time. Air (2013) found high
avoidance coping. Declines in athletic identity were levels of psychological distress among dancers
evident among male and female recreational ath- seeking outpatient treatment for musculoskeletal
letes 6 to 24 months post ACL surgery, especially injuries; over 60% met requirements for clinical
among those whose rehabilitation was occurring mental health referral. Depression is evident among
at the slowest rates (Brewer, Cornelius, Stephan, & the many psychological consequences of sport
van Raalte, 2010). Internal injury-focused attention concussions (as illustrated in the sidebar Psycho-
disrupted movement automaticity among injured logical Considerations With Concussions). Other
baseball players compared with that of healthy researchers have looked at differences in coping
expert and novice control groups (Gray, 2015). and emotional responses based on injury type (such
Qualitative studies document the cycles of as macrotrauma versus microtrauma or concussion
cognitions over the injury rehabilitation process. versus orthopedic), generally finding responses
Cognitive appraisals across the time from injury unique to each type (Henert, 2000; Hutchison,
onset to return to play were documented in a Mainwaring, Comper, Richards, & Bisschop, 2009;
national-level cycling athlete, revealing themes Russell & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2015). Lee Sinden (2010)
such as injury and consequences in sporting life, discussed the suppression of emotions among elite
childhood experiences, emotions, social support, female athletes with health problems as a strategy
and trusting relationships (Roy, Mokhtar, Karim, used to prevent others from viewing them as weak
& Ayathupady, 2015). A study of sources of sport or irrational.
commitment following severe injury among univer- The third component of the dynamic cycles of
sity athletes reflected a number of cognitions about postinjury responses includes behaviors. Behaviors
valued sources, such as scholarships and career most often examined in the postinjury psychology
opportunities and personal investments of time and literature include rehabilitation adherence, help
effort (Iñigo, Podlog, & Hall, 2015). seeking, coping behaviors, pain behaviors, and
Besides examining the variety of cognitions that playing with injury. McKay and Verhagen (2016)
can result from sport injury experiences, research- distinguished between compliance, which refers to
ers have explored a range of affective reactions. conformity to the recommendations of profession-
Affective reactions examined have focused on als, and adherence, defined as “a process influenced
emotions (anger or fear responses based on cogni- by the environment, recognising that behaviour
is shaped by social contexts as well as personal consulted. University athletes did not seek medical
knowledge, motivations, skills and resources” (p. attention for suspected concussions because they
382). Nearly 20% of athletic trainers reported that did not perceive them as severe enough or danger-
poor rehabilitation adherence behavior in sport ous enough to stop them from playing (Delaney,
injuries is a major problem (Granquist, Podlog, Lamfookon, Bloom, Al-Kashmiri, & Correa, 2015).
Engel, & Newland, 2014). Levy, Polman, and Clough Research supporting additional behaviors used
(2008) tested an adapted planned behavior model in managing the stress of sport injuries includes
of rehabilitation adherence in sport injury, finding coping behaviors, pain behaviors, and continuing
that self-efficacy and self-motivation predicted to play when injured. Although avoidance coping,
clinic-based rehabilitation adherence. Among which involves escaping from or avoiding stressful
recreational athletes, Levy, Polman, Nicholls, and situations, is often considered a maladaptive coping
Marchant (2009) observed through interviews that strategy, Carson and Polman (2010) found that
lack of motivation and confidence hindered home- avoidance coping had beneficial aspects among
based rehabilitation adherence, whereas ineffective ACL-injured male professional rugby union players.
pain coping and social support negatively affected For example, some players enhanced their recoveries
clinic-based rehabilitation adherence. As an inter- by withdrawing temporarily from the injury envi-
vention targeting improvements in adherence ronments by using physical distraction techniques
behavior among injured athletes, Mahoney and such as learning new hobbies or developing alternate
Hanrahan (2011) found acceptance and commit- interests. Heil’s (2012) case example of pain-coping
ment therapy effective. behavior in an injured collegiate track athlete artic-
Other postinjury behaviors include help-seeking ulated the complex biopsychosocial influences on
behavior. Hoar and Flint (2008) found that inter- behaviors such as playing through the injury, help
collegiate athletes’ expectancies for nurturance seeking, and medication use. Supporting the finding
and expertise influenced their intentions to select that many athletes continue to play when injured,
specific help providers (e.g., coach, athletic thera- Weinberg, Vernau, and Horn (2013) found that male
pist, family members) when injured. Dancers from and female collegiate intramural basketball players
a variety of styles reported that their most common who were higher in athletic identity showed attitudes
help-seeking response was to inform someone and behaviors supportive of playing with injury.
about their injuries (Nordin-Bates et al., 2011). Madrigal, Robbins, Gill, and Wurst (2015) observed
Among nonelite adults training for marathon and that passion for the sport (e.g., love and meaning of
triathlon events, Grice, Kingsbury, and Conaghan the sport, desire to be on the field) and the sport ethic
(2014) found that advice about the care of muscu- (e.g., helping the team, game-time sacrifice, accepted
loskeletal injuries was first sought from teammates behavior) were key contributors toward playing with
or the Internet before medical professionals were pain and injury among collegiate rugby players.
Psychological Considerations With Concussions
The recent surge of research studies on concussions has resulted in the identification of numerous cognitive, emo-
tional, and behavioral symptoms that may occur (Wiese-Bjornstal et al., 2015). This work has also shown that for the
majority, symptoms resolve in approximately 1 to 2 weeks, although for some, symptoms persist for weeks, months,
and even years beyond the standard recovery period (Karr, Areshenkoff, & Garcia-Barrera, 2014). What remains
unclear, however, is the etiology of these persistent symptoms. For example, are the athlete’s depressive symptoms
a result of neurophysiological abnormalities stemming from the brain injury, the athlete’s continued absence from a
valued part of life, the less obvious functional limitations in everyday life, or some combination of these factors (Wiese-
Bjornstal et al., 2015)? An additional psychological consideration is the sociocultural context in which a concussion
injury occurs (see Wiese-Bjornstal et al., 1998, for a review of the sociocultural aspects of sport injury and recovery).
One such contextual factor is the sport ethic, which includes the belief that athletes should “play through the pain”
(Hughes & Coakley, 1991). An alarming consequence of this belief is that athletes may feel pressured not to report
their symptoms and continue to play despite sustaining what may be a concussion (Kroshus, Garnett, Hawrilenko,
Baugh, & Calzo, 2015). What athletes, coaches, and parents may not know is that continuing to participate may put
the athlete, particularly youth athletes, at risk for more severe, potentially fatal, consequences such as second-impact
syndrome (Halstead & Walter, 2010).
In sum, cognition, affect, and behavior are all positive psychology approaches, stress-related
evident in literature on the psychological aspects growth, also known as posttraumatic growth, is
of sport injury rehabilitation. The psychological among the more popular current themes in the sport
transition to return to play presents its own set injury literature. Crawford, Gayman, and Tracey
of challenges and represents not a point in time (2014), for example, identified several dimensions of
but rather a process through which athletes and posttraumatic growth among athletes with acquired
exercisers are assimilated back into their social spinal cord injury, including appreciation for life,
groups, routines, and training. Several researchers relating to others, and health and well-being. A
have focused specifically on this phase, as next study involving a wide range of previously injured
discussed. athletes pointed to the positive role of personality
hardiness in the promotion of stress-related growth,
achieved through mechanisms of social support
Return to Play and the ability to reframe injuries in positive terms
The specific phase of returning to participation (Salim, Wadey, & Diss, 2015).
(known as return to play, or return to sport) Creighton, Shrier, Shultz, Meeuwisse, and
following sport injuries merits special attention Matheson (2010) created a decision-based model of
because of the unique psychological dimensions return to play for clinical use by sports medicine
of this experience (see the sidebar for an example practitioners. Psychological aspects of the model
from literature on ACL injuries). Self-determination are evident among the medical factors involved
theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) has been a prominent in the evaluation of health status (e.g., psycholog-
framework for studies examining the return-to-play ical state), evaluation of participation risks (e.g.,
process among injured competitive athletes. For competitive level), and decision modifiers (e.g.,
example, Podlog, Dimmock, and Miller’s (2011) pressures from athlete, coach, or family). In an
review of literature on the psychological aspects of examination of the Creighton et al. model as it
return to play identified common themes such as related to return-to-play decision making among
reinjury, performance, social, and self-presentation athletic trainers, Kenow (2014) found that certain
concerns. Podlog et al. interpreted these concerns personal (e.g., fears about job security, lack of
as consistent with self-determination theory, in that experience) and situational (e.g., financial issues,
athletes’ concerns reflected their basic needs for player importance) pressures negatively affected
competence, autonomy, and relatedness. athletic trainers in making optimal return-to-play
Ardern, Taylor, Feller, and Webster’s (2013) decisions for athletes under their care.
review of psychological factors surrounding return From injury prevention efforts through the pro-
to play concluded that “positive psychological cesses of psychological responses to sport injury,
responses were associated with a higher return to rehabilitation, and return to play, physically active
sport rate after injury, a faster return and a greater people can benefit from psychological interven-
likelihood of returning to the preinjury participation tions provided by many professional and personal
level” (p. 1124). In line with the recent trend toward sources. The goal is to enhance physical and psy-
Psychology of Return to Play Following Knee Surgery
Athletes primarily undergo anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) with the intention of returning to sport
(Heijne, Axelsson, Werner, & Biguet, 2008). Despite widely positive physical outcomes post-ACLR, only about 50% of
athletes achieve this goal (Ardern, Taylor, Feller, & Webster, 2014). Researchers have identified psychological factors
as crucial to return to play (Christino, Fantry, & Vopat, 2015; Everhart, Best, & Flanigan, 2015; te Wierike, van der
Sluid, van der Akker-Scheek, Elferink-Gemser, & Visscher, 2013). High fear of reinjury, high psychological distress,
low self-efficacy, high external locus of control, and low adherence to rehabilitation are potential limiting factors
(Christino et al., 2015; Nordahl, Sjöström, Westin, Werne, & Alricsson, 2014; te Wierike et al., 2013). The responsibility
for addressing psychological concerns may fall to health care professionals, coaches, or sport psychologists. Iden-
tifying negative psychological responses is the first step in intervening with athletes (Christino et al., 2015). Effective
intervention strategies include educating coaches and athletes about the injury and goals of treatment, monitoring
the athletes’ fear of reinjury (McVeigh & Pack, 2015), and psychological skills interventions such as self-talk, imagery,
relaxation techniques, and modeling.
chological recoveries by addressing the psycholog- Table 21.1 Assessments of Psychological Responses to
ical challenges and concerns identified in the pre- Sport Injury and Returning to Sport
vious sections of this chapter. These psychological Title Acronym Authors Year
interventions take a variety of forms, including Anterior Cruciate Ligament ACL-RSI Webster, Feller, & 2008
education, behavior change, social support, mental Return to Sport Inventory Lambros
skills training, interpersonal exchanges, and phys- Athlete Fear Avoidance AFAQ Dover & Amar 2015
ical activity, as discussed next. Questionnaire
Athletes’ Received Support ARSQ Freeman, Coffee, 2014
Psychological Interventions Questionnaire Moll, Rees, &

Sammy
in Sports Medicine Causes of Re-Injury Worry

Questionnaire
CR-IWQ Christakou,
Zervas, Stavrou,
2011
Psychological interventions refer to the strategies & Psychountaki

used by various professionals associated with the Disablement in the Physi- DPAS Vela & Denegar 2010a
cally Active Scale
psychological aspects of sport injury and rehabil-
itation as they work with, and provide support to, Emotional Responses of ERAIQ Smith, Scott, & 1990
Athletes to Injury Ques- Wiese
injured participants during their rehabilitation and
tionnaire
return to play. These professionals include people
Injury Psychological Read- I-PRRS Glazer 2009
such as sport and exercise psychologists, sports
iness to Return to Sport
medicine professionals, and kinesiology profes-
Psychological Responses PRSII Evans, Hardy, 2008
sionals. The following sections describe research
to Sport Injury Inventory Mitchell, & Rees
findings on the influences of psychological inter-
Reinjury Anxiety Inventory RIAI Walker, Thatcher, 2010
ventions in sports medicine contexts.
& Lavallee
Sports Inventory for Pain SIP Bourgeois, 2009
Sport and Exercise Psychologist Meyers, & LeUnes
Interventions Adapted from D.M. Wiese-Bjornstal et al., Adding the PARTS to the
Whole: Psychological Aspects of Returning to Sport, 2014. Unpub-
Among the many roles of sport and exercise lished manuscript. By permission of the author.
psychologists is the assessment of psychological
responses to sport injuries. Many specific tools however, found limitations in the body of research
have emerged for gauging postinjury psychological examining psychological interventions in sport
status (Wiese-Bjornstal, Russell, & Steele, 2014). injuries, and Arvinen-Barrow et al. (2015) noted
Table 21.1 provides a brief overview of some of the limited use of mental skills training by injured
measures that are most specific to sport injury con- athletes. Yet several studies have documented the
texts. These assessments, mostly of the self-report positive effects of mental skills such as imagery on
variety, can prove useful in identifying athletes motivation, confidence, and adherence (Cressman
who could benefit from psychological interventions. & Dawson, 2011; Evans, Hare, & Mullen, 2006;
Self-report instruments have limitations, however, Monsma, Mensch, & Farroll, 2009).
and researchers should consider other forms of The education of sports medicine professionals
assessment, such as observational techniques, bio- about sports medicine psychology represents a third
chemical markers, and measurement technologies role for sport and exercise psychologists (Stiller-Os-
(Almeida, Olmedilla, Rubio, & Palou, 2013; Schilaty, trowski, Gould, & Covassin, 2009). Arvinen-Barrow,
Nagelli, & Hewett, 2016). Sport and exercise psychol- Penny, Hemmings, and Corr (2010) examined the
ogists, depending on credentials and professional opinions of physiotherapists, who named work-
training, often play an integral role in administering shops, seminars, mentoring, and coaching as the
and interpreting these assessments. most effective delivery mechanisms for such train-
A second role for sport and exercise psychologists ing. A systematic review of the literature on sport
is in mental skills training. Heil (1993) provided a psychology education for sports medicine profes-
comprehensive approach describing most of the sionals led to recommended educational elements,
psychological intervention strategies still recom- including “(1) understanding of the psychological
mended today (e.g., communication skills, injury impact of injury, (2) interventions and psychological
education, goal setting, social support, imagery, skills/techniques, and (3) referral and professional
relaxation skills, pain control, and attentional strat- boundaries” (Heaney, Walker, Green, & Rostron,
egies). Schwab Reese, Pittsinger, and Yang (2012), 2015, p. 72).
Sports Medicine Provider better psychological well-being and improved social

networks were among the psychological benefits
Interventions associated with sport participation among this pop-
Early research surveying the views of athletic ulation. Among patients with spinal cord injuries,
trainers identified their beliefs that motivation and motivation themes for leisure-time physical activity
communication strategies were central to their included restitution narratives, in which physical
role and beneficial to athletes (Wiese, Weiss, & activity provided a means to restore wholeness to
Yukelson, 1991). Tracey (2008) more recently iden- their previous selves, and quest narratives, in which
tified rapport, communication, and education as patients explored a variety of physical activities
skills valuable within the role of sports medicine compatible with their interests and opportunities
professionals. Current research findings show that (Perrier, Smith, & Latimer-Cheung, 2013). Machida,
certified athletic trainers and physiotherapists both Irwin, and Feltz (2013) described the evolution of
rank keeping the athlete involved with the team, personal resilience through sport participation
goal setting (especially short-term, rehabilitation among male quadriplegic wheelchair rugby players.
goals), and creating variety in rehabilitation exer- Among Paralympic athletes with acquired traumatic
cises among the top strategies they implement for disability, physical activity participation led to post-
the psychological benefits (Arvinen-Barrow et al., traumatic growth such as recognizing possibilities
2015; Clement, Granquist, & Arvinen-Barrow, 2013). and responsibilities for choices, and researchers
Certified athletic trainers rated the top three psy- identified narratives of assimilation and positive
chological responses that athletes experienced with accommodation (Day, 2013).
injury as stress or anxiety, anger, and treatment Psychological barriers related to perceptions and
adherence problems (Clement et al., 2013), and said fears about physical activity participation among
that interventions should match these difficulties. health condition populations affect intervention
Although belief in the importance of psycho- effectiveness (Filbay, Crossley, & Ackerman, 2016).
logical intervention in sport injury situations is For example, belief in one’s own ability to over-
ubiquitous, sports medicine professionals closest to come spinal cord injury barriers is influential in
the athletes (e.g., athletic trainers, physiotherapists, physical activity engagement (Phang, Martin Ginis,
physical therapists) report feeling inadequately Routhier, & Lemay, 2012). Older adult golfers who
trained in efficiently delivering psychological inter- had undergone knee replacement surgery (Beard,
ventions and implementing psychosocial strategies 2008) and had not returned to play identified psy-
(Arvinen-Barrow, Massey, & Hemmings, 2014). The chological barriers, as did some within a popula-
National Athletic Trainers’ Association’s (NATA) tion of older adults considering exercise following
fifth edition of educational competencies revised hip fracture (Gorman et al., 2013). These research
the psychosocial strategies and referral content examples provide illustrations of how interventions
area to mandate that all athletic training students implemented and supported by kinesiologists might
have academic and clinical experience with holistic use physical activity as a beneficial psychological
learning situations and applying psychosocial strat- intervention and target perceptions of injury-related
egies (Stiller-Ostrowski et al., 2009). Their purpose barriers that are holding recovering patients back
was for athletic trainers to gain proficiencies in from participating in physical activities and sport.
implementing psychosocial strategies and referring
to mental health professionals when necessary Social Support Interventions
(Clement et al., 2013).
Social support interventions in sport injury con-
texts are provided by the professional groups just
Kinesiologist Interventions discussed but also by teammates, friends, and
Especially relevant for sport and exercise psycholo- family. Social support refers to the types of assis-
gists from the kinesiology tradition is the idea that tance or help that others provide for the intended
instead of psychological strategies serving as the purpose of benefitting an at-risk or injured person.
intervention, physical activity itself becomes the Early research by Udry (1997) established a base-
intervention, serving as a catalyst for numerous line understanding of the types and roles of social
psychological benefits following injuries (Day & support following sport injuries. Types of support
Wadey, 2016). The medical literature includes many generally include tangible (such as financial or
examples that support this idea. For example, in physical assistance), emotional (such as listening
their systematic review of limb amputees, Bragaru, or displays of compassion), and informational (such
Dekker, Geertzen, and Dijkstra (2011) noted that as education about the injury or treatment options)
categories. Certain types of support are more or less than competitive sport. With public health efforts
appropriately given depending on the provider role to increase physical activity participation among
opportunities and ethical boundaries. older adults and increased participation in mas-
The effectiveness of social support is evident in ters-level sport competitions (such as the senior
buffering the effects of stressors by reducing asso- games), research studies are needed to examine
ciated distress or in serving a directly protective what might be entirely different sets of psycho-
role in preventing the person from experiencing logical vulnerability and response factors among
distress in the face of challenging situations. A older active people (Dunsky & Netz, 2012; Moreira,
study of intercollegiate athletes reinforced the Mazzardo, Vagetti, De Oliveira, & De Campos,
buffering role of social support provided by athletic 2016). Furthermore, with similar public health
trainers (Yang et al., 2014). Rees, Mitchell, Evans, efforts focused on engaging people of all ages and
and Hardy’s (2010) study of social support reported ability levels in physical activity, the importance of
its significant stress-buffering effects among college examining the psychology of exercise, fitness, or
and recreational athletes and its directly protective recreation-related injuries is readily apparent (Gray
role among national or international caliber ath- & Finch, 2015). Molloy, Sniehotta, and Johnston
letes. Two studies with large and diverse athlete (2009), for example, found that cognitive appraisals
samples showed important distinctions between about how long injury would last and self-efficacy
perceived and actual social support, finding that for recovery predicted actual recovery rates from
“the perception of available social support buffers acute sport injuries among a general sample of
psychological responses when athletes face specific physically active college students.
injury stressors” (Mitchell, Evans, Rees, & Hardy, A second direction for future research involves
2014, p. 504). the need to identify parameters of optimal risk-tak-
Research examples among injured athlete ing behavior in physical activity. This topic may
samples give insight into the sources, types, and be particularly important to examine in children
benefits of social support. Reliance on support and youth because learning to navigate risk is an
from family, friends, and teammates was simi- important part of the developmental process and
lar in orthopedic and concussed athletes from a ultimately could serve as an injury prevention
variety of collegiate sports (Covassin et al., 2014). tactic. In a discussion paper arising from the 2013
Autonomy support from coaches was predictive of Canadian Injury Prevention and Safety Promo-
self-determined motivation among a large sample tion Conference, Brussoni et al. (2015) said that
of injured elite athletes (Chan & Hagger, 2012b). A voluntary risky play, such as physical activity on
qualitative examination of social support networks, playgrounds, “helps children learn risk perception
exchanges, and appraisals among injured collegiate and management skills, which are important in
swimmers showed that they often felt “uncared developing understanding of how to navigate
for, unsupported, and lacking direction,” and felt risks and avoid injuries” (p. 344). They distin-
supported when they were “cared for” (Abgarov, Jef- guished between risks and hazards, identifying
fery-Tosoni, Baker, & Fraser-Thomas, 2012, p. 213). the former as situations that children recognize as
The preceding review of psychological litera- challenging and potentially dangerous and should
ture on sport injury vulnerability and prevention, learn to negotiate, and hazards as those situations
responses to injury, and interventions clarifies the that present a source of harm that is not easily or
strength of existing support regarding the impor- obviously recognized and should be avoided or
tance and role of psychology in sports medicine mitigated. Brussoni et al. referred to the downsides
contexts. Despite the strength of this evidence, of “bubble-wrapped recreation” (p. 345) and recom-
many gaps remain in the knowledge base. Recom- mended balancing injury risk concerns with child
mendations for addressing these gaps are identified development potentialities. For example, insisting
and discussed in the following section. on safety gear in physical activity can lead to the
opposite of intended injury reduction consequences
through a mechanism known as risk compensation,
Future Research which predicts that people adjust their behaviors
Recommendations based on perceived levels of risk. Lasenby-Lessard
and Morrongiello’s (2011) research showed that
A first major gap in the knowledge concerning children took more risks when wearing sport safety
the psychological aspects of sport injuries is the gear than when not wearing it, likely because
limited inclusion of older adult participants and of they perceived themselves as protected or at lesser
participants from physical activity settings other risk of injury with the gear on. This finding was
particularly strong among high-sensation-seeking Lyoka, Chetty, and Goon (2015) found that play-
children with significant expertise in their physical ers and coaches used spiritual rituals for defense
activities. Conversely, being afraid of injury risks against injury. A survey of athletic trainers found
may lead to the problem of lower engagement in that they believed in the importance of addressing
childhood physical activity (Telford, Finch, Barnett, issues of spirituality in patient care (McKnight, &
Abbott, & Salmon, 2012). Both risk compensation Juillerat, 2011), and research by Wiese-Bjornstal et
and fear of injury can have unintended or negative al. (2016) found a significant relationship between
health consequences for children, thus supporting religiosity and adaptive forms of coping with sport
the importance of nurturing their skills in optimal injury. At a philosophical level, Lee Sinden (2013)
assessment and negotiation of sport injury risk. wrote about high-performance sport cultures and
A third gap in the literature and a direction for the incompatibility between the norms of ignoring
future research is the underexplored benefits of health problems and those of “what God asks of
multidisciplinary approaches to assessment, health us” (p. 347) in terms of honoring the physical body
care, and psychological intervention. For example, through healthy lifestyles. Thus, the potential roles
anxious and catastrophic thoughts about pain of religiosity and spirituality in injury prevention
influence many bodily systems, such as neuromus- and coping with sport injury merit further attention,
cular, cardiovascular, immune, and neuroendocrine just as they have received in the extensive body of
(Campbell & Edwards, 2009), and therefore imply literature in psychology and health care examining
the need for multidisciplinary assessment and care. their connections to physical and mental health.
In sport injury intervention, the research of Mankad,
Gordon, and Wallman (2009) demonstrated the
effectiveness of written disclosure and reduced Summary
psychological distress on improved immune system Sports medicine psychology is a term used to
function. A study of exercise-related shoulder describe the psychological, behavioral, and social
pain illustrated connections between psychology aspects of sport injury prevention and care among
and genetics, showing interrelationships between diverse physically active populations. Primary psy-
pain catastrophizing, depressive symptoms, and chological factors influencing risk of sport injury
genetic markers (George et al., 2014). Biofeedback include the combination of high life event stress and
is at the forefront of intersections between sport low coping resources, as well as anxiety and neg-
and exercise psychology and neuroscience, yet it ative moods. Efforts geared toward the prevention
has received only minimal attention in the sports of sport injuries incorporate many psychological
medicine psychology literature (Edvardsson, Ivars- components such as attentional focus, motivation,
son, & Johnson, 2012; Schwenz, 2001; Zaichkowsky, and education. The nature and context of sport inju-
2012). The incorporation of biofeedback is widely ries and the psychology of individual participants
evident in video games and virtual reality as used influence their psychological responses after injury
in rehabilitation contexts (Barzilay & Wolf, 2013; occurs. Cognitions and affects following sport inju-
Lohse, Shirzad, Verster, Hodges, & Van der Loos, ries affect adherence and other forms of behaviors,
2013), and the potential psychological benefits to which in turn affect physical and psychological
motivation and engagement among active patients recovery outcomes such as return to play.
are evident. Many forms of interventions such as goal setting,
The significant potential role of embracing cognitive behavioral stress management, and social
religious faith and spirituality as a protective and support are beneficial to rehabilitation from sport
coping factor in sport injuries provides a fourth injuries and return to play. Intervention providers
example of an understudied area in sports med- include sport and exercise psychologists, sports
icine psychology that is in line with contempo- medicine providers, and kinesiology professionals.
rary positive psychology approaches to resilience Several gaps in the present literature provide future
(Wiese-Bjornstal, Wood, White, Wambach, & directions for research in sports medicine psychol-
Rubio, 2016). Although many studies throughout ogy. These avenues include incorporating samples
medicine and health care document the psycho- from diverse physical activity environments,
logical importance of religiosity and spirituality in collaborating on multidisciplinary scholarship,
connection with physical and mental health, few training optimal risk-taking behavior in children,
address their role in facing the health challenges and using religious and spiritual coping strategies
of sport injuries (Wiese-Bjornstal, 2000). Dodo, during rehabilitation.
Arvinen-Barrow, M., Penny, G., Hemmings, B., & Corr, S.

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22
Athlete Burnout
in Competitive Sport
Alan L. Smith, PhD  Christine E. Pacewicz, MA  Thomas D. Raedeke, PhD
Abstract
Competitive sport involves sustained and intensive demands on athletes that are designed
to foster resilience, facilitate learning and development, and stimulate performance
gains. At the same time, these deliberately imposed demands, along with other demands
associated with sport participation, can be challenging for athletes to manage. When
athletes experience such challenges over an extended period, they have the potential to
feel exhausted, to perceive that they are not accomplishing much, and to devalue sport
involvement. This collection of perceptions characterizes the burnout syndrome, which
has been observed in demanding work and performance settings such as sport. In this
chapter we offer a synthesis of extant conceptual perspectives and empirical work on
athlete burnout. We address the conceptualization of athlete burnout, ways to measure
burnout, and key theoretical perspectives (stress, entrapment, motivational) that guide
burnout research. We then summarize what the recent empirical literature has contrib-
uted to knowledge on athlete burnout, with emphasis on research targeting motivation
and perfectionism. Following this synthesis, we discuss key knowledge gaps on athlete
burnout in competitive sport and offer future research suggestions to address those gaps.
Specifically, we encourage attention to various assessment issues such as identification
of normative categories and evolution of athlete burnout scores, broader consideration
of social factors that may contribute to or mitigate burnout perceptions, increased efforts
to address the fit of the athlete and the team or organization in burnout research, and
extending longitudinal and intervention efforts. Addressing these matters will advance
understanding of athlete burnout and offer improved guidance for athlete burnout
prevention, in turn contributing to more productive and meaningful experiences for
athletes in competitive sport.
409
410 Smith, Pacewicz, and Raedeke
A
s an achievement-driven context, competitive health care and human service workers (Freuden-
sport demands of participants considerable berger, 1974, 1975; Maslach, 1976). The intense
time commitment, effort, and persistence. demands associated with those work environments
Competitive athletes engage in rigorous condition- make the workers vulnerable to becoming emotion-
ing and extensive practice of skills, are regularly ally exhausted and to questioning their professional
judged on performance outcomes, negotiate inter- effectiveness. In seeking to measure this phenom-
personal relationships with coaches and teammates, enon, Maslach and Jackson (1981, 1986) specified
and may have other requirements such as balancing burnout to be a syndrome involving persistent
sport with school or work, participating in commu- feelings of emotional exhaustion, perceptions of
nity outreach, meeting requests of sponsors, and insufficient personal accomplishment, and negative
so on. When athletes have difficulty in meeting views on the patients or clients whom the person
the many demands of competitive sport, they may is charged with helping. Because burnout is a syn-
experience burnout, which colloquially has been drome, these signs and symptoms occur together
referred to as motivation gone awry (Gould, 1996). and constitute what is believed to be the core-de-
The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview fining elements of an epidemiologically salient
of conceptual perspectives on athlete burnout, share phenomenon (Eklund, Smith, Raedeke, & Cress-
what has been learned from empirical work on this well, 2012). In generalizing the burnout construct
phenomenon, and illuminate key gaps in knowl- beyond human services work, later conception
edge about athlete burnout that warrant research and assessment specified exhaustion, professional
attention. We start by moving beyond a colloquial inefficacy, and cynicism as the core elements that
understanding to a scientific conceptualization of define burnout (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996).
athlete burnout and contemporary measurement Because the burnout construct was conceived
of its defining features. Following this discussion and formalized within the human services setting,
we present several key theoretical perspectives it came to be recognized as potentially salient in
used to study athlete burnout, including the over- other achievement contexts such as sport. Collo-
arching stress-based perspective (Smith, 1986) that quial and scholarly reference to athlete burnout
has informed research on this topic, perspectives began to emerge, and early academic writings on
that emphasize sport entrapment (Coakley, 1992; the topic were published in the middle 1980s to
Schmidt & Stein, 1991), and a prevailing motiva- early 1990s. Sustained exhaustion, performance
tional perspective (i.e., self-determination theory; stagnation, and negative feeling states were noted to
Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). We then occur within the demanding context of competitive
synthesize extant research on this phenomenon. sport. Yet during this time few empirical efforts
Because the constraints of this chapter do not allow were completed, and a range of burnout descriptions
an exhaustive review of the research literature on and definitions were forwarded in the colloquial
athlete burnout, we highlight key findings and and academic literature (Raedeke & Smith, 2009).
emphasize contemporary work centered on perfec- Some perspectives narrowly conceived of burnout
tionism and motivation, respectively. Finally, we as an end state stemming from training-related
discuss key knowledge gaps and offer suggestions stress (e.g., Silva, 1990), whereas others were broad
for future research that hold potential to fill these ranging and appeared to merge burnout compo-
gaps. As our understanding of athlete burnout nents with burnout antecedents (e.g., Eades, 1990).
improves, we believe that efficacious prevention Thus, a lack of coherence was initially seen in the
efforts could be developed that enable competitive research area.
athletes to retain the high level of commitment and Raedeke’s (1995, 1997; Raedeke & Smith, 2001,
intensity required to optimize their performance 2009) efforts to define and measure athlete burnout
and sport experience. paralleled those in organizational psychology and
the syndrome conception forwarded by Maslach and
Jackson (Maslach et al., 1996). A primary concern
Defining was capturing the psychosocial burnout syndrome
and Measuring Burnout in a way that reflected the experiences of athletes
(see table 22.1). An athlete is not specifically in a
The burnout construct was originally conceived service role to others, and the core concern is with
based on descriptions of the deterioration in mental sport performance. Thus, to contextualize the burn-
and physical functioning and performance among out experience to sport, exhaustion was extended
Athlete Burnout in Competitive Sport 411
to include a combined emotional and physical The initial ABQ measurement research showed
exhaustion dimension. This dimension was defined scores to be internally consistent, to possess
as emotional and physical fatigue stemming from test–retest reliability, and to exhibit the concep-
the psychological and physical demands of training tualized factor structure of three athlete burnout
and competing. Inefficacy also applies to athletes, dimensions (Raedeke & Smith, 2001). Later work
although it would need to be contextualized to showed that both in-person (paper and pencil) and
sport. The dimension of a reduced sense of accom- online versions of the ABQ performed equivalently
plishment was conceived as inefficacy and a ten- (Lonsdale, Hodge, & Rose, 2006) and that the ABQ
dency to evaluate oneself negatively with respect to assessed athlete burnout in a way that is dis-
sport performance and accomplishments. Raedeke criminable from depression (Cresswell & Eklund,
did not view a depersonalized perspective on others 2006a). Given the conceptual grounding and psy-
as central to athlete burnout in the way it would chometric promise of the ABQ, several research
be for human service providers, for whom helping groups made use of the measure and contributed
others is central. But a cynical view of one’s core to an early expansion of athlete burnout research.
activity, in this case sport, would be consistent with The initial studies using the ABQ showed athlete
the burnout phenomenon. The devaluation dimen- burnout to be associated with variables that are
sion of athlete burnout was defined as a negative theoretically linked, offering further evidence for
and detached attitude toward sport reflected by a the construct validity of ABQ scores. This initial
lack of concern for sport and performance quality. evidence was compiled and published in an ABQ
This three-dimension definition is consistent with manual (Raedeke & Smith, 2009), further extend-
Maslach et al.’s (1996) conceptualization of burnout ing the accessibility and reach of the measure. Sub-
outside human service professions. sequent to publication of the manual, research on
Based on this conceptualization of athlete burn- athlete burnout has accelerated and the ABQ has
out, Raedeke and Smith (2001) published work been the predominant instrument used to assess
offering initial reliability and validity evidence athlete burnout. The ABQ has been translated into
for scores on the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire a number of languages, and it altogether appears
(ABQ). The ABQ is a survey instrument that con- to have offered a foundation for athlete burnout
tains 15 items, 5 of which are tied to each burnout research in sport and exercise psychology (see
dimension. The emotional and physical exhaustion Eklund, Smith, Raedeke, & Cresswell, 2012).
dimension includes items such as “I feel overly tired
from my [sport] participation” and “I am exhausted
by the mental and physical demands of [sport].” The Theoretical Perspectives
bracketed portion of these example items can refer
to sport generally, “my sport,” or a particular sport
on Burnout
(e.g., volleyball) as customized by the researcher. In most cases athlete burnout research has been
The reduced sense of accomplishment dimension guided or informed by theoretical perspectives
includes items such as “I am not achieving much in that speak specifically to burnout or more gener-
[sport]” and “I am not performing up to my ability in ally to stress and motivation. These perspectives
[sport].” The devaluation dimension includes items have helped advance the understanding of athlete
such as “I don’t care as much about my [sport] per- burnout. But as pointed out by others, each per-
formance as I used to” and “I have negative feelings spective possesses strengths and weaknesses to be
toward [sport].” Responses are offered relative to the considered in pursuing a comprehensive view of
respondent’s current sport participation season and the burnout phenomenon (see Gustafsson, Kenttä,
fall on a 1 to 5 scale with the following anchors: & Hassmén, 2011). Prominent perspectives in the
“almost never,” “rarely,” “sometimes,” “frequently,” literature are briefly outlined in the following sec-
and “almost always.” tions and summarized in table 22.2.
Table 22.1 Dimensions of Athlete Burnout

Emotional and physical exhaustion Reduced sense of accomplishment Devaluation
Emotional and physical fatigue stemming from Inefficacy and a tendency to evaluate oneself Negative and detached attitude toward
the psychological and physical demands of train- negatively with respect to sport performance sport reflected by a lack of concern for
ing and competing and accomplishments sport and performance quality
Raedeke (1995), (1997); Raedeke & Smith (2001), (2009).
Table 22.2 Prominent Conceptual Perspectives Applied to Athlete Burnout

Perspective Examples Description Advantages to understanding burnout
Stress-based Smith (1986) Burnout is a consequence of chronic stress Conceives of burnout as a process, directing
caused by both physical and psychological researchers and practitioners to consider
demands placed on an athlete. demands and resources, the way in which they
are appraised, and downstream responses and
coping behavior.
Silva (1990) Physical training causes stress for athletes; Orients researchers and practitioners to the bal-
without positively adapting to this stress, burn- ance of physical stress and recovery in the (un)
out can occur. successful adaptation of athletes to training.
Entrapment-based Schmidt & Stein Entrapped athletes do not enjoy their sport Defines profiles of sport commitment that make
(1991) but are too invested to quit and do not have an athlete susceptible to burnout. Explains why
attractive alternative options. This circumstance athletes may remain involved in sport despite
increases burnout risk. maladaptive experiences.
Coakley (1992) The social organization of sport can cause ath- Frames athlete burnout as stemming from
letes to identify exclusively with sport and limit challenges with the social organization of
athletes’ ability to make decisions regarding sport rather than as an individual shortcoming.
their participation. Lack of alternatives and low Addressing the nature of sport is considered an
control lead to burnout. important pathway to addressing burnout.
Motivational Ames (1992); Overemphasis on normative comparison goals, Offers testable frameworks for understanding
Nicholls (1984, 1989); failing to meet basic psychological needs (i.e., psychosocial contributors to burnout and practi-
Deci & Ryan (1985) autonomy, competence, and relatedness), and cal guidance for burnout prevention.
motivation driven by external pressures or con-
tingencies increase burnout risk.
Stress-Based Perspectives in burnout. Subsequently, other sport psychol-

ogy researchers have noted that the overtraining
Because sport involves considerable training syndrome and burnout have conceptual overlap
demands, particularly for conditioning-intensive (e.g., Gustafsson et al., 2011; Kenttä, Hassmén, &
sports, the chronic stress of physical training has Raglin, 2001). Despite this overlap, sport psychology
the potential to result in burnout. This view on researchers recognized overtraining to provide an
burnout aligns with work on the overtraining incomplete conceptualization for athlete burnout
syndrome, which occurs when there is an imbal- because social psychological as well as physical
ance between training stress and recovery, often stressors can initiate the burnout process (Gould,
combined with other stressors, that persists even Tuffey, Udry, & Loehr, 1996). Accordingly, sport
after an extended recovery period. The overtraining psychologists were drawn to the comprehensive
syndrome is reflected in prolonged performance and psychologically grounded stress perspective
decline, negative feelings, and exhaustion along described next.
with a variety of other psychophysiological markers The cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout
that remain despite rest and training reductions (see advanced by Smith (1986) conceives burnout to be
Meeusen et al., 2013; Raglin & Wilson, 2000). With the result of a chronic stress process that culmi-
overtraining, the body is unable to adapt to training nates in psychological, emotional, and potentially
stress. Accordingly, researchers have emphasized physical withdrawal from sport. The first of the four
the importance of recovery in understanding and primary components of the model is the situation.
preventing the overtraining syndrome (Kellmann, Specific to athlete burnout, this component consists
2002). Work within the overtraining tradition pre- of the demands placed on an athlete and the per-
dominantly focuses on the physiological domain, sonal and contextual resources that the athlete pos-
and training stress and unsuccessful recovery are sesses to meet the demands. Although the rigor of
viewed as the primary contributors to this mal- physical training is certainly an important demand
adaptive syndrome. in sport, interpersonal relationships, time commit-
Some work within the burnout tradition is ment, competitive pressures, and other demands are
closely related to overtraining research. In an early salient within this model. The second component of
study, Silva (1990) forwarded a training-stress the model consists of an athlete’s appraisal of the
syndrome perspective that presented a progression balance of demands and resources, consequences
of maladaptive training responses culminating of failing to meet demands, and personal meaning
of the consequences of success or failure in meeting ment, and devaluation). He first explored profiles
demands. When athletes perceive that demands of the swimmers with respect to the commitment
exceed their resources, responses such as arousal variables, finding four distinguishable groups of
and mood disturbance can result. The responses swimmers—malcontented, enthusiastic, indifferent,
constituting this third component will feed back and obligated. The obligated swimmers showed a
to inform and potentially magnify or adjust the profile most consistent with entrapment, exhibiting
person’s appraisals. The final component of the moderately high investment in swimming that was
model consists of the coping behavior stemming in line with the enthusiastic swimmers. The mal-
from this process. In the context of a maladaptive contented swimmers showed some characteristics
stress process, inflexibility and disorganization are that aligned with entrapment. For example, like the
hallmark behaviors that fuel chronic challenges in obligated swimmers, they perceived relatively high
managing sport demands. As an additional point, social constraints for swim participation and rela-
the model components can be influenced by an ath- tively low control over their swim involvement. The
lete’s motivation and personality. These factors can indifferent swimmers had a profile that reflected
influence the goals and challenges that an athlete low commitment, suggesting theoretical potential
pursues and can predispose an athlete to appraise to drop out of sport without experiencing burnout.
and respond to demands in particular ways. Though not in perfect lock step with predictions,
Smith’s (1986) model has greatly influenced ath- subsequent profile group comparisons generally
lete burnout scholarship. Studies have supported showed that swimmers with entrapment char-
model tenets surrounding the stress–burnout rela- acteristics had greater burnout perceptions than
tionship, with respect to perceptions of sport-based swimmers who were involved based on attraction
stress and generalized or broader life stress (e.g., to the sport.
Lu et al., 2016; Raedeke & Smith, 2004; Smith, Gus- Coak ley (1992) proposed another entrap-
tafsson, & Hassmén, 2010). Moreover, studies have ment-based perspective that was more sociological
supported the idea that personality characteristics in orientation than extant burnout models. Though
can shape burnout through stress perceptions or not discounting the role of stress-based processes in
the modulation of stress perceptions (e.g., opti- burnout of young athletes, Coakley critiqued these
mism, Gustafsson & Skoog, 2012; resilience, Lu et perspectives for framing burnout as an individual
al., 2016). shortcoming and orienting practice toward coping
with stress rather than critiquing and reconsider-
ing the social organization of sport. With respect
Entrapment-Based Perspectives to high-level sport, Coakley argued that factors
In critiquing the capacity of extant models to such as performance orientation, encouragement
distinguish athlete decisions to leave a sport for to specialize, investments of parents and coaches,
other opportunities (i.e., dropout) from burnout, and adult- and agency-defined standards for
Schmidt and Stein (1991) drew from perspectives involvement and success make burnout less an
on commitment in close relationships. In particular, individual shortcoming than a shortcoming of the
they built their ideas on Rusbult’s (1983) invest- structural organization of youth sport. Accord-
ment model. They posited that athlete investment ingly, he viewed burnout as stemming from a lack
in sport involvement (e.g., time, effort, and other of athlete control over sport involvement. Though
resources that are expended and forfeited with athletes may initially choose to engage in sport,
departure from sport) helped capture the temporal their experiences are controlled by others in ways
nature of burnout and can explain why athletes may that reduce autonomy in sport and potentially affect
remain involved in a sport even when the rewards athletes’ lives outside sport. The social organization
and satisfaction are decreasing and the costs are of sport can also cause athletes to form a unidi-
increasing. With limited or no attractive alternatives mensional identity tied to the athlete role because
to sport participation, athletes are candidates for the involvement demands can prevent exploration
burnout because they continue to invest heavily of other interests and roles. When an athlete fails
without the desired payoff. They can be conceived to meet expectations, struggles with the demands
as entrapped by their sport involvement. Raedeke of sport, or begins to question the value of sport,
(1997) tested these ideas with adolescent age-group that athlete is susceptible to burnout because no
swimmers, assessing theoretical determinants of fallback plan is available. The athlete is trapped by
commitment and burnout perceptions (emotional/ a lack of control over sport involvement and being
physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplish- defined exclusively as an athlete.
Extant research supports that lower perceptions stronger tendency to become ego involved and who
of control are tied to athlete burnout (Black & Smith, perform within ego-involving climates are more
2007; Raedeke, 1997; Udry, Gould, Bridges, & Tuffey, susceptible to burnout when perceptions of ability
1997). A strong sport identity, however, has been are threatened.
shown to associate with lower burnout (e.g., Black Athlete burnout research findings align with
& Smith, 2007; Martin & Horn, 2013; Raedeke, 1997), these predictions and suggest that promoting
which is contrary to Coakley’s (1992) perspective. task involvement and tempering ego involvement
These studies were cross-sectional and thus may not within sport may abate burnout perceptions (e.g.,
adequately capture the dynamic nature of identity Lemyre, Hall, & Roberts, 2008; Reinboth & Duda,
development and the burnout process. An important 2004; Smith et al., 2010; Vitali, Bortoli, Bertinato,
consideration is that over the course of the burn- Robazza, & Schena, 2015). Other work has explored
out process, as devaluation perceptions increase, achievement goals with respect to their traditional
athletes may begin to psychologically withdraw definition within achievement goal theory as well
from their sport in a way that sport becomes less as their valence (approach and avoidance; Elliot &
salient to identity. Another consideration is that a McGregor, 2001). This work suggests that endorsing
unidimensional athletic identity can be formed pre- mastery approach goals within a task-involving
maturely, without exploration of alternative roles, or climate mitigates burnout (Isoard-Gaautheur,
embraced upon exploring alternative roles and iden- Guillet-Descas, & Duda, 2013) and that such goals
tifying most strongly with the athlete role. The latter partially mediate the association of higher coach–
process is more developmentally adaptive and may athlete relationship perceptions with lower burnout
result in a more resilient identity. Further research perceptions (Isoard-Gautheur, Trouilloud, Gustafs-
is needed to address the dynamics of identity and son, & Guillet-Descas, 2016). Altogether, achieve-
the way in which it interacts with other personal ment goal perspectives offer a useful approach for
and contextual experiences in the burnout process. understanding athlete burnout.
The most extensively used motivational frame-
work in burnout research is self-determination
Motivational Perspectives theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
In light of burnout being described as motivation According to this theory, the nature of one’s
gone awry (Gould, 1996), human motivation theo- motivation is an essential consideration in under-
ries have understandably been tapped to advance standing behavior in an achievement context such
understanding of athlete burnout. For example, as sport. The most adaptive form of motivation is
achievement goal theories have been used in study- intrinsic, meaning that it is self-determined, free of
ing burnout. A comprehensive overview of these internal and external pressures or contingencies,
perspectives is found elsewhere in this text (see and driven by inherent pleasure and satisfaction.
chapter 15). Briefly, such perspectives emphasize Falling on a continuum of behavioral regulations
a person’s tendency to employ certain conceptions from intrinsic to relatively more extrinsic forms,
of ability in achievement situations (i.e., goal orien- the nature of a person’s motivation could instead
tation), what is rewarded and emphasized within be driven by strong identification and integration
the achievement setting (i.e., motivational climate), with the self, by internal pressures such as guilt or
and perceived ability in shaping the person’s state a sense of obligation, or by more external regulation
of goal involvement and various motivational out- of rewards, punishments, and the expectations of
comes (Ames, 1992; Nicholls 1984, 1989). The pro- others. At a further extreme, people may come
pensity to conceive of competence in a way that is to fail to understand or be able to articulate the
self-focused and targets improvement and mastery reasons underlying their behavior. This is referred
is referred to as task orientation. The propensity to to as amotivation and would be characteristic of
conceive of competence in more norm-referenced someone who has come to devalue an activity—a
terms, in which superiority over others is salient, core feature of burnout. Altogether, as motivation
is referred to as ego orientation. Similarly, task-in- becomes relatively less self-determined in nature,
volving climates are settings that emphasize and greater burnout perceptions are expected. The
reward effort, learning, and self-referenced cri- theory further posits that the nature of a person’s
teria for success, whereas ego-involving climates motivation is influenced by the degree to which
are settings that emphasize and reward social fundamental psychological needs are fulfilled; with
comparisons and within-group competition while greater fulfillment, motivation is more intrinsic and
punishing mistakes. Conceptually, people with a adaptive in nature. These needs are (a) autonomy,
which pertains to feelings of personal choice or other cross-sectional studies assessing diverse
control, (b) competence, which represents perceived athletes from a variety of sports have shown moti-
success and effectiveness, and (c) relatedness, vational regulations as conceived in self-determina-
which corresponds to a sense of social acceptance tion theory to associate with burnout in expected
and belonging. Considered together, athletes with directions (e.g., Holmberg & Sheridan, 2013; Lons-
less fulfillment of these needs are expected to have dale, Hodge, & Rose, 2008). That is, amotivation,
less adaptive forms of motivation and, therefore, external regulation, and introjected regulation
greater susceptibility to maladaptive outcomes exhibit positive associations with burnout, whereas
such as burnout. Readers are referred to chapter identified regulation, integrated regulation, and
16 for an extensive overview of this motivational intrinsic motivation exhibit negative associations
perspective. With respect to athlete burnout, there with burnout. Other studies have shown support for
is support for the predictions of this motivational some of these associations while finding nonsignif-
perspective (Li, Wang, Pyun, & Kee, 2013). Greater icant associations between burnout and regulations
detail is offered in the following section, because falling in the middle of the self-determination con-
this area has received considerable recent research tinuum (e.g., Cresswell & Eklund, 2005b; Raedeke
attention. & Smith, 2001). The mixed findings with respect
to controlled regulations are unsurprising when
Recent Research considering that the regulations fall on a conceptual

continuum. With burnout expected to associate
on Athlete Burnout positively with amotivation and to associate nega-
tively with intrinsic motivation, regulations falling
Athlete burnout has received progressively increas- between them on a continuum would be expected
ing research attention over the past three decades to associate less strongly with burnout and at some
with the articulation of theoretical perspectives on point to “cross over” zero on a spectrum of positive
burnout within the athletic domain and later the to negative correlations. We would expect the most
development of the ABQ. Over recent years con- robust correlations to be between burnout and
siderable attention has been directed to research amotivation, a consistent observation in athlete
questions grounded in self-determination theory burnout studies.
and focused on perfectionism, respectively. This Longitudinal studies have also been conducted
development is not surprising in light of a seminal in the interest of exploring whether the quality
quantitative assessment of competitive junior tennis of a person’s motivation, as reflected in behav-
players that found burned-out and comparison play- ioral regulations, precedes burnout perceptions
ers could be distinguished by variables including (Cresswell & Eklund, 2005a; Lemyre, Roberts, &
amotivation and features of perfectionism such as Stray-Gundersen, 2007; Lemyre, Treasure, & Rob-
concern over mistakes and parental criticism and erts, 2006; Lonsdale & Hodge, 2011; Martinent,
expectations (Gould, Udry, Tuffey, & Loehr, 1996). Decret, Guillet-Descas, & Isoard-Gautheur, 2014).
This early work oriented researchers toward these Although general relationships between markers
research lines, which dominate the current athlete of self-determined motivation and burnout align
burnout literature. Although we cannot review the with what has been found in the cross-sectional
full span of athlete burnout research within this literature, the issue of time precedence is less
chapter, we review efforts conducted in these two clear. For example, Lemyre and colleagues (2006)
important lines of work and then briefly highlight examined self-determined motivation over multi-
some emerging areas of research interest. These ple assessments across a competitive swimming
lines of work have meaningfully advanced under- season. Swimmers with a negative trend over the
standing of athlete burnout and offer a platform season exhibited higher burnout scores at the end of
for future advances that can contribute to burnout the season than those with a positive motivational
intervention efforts and broader appreciation of trend. Lonsdale and Hodge (2011) reported mixed
athlete motivation and well-being. findings with elite athletes from various sports;
amotivation and controlled behavioral regulations
Self-Determined Motivation predicted burnout, whereas burnout predicted more
autonomous behavioral regulations. Martinent et al.
and Basic Psychological Needs (2014) arrive at yet a different conclusion in their
Following Gould, Udry, and colleagues’ (1996) early study of table tennis players. Using a cross-lag panel
quantitative examination of junior tennis players, design, the weight of their evidence showed burnout
to predict motivation over time but motivation not Beyond these cross-sectional findings for the
to predict burnout over time. In light of the small basic needs–burnout relationship, positive changes
number of longitudinal studies done, more work is in basic psychological needs have been shown to
needed to determine if a trend in findings can be associate with reduced athlete burnout perceptions
established or if alternative considerations (e.g., in longitudinal work (Amorose, Anderson-Butcher,
moderating variables) explain when one construct & Cooper, 2009). Moreover, researchers have exam-
precedes the other. ined more comprehensive conceptual models. This
Other work couched in self-determination theory work has been cross-sectional and longitudinal.
(Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) has focused For example, cross-sectional models have exam-
on the association of the basic needs of autonomy, ined fulfillment of basic psychological needs as a
competence, and relatedness with athlete burnout. mediator of the association of environmental fac-
Cross-sectional investigations have predominantly tors on burnout (Li, Wang, & Pyun, 2017; Quested
shown the expected negative association between & Duda, 2010) or as a predictor of burnout by way
basic psychological needs and athlete burnout of self-determined motivation (Lonsdale, Hodge,
(Hodge, Lonsdale, & Ng, 2008; Perreault, Gaudreau, & Rose, 2009). Longitudinal work has examined
Lapointe, & Lacroix, 2007; Quested & Duda, 2010), the degree to which teacher or coach interpersonal
though when targeting specific burnout dimensions style, with specific reference to the degree of per-
there is sometimes less uniformity of findings (e.g., ceived autonomy support or controlling behavior of
Quested & Duda, 2009). Li and colleagues’ (2013) the coach, associates with burnout by way of psy-
meta-analysis suggests that the three basic needs chological needs (Adie, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2012;
have weaker associations with the exhaustion Balaguer et al., 2012; Isoard-Gautheur, Guillet-Des-
dimension of burnout than the reduced accomplish- cas, & Lemyre, 2012; Quested & Duda, 2011). Taken
ment and devaluation dimensions. This conclusion together, this work often supports expectations
may not be surprising because the reduced accom- drawn from self-determination theory, while also
plishment and devaluation variables align closely demonstrating complexity with respect to the spe-
with self-determination theory constructs, whereas cific psychological need or burnout dimension that
exhaustion incorporates physical with emotional/ contributes in a given statistical model. The extant
psychological fatigue. Moreover, athletes expect a literature generally suggests that need supportive
degree of fatigue through routine sport training, behavior of coaches is important to the reduction of
regardless of basic need fulfillment. This could burnout perceptions in athletes and that controlling
temper associations between basic needs and the and need-thwarting behavior can enhance burnout
exhaustion dimension of burnout, particularly perceptions. More studies are needed, however, to
within typical research samples that consist pre- draw firm conclusions and offer tailored informa-
dominantly of healthy athletes who are not expe- tion for practically addressing athlete burnout (see
riencing the burnout syndrome. the sidebar Practical Strategies for Coaches).
Practical Strategies for Coaches

Although evidence-based support for burnout prevention and intervention is scarce, conceptual perspectives offer
guidance on practical strategies for coaches and others to employ. Based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan,
1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000), for example, emphasis is on supporting athlete needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness, which in turn should foster autonomously regulated motivation. Strategies to accomplish this include
offering athletes opportunity for choice and leadership within training and competitive settings, employing effec-
tive goal-setting strategies, focusing on learning and improvement, and prioritizing relationship building between
coaches and athletes as well as among athletes. Alternative theoretical perspectives suggest that athlete burnout
can be addressed by prioritizing recovery, clarifying athlete expectations and contextual demands, developing
effective coping strategies, and helping athletes place sport in perspective. DeFreese and colleagues (2015) offer
an extended discussion of possible intervention strategies for athlete burnout and recommend pursuing strategies
within a framework of four steps: (1) assess the situation, (2) determine what individual and organizational factors
are important, (3) design the intervention plan, and (4) evaluate intervention effectiveness. This framework draws
attention to both athlete and context while reinforcing a continuous reflective process that can be adjusted based
on athlete responsiveness to intervention strategies.
Perfectionism potential combinations of perfectionistic strivings

and evaluative concerns. People with profiles
Perfectionism is a personality characteristic that has characterized by higher levels of concerns over
been of particular interest to athlete burnout schol- mistakes, perceived parental and coach pressure,
ars. In an initial study exploring the perfectionism– and doubts about actions (i.e., evaluative concerns)
burnout connection, Gould, Udry, and colleagues as well as higher levels of personal standards (i.e.,
(1996) found burned-out and non-burned-out junior perfectionistic strivings) tend to exhibit the greatest
tennis players to differ on key perfectionism compo- levels of burnout (Gotwals, 2011; Gustafsson et al.,
nents, suggesting that perfectionism has potential 2016; Hill, 2013). On the other hand, people with
to heighten burnout risk. Briefly, perfectionism is relatively lower levels of evaluative concerns and
a multidimensional personality trait that has been higher levels of perfectionistic strivings exhibit
characterized by perfectionistic strivings and evalu- lower levels of burnout (Gotwals, 2011; Gustafsson
ative concerns (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, et al., 2016; Hill, 2013).
1990; Stoeber & Otto, 2006). Perfectionistic strivings Importantly, a personality trait in itself may
are characterized by the pursuit of excellence and increase risk for athlete burnout but should be
holding high personal standards, whereas evalu- considered alongside situational and other factors
ative concerns are characterized by doubts about to understand the athlete burnout phenomenon.
actions, excessive concern over mistakes, and For example, controlling coaching behaviors are
concerns about achieving standards set by others positively associated with perfectionism, suggesting
(Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; the potential for coaching behaviors to foster per-
Frost et al., 1990; Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010; fectionistic tendencies in athletes (Barcza-Renner,
Stoeber & Otto, 2006). Debate surrounds perfec- Eklund, Morin, & Habeeb, 2016). Factors including
tionism; some believe that it can promote adaptive motivational regulations, basic psychological needs,
motivation, and others view it exclusively as a validation and growth seeking, and coping strate-
source of vulnerability. A comprehensive treatment gies have been shown to mediate the relationship
of perfectionism is provided in chapter 6. between perfectionism and burnout (Appleton &
In athlete burnout research, examining both Hill, 2012; Hill, Hall, & Appleton, 2010; Hill, Hall,
perfectionistic strivings and evaluative concerns is Appleton, & Murray, 2010; Jowett et al., 2013;
common, and in more recent work the relationship Jowett, Hill, Hall, & Curran, 2016). For example,
between the two dimensions is accounted for in autonomous motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation)
the interest of understanding the unique conse- has consistently partially mediated the relationship
quences of the respective perfectionism dimensions between perfectionism and burnout (Appleton &
(Hill & Curran, 2016). A variety of perfectionism Hill, 2012; Barzca-Renner et al., 2016; Jowett et al.,
measures have been used in this work (see Hill 2013). Lower levels of burnout have been found
& Curran, 2016). In general, evaluative concerns in athletes with perfectionism that is self-directed
have been positively associated with burnout in (i.e., self-oriented perfectionism; see Hewitt & Flett,
athletes, whereas perfectionistic strivings have 1991) when holding autonomous motivational orien-
been inversely associated with athlete burnout tations, whereas higher levels of burnout have been
(Hill & Curran, 2016; Hill, 2013; Hill & Appleton, found in amotivated athletes with perfectionism
2011; Jowett, Hill, Hall, & Curran, 2013; Madigan, that is characterized by perceived socially imposed
Stoeber, & Passfield, 2015). These findings sug- standards (i.e., socially prescribed perfectionism;
gest that the two perfectionism dimensions have Appleton & Hill, 2012; Barzca-Renner et al., 2016).
different consequences for athletes, although the Moreover, the mediating role of coping style differs
dimensions interact such that the positive effects of as a function of the form of perfectionism (Hill,
perfectionistic strivings may be negated if accom- Hall, & Appleton, 2010). Higher self-oriented per-
panied by evaluative concerns (Hill, 2013; Madigan fectionism is associated with lower athlete burnout
et al., 2015). and is mediated by greater use of problem-focused
Because people have the potential to hold coping and less use of avoidant coping. Alterna-
different levels of the respective perfectionism tively, higher socially prescribed perfectionism is
dimensions, perfectionism profiles have been associated with higher burnout and is mediated by
used in athlete burnout efforts (Cumming & Duda, greater use of avoidant coping. Such work offers
2012; Gotwals, 2011; Gustafsson, Hill, Stenling, suggestions for burnout intervention, including
& Wagnsson, 2016; Hill, 2013). Person-centered reducing controlling coach behavior and teaching
classifications of individuals accommodate the adaptive coping strategies. At the same time, more
longitudinal work on perfectionism and burnout

is generally needed (e.g., Chen, Kee, & Tsai, 2009;
Future Research
Madigan et al., 2015), as is expanded examination Recommendations
of potential mediators of their association, to inform
intervention design. As the burnout literature continues to expand
within traditional and novel areas, we see value in
Other Emerging Research Areas targeting specific knowledge gaps on athlete burn-
out in competitive sport. In this section we encour-
In this section we have focused on the two areas age attention to issues pertaining to assessment of
of recent athlete burnout research with the great- athlete burnout, expanded consideration of social
est amount of activity, but other work has been contributors to athlete burnout, examination of the
conducted that is grounded in extant burnout per- fit of athletes within their organizational contexts,
spectives, is informed by various motivational per- and pursuit of higher-order research designs and
spectives, explores novel psychological constructs, intervention efforts that can both expand knowl-
and holds practical interest. One emerging area of edge and offer practical value.
work pertains to the construct of hope, demonstrat-
ing that hope is inversely associated with burnout
dimensions and the association to be mediated by
Assessment of Athlete Burnout
stress and positive affect (Gustafsson, Hassmén, & Fundamental work with respect to the assessment
Podlog, 2010; Gustafsson, Skoog, Podlog, Lundqvist, of athlete burnout is needed to advance both
& Wagnsson, 2013). Another emerging area is built knowledge and practice. For example, normative
on the dualistic model of passion (see Vallerand, information on what constitutes low, medium,
2012). This model aligns with self-determination and high athlete burnout scores on the ABQ does
theory, proposing that people engage in activities not exist. Although it would be a challenging
to meet their basic psychological needs. They view undertaking, epidemiological work providing
select activities as especially enjoyable, self-defin- such normative information across various types
ing, and important, thus warranting investment of athletes (e.g., youth, elite, sport type) would
of time and energy. Passion is a strong inclination be especially valuable (Eklund et al., 2012). Such
toward an activity with those features and comes information would allow thoughtful targeting of
in two forms, depending on how the activity comes salient groups in research and could enable detec-
to be internalized. Obsessive passion results from a tion of athletes who require intervention. This work
controlled internalization and accordingly is asso- would be best accomplished by also attending to
ciated with rigidity and dependence with respect to criterion-referenced cutoffs, in which score thresh-
the activity that can be maladaptive. Harmonious olds are designated that correspond to behavioral,
passion results from an autonomous internalization physiological, or psychosocial burnout-related
process and accordingly is associated with voli- consequences (Raedeke & Smith, 2009). Such work
tion and adaptive activity engagement. Obsessive is critical to understanding prevalence and clinical
passion would be expected to associate positively meaningfulness of athlete burnout scores, matters
with burnout perceptions, whereas harmonious that cannot be authoritatively addressed from the
passion would be expected to mitigate burnout current research literature.
perceptions. The initial findings in this area are Relatedly, understanding normative and non-nor-
somewhat mixed. Studies more consistently, but mative changes in burnout perceptions over time is
not unanimously, show harmonious passion to be necessary because of developmental considerations
inversely associated with burnout (Curran, Apple- and the fundamentally chronic nature of the athlete
ton, Hill, & Hall, 2011, 2013; Martin & Horn, 2013) burnout syndrome. Issues surrounding cognitive,
and for this association to be mediated by self-de- social, and biological development, for example,
termined motivation and basic psychological need can be salient to understanding sport experiences
satisfaction (Curran et al., 2011, 2013). Obsessive of young athletes (Smith, Dorsch, & Monsma,
passion has shown a less consistent association 2012). Isoard-Gautheur, Guillet-Descas, Gaudreau,
with burnout, although it has been observed to and Chanal (2015) recently conducted a five-wave
link with burnout change across a season by way longitudinal study with adolescent handball players
of disengagement-oriented coping (Schellenberg, that showed reduced sense of accomplishment to
Gaudreau, & Crocker, 2013). decrease over adolescence, emotional and physical
exhaustion to have a curvilinear increase and then interactions. Together, these findings highlight the
a decrease over adolescence, and sport devaluation need to consider social behaviors and interactions
to increase over adolescence, with higher increases of salient others when examining athletes’ percep-
for girls than boys. They also found dependencies tions of burnout.
whereby one dimension of burnout was tied to the More recent work has examined specific social
developmental trajectory of another dimension. interactions between athletes and social agents in
Additional work of this nature is necessary to their environment (i.e., coaches or teammates). Such
understand the normative landscape for develop- interactions have included both positive (e.g., social
ment of burnout perceptions, and season-specific or support, prosocial) and negative (e.g., conflict, bul-
targeted longitudinal efforts are needed to underlying, antisocial) interactions that occur in the sport
stand development of clinically meaningful athlete context (Al-Yaaribi & Kavussanu, 2017; Cresswell,
burnout outcomes. 2009; Cresswell & Eklund, 2004; DeFreese & Smith,
A final assessment consideration pertains to the 2013, 2014; Smith et al., 2010; Yildiz, 2015). Positive
conception of exhaustion in the sport context. In social interactions are shown to relate negatively to
studies of psychological correlates of burnout as burnout, indicating that burnout perceptions might
measured by the ABQ, associations will sometimes be reduced by having agreeable interactions with
be lower with exhaustion than with the reduced important others. Of note is that most research on
sense of accomplishment and devaluation dimen- athlete burnout examines positive social interac-
sions. This finding has led some to argue that tions despite early qualitative research pointing
psychological variables may be more aligned with to negative social interactions as contributing to
emotional features of exhaustion than with physical burnout (Cresswell & Eklund, 2006b, 2007; Gould,
fatigue and that a limitation of athlete burnout mea- Tuffey, et al., 1996; Udry et al., 1997). Expanding
surement is that emotional exhaustion and physical research that targets negative social interactions
exhaustion are not discriminated (Quested & Duda, is essential because undesirable interactions are
2011; Li et al., 2013). But conceptual challenges arise prevalent in sport. Moreover, longitudinal research
in seeking to assess distinct elements (emotional, is needed to untangle directionality of associations
physical) of exhaustion. Physical overtraining and between social interactions and burnout. An athlete
exhaustion are generally accompanied by mood experiencing burnout would plausibly interact with
disturbance and mental fatigue, and it is difficult others in ways that may precipitate supportive or
to conceive of experiencing chronic emotional negative responses.
exhaustion while at the same time feeling phys- As a final important consideration, the environ-
ically energetic. The experiential phenomenon of ment of an athlete includes multiple social agents.
emotional and physical exhaustion is what raises These social agents (i.e., teammates, coaches, par-
concern about an athlete’s psychological well-being ents, and officials) interact with athletes in diverse
and is a hallmark of athlete burnout. ways that can affect athletes’ social experiences.
We believe that particular attention to teammates
Social Contributors to Athlete Burnout is warranted because peers have not been exten-
sively studied in the burnout literature. Moreover,
As evident from the theoretical and empirical work future work should address how social exchanges
described earlier, the social context can contribute with various social agents interact to shape burn-
to athlete burnout. Early qualitative research efforts out. Negative social interactions with a coach, for
illuminated the role of social contextual factors example, may be buffered by positive social inter-
on athlete burnout experiences (Gould, Tuffey, et actions with teammates or exacerbated by negative
al., 1996; Udry et al., 1997). Gould and colleagues interactions with teammates. Altogether, attending
(1996) found that 9 out of 10 junior elite tennis to the social aspects of athlete burnout in future
players reported social and interpersonal factors research has much potential to advance knowledge
that led to their burnout. Such factors included and inform prevention strategies.
dissatisfaction with people involved in their sport
and negative parental pressure. Udry and colleagues
(1997) assessed the behaviors and interactions of
Athlete–Organization Fit
salient others in sport. Burned-out athletes reported Another valuable consideration for understanding
a greater amount of negative interactions with their burnout pertains to the match of the individual
teammates, coaches, and parents than positive athlete with the sport organizational context in
which the athlete performs. Drawing from the et al., 2006; Madigan et al., 2015). This work must
occupational literature, some researchers have continue, particularly in light of burnout being a
examined athlete engagement as the antithesis chronic disorder that develops over an extended
of burnout. Athlete engagement consists of the period. Indeed, value is found in conducting inves-
dimensions of confidence, dedication, vigor, and tigations that explore the development of burnout,
enthusiasm (Lonsdale, Hodge, & Jackson, 2007; including the potential timing of changes in burnout
Lonsdale, Hodge, & Raedeke, 2007). In the job– perceptions relative to one another. For example,
person fit model of burnout and engagement (see physically versus psychologically initiated forms of
Maslach & Leiter, 1997, 1999), the alignment of burnout have been proposed (Gould, Tuffey, et al.,
resources desired by the individual and resources 1996), yet the distinction remains to be established
provided in the organizational context plays an or refuted through developmental research designs.
important role in the burnout process. When these Such work would offer a window to the etiology of
are not well aligned, the person is expected to have athlete burnout and therefore could be useful in
a greater likelihood of burnout and less likelihood early detection. Moreover, expanded longitudinal
of engagement. Alternatively, when the fit between work grounded in conceptualizations of burnout,
the individual and organizational resources is motivation, perfectionism, and other areas can
good, the person will be more likely to experience offer clarity on antecedent conditions for burnout
engagement and less likely to experience burnout. as well as factors that mitigate or exacerbate burn-
Within the job–fit model, six areas of worklife are out perceptions. Such clarity is needed to develop
used to represent important domains of resources: efficacious evidence-based recommendations for
workload, control, reward, community, fairness, burnout prevention and treatment.
and values (Leiter & Maslach, 2004). These domains Intervention work targeting athlete burnout is
are salient within sport, where time and effort, a sparse, leaving practitioners with conceptually
hierarchical organizational structure, incentives, guided recommendations for addressing athlete
team social interactions, expectations for fairness burnout but scant evidence to support the recom-
and respectfulness, and shared goals are prominent mendations. Some research has examined what
(DeFreese, Raedeke, & Smith, 2015). DeFreese and coaches attempt to do in the field to address ath-
Smith (2013) examined how perceptions of congru- lete burnout. For example, research on swimming
ence in these areas of worklife linked with burnout coaches showed them to emphasize flexibility
and engagement perceptions. They found greater with the physical training regimen, maintaining
congruence across all domains to associate with an exciting context, and fostering social support
weaker burnout perceptions and stronger engage- (Raedeke, Lunney, & Venables, 2002). A recent
ment perceptions. This early support for the model investigation of college soccer coaches showed a
with respect to athlete burnout suggests that this focus on managing physical stressors, reducing
perspective has value for improving knowledge and nonsport stressors, and promoting autonomy and
practice. Of particular importance, the model indi- relatedness needs (Kroshus & DeFreese, 2017).
vidualizes and contextualizes the athlete burnout Divergence in what is emphasized by coaches in
experience, focusing on the resources desired by the the respective studies may be explained by the
individual along with the resources provided in the distinct sport contexts. Important issues to assess
sport context. Considering both person and context in future work include identifying strategies that are
moves us toward understanding why some athletes effective and broadly generalizable, individualizing
will experience burnout and others will not within prevention within imposed time and setting con-
certain circumstances. Accordingly, future work that straints, detecting unsuccessful prevention efforts
focuses on individual and organizational fit with at an early stage, and so forth. Recent intervention
respect to the six areas of worklife holds potential to research ranges from a case study examining mind-
advance the athlete burnout knowledge base. fulness and Qigong exercise to address burnout in
a shooting athlete (Jouper & Gustafsson, 2013), to a
Burnout Development and Intervention mixed-methods self-regulation intervention target-
ing a small sample of university athletes experienc-
Most literature on athlete burnout consists of ing burnout (Dubuc-Charbonneau & Durand-Bush,
cross-sectional quantitative studies and qualitative 2015), to a randomized controlled trial employing a
investigations, although over the past decade or so self-determination theory-based intervention with
some important longitudinal investigations have youth Gaelic football coaches (Langan, Blake, Toner,
emerged (e.g., Cresswell & Eklund, 2005a; Lemyre & Lonsdale, 2015). The findings show promise for
athlete burnout intervention yet also demonstrate psychological needs and the well- and ill-being of young
that successfully addressing burnout is challenging. soccer players: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Sports
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23
Physical Activity
and Self-Management
of Chronic Disease
Nancy Gyurcsik, PhD  Christopher Shields, PhD 
Miranda A. Cary, MSc  Lawrence R. Brawley, PhD
Abstract
Chronic diseases account for 60% of deaths worldwide. Many chronic diseases can be
better self-managed through regular physical activity, a key tertiary prevention strategy.
Self-management strategies help people live well with a chronic disease by limiting the
deterioration of physical function and improving independent living and quality of life.
Unfortunately, nonadherence to activity eliminates its use in disease self-management. In
this chapter, we focus on two common chronic diseases as exemplars for which physical
activity is recommended for disease self-management—arthritis and type 2 diabetes. The
arthritis and diabetes sections of the chapter summarize key psychological factors that
affect physical activity adherence. We also discuss the role that health care providers,
including the allied providers of physical activity and behavior change specialists, have
in helping people self-manage. Knowledge translation initiatives in arthritis and diabe-
tes are reviewed to provide a landscape of both promising and recommended physical
activity interventions in real-world settings. To conclude the chapter, future directions
are provided relative to physical activity self-management in arthritis and diabetes.
For the self-management of both diseases, continued research is needed to understand
additional psychological factors that may influence or be influenced by physical activity
participation. After it is reliably identified, this knowledge may be integrated into the
future training of physical activity and allied health care providers. Such training would
increase providers’ supporting roles in helping people learn the use of physical activity
to self-manage their disease as well as to learn and master the psychological skills that
promote activity adherence.
425
426 Gyurcsik, Shields, Cary, and Brawley
M Physical Activity
eeting physical activity recommendations
is a key mantra of public health agencies
(e.g., Center for Disease Control and Pre- as a Primary and Tertiary
vention [CDC]) and other agencies that advocate on
behalf of physical activity (e.g., American College Prevention Strategy
of Sport Medicine: Exercise Is Medicine). Physi-
cal activity is viewed as both a health promotion The goal of primary prevention is to reduce the
and health prevention behavior that reduces the risk of future health problems. Engaging in phys-
incidence of disease in the population (Office of ical activity to help prevent future cardiovascular
Disease Prevention and Health Promotion [ODPHP], disease is an example. Although low participation
2016). Eye-opening statistics, however, illustrate rates are cause for concern, the good news is that
that many North Americans, indeed many people we can help people become more active. Multiple
around the world, are not sufficiently active to investigations have produced successful interven-
achieve the benefits of regular participation in tions that increase physical activity and promote
physical activity (e.g., Hallal et al., 2012). Major adherence among inactive people (Brawley, Gierc
behavioral challenges include the lack of partici- & Locke, 2013). More specifically, and importantly
pation by major segments of the population (e.g., for a text that concerns the psychology of physical
older adults, working women, lower-income adults), activity, these reviews underscore the importance
irregular participation, or nonadherence after start- of cognitive behavioral strategies as companions to
ing participation. Can we change these distressing the actual physical activity that these interventions
behavioral concerns? These concerns are magnified provide. Some reviews are directly linked to the pre-
when we consider that regular physical activity is a vention of diseases of inactivity (e.g., lowering risk
key nonpharmaceutical behavior for treatment and of cardiovascular disease). A noteworthy review is
self-management when people live with a chronic the 2010 scientific position statement of the Amer-
disease. ican Heart Association, which states,
We focus this chapter on physical activity as a “Cognitive-behavioral strategies are an essential
tertiary prevention strategy that people living with component of behavior change interventions.
chronic disease should use to mitigate against the They focus on changing how an individual
deterioration of physical function, independent thinks about themselves, their behaviors, sur-
living, and quality of life. Activity is a behavioral rounding circumstances, and how to modify
strategy that enables people to live better with their their lifestyle.” (Artinian et al., 2010, p. 424)
chronic disease. Our purpose is to orient the reader
toward the use of physical activity as part of chronic This position has been underscored in subsequent
disease self-management. First, we highlight the articles summarizing multiple reviews (e.g., Braw-
difference between the self-care characteristics of ley et al., 2013). This idea is important for primary
physical activity for health promotion (primary pre- prevention interventions focused on health pro-
vention) with the self-management considerations motion through physical activity enhancement of
of physical activity for chronic disease management less active and sedentary but apparently healthy
(tertiary prevention). Second, we discuss the role people. The health of people with chronic disease
of key health care providers in self-management, can also be improved through physical activity
including primary providers (e.g., physicians) behavior change, a goal of tertiary prevention.
and allied providers such as physical activity and Tertiary prevention focuses on preventing further
behavior change specialists. Third, we note the deterioration because of disease and maximizing
importance of knowledge, skills, and strategies for quality of life. Examples of tertiary prevention
self-regulation. Fourth, we examine the physical include participation in cardiac rehabilitation fol-
activity and behavior change literature with respect lowing myocardial infarction, monitoring blood
to two prevalent chronic diseases—arthritis and glucose in type 2 diabetes, and taking pharma-
diabetes. Finally, we share considerations for future ceuticals to manage arthritis pain. This position
directions in disease self-management through also showcases self-management as central to
activity. prevention.
Physical Activity and Self-Management of Chronic Disease 427
Why does self-management play a key role The HCPs’ primary actions may encourage and
in managing a chronic disease? The reasons are facilitate their patients’ development and practice
threefold. First, having a chronic disease means of self-management skills, which can range from
that people live with the condition for years. Despite getting healthy enough to begin activity to adhering
regular visits to their primary health care providers, at the recommended level. Primary HCPs play a key
such as physicians and physiotherapists, regarding role in getting people healthy enough to be active,
their disease, the time that people spend with a whereas allied providers should have the primary
health care provider is minimal when compared role in the uptake of and adherence to activity.
with the total time they live with disease. Second, A central aspect of self-management is self-reg-
the disease is affected in good part by personal ulation, the ability to conceive of strategies and
behavior, such as adhering to medication or phy- change behavior to reach a goal. Successful man-
sician advice and pursuing physical activity and a agement of chronic disease through activity is the
healthy diet. For these two reasons, self-manage- focal goal we discuss in the chapter. For example,
ment of disease outside the health care system is people might use a fitness tracker to monitor
essential to successful living. Third, being able to reaching daily physical activity goals. From a psy-
self-manage provides a sense of control and psychological perspective, self-regulation is generally
chological empowerment (i.e., self-efficacy), factors discussed with the individual in mind. But in the
associated with improved quality of life (Gierc, context of a chronic disease, the discussion extends
Brawley, & Rejeski, 2017). beyond the individual to the supporting HCP team,
which can educate people about the self-regulatory
process and promote their self-regulation practice.
Role of Health Care Providers Whereas learning about and maintaining chronic
in Chronic Disease disease self-management relies on a partnership
between the individual patient, caregivers, and the
Self-Management HCP team, partnership responsibilities may change
depending on disease development and the person’s
Clark (2003) describes self-management as a subset abilities. From our perspective, and that of the
of disease management. Disease management con- physical activity and behavior change specialist, the
cerns the broader context of care and treatment, desired goal should be for people with chronic disease
involves health care providers (HCPs), the health to strive toward and achieve as much independence
care system, and the individual. Examples of disease as possible. Thus, partnership with HCPs should, in
management strategies include providing people part, help people acquire self-regulatory skills for
with prescriptions, diagnostic testing, and support effective self-management of their health behaviors.
services. Self-management involves the actions of the
individual with the disease, his or her family and
caregivers, and the person’s interactions with HCPs. Knowledge, Skills, and
Effective self-managers learn to use these resources
to minimize symptoms and optimize function.
Strategies for Self-Regulation
Management of chronic disease necessarily People with chronic disease need to gain knowl-
involves interaction with primary HCPs (e.g., phy- edge, skills, and strategies that inform self-reg-
sicians, physiotherapists, occupational therapists). ulation and, in turn, promote effective forms of
But physical activity specialists, such as fitness disease self-management. Their knowledge about
instructors and personal trainers, as well as behav- illness, chronic disease, and disability is important
ior change specialists or psychologists, are part from at least two perspectives. First, people must
of allied health care teams, given the centrality know about the origin and course of the disease.
of activity as a chronic disease self-management Second, individuals’ personal views of their chronic
strategy. Thus, the person with disease as well as disease must be understood (Leventhal, Brissette, &
primary and allied providers should learn about Leventhal, 2003; Leventhal, Meyer, & Nerenz, 1980;
the psychological and physical activity behavior Leventhal & Mora, 2005). These personal views can
change aspects of chronic disease self-management. include their ideas about
• symptoms, knowledge translation underscores the importance

• perceived causes, of moving what is known about physical activity
behavior change toward self-management of activ-
• anticipated consequences,
ity for a better future.
• perceived control over the disease, and
• the timeline for disease progression and Arthritis Self-Management
achieving symptom management.
For example, adults are better at managing
Arthritis is one of the most common chronic
diabetes when they understand the importance of
diseases, affecting 20% of adults aged 18 years
self-monitoring their blood glucose levels and have
and older and nearly 50% of older adults (CDC,
specific action plans to implement when values are
2016a; Public Health Agency of Canada [PHAC],
below or above the target (Ceriello et al., 2012).
2010; World Health Organization [WHO], 2016a).
Similarly, when people deal with their arthritis,
The term arthritis refers to over 100 types of
prevention and management of symptoms becomes
rheumatic diseases and conditions that affect the
the goal. A common example among older adults is
joints, tissues around the joints, and connective
the pain associated with osteoarthritis. They often
tissues (CDC, 2015a). Two common types include
perceive their pain as beyond their control and
osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis (National
believe that HCPs, namely physicians, have the sole
Institute of Health Osteoporosis and Related Bone
means to fix their problem through prescriptions
Diseases National Resource Center, 2015; PHAC,
for pain control medications. They discount the role
2010). Arthritis is one of the most common causes
of self-management. Unfortunately, if HCPs’ actions
of disability, creating a multitude of individual
cater to the patients’ view and promote only med-
burdens (e.g., depression, anxiety, pain, fatigue,
ication solutions like opioids, which lack evidence
lower well-being, reduced activities of daily living;
of long-term effectiveness and have associated risks
Hootman, Brault, Helmick, Theis, & Armour, 2009;
(e.g., abuse, addiction; Chou et al., 2015; Dowell,
Murphy, Sacks, Brady, Hootman, & Chapman, 2012;
Haegerich, & Chou, 2016), self-management is dis-
PHAC, 2010).
couraged. This approach minimizes or inhibits the
The CDC Arthritis Program recommends that
older adults’ role in self-managing chronic disease.
people learn to self-manage their disease better by
Active partnerships between people and their HCP
(a) attending workshops to learn about arthritis and
teams develop the motivation to take action and are
effective coping tools (e.g., Arthritis Self-Manage-
essential in shaping individuals’ self-management
ment Program), (b) maintain a healthy weight, (c)
behaviors. We discuss such partnerships in this
protect joints from injury at both work and play,
chapter, focusing on arthritis and diabetes.
(d) engage in regular physical activity, and (e) work
with HCPs, particularly physicians, when arthritis
Physical Activity is inflammatory so that effective anti-inflammatory
medications can be prescribed (CDC, 2015b). We
and Psychological Aspects focus on physical activity as a self-management
of Behavior Change approach and key adherence-promoting psycho-
logical factors.
Two of the most prevalent chronic diseases, arthri- Evidence-based recommendations for arthritis
tis and type 2 diabetes, are models for the role of self-management are to engage in 150 min or more
physical activity for disease self-management and of moderate to vigorous physical activity each week
the way in which psychological factors affect indi- (CDC, 2016b; ODPHP, 2016; PHAC, 2010). Regular
viduals’ physical activity adherence. Within each activity results in numerous health benefits, such
disease type in this section, we provide examples as reductions in pain, depression, and anxiety as
of what is known about the psychological and well as improvements in abilities to perform activi-
behavioral aspects of changing activity to benefit ties of daily living and health-related quality of life
people with these chronic diseases. We also focus (CDC, 2016b; ODPHP, 2016). Unfortunately, as many
on the key roles of health care providers in helping as 60% of adults with arthritis are not regularly
people change their physical activity behavior. For active, thereby reducing the potential effectiveness
each type of chronic disease, examples of knowl- of physical activity as a self-management strategy
edge translation initiatives, with a focus on those (Alliance for the Canadian Arthritis Program, 2006;
targeting physical activity, are provided. Effective CDC, 2016a; PHAC, 2010; Pisters et al., 2010).
Arthritis Overview
Self-Management and Importance of Physical Activity

• One in five adults aged 18 years or older lives with arthritis. By age 50, nearly one in two adults has some type
of arthritis.
• Aerobic guidelines are to engage in 150 min or more of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity each week.
• Arthritis management is complex, and physical activity is one of many recommended self-management strategies.
Psychological Factors Important for Activity Adherences
• Self-regulatory efficacy is a consistent predictor of arthritis self-management strategies, including physical activity.
• The main focus has been on self-regulatory efficacy to overcome barriers and to schedule and plan activity.
• Arthritis pain acceptance also helps with activity adherence.
Importance of HCPs
• Primary HCPs lack the training and time to help patients learn about activity and the psychological skills important
for adherence.
• People with pain identified the allied HCP of physical activity providers as a key source for the delivery of inte-
grated counseling.
• At present, activity providers receive no training on integrated counseling.
Knowledge Translation Initiatives
• The CDC (2016c) identified promising and recommended physical activity programs to aid with arthritis self-man-
agement. See www.cdc.gov/arthritis/interventions/.
• But these programs do not systematically target psychological skills, and evidence is lacking about their effects
on long-term activity adherence at the recommended level.
Psychological Factors less-confident people tend to reduce their effort and

Major reviews have consistently implicated self-reg- persistence, resulting in nonadherence.
ulatory efficacy as being the strongest and most Conceptually, the importance of efficacy beliefs
consistent predictor of arthritis self-management, stems from arthritis being chronically progressive
generally, and physical activity, specifically (e.g., and painful, with accompanying flares in typical
Eyler, 2003; Marks, 2001, 2014; Marks, Allegrante, disease symptoms (Marks, 2001, 2014). Arthritis
& Lorig, 2005a, 2005b; Veldhuijzen van Zanten et may also impair people psychologically, because
al., 2015). Further, our research group has more of fear, anxiety, or depression stemming from the
recently identified a pain-related psychological effects of their disease, including reduced abilities
factor—pain acceptance—as being a promising to perform activities. Even though people may have
psychological perspective that may aid the self-reg- the required knowledge and task efficacy to per-
ulation of activity. form daily living and self-management activities,
Self-regulatory efficacy and physical activity. including physical activity, they may be challenged
Self-regulatory efficacy beliefs involve individuals’ by their disease and resulting accommodations
confidence to perform behaviors or control their needed to function optimally. Without sufficient
thoughts and emotions required to manage their confidence to overcome challenges, people may
incentive-driven physical activity. When people disengage from daily living and spiral downward
face a challenging situation, such as more intense toward increased arthritis disability.
joint stiffness than usual, self-regulatory efficacy to Marks reviewed the efficacy construct relative to
overcome arthritis symptoms is crucial in influenc- self-managing arthritis in 2001 and then again in
ing their efforts to persist in being active (Sessford 2014. Both reviews concluded that strong evidence
et al., 2017). More efficacious people will expend links efficacy beliefs to improvements in arthritis
considerable effort and persistence to adhere to symptoms and outcomes, regardless of arthritis
activity plans and achieve valued outcomes (Ban- type or duration. The 2014 review also illustrated
dura, 1997; Maddux & Gosselin, 2003). In contrast, strong support for the relationship between higher
self-regulatory efficacy beliefs and adherence to var- recommended level (Gyurcsik et al., 2011). In an
ious recommended therapeutic strategies for arthri- experimental study, Sessford and colleagues (2017)
tis self-management, including physical activity. found that participants with higher confidence to
Perhaps the most well-known program to include overcome arthritis barriers reported a significantly
a focus on efficacy beliefs is the Arthritis Self-Man- higher level of persistence to be active as planned if
agement Program (ASMP). This community-based faced with a highly challenging number of arthritis
program is typically offered by trained leaders barriers, compared with their lower-efficacy coun-
weekly for 2 hr over 6 weeks and targets arthritis terparts. Third, self-regulatory efficacy to schedule
self-efficacy, which concerns confidence to cope and plan physical activity is a reliable predictor
with the consequences of arthritis. Eight self-man- of overall activity levels as well as activity at the
agement topics are covered, such as strategies to recommended dose (Gyurcsik, Brawley, Spink, &
deal with arthritis-related issues like pain, fatigue, Sessford, 2013; Sessford, Brawley, & Gyurcsik, 2015).
and isolation; appropriate exercise to maintain or Pain acceptance and physical activity. Adults
improve strength, flexibility, and endurance; and report that arthritis pain is a barrier to physical
appropriate use of medications (Stanford Medicine: activity participation (see Veldhuijzen van Zanten
Patient Education, 2016). et al., 2015 for a review), yet neither usual arthritis
Health outcomes of the ASMP, such as reduced pain nor the more intense flare pain predicts physi-
pain and use of medical care, are associated with cal activity levels (Focht, Ewing, Gauvin, & Rejeski,
increases in arthritis self-efficacy (Lorig & Holman, 2002; Gyurcsik et al., 2013). What may explain
1993). But empirical tests of whether change in these seemingly perplexing findings? According
arthritis self-efficacy causes change in program to researchers in the larger chronic pain domain,
outcomes have not been reported (Lorig, Chastain, psychological responses to pain versus pain itself
Ung, Shoor, & Holman, 1989; Lorig & Holman, 1993). should relate to whether people engage in valued
Further, relative to predicting physical activity activities (McCracken & Gutiérrez-Martínez, 2011;
adherence, the utility of focusing on arthritis self-ef- White et al., 2013).
ficacy is questioned (Brady, 2011). Self-efficacy Pain acceptance appears to be one such psy-
theory (Bandura, 1997) recommends specificity chological response. Pain acceptance involves
when measuring efficacy beliefs about adherence people intentionally allowing themselves to expe-
to the behavior being performed, which is not part rience pain, without attempts to control it, and
of the arthritis self-efficacy construct. For example, focusing instead on engaging in valued activities
in the arthritis self-efficacy measure (Brady, 2011; (McCracken, Vowles, & Eccleston, 2004). Strong evi-
Lorig et al., 1989), no reference to duration, inten- dence for the relationship between pain acceptance
sity, or context of behavior exists, such as 1 month and improved physical and psychological function-
or dose of physical activity adherence (e.g., meets ing exists in the larger chronic pain domain (e.g.,
or does not meet dose for disease management). Esteve, Ramírez-Maestre, López-Martinez, 2007;
Fortunately, more recent investigations have McCracken et al., 2004; Veehof, Oskam, Schreurs,
examined self-regulatory efficacy beliefs specific & Bohlmeijer, 2011). In recent work relative to
to physical activity adherence, including efficacy arthritis and physical activity, we found that greater
to overcome barriers and efficacy to schedule and arthritis pain acceptance was associated with more
plan for physical activity. Three key findings arise physical activity participation, including at the
from the research. First, adults with arthritis report recommended dose (e.g., Flora, Brawley, Sessford,
experiencing general types of barriers, such as not Cary, & Gyurcsik, 2016; Gyurcsik et al., 2011). We
enough time and lack of motivation, and arthritis also found that people with greater pain acceptance
barriers, such as pain, joint stiffness, and fatigue held higher adherence-promoting beliefs, such as
(e.g., Baxter, Smith, Treharne, Simon, & Hale, self-regulatory efficacy to overcome barriers (Gyurc-
2015; Brittain, Gyurcsik, McElroy, & Hillard, 2011; sik et al., 2011).
Gyurcsik, Brawley, Spink, Glazebrook, & Anderson, Pain acceptance may also buffer the detrimental
2011; see Veldhuijzen van Zanten et al., 2015 for a effects of another pain response—pain anxiety.
review of barriers; Withall, Haase, Walsh, Young, Pain-anxious people anticipate that participation in
& Cramp, 2016). Second, when self-regulatory future activity will be painful, and they avoid the
efficacy to overcome both categories of barriers activity (Carleton & Asmundson, 2009; Leeuw et
have been examined, confidence to overcome al., 2007). In our research, adults who were either
arthritis barriers appears to be a reliable predictor inactive or insufficiently active reported signifi-
of physical activity participation, including at the cantly higher pain anxiety compared with those
meeting the recommendation (Gyurcsik, Cary, Ses- An integrated counseling approach received
sford, Flora, & Brawley, 2015). Subsequently, Cary support in a recent needs assessment that our
and colleagues (2015) found that pain acceptance research group conducted (Tupper, Cary, Gyurcsik,
moderated the relationship between pain anxiety Ratcliffe-Smith, & Brawley, 2016). We asked adults
and the use of adaptive self-regulatory responses with chronic pain, and their significant others,
to pain anxiety (e.g., changing physical activity from whom they would like to receive education
type; reducing duration). Greater pain acceptance about being active with pain and using psycho-
appeared to help people focus efforts to adapt to logical skills that promote adherence. Both groups
higher pain anxiety only when it was a challenge to indicated that primary HCPs (e.g., physicians, phys-
their activity. In contrast, those with lower accep- iotherapists) lack the requisite training and time
tance seemed to view anxiety as a challenge at all to engage in integrated counseling. Participants
times, which could deplete self-regulatory strength indicated a strong preference to participate, learn,
to deal with other challenges to being active. and practice skills in community-based physical
activity programs using physical activity special-
Importance of Health Care Providers ists, including certified exercise instructors and per-
Published research has implicated physicians as sonal trainers. The dilemma, unfortunately, is that
critical to catalyzing change in patient arthritis the current activity specialists receive no training
self-management behaviors, including physical or continuing education in integrated counseling
activity (Kreuter, Chheda, & Bull, 2000; Petrella, on physical activity and arthritis.
Koval, Cunningham, & Paterson, 2003). For exam-
ple, in a sample of over 10,000 adults aged 45 years Knowledge Translation Initiatives
and older, people who received a physician recom- The CDC reviewed evidence for arthritis self-man-
mendation to be more active were 1.22 times more agement programs and physical activity programs
likely to adhere to the dose of 150 min or more per targeting people with arthritis. They derived a
week than those not receiving a recommendation list of recommended programs with evidence
(Austin, Qu, & Shewchuk, 2013). Unfortunately, up for improving arthritis outcomes and quality of
to 45% of arthritis patients are not receiving activity life as well as promising programs (www.c dc.
advice from their physicians (Carlson, Maynard, gov/arthritis/interventions/; CDC, 2016c). Rela-
Fulton, Hootman, & Yoon, 2009; Fontaine, Bartlett, tive to arthritis self-management programs, the
& Heo, 2005). Barriers to physician counseling CDC recommends participation in English- and
include a lack of physical activity knowledge, lack Spanish-speak ing versions of the in-person
of time, low confidence in counseling abilities, and Arthritis Self-Management Program (ASMP) and
beliefs that pain during physical activity signals the Chronic Disease Self-Management Program
patient harm (Dacey, Kennedy, Polak, & Phillips, (CDSMP). The ASMP, one of the earliest knowledge
2014). translation activities in the arthritis domain, mor-
Regardless, even when physicians advise patients phed into the broader CDSMP addressing various
to be more active but fail to advise about strategies types of chronic disease. Promising programs
to aid behavior change (cf. Alexander et al., 2011), include Internet-delivered versions of the ASMP
adherence will suffer. Given the lack of physical and CDSMP as well as the Arthritis ToolKit. The
activity training in medical schools (Dacey et al., latter program involves self-study of the written
2014), an alternative approach might be to engage and electronic ASMP material.
allied HCPs, such as disease specialists (who are Although evaluations of the ASMP, CDSMP,
found in the diabetes area, but not in the arthritis and the Arthritis ToolKit show improvement in
area) and physical activity and behavior change participant activity levels, these evaluations reveal
specialists. These types of HCPs could engage in activity amounts below the recommendation of
integrated counseling, which includes appropriate 150 min or more per week of moderate to vigorous
physical activity instruction plus psychological intensity. For example, participants who received
and behavioral strategies to foster adherence (e.g., the Arthritis ToolKit were active for a significantly
dealing with barriers) and to dilute concerns higher 32 min per week from baseline to 9 months
about disease symptoms, like pain. Benefits of (86 to 118 min each week). Another caveat is worth
such counseling may be better integration of care, noting. Only duration of aerobic activities without
increased access to effective disease self-manage- estimates of intensity have been reported in the
ment approaches, and reduced long-term health published outcomes of the Arthritis ToolKit, ASMP,
care costs (Bennell et al., 2016). and CDSMP (Lorig et al., 1996; Stanford Medicine:
Patient Education, 2016). Thus, determining change (CDC, 2014), which is the leading cause of kidney
relative to the recommended level of moderate to failure, new cases of blindness, and lower-limb
vigorous activity is not possible. amputations (CDC, 2011). The cost associated with
Relative to physical activity programs, the CDC diabetes in the United States is approximately one
recommends Walk with Ease, Fit & Strong! Enhance quarter of a billion dollars annually (American
Fitness, and Active Living Every Day (CDC, 2016c). Diabetes Association [ADA], 2013). In Canada, one
These community-based programs are offered from in four people has diabetes or prediabetes, and,
6 weeks (Walk With Ease) to 20 weeks (Active if left unchecked, the prevalence is predicted to
Living Every Day; CDC Arthritis Program, 2012). rise to one in three by 2020 (Canadian Diabetes
Enhance Fitness is solely a physical activity pro- Association [CDA], 2011a). Diabetes is a metabolic
gram, whereas the others combine activity with chronic disease characterized by the body’s inabil-
education and select behavior change strategies. ity to control the amount of glucose or sugar in the
The Active Living Every Day program provides the blood because of deficiencies in producing or using
most comprehensive education on cognitive-be- insulin (CDA, 2016; CDC, 2011, 2014; Scully, 2012).
havioral skills development, where participants The two types of diabetes (type 1 and type 2) have
learn self-regulatory strategies such as goal setting, unique etiologies and treatments. Ninety percent
overcoming barriers, and finding enjoyable activi- of people living with diabetes have type 2 (CDA,
ties (Blair, Dunn, Marcus, Carpenter, & Jaret, 2010; 2016). This form of the disease is characterized
CDC Arthritis Program, 2012). Promising physical by insulin resistance rather than a lack of insulin
activity programs include the Arthritis Foundation production (CDA Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert
Aquatics Program (AFAP) and Exercise Program Committee, 2013). As a result, lifestyle behaviors,
(AFEP), self-directed Walk With Ease, and Fitness including physical activity, play a key role in the
and Exercise for People With Arthritis (FEPA). prevention and self-management of type 2 diabetes
The interested reader can refer to the CDC’s com- (Aune, Norat, Leitzmann, Tonstad, & Vatten, 2015;
pendium of physical activity programs for detailed CDA Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee,
information on all these programs (CDC Arthritis 2013; Sigal, Kenny, Wasserman, Castaneda-Sceppa,
Program, 2012). & White, 2006; Umpierre, Ribeiro, Schaan, Ribeiro,
Taking into account both recommended and 2013). Therefore, we focus on type 2 in this chapter.
promising programs, three key considerations The American and Canadian Diabetes Associa-
exist relative to promoting adherence at the rec- tions recommend that people accumulate 150 min
ommended physical activity level for arthritis or more of moderate to vigorous intensity physical
self-management. First, evidence is lacking that activity each week and encourage resistance train-
the recommended and promising programs pro- ing twice per week (ADA, 2015; CDA Clinical Prac-
mote activity at the level recommended by arthritis tice Guidelines Expert Committee, 2013). Physical
advocates. Second, most programs are primarily activity improves insulin sensitivity (Bordenave
focused only on physical activity. People must also et al., 2008) and glucose transport (Kennedy et
learn the psychological skills needed to be active al., 1999), which, as a result, help to normalize
on their own after a program ends. In reality, such blood glucose (Sigal et al., 2007). These markers of
skills are not naturally or spontaneously acquired, effective diabetes management are crucial. Regular
and focused practice is needed (cf. Artinian et al., physical activity also reduces diabetes-related com-
2010; Brawley et al., 2013). Third, activity programs plications and the need for medication (Balducci,
do not systematically target education and expe- Leonetti, Di Mario, & Fallucca, 2004; Bordenave et
riences that foster self-regulatory efficacy beliefs, al., 2008; CDA Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert
nor do they help people better cope with their pain Committee, 2013; Kennedy et al., 1999; Sigal et al.,
through pain acceptance, both of which appear to 2007). Large clinical trials have shown that over
be important for adherence. 50% of cases of type 2 diabetes could be prevented
or delayed with intensive lifestyle changes (Gilles
Diabetes et al., 2007). Despite the importance of activity,
participation is low (Skovlund, Peyrot, & DAWN
Globally, 346 million people are living with diabetes International Advisory Panel, 2005). For example,
(Scully, 2012), and this number is expected to rise most Canadians with diabetes are not active enough
to more than 550 million people by 2030 (Whiting, to achieve prevention benefits (Plotnikoff, Bretz,
Guariguata, Wril & Shaw, 2011). In the United & Hotz, 2000). One study found that 95% of those
States, 29 million people (9.3%) live with the disease with type 2 diabetes did not meet the activity rec-
Diabetes Overview
Self-Management and Importance of Physical Activity

• Nearly 1 in 10 Americans has diabetes, and 1 in 4 Canadians has diabetes or prediabetes.
• Aerobic guidelines recommend 150 min or more of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity each week.
• Diabetes management is complex, and physical activity is only one recommended aspect of disease management.
Psychological Factors Important for Activity Adherence
• Both task and self-regulatory efficacy beliefs are related to greater engagement in multiple self-management
behaviors, including activity.
• Task self-efficacy may be especially important when people begin activity.
• Because challenges to adherence arise over time, self-regulatory efficacy may then be key.
• Goal setting, problem solving, and relapse prevention appear to be important behavior change techniques for
people with diabetes.
Importance of HCPs
• Self-management education and support from HCPs is fundamental in diabetes care.
• Diabetes educators have low self-efficacy to prescribe and counsel on physical activity. Thus, interventions aimed at
improving physical activity in diabetes care must address gaps in the abilities of both people with diabetes and HCPs.
Knowledge Translation Initiatives
• The DPP (National Institute of Health Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases [NIDDK], 2008) was a seminal
study of the impact of lifestyle interventions in diabetes. Evidence showed a 58% reduction of developing type
2 diabetes. See www.niddk.nih.gov/about-niddk/research-areas/diabetes/diabetes-prevention-program-dpp/
Pages/default.aspx.
• CDA’s (2016) Building Competency in Diabetes Education in Physical Activity and Exercise effectively addresses
DCPs’ limited confidence in prescribing physical activity. See www.diabetes.ca/clinical-practice-education/
professional-resources/physical-activity-exercise.
ommendation (Fowles, Shields, Barron, McQuaid, Psychological Factors

& Dunbar, 2014).
Activity nonadherence is not surprising given Nam et al. (2011) identified psychological burden,
that diabetes management is complex and demand- knowledge, and efficacy beliefs as key patient factors
ing (Snoek & Skinner, 2002). Physical activity is just affecting diabetes self-management. The importance
one recommended aspect of disease management, of self-efficacy to diabetes parallels findings in the
and people must attend to multiple self-care behav- arthritis domain; greater self-efficacy relates to
iors (Shrivastava, Shrivastava, & Ramasamy, 2013). greater engagement in multiple self-management
By way of illustration, the CDA (2016) offers patients behaviors (Aljasem, Peyrot, Wissow, & Rubin, 2001).
online resources to help with multiple behaviors, Further, among people with diabetes, self-efficacy
including proper nutrition, physical activity, weight for performing physical activity is a key predictor of
management, managing complications such as overall energy expenditure (e.g., see Plotnikoff, Brez,
hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), and blood glu- & Hotz, 2000) and is associated with intentions to
cose self-monitoring. Not surprisingly, multiple engage in the recommended levels of aerobic and
self-management behaviors make appropriate self- resistance activity necessary for self-management
care complex, and adherence to these behaviors is (Plotnikoff, Lippke, Courneya, Birkett, & Sigal, 2008;
low (Skovlund et al., 2005). Early and recent reviews Plotnikoff, Trinh, Courneya, Karunamuni, & Sigal,
of diabetes self-management highlight that factors 2009). Differences in self-efficacy have been found
tied to both the patient and HCPs affect patients’ across levels of readiness to be active; people in early
self-management efforts (Goodall & Halford, 1991; stages of readiness report lower efficacy than those
Nam, Chesla, Stotts, Kroon, & Janson, 2011). Both in later action-related stages (Plotnikoff et al., 2000;
of these factors will be reviewed next. Shields, Fowles, Dunbar, Murphy, & Perry, 2010).
A challenge is that people with diabetes have work in diabetes care through completion of practi-
relatively low levels of self-efficacy for performing cum hours and a certification exam administered
and managing physical activity (Fowles et al., 2014; through a governing body (e.g., Canadian Diabe-
Plotnikoff, Brez, & Brunet, 2003). In addressing this tes Educator Certification Board). DEs come from
challenge, consideration of both task self-efficacy diverse areas of health care but often include HCPs
and self-regulatory efficacy is important (Bandura, working as nurses, dieticians, and pharmacists
2001). Findings suggest that people have low task (Alzahrani, Taylor, Perepelkin, & Mansell, 2015).
self-efficacy and thus require assistance to know These professionals can provide comprehensive,
what activities to perform and how to do so with disease-specific counseling to people with diabe-
proper technique and intensity (Shields et al., 2010). tes, which could include integration with physical
This point is reflected in clinical practice guidelines activity counseling (Donahue, Mielenz, & Sloane
in which familiar forms of physical activity (e.g., et al., 2006; Gleeson-Kreig, 2006).
walking) are promoted and initial instruction for Unfortunately, most DEs report being poorly
resistance training is recommended (e.g., CDA trained to promote physical activity (Dillman et al.,
Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee, 2010; Gornall, Levesque, & Sigal, 2008). DEs have
2013). Although instruction on how to perform low self-efficacy to prescribe and counsel on physi-
certain exercises may address initial deficits in task cal activity and to refer patients requiring additional
self-efficacy, for lifestyle changes to be included in clearance for physical activity (Dillman et al., 2010;
day-to-day diabetes self-care, efforts are needed to Gornall et al., 2008). Lower efficacy for physical
help people manage their activity adherence and activity counseling is associated with less frequent
improve their self-regulatory efficacy. use of physical activity counseling in sessions
In their 2013 Clinical Practice Guidelines, the with patients (Dillman et al., 2010). Consequently,
CDA highlighted the importance of goal setting, interventions aimed at improving self-regulation
developing strategies to overcome barriers, and of physical activity in diabetes self-management
self-monitoring with the intention of improving must not only target patient self-perceptions but
patients’ abilities to self-regulate physical activity also address gaps in the ability of DEs and DCPs to
(CDA Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Commit- provide effective integrated counseling and support
tee, 2013). Indeed, goal setting, problem solving, for self-management.
and relapse prevention appear to be key behavior
change techniques included in effective lifestyle Knowledge Translation Initiatives
interventions for those with diabetes (Hankonen Evidence from multiple large-scale trials from
et al., 2015; Whittemore, 2011). Using pedometers around the world show that lifestyle change inter-
within a goal-setting and self-monitoring context ventions, including physical activity programming,
has been shown to be effective for people with have significant positive effects on the progression
diabetes to enhance physical activity (Tudor-Locke and management of diabetes (see review by Gillies
et al., 2004). Finally, problem solving and planning et al., 2007). Perhaps the most well-known of these
strategies may be particularly important for adher- programs is the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP)
ence to resistance training (Lubans, Plotnikoff, that offered insight into the powerful role physical
Jung, Eves, & Sigal, 2012), which underscores the activity can play in diabetes management (Knowler
importance of offering initial instruction on this et al., 2002). The U.S.-based DPP involves a highly
important component of self-management. structured, intensive, comprehensive 16-week
program, delivered by trained health coaches, and
Importance of Health Care Providers includes education sessions and behavioral sup-
Self-management education and support from HCPs port with a focus on individually tailored physical
is seen as fundamental in diabetes care and physical activity and dietary programming. The DPP was
activity promotion (Booth, Lowis, Dean, Hunter, & designed so that following the structured pro-
McKinley, 2013; Nagelkerk, Reick, & Meengs, 2006; gramming, monthly group or individual meetings,
Shrivastava et al., 2013). Among HCPs, diabetes care long-term maintenance programs, motivational
providers (DCPs) and certified diabetes educators campaigns, and incentive programs are offered to
(DEs) are front-line providers in diabetes care. DCPs support people in their behavioral changes (Orchard
(e.g., pharmacists, dieticians, physiotherapists) et al., 2005). Evidence from the DPP showed a 58%
provide services to those with diabetes. DEs are reduction of developing type 2 diabetes for those
DCPs who are specifically trained and certified to with prediabetes (Knowler et al., 2002). Other pro-
grams have had similar results (see Gillies et al., cacy (Bandura, 1997). The workshop is designed
2007). For example, the Finnish Diabetes Prevention to present each component of the manual as well
Study (Lindström et al., 2003) involving dietary as key steps in promoting physical activity to
counseling and supervised individually tailored people with type 2 diabetes. The training focuses
circuit type activity training and medium-range on the appropriate types and proper performance
follow-up was terminated early because the inter- of aerobic and resistance activities and highlights
vention group was doing markedly better than the key self-regulatory skills necessary for patients to
control group with respect to weight reduction manage ongoing participation in physical activity
and measures of glycemia. Further, work in Japan (e.g., self-monitoring, goal setting). DCPs are given
showed a 67% reduction in the risk of developing instruction and time to practice this integrated
diabetes through individually tailored physical counseling. Additionally, they are given training
activity and dietary recommendations over a 4-year on how to perform and instruct patients on resis-
follow-up period (Kosaka, Noda, & Kuzuya, 2005). tance exercise.
Intensive lifestyle interventions positively affect Initial evaluation with DEs found a consistent
individuals’ physical activity and subsequent health increase in their efficacy to provide physical activ-
outcomes, such as weight management, blood ity counseling; increases of up to 20% occurred 6
glucose control, and quality of life (Knowler et al., months posttraining (Shields et al., 2013). Separate
2002; Tuomilehto et al., 2001). Implementing such studies examined the 12-month postworkshop
structured, supervised physical activity programs impact. DEs reported increased confidence in
is recommended as part of diabetes care (CDA patients’ abilities to perform physical activity appro-
Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee, priate to fitness level and condition (Gray et al.,
2013). The implementation of highly structured 2016; Shields et al., 2013). DEs who referred to the
programs, however, can be challenging (Glasgow resource manual more frequently also had higher
& Emmons, 2007), especially within the current, counseling efficacy and perceived less counseling
often under-resourced context of diabetes care. difficulty (Shields et al., 2013). Relative to the effect
As an example, the DPP has been translated from on patients, Fowles and colleagues (2014) found that
a controlled, clinical trial to real-world settings, those not meeting the recommended CDA physical
such as hospital-based outpatient programs and activity guidelines at their initial assessment sig-
diabetes education centers as well as primary care, nificantly increased their activity 6 months after
community, and workplace settings. In a systematic receiving counseling from trained DCPs and having
review of this translational research, fidelity to the access to the manual resources (from 20 ± 23 to
original DPP was not ideal. Translation resulted 120 ± 30 min per week).
in program changes, reductions in scope, and This ongoing CDA initiative changed the stan-
programs with wide variability in effectiveness, dard of care for diabetes management around
reach, and implementation (Whittemore, 2011). In physical activity and exercise in Canada. It is in
light of such translation challenges, an alternative line with calls for structured training for HCPs
Canadian initiative has shown promise. on theory-based approaches to behavior change
More specifically, the CDA’s Building Compe- and the incorporation of multiple behavior change
tency in Diabetes Education in Physical Activity techniques to assist people in behavioral self-reg-
and Exercise resource manual represents the new ulation (Avery, Flynn, Van Wersch, Sniehotta, &
standard of care for physical activity promotion by Trenell, 2012). Moreover, critical roles of both the
DCPs in Canada (CDA, 2011b). This resource was provider and the person with diabetes in disease
designed to help address DCPs’ limited confidence self-management is recognized.
in prescribing physical activity by highlighting
the benefits and importance of physical activity
and providing strategies and resources to facilitate Future Research
physical activity counseling. This manual has been
distributed to DCPs across Canada, and training
Recommendations
workshops were given in every province. From a behavior change perspective, continuing
The training provided to DCPs is grounded in to identify psychological skills that help people
self-efficacy theory with attention to the provision initiate and sustain activity is important. There
of mastery experiences, modeling, and positive may be common skills that facilitate adherence for
feedback, which are key antecedents of self-effi- chronic diseases that use physical activity as part
of self-management. For example, all people should focus on pain reduction through interaction with
learn and practice adherence-related cognitive and primary HCPs. After pain reduction is achieved
behavioral strategies, such as self-monitoring, goal and activity starts, the intervention focus may
setting, and corrective feedback, and they should shift to pain anxiety reductions and increases in
have confidence to use these strategies (Artinian pain acceptance as people move toward the goal of
et al., 2010; Brawley et al., 2013). As seen in the increased activity (Gyurcsik et al., 2015).
diabetes section and in line with theory (Bandura, In both arthritis and diabetes, continued
2004), people also need sufficient task self-efficacy research is also needed on activity-specific psycho-
to perform regular physical activity. Targeting task logical factors. For example, most arthritis research
self-efficacy is especially important among people has focused on self-regulatory efficacy to overcome
with no or little prior physical activity experiences, barriers and to schedule and plan activity. Given the
regardless of disease type (Bandura, 2004). importance of other self-regulatory skills, includ-
Psychological skills and factors unique to specific ing goal setting and self-monitoring in the broader
types of chronic disease may contribute to adher- activity domain (Brawley et al., 2013), such skills
ence. These disease-dependent factors may help and related efficacy beliefs should be examined in
people place disease symptoms into a manageable people living with arthritis. In diabetes, although
perspective with respect to carrying out activity. researchers have focused on efficacy beliefs for
For example, in arthritis, psychological responses a larger set of self-regulatory skills, additional
to pain, like pain acceptance, appear to be related to research is needed. For example, the multitude of
coping strategies used to be adherent. In diabetes, self-care behaviors that people should be doing to
self-management is complex and requires multiple contribute to better diabetes self-management may
lifestyle changes (i.e., medications, dietary change, present challenges to their concurrent management.
physical activity). Thus, addressing the psychologi- Work by Jung and colleagues (Jung & Brawley, 2011,
cal burden of making these changes, often referred 2013) found that among asymptomatic samples,
to as diabetes-related distress (Stuckey et al., 2014), when people had higher self-regulatory efficacy to
may be key to adherence. Overall, more research manage multiple valued behavioral goals including
is needed to elucidate which disease-dependent physical activity (termed concurrent self-regulatory
factors are key drivers of adherence within samples efficacy), participation increased. Perhaps among
with distinct types of chronic disease. people with diabetes, those with higher concur-
Across both arthritis and diabetes, future rent efficacy better engage in self-care behaviors,
research should ensure that samples from the including physical activity.
severely compromised to the higher functioning For both diseases, a correlational evidence base
are studied. Psychological factors important in exists with regard to the relationship between
predicting and changing physical activity adher- psychological factors and adherence to physical
ence may vary based on level of functioning. This activity. This evidence is both cross-sectional and
type of research is often referred to as the study prospective. Future studies are now required to
of moderators (cf. Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004), move research toward linking the evidence to
that is, the study of whether one group responds interventions that couple physical activity with
differently to a treatment or behavior than others. cognitive-behavioral counseling. These studies
For example, physical activity (task) self-efficacy should be experimental or randomized controlled
may be particularly important to increase for the trials so that participants are randomly assigned to
disease-compromised activity initiate but may be conditions and cause and effect can be determined.
less important for people with chronic disease who Such studies would identify the mechanisms that
are regularly active but for disease reasons (e.g., link intervention types to the outcomes they pro-
arthritis flare) temporarily lapse. duce. In exercise psychology, we refer to studies
Understanding differences between the psy- about mechanisms as investigating mediation (cf.
chological profiles of the inactive, insufficiently Frazier et al., 2004). For example, if we detected
active, and sufficiently active may provide insight self-regulatory efficacy as being the mediator
to intervention tailoring. For example, our arthri- between treatment and outcome (e.g., adherence
tis research has shown that inactive adults report behavior), this finding would suggest that coun-
higher pain than insufficiently and sufficiently seling and mastery experiences to improve efficacy
active adults (Gyurcsik et al., 2015). Thus, a tailored would be a target component of behavior change
intervention for inactive people might include a interventions. Inasmuch as the agency aspect of
Bandura’s social-cognitive theory (1997) suggests primary HCPs collaborate with community-based
that efficacy is a mediator, future mediation studies physical activity specialists and the person with
or interventions would benefit from having this chronic disease. Primary HCPs would continue
theoretical foundation. to focus on chronic disease management, helping
HCPs play key roles in prescribing physical people become physically and psychologically ready
activity for chronic disease self-management and to consider undertaking a physical activity regimen
in promoting adherence to the recommended level (e.g., through medications, psychological counsel-
through integrated counseling on activity and ing to address disease outcomes like depression or
psychological skills training. As illustrated in our pain, and so on). Indeed, similar approaches have
chapter, the diabetes domain is well ahead of the been advocated for medical doctors and other HCPs
arthritis domain in offering behavior change pro- in regard to self-management of other aspects of
gramming, including physical activity and related disease (e.g., patient-centered collaborative prac-
counseling. Promising and growing research exists tice: American Medical Association’s [AMA’s; 2008]
about effective programs, such as the Diabetes Physician Resource Guide to Patient Self-Manage-
Prevention Program (DPP), when delivered as ment Support (accessible at www.gpscbc.ca/sites/
originally developed and tested, as well as training default/files/phys_resource_guide.pdf). Agencies
opportunities offered to DCPs for effective physi- that build the capacity of providers to support the
cal activity counseling. This latter strategy holds learning of self-management by people could be
much promise given the role that these profession- the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
als have in helping people self-manage diabetes. and the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology
In the arthritis domain, although promising and (CSEP; Brawley, Gierc, & Locke, 2013; Gierc, Brawley
recommended programs exist for physical activity, & Rejeski, 2017).
questions remain about whether the programs move After people have their disease better managed,
people toward being active at the recommended primary HCPs should refer them to high-quality
dose. Such programs also lack a focus on psycholog- community-based physical activity programs led
ical skills training to promote long-term adherence. by qualified activity specialists who can provide
If support for people to learn and practice the integrated counseling. But a challenge is that people
use of physical activity for disease self-management with this training are the exception, not the rule.
is to be achieved, physical activity and behavior Recently, through a community needs assessment,
change specialists should receive training on we found that people living with chronic pain
appropriate counseling. Such training would help expressed a desire for a referral pathway from
specialists learn strategies to counsel people on primary HCPs to activity specialists (Tupper et al.,
physical activity while also incorporating coun- 2016). The dilemma is that specialists need train-
seling about adherence-promoting psychological ing in counseling coupling physical activity with
skills. This approach might be called integrated behavior change counseling. Unfortunately, such
counseling. Further, if and when integrated coun- training is rare. Major North American organiza-
seling-training opportunities exist, then a two-stage tions that certify exercise provider specialists have
approach should be adopted. In this approach, a limited focus on integrated counseling (Brawley
Looking Ahead
• Common psychological skills and related confidence are important for physical activity adherence, regardless
of chronic disease type (e.g., self-monitoring, goal setting).
• More research is needed to identify unique psychological factors that promote adherence in people living with
a specific type of chronic disease.
• Future research should focus on moderators and mediators.
• Physical activity and behavior change specialists should receive integrated counseling training.
• Primary HCPs’ primary role is to help people better self-manage disease so that they are ready to be active. Then,
referral to activity specialists, trained in integrated counseling, should occur to help people start and adhere to
being active.
et al., 2013) that uses the kind of evidence-based tion and care. www.arthritisalliance.ca/docs/SAPC%20
behavior change strategies endorsed by scientific Full%20Report%2020060331%20en.pdf
organizations (e.g., American Heart Association Alzahrani, F., Taylor, J., Perepelkin, J., & Mansell, K.
position statement; Artinian et al., 2010). (2015). A qualitative assessment of the practice experi-
Helping to train the next generation of physical ences of certified diabetes educator pharmacists. Cana-
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tion, hours of clinical practice need to be included guide to patient self-management support. www.gpscbc.
to the same extent as the American College of ca/sites/default/files/phys_resource_guide.pdf.
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PART
VII
Lifespan
and
Developmental
Issues
The three chapters in part VII bring closure to this tion. They then review the research on the topic,
text by addressing concepts related to the lifespan with this review organized by type of experimen-
and development of movers. Individual chapters tal design. To illustrate the potential benefits of
discuss the research pertaining to physical activity chronic physical activity for clinical populations,
and cognitive skills or abilities, the development Etnier and Chang summarize the research work
of sport talent and expertise, and positive youth conducted to date on two particular special pop-
development through sport and physical activity ulations: older adults diagnosed with dementia or
participation. These chapters help tie together some mild cognitive impairment and children diagnosed
key topic areas addressed in earlier sections of the with attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder. Given
text (e.g., behavior, motivation, mental health). the generally positive results of the work to date
This section begins with a chapter addressing indicating that chronic physical activity exerts an
the potential benefits of chronic physical activity impact on children’s and adults’ cognitive func-
for cognitive functioning and performance, with tioning, the authors explore possible mechanisms
a particular emphasis on work that has been con- for such a link. Noting the relative “youth” of
ducted across the lifespan. The authors, Jennifer this area of research, the authors identify current
Etnier and Yu-Kai Chang, begin with a review and limitations in the knowledge base and provide
discussion of three hypotheses proposed to explain specific suggestions for future research. Though
the effects of chronic physical activity on cogni- much remains to be understood in this research
445
446 Part VII
area, Etnier and Chang conclude that “we will do designs), puzzles (limitations in our understanding
no harm by fostering physical activity” and that of PYD through physical activity), and promise
“physical activity is potentially useful in terms of (ideas for future research that may advance the
benefitting cognition across the lifespan.” knowledge base). To provide a context for the more
In chapter 25, Jean Côté and his coauthors contemporary study of PYD, Weiss begins with a
explore the research and theory related to the review of the historical body of research conducted
development of talent in sport. In particular, these during the second half of the last century by indi-
authors examine the factors that exert an influence viduals in developmental psychology and youth
on the talent lifecycle of young athletes. For their sport psychology. She then examines systems the-
analysis, they use two recently developed models ories that underlie current PYD research work and
(the developmental model of sport participation and follows this with a review of the research work to
the personal assets framework for sport) as a frame- date. To illustrate the type of programs that can
work to explore the research work to date. Côté be classified as true PYD, Weiss describes exem-
and his coauthors argue that interest is a necessary plar PYD programs that fit the criteria needed to
component of motivation for personal development be labeled as youth development programs. She
of talent across the youth sport involvement years. ends her chapter with critical issues that need to
They delineate a series of developmentally based be addressed (puzzles) as well as suggestions for
strategies that adults can use to enhance children’s future researchers (promise). In these sections, she
and adolescents’ interest in sport and in developing provides a passionate argument for the need for,
their talent. As the authors note toward the end of and value of, work in this area, especially work
the chapter, talent development in sport contexts that adheres to the criteria of the PYD framework.
is much more than just the acquisition of skill. The three chapters in this section of the text
Although research has accumulated over the past demonstrate an evolution of work in physical activ-
several decades to examine talent development, ity psychology as well as how scholars in this field
more theoretical and empirical work is needed, are building upon previous efforts to generate novel
and the authors offer suggested future research and impactful lines of contemporary research. The
directions accordingly. broadening interest in the lifespan and developmen-
In the final contribution to this edition, Maureen tal processes operating in sport, exercise, and other
Weiss examines the notion that positive youth physical activity contexts promises to offer a deeper
development (PYD) can occur through children’s understanding of the psychological experiences of
and adolescents’ participation in physical activity. all types of movers. With this understanding comes
The themes in chapter 26 are progress (information the potential to optimize the positive outcomes of
gained over the past decade based on qualitative, physical activity participation and to mitigate the
correlational, intervention, and evaluation research challenges of life changes.
24
Physical Activity
and Cognition
Jennifer L. Etnier, PhD  Yu-Kai Chang, PhD
Abstract
A substantial body of evidence has accumulated relative to the potential benefits of
chronic physical activity for cognitive functioning and performance. Several hypotheses
have been proposed to explain the observed positive effects, including the cardiovascu-
lar fitness hypothesis, the cognitive reserve hypothesis, and the selective improvement
hypothesis. This chapter begins with an examination of these hypotheses and the research
supporting them. Then our focus turns to the extant literature on the topic. This review
examines studies using a variety of experimental designs. The strongest evidence comes
from studies that take an epidemiological approach and that use a prospective design,
as well as from studies that use randomized controlled designs. This literature is briefly
reviewed with a description of meta-analytic reviews provided when these are available.
As will be seen throughout this chapter, most of the research conducted to date has
focused on older adults. But interest is growing in exploring similar issues in children,
as well as within subsets of the population who exhibit compromised cognitive abilities
and thus might be expected to benefit particularly from chronic physical activity. Next
we identify and examine mechanisms (molecular, cerebral structural, and neuroelectric)
that might further our understanding of the relationship between physical activity and
cognitive performance. Although the link between chronic physical activity and cognition
has been demonstrated, further research is needed. In particular, we need more exper-
imental studies focused on children and young and middle-aged adults. Additionally,
future research advancing our understanding of mechanisms is critical because it will
contribute to our ability to establish appropriate exercise prescriptions, to understand
dose–response relationships, and to capitalize on relevant mediators and moderators
of the relationship.
447
448 Etnier and Chang
“M
ens sana in corpore sano” is a Latin which guided early research, along with the cogni-
phrase translated as “a healthy mind tive reserve hypothesis and the selective improve-
in a healthy body.” This belief that ment hypothesis that provide the framework for
the health of the body is important for the health more recent studies. In the second section of this
of the mind is reflected in early therapeutic rec- chapter, we review the research studies that have
ommendations and is exemplified by Hippocrates’ been conducted to examine the potential benefits
recommendation that “natural exercise, but not of physical activity for cognition. The discussion is
walks after dinner” should be used as a treatment organized by the experimental design adopted. In
for night terrors (Lloyd, 1978, p. 258). In the modern this section, we point out the distinctions between
era, researchers have provided empirical evidence cross-sectional and prospective studies assessing
relative to the mental health benefits of exercise physical activity behavior or aerobic fitness as
beginning in the 20th century when Franz and the independent variable and studies adopting
Hamilton (1905) published their findings in sup- experimental designs in which physical activity
port of exercise in alleviating depression. More is manipulated so that causal relationships can be
recently, researchers have begun to focus on the tested. We next consider studies conducted with
potential benefits of chronic and acute physical populations expected to benefit particularly from
activity for cognition. In this chapter, we focus exercise before turning to a brief discussion of
specifically on the relationship between chronic proposed mechanisms. Our chapter ends with a
physical activity (physical activity performed reg- summary of the current state of the literature, along
ularly over time) and cognition. Readers who are with suggestions for future research.
interested in the benefits of acute exercise (a single
session of exercise) can learn more from previously
published narrative (Brisswalter et al., 2002; Pesce, Theories for the Effects of
2009; McMorris & Graydon, 2000; Tomporowski,
2003a, 2003b) and meta-analytic reviews (Chang
Physical Activity on Cognition
et al., 2012; Etnier et al., 1997; Lambourne & Tom- Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain
porowski, 2010) of this literature. why physical activity benefits cognitive perfor-
Interest in the potential link between chronic mance. These hypotheses focus on physiological
physical activity and cognitive performance has explanations for the benefits of physical activity.
been evident in the empirical literature since the The cardiovascular fitness hypothesis takes a more
seminal work of Spirduso (1975). In this early study, distal approach and focuses on whole-body benefits,
Spirduso found that reaction times of older men who whereas the cognitive reserve hypothesis and selec-
were regularly active (played racket sports) were tive improvement hypothesis take a more proximal
significantly faster than those of older men who approach and focus specifically on changes in the
were not regularly active. Although this study had central nervous system. Each of these three hypoth-
limitations (e.g., cross-sectional research design), eses is further explored in the following sections.
it did pave the way for a growing body of research The research results reviewed in this section
focused on the cognitive benefits of physical provide some support for all three hypotheses. The
activity. Indeed, current research in this area is evidence for the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis,
remarkable because of the multidisciplinary and however, is somewhat tenuous, and the critical
interdisciplinary work being conducted by profes- studies needed to test this hypothesis directly
sionals in exercise psychology, exercise physiology, have not been conducted. In contrast, evidence for
neuroscience, and cognitive psychology. the cognitive reserve hypothesis and the selective
In this chapter, we explore the relationship improvement hypothesis is much more promising.
between physical activity and cognition across the Note that these three hypotheses are not necessarily
lifespan by reviewing the literature from several mutually exclusive. For example, both the cognitive
perspectives. We consider evidence from studies reserve hypothesis and the selective improvement
that have used behavioral measures to assess hypothesis could explain observed relationships
cognitive performance and from studies that have with cognition. In other words, physical activity
used measures of brain activity to assess cognitive may particularly increase brain reserves in the fron-
function. We begin with an examination of three tal region such that behavioral changes in cognitive
hypotheses that have been proposed to explain the performance are most evident in frontal-lobe-de-
effects of chronic physical activity on cognition. pendent tasks (Hall, Smith, & Keele, 2001). Another
These include the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis, important point is that most of the research has
Physical Activity and Cognition 449
focused on aerobic forms of exercise rather than (e.g., physical activity is manipulated and fitness is
nonaerobic modes of activity, and this emphasis measured as an indicant of an exercise response)
may reflect an expectation that the physiological have the potential to provide the strongest evidence
responses to this form of activity (which would relative to the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis,
ultimately result in increases in cardiovascular the necessary statistical techniques have not been
fitness) are critical for cognitive benefits. used to assess cardiovascular fitness as a mediator.
That is, none of these experimental studies has
Cardiovascular Fitness Hypothesis conducted the appropriate statistical tests needed
to explore the extent to which changes in aerobic
The cardiovascular fitness hypothesis, adapted from fitness actually mediate or explain the observed
studies examining physical activity and mental changes in cognitive performance.
health (North, McCullagh, & Tran, 1990), suggests As one means of testing this question, Etnier,
that fitness, particularly cardiovascular fitness, Nowell, Landers, and Sibley (2006) used metare-
serves as the mediator in the relationship between gression techniques to test the relationship between
physical activity and cognition. Specifically, changes in fitness and changes in cognition. Spe-
improved cognition is thought to be a direct result cifically, they tested whether the magnitude of
of the increased cardiovascular fitness associated the difference or change in cardiovascular fitness
with long-term physical activity. This hypothesis predicts the magnitude of the difference or change
has been examined in cross-sectional research in cognitive performance. In conducting these
studies comparing cognitive performance between analyses, Etnier et al. included studies that used
groups with different levels of cardiovascular fitness cross-sectional designs and studies in which phys-
(e.g., Pontifex et al., 2014a; Wu et al., 2011) and in ical activity was manipulated and cognition was
correlational studies that have examined potential either measured before and following an exercise
links between cardiovascular fitness and cognitive intervention (pre–post comparisons) or compared
performance (e.g., Ågberg et al., 2009). Results have between an exercise group and a control group at
generally supported the hypothesis that those with the conclusion of the exercise program (posttest
higher cardiovascular fitness exhibit better cogni- comparisons). The results of these analyses revealed
tive performance than do those with low fitness no significant relationship between the magnitude
levels (Ågberg et al., 2009, Pontifex et al., 2014a; of the difference in fitness and the magnitude of
Wu et al., 2011). the difference in cognitive performance in studies
Evidence for this hypothesis is also seen in pro- that employed cross-sectional designs or posttest
spective studies in which more fit (Barnes, Yaffe, comparisons. Surprisingly, and in contrast to the
Satariano, & Tager, 2003; Sattler, Erickson, Toro, prediction of the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis,
& Schroder, 2011) people at baseline have been in those studies that employed pre–post compari-
found to exhibit a lower risk of clinical cognitive sons, larger increases in fitness predicted smaller
impairment at follow-up than have their less active improvements in cognition. Clearly, the results of
or less fit counterparts. Additionally, experimental this meta-analysis do not support the cardiovascu-
evidence indicates that an increase in participants’ lar fitness hypothesis. Thus, Etnier et al. suggested
physical activity levels results in improvements in that researchers should focus on psychological
their cognitive performance (Colcombe et al., 2004; mechanisms or on other physiological mecha-
Erickson et al., 2011; Kramer et al., 1999). In these nisms that may be sensitive to changes in physical
latter studies, changes in cardiovascular fitness activity behavior and that may better explain the
have often been reported as a confirmation of the observed relationship between chronic physical
efficacy of the intervention model. activity and cognitive performance. In sum, the
Despite this empirical support for the cardio- current evidence suggests that physical activity
vascular fitness hypothesis, the veracity of this improves cognitive performance and that these
hypothesis is still under debate for at least two improvements may occur independent of changes
primary reasons. First, studies comparing fit and in cardiovascular fitness.
unfit people provide only indirect support for the
hypothesis because myriad potential confounds
could explain observed differences between groups
Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis
and because causal relationships between the A second hypothesis proposed to explain why
independent and dependent variable cannot be physical activity benefits cognition focuses on
established. Second, although experimental studies cognitive reserve. The concept of cognitive reserve
stems from studies associated with dementia and Several factors have been proposed to increase
Alzheimer’s disease that have repeatedly shown brain and cognitive reserves, including life expe-
that brain abnormalities could be observed inde- rience (education, occupational attainment, social
pendent from clinical manifestations of cognitive networks, physical activity). Of these, physical
impairment (Stern, 2002). activity has been particularly emphasized, in part
Cognitive reserve can be classified into brain because this lifestyle behavior can be adopted at
(passive) and cognitive (active) reserve models any time. Some evidence indicates that the effects
(Stern, 2009, 2012). The brain reserve model focuses of physical activity on cognitive performance might
on the “hardware” of the brain, positing that people be due to alterations described by both brain reserve
with a greater brain reserve will have more quanti- and cognitive reserve models. Animal studies
tative brain structure (e.g., larger brain size, more demonstrate that exercise leads to increased brain
neurons or synapses available) relative to those with reserve through angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and
a smaller brain reserve. Even within cognitively synaptogenesis (Cotman, Berchtold, & Christie,
normal adults, then, this hypothesis suggests that 2007; van Praag, 2008, 2009). Similarly, human
variability is present in people’s brain reserves. For studies using neuroimaging have shown that people
example, among cognitively normal older adults, with higher physical activity and fitness levels,
33 to 34% have been shown to have neocortical relative to those with lower levels, have enlarged
neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary conditions that brain volume, including white and gray matter
fulfill the pathological criteria of dementia despite or hippocampal volume (Erickson et al., 2009;
being capable of normal cognitive behavior (Ince, Verstynen et al., 2012; Weinstein et al., 2012). In
2001). Such people currently have sufficient brain support of the effects being described by a cogni-
and cognitive reserves to support necessary cognitive reserve model, better brain function, such as
tive function, but they may be more susceptible to increased brain activation in specific brain regions,
brain pathologies and their clinical expressions in has been demonstrated in humans with higher fit-
the future because of reduced brain reserve. ness levels or in those who participate regularly in
In contrast, the cognitive (active) reserve model physical activity (Dai, Chang, Huang, & Hung, 2013;
focuses on the “software” of the brain, suggesting Fong, Chi, Li, & Chang, 2014; Prakash et al., 2011).
that in people with the same brain reserves (struc- Although future studies are needed to confirm that
tural capacity), some may be able to perform better these differences in brain activation are causally
cognitively because of enhanced neural processes, linked to physical activity, these studies do provide
including neural reserve (e.g., more efficiency, indirect evidence that regular physical activity
greater capacity, or more flexibility) and neural increases brain reserves and cognitive reserves and
compensation (e.g., better usage or more network that these changes may underlie observed differ-
capacity). Evidence of the importance of cognitive ences in cognitive performance.
reserves comes from a longitudinal study conducted
with older adults in which MRI data showed some
degree of brain pathology for all participants, but
Selective Improvement Hypothesis
cognitive reserves (assessed as variance in memory A third hypothesis regarding the link between phys-
performance after controlling for structural brain ical activity and cognition is based on the notion
measures and demographics) changed in different that the beneficial effects of physical activity on
ways across time; some people showed a decline, cognition will vary as a function of the particular
others remained stable, and still others showed an cognitive domains that are assessed. In particular,
improvement. Lower baseline cognitive reserve and this hypothesis predicts that the benefits of physical
larger declines in cognitive reserve were predictive activity will be greatest for a domain of cognition
of dementia after controlling for the previously known as executive function. This expectation is
described potential confounds (Zahodne et al., based on the fact that executive functions are fron-
2015). The notion of cognitive reserve is not limited tal-lobe dependent and exercise is expected to have
to dementia; it includes situations associated with its greatest effects on the frontal lobe of the brain.
cognitive disturbance and brain pathologies (Hindle Executive function, also known as executive
et al., 2016; Tucker & Stern, 2014). Even in the control or cognitive control, is recognized as
healthy young population, variability in neural effi- the most complex and highest ranking cognitive
ciency has been observed, suggesting differences function, and it includes the activities required for
in cognitive reserves (Habeck et al., 2003, 2005). monitoring, integrating, and organizing multiple
basic information processes that govern goal-di- Kramer (2003) in which they classified cognition
rected behavior (Etnier & Chang, 2009; Jurado & into subtypes of speed, spatial, controlled, and
Rosselli, 2007). Rather than generating an auto- executive function. The results from the meta-anal-
matic response, executive function reflects a set ysis revealed that although exercise interventions
of capacities that provide effortful guidance to significantly improved performance for all four
maximize goal attainment, particularly in novel subtypes of cognition (average ES = 0.48), the
situations (Banich, 2009). Notably, executive exercise intervention exhibited the greatest effects
functions also encompass several distinguishable on the executive control aspect of cognition (ES =
subcomponents (inhibition, switching, and working 0.68) relative to the three other aspects of cognition
memory) (Miyake et al., 2000). These executive (ES range: 0.27 to 0.46), suggesting that the exercise
functions have been linked to the frontal lobe and group showed both general as well as selective
are thought to be frontal-lobe dependent, because improvements, particularly for executive function.
people with frontal-lobe lesions generally demon- The selective improvement hypothesis has also
strate poor performance in measures of executive been supported by recent studies using behavioral
function (Alvarez & Emory, 2006). Executive func- (Smiley-Oyen, Lowry, Francois, Kohut, & Ekkeka-
tion develops during childhood and adolescence kis, 2008), neuroeletric (Hillman et al., 2006b),
and then declines in older age (DeLuca et al., and neuroimaging outcomes (Kramer, Colcombe,
2003). Knowledge of this phenomenon is reflected McAuley, Scalf, & Erickson, 2005; Voss et al., 2011).
in a predominance of the research on exercise and
cognition focusing on children and older adults.
In a classic study, Kramer et al. (1999) randomly Physical Activity
assigned 124 older adults into either an aerobic
exercise group or a toning control group for a
and Cognition
6-month intervention. Cognitive performance was in the General Population
tested before and after the intervention. Results
indicated that the aerobic exercise group exhibited Research exploring the potential link between phys-
better cognitive performance at posttest compared ical activity and cognition has been conducted using
with the toning group. Interestingly, task condi- a variety of designs. Early research, as typified by
tions involving executive control (i.e., conditions of the previously mentioned study by Spirduso (1975),
switching, incompatibility, and stopping) but not was characterized by relatively small samples sizes
conditions involving basic information processes and the use of a cross-sectional approach such that
(i.e., conditions of nonswitching, compatibility, cognitive performance was compared between
and nonstopping) showed exercise benefits. These groups that differed in terms of either physical
findings were interpreted as providing support for activity or fitness levels (Dustman, Emmerson,
the selective improvement hypothesis. & Shearer, 1994, 1990). Subsequent research has
The disproportionately larger effect of physi- continued with the cross-sectional design but has
cal activity on tasks involving executive control adopted a more epidemiological view such that
has been further supported by the results of a larger samples are recruited to study the distri-
meta-analysis conducted by Colcombe and Kramer bution and determinants of cognitive impairment
(2003) on a set of 18 studies using randomized (Bixby et al., 2007; Christensen et al., 1996; Dik,
controlled trials with older adults. Meta-analyses Deeg, Visser, & Jonker, 2003; Middleton, Barnes,
provide a summary statistic (called effect size) for Lui, & Yaffe, 2010; Rosano et al., 2005). Although
multiple empirical studies testing the same research these studies have added to the evidence support-
question. An effect size is a standardized measure ing a relationship between physical activity and
of the magnitude of the effect of an independent cognitive performance, the limitations inherent in
variable on a dependent variable and is generally these observational designs restrict the extent to
interpreted as being small (0.20), moderate (0.50), which they can inform us about the direction and
or large (0.80) (Cohen, 1988). An advantage of a causality of the relationship. Thus, these studies
meta-analysis is that researchers can also code the are not reviewed further in this chapter.
empirical studies relative to independent variables In contrast to the cross-sectional research
(called moderators) that might be expected to approaches described in the previous paragraph,
influence the observed effect size. This procedure designs with greater sophistication can move us
was done in the meta-analysis by Colcombe and closer to understanding the directionality of the
relationship between physical activity and cognitive tests. Results revealed significant differences
tive function. One such approach involves the use between those with high (≥300 exercise units),
of prospective designs from an epidemiological moderate (100–299 exercise units), and low (<100
perspective. In prospective studies, the researchers exercise units) levels of physical activity at young
assume (or test to ensure) equivalence in terms of adulthood in their performance 25 years later on
cognitive performance at baseline and measure cognitive tasks with executive function compo-
physical activity or fitness at baseline. They then nents. Thus, this finding supports the benefits of
assess cognitive performance at a subsequent time physical activity during younger age as a means
(usually years later) to see whether baseline differ- of improving cognitive performance in middle age
ences in physical activity or fitness are predictive and is consistent with the selective improvement
of cognitive performance in the future. A second hypothesis. In a second study conducted with the
type of research design uses randomized control CARDIA data, Zhu et al. (2014) used a measure of
trials (RCTs). Such studies provide the next higher fitness at baseline (treadmill time during a maxi-
level of evidence because they allow for the test- mal aerobic fitness test) as a potential predictor of
ing of cause-and-effect relationships between the cognitive performance at year 25. Results provided
independent variable and the dependent variable. partial support for the hypothesis that enhanced
The studies that have been conducted to date using fitness in young adulthood was predictive of
these two types of designs are reviewed in the fol- improved cognitive performance in middle age;
lowing sections. relationships remained significant for two of three
cognitive tasks after full adjustment for potential
Prospective Studies confounds. In contrast to the findings for physical
activity, these cognitive tasks were not measures of
As described previously, prospective studies are executive function and the prediction equation was
those in which physical activity or fitness at base- nonsignificant for the executive function measure.
line is used to predict cognitive performance in Interestingly, the findings for all three cognitive
the future. Prospective designs move us closer to tasks indicated that the gains in performance asso-
the demonstration of a causal relationship because ciated with each additional minute of performance
they establish the appropriate temporal relation- during the maximum fitness test (RAVLT: 0.12 more
ship (i.e., that physical activity precedes cognitive words; DSST: 0.92 more correct digits; Stroop: 0.52
performance) necessary for causation (Hill, 1965; fewer seconds and errors) were larger than the
Schunemann, Hill, Guyatt, Akl, & Ahmed, 2011). decrements in performance associated with each
An example of this research design is provided by additional year of age (RAVLT: 0.07 fewer words;
Wendell et al. (2014), who examined relationships DSST: 0.82 fewer correct digits; Stroop: 0.47 more
between baseline fitness and subsequent cognitive seconds and errors). This finding clearly suggests
performance in adults enrolled in the Baltimore that fitness in young age has the potential to offset
Longitudinal Study of Aging. In this study, men
. and age-related declines in cognitive performance.
women (age 20 to 89 years) completed a VO2 max These results are consistent with those of
(aerobic fitness) test at baseline and then performed prospective studies in which physical activity is
cognitive tests for up to six times over as many as assessed at baseline in older adults and clinical
18 years (average number of visits was two; average cognitive impairment is used as the outcome. For
time between tests was 3 years). Results indicated example, Podewils et al. (2005) measured self-re-
that for the older adults in the. sample (greater than ported physical activity at baseline in older (greater
50 years old), lower baseline VO2 max was predictive than 65 years old) men and women participating in
of an accelerated decline in memory performance the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study. Approx-
over time on several measures of memory. imately 5 years later, participants were tested to
Two reports from the Coronary Artery Risk determine whether they had dementia. Results
Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) longi- provided partial support for the protective effects
tudinal study also provide prospective evidence of physical activity. Higher levels of leisure-time
regarding the potential effects of physical activity energy expenditure were predictive of less risk of
during the young adult years on subsequent cog- dementia, but this effect became nonsignificant
nitive performance in older age. Reis et al. (2013) after controlling for age and other relevant covari-
assessed physical activity at baseline in a sample ates. Results did show, however, that the number of
of young adults (age 18 to 30 years) and followed different physical activities performed at baseline
up 25 years later by administering a set of cogni- was predictive of the risk of dementia even after
controlling for all covariates. The nature of this Older Adults

effect was that those participating in four or more Research exploring the effects of exercise on cog-
activities had 42% less chance of dementia than nition in older adults is well exemplified by three
those participating in zero or one physical activity.
studies conducted by Kramer and his colleagues.
The findings of this study suggest the possibility
As previously described, Kramer et al. (1999)
that it is not energy expenditure per se that is
conducted an RCT with older sedentary adults
important, but rather that the variety of activity
and demonstrated that an aerobic training group
is important. Although this evidence is indirect, it
improved more on behavioral measures of cogni-
is consistent with animal research (Black, Isaacs,
tion over the 6-month trial than did a stretching
Anderson, Alcantara, & Greenough, 1990; Kleim
and toning group. Because these effects were most
et al., 1996, 1998; Klintsova et al., 2004) and with
evident in cognitive measures that emphasized
studies with clinically impaired (deAndrade et al.,
executive control, Kramer et al. concluded that
2013, Suzuki et al., 2013; Viola et al., 2011) and cog-
these results supported the selective improvement
nitively normal older adults (Benloucif et al., 2004;
hypothesis. In subsequent studies using similar
Fabre et al., 2002; Small et al., 2006), which have
designs, support was also provided for the effects of
shown that cognitive engagement is an important
exercise on brain structure and cognitive function.
aspect of physical activity.
Colcombe et al. (2006) found that participants in an
Several systematic and meta-analytic reviews
summarize the findings of the prospective studies. aerobic training group had significant increases in
Carvalho, Rea, Parimon, and Cusack (2014) con- gray- and white-matter volume that were not evident
ducted a systematic review of 16 prospective studies for participants in the control condition. Colcombe
with older (greater than 60 years old) adults. All et al. (2004) reported that participants in an aerobic
the studies supported that higher baseline physical training group had significant increases in brain
activity was predictive of better subsequent cogni- activation in areas related to attentional control
tive performance. Meta-analytic results consistently (e.g., middle frontal gyrus, superior parietal lubule)
demonstrate that higher baseline levels of physical and decreases in activation in areas that reflect
activity predict a 35 to 38% lower risk of cognitive behavioral conflict (i.e., anterior cingulate cortex)
decline over time (Blondell, Hammersley-Mather, compared with those in the control group. Together,
& Veerman, 2014; Sofi et al., 2011), a 28 to 49% these studies indicate that 6 months of exercise
lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease (Beckett, Ardern, results in improvements in cognitive performance
& Rotondi, 2015; Daviglus et al., 2011; Hamer & and in underlying brain and cognitive reserves.
Chida, 2009), and a 14 to 28% reduction in the risk Given the number of RCTs that have been con-
of dementia (Blondell et al., 2014; Hamer & Chida, ducted with older adults, meta-analytic procedures
2009). Hence, the findings of prospective studies have been used to summarize the results of this
clearly support that higher levels of physical activity work. Colcombe and Kramer (2003), for example,
level at one point in time are predictive of better cog- reported an overall average beneficial effect size of
nitive performance at a subsequent point in time. 0.48, indicating a moderate effect. When moderator
variables were explored, the largest effects were
observed for exercise programs combining aerobic
Randomized Controlled Trials exercise with strength training, of long (greater
Besides using prospective studies, researchers have than 6 months) duration, and with sessions of
also examined the relationship between physical moderate length (31 to 45 min). These results may
activity and cognitive functioning through the provide guidance regarding the design of exercise
use of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). RCTs programs for maximizing the cognitive benefits.
provide the strongest experimental design because, Although the research cited in the previous
if properly conducted, they allow statements about paragraphs clearly indicates support for the value
causal relationships between the independent vari- of physical activity in providing cognitive benefits
able (physical activity) and the dependent variable for older adults, the results of a recent rather large-
(cognitive performance). Although most RCTs have scale investigation (Lifestyle Interventions and
been conducted with older adults, some researchers Independence for Elders) (LIFE) failed to support
have used RCTs to examine the link between phys- this link (Sink et al., 2015). LIFE is the largest (n =
ical activity and cognitive performance in children, 1,476) RCT to date that has explored the effects of
young adults, and middle-aged adults. These studies physical activity on cognitive performance. In this
are reviewed in the following sections. study, sedentary older adults were randomized to
a health education program or a moderate-intensity chronic exercise studies combined), the effect size
exercise program for 24 months. Statistical results was also g = 0.29. One limitation of this meta-anal-
indicated no significant difference between the two ysis is that the relatively small number of studies
groups at the end of the program in any of the mea- conducted with children at the time of the review
sures of cognitive performance or in the incidence precluded the authors’ ability to examine more
of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia. than one moderator at a time. As a result, Sibley
Clearly, this finding is in contrast to the expecta- and Etnier do not report the effect size for chronic
tions of the researchers and to previous research exercise studies using RCT designs. Nonetheless,
results. The authors suggest several reasons why the evidence for studies with children supports
they may have failed to find a significant benefit that physical activity results in small benefits to
of the exercise program: cognitive performance.
• The benefits might have accrued relatively Young and Middle-Aged Adults
quickly but may have been attenuated by the
Little experimental research has been conducted
24-month measurement.
with cognitively normal, presumably healthy young
• The exercise intervention might not have been or middle-aged adults. From studies included in a
strong enough. recent meta-analysis of RCTs on aerobic exercise
• Participants were too well educated (which and cognition (Smith et al., 2010), only one pub-
would itself predict less decline over a 2-year lished study looked at the effects of exercise (in
period). isolation) on cognition in a sample consisting exclu-
• The health education control condition may sively of young healthy adults. Stroth, Hille, Spitzer,
have produced equivalent results. and Reinhardt (2009) randomly assigned healthy,
cognitively normal young adults (17 to 29 years old)
Collectively, then, the research in this area suggests to an aerobic running condition or a control con-
that any beneficial effect of physical activity on dition for a 6-week (30 min per session, three ses-
cognitive performance in older adults may be quite sions per week) intervention. Results showed that
complex. Thus, further research to identify potential visuospatial memory performance improved from
moderators is warranted. pre- to posttest for the exercise group, but not for
the control group. Clearly, this area of research may
Children benefit from additional study given the expectation
As noted earlier, considerably fewer RCTs of exer- that exercise has the potential to improve cognitive
cise effects on cognitive performance have been reserves at any age. If the cognitive reserves theory
conducted with children, and only two have been best explains the benefits of physical activity,
conducted with large samples sizes. Davis et al. researchers will need to recognize that behavioral
(2011) provide data from a study conducted with measures of cognitive performance may not be
171 overweight children who participated in an sensitive to the effects of physical activity in this
8-month physical activity program. Their results age group, necessitating the inclusion of measures
showed improvements in measures of executive of cognitive and brain reserves.
function for children in the physical activity pro-
gram as compared with the control group. Similarly,
Hillman et al. (2014) reported benefits to executive Physical Activity
function for 221 children participating in 9 months
of a daily physical activity program as compared
and Cognition
with children in a waitlist control condition. in Special Populations
In 2003 (before the publication of the two
large-scale empirical studies described in the The research examined in the previous section
previous paragraph), Sibley and Etnier conducted focused on nonclinical populations. Possibly,
a meta-analysis using 44 studies that had either however, individuals within populations that are
explored the effects of acute or chronic exercise experiencing cognitive declines or impairments
on cognition or examined relationships between may exhibit substantial cognitive benefits from
fitness or activity and cognition in children. For engagement in physical activity. This outcome may
studies looking at the effects of chronic exercise, the be explained by the cognitive reserve hypothesis in
effect size was g = 0.29, and for studies using true that those with lower cognitive reserves may have
experimental designs (but with acute exercise and the most “room” to benefit from physical activity.
Researchers have recently tested the potential ben- tal-lobe function, and correspondingly, exercise has
efits of participation in physical activity for older been hypothesized to benefit frontal-lobe function
adults with clinical cognitive impairment as well preferentially. For example, persons with ADHD
as within other populations with chronic illness or exhibit frontal hypoactivity (Dickstein, Bannon,
disorders that may negatively affect their cognitive Xavier Castellanos, & Milham, 2006), reduced blood
performance. Several RCTs have been conducted flow to frontal areas of the brain (Seidman, Valera,
with older adults diagnosed with MCI or dementia & Makris, 2005; Sieg, Gaffney, Preston, & Hellings,
to determine the potential of exercise to benefit 1995), and reduced frontal brain activity during
cognition. Interest is also growing in exploring the behavioral tasks with executive control demands
potential of exercise to benefit people at the other (Konrad, Neufang, Hanisch, Fink, & Herpertz-Dahl-
end of the age spectrum, especially children diag- mann, 2006). This link to frontal-lobe dysfunction
nosed with attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder has also been demonstrated with behavioral evi-
(ADHD). The research corresponding to these two dence; results from a meta-analytic review of 83
age groups is reviewed in the following sections of studies showed that people with ADHD performed
this chapter. A small number of RCTs have included worse on measures of inhibition, working memory,
young and middle-aged adults in samples with vigilance, and planning as compared with persons
chronic illnesses such as fibromyalgia (Munguía-Iz- without ADHD.
quierdo & Legaz-Arrese, 2008), multiple sclerosis Research on the potential of exercise to address
(Oken et al., 2004), hypertension (Pierce, Madden, symptoms and impairments of ADHD is only
Siegel, & Blumenthal, 1993), and chronic fatigue recently emerging. One early study focused on the
syndrome (Wallman, Morton, Goodman, Grove, benefits of yoga for ADHD children and reported
& Guilfoyle, 2004). This literature is not reviewed significant reductions in ADHD symptoms (Jensen
here because of the small number of studies for & Kenny, 2004). In 2010 Gapin and Etnier used a
each population. cross-sectional design to provide the first evidence
of a link between moderate to vigorous physical
Older Adults With Dementia activity and executive function in children with
ADHD. Since that study, several small-scale (sample
or Mild Cognitive Impairment sizes from 19 to 30) intervention trials and RCTs
At this time, more than 15 RCTs have been con- have been conducted to explore these effects. Neu-
ducted to test the effects of exercise on cognitive decker, Mewes, Reimers, and Woll (2015) conducted
performance in people diagnosed with MCI or a systematic review of this literature and identified
dementia. These RCTs have been reviewed by the 13 studies exploring the effects of a chronic exercise
use of meta-analyses (Gates, Singh, Sachdev, & intervention on ADHD symptoms or cognitive per-
Valenzuela, 2013; Wang et al., 2014), systematic formance by children with ADHD. The results from
reviews (Öhman, Savikko, Strandberg, & Pitkälä, these studies can be considered promising because
2014), and narrative reviews (Etnier, 2015; Langa 9 of 10 reported significant reductions in ADHD
& Levine, 2014). When considering the conclusions symptoms and 5 of 6 reported significant improve-
drawn by these reviewers, most (with the exception ments in cognitive performance in response to
of Gates et al., 2013) concluded that there is evi- exercise. Despite these promising results, additional
dence that exercise benefits cognitive performance research in this area is clearly needed to advance
by people who are already experiencing clinical our understanding of the potential benefits of phys-
cognitive impairment. But most also acknowledge ical activity for cognitive performance by children
that this evidence is mixed and that future study with ADHD. Further, note that this relationship has
is needed to advance our understanding of the not been studied at all in adults with ADHD. Given
potential of exercise with these groups. that ADHD may lower cognitive reserves, this group
might also be expected to gain particular benefits
from participation in physical activity.
People With Attention Deficit–
Hyperactivity Disorder
Another population of special interest with regard to
Mechanisms of the Effects
the potential beneficial effects of physical activity on To establish a positive and causal link between
cognitive performance includes people diagnosed physical activity and cognitive functioning in any or
with ADHD. This group is of particular interest all populations, one or more mechanisms that can
because ADHD has been linked to deficits in fron- affect such a link must be identified. At this point
in the field, several such mechanisms have been processes in humans, and it has been shown that
proposed. Evidence supporting the potential role distinct cognitive processes can be elucidated
of molecular mechanisms comes predominantly based on ERP components (e.g., P3) induced by a
from animal studies, evidence related to cerebral specific stimulus (Sur & Sinha, 2009; Woodman,
structures comes from both animal and human 2010). For example, the P3 component of the ERP
studies, and evidence for neuroelectric mechanisms is identified as a positive-going wave that occurs
comes from human studies. approximately 300 ms after the presentation of
The molecular mechanisms being explored the stimulus. P3 amplitude represents attentional
include brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), resource allocation, and P3 latency represents the
interleukin growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and vascular time needed for evaluation and classification of the
endoethelial growth factor (VEGF). These factors stimulus (Polich, 2007; Pontifex, Hillman, & Polich,
all play a role in maintaining the health of the cen- 2009). Regarding exercise and ERP, this research
tral nervous system through their effect on neural has been cross-sectional and has demonstrated that
growth, tissue remodeling, or the growth of new more active children (Hillman, Belopolsky, Snook,
blood vessels (angiogenesis), respectively. Evidence Kramer, & McAuley, 2004; Hillman, Castelli, & Buck,
supports that exercise increases BDNF in the CNS in 2005; Hillman, Kramer, Belopolsky, & Smith, 2006a)
rodents (Cotman et al., 2007; van Praag, 2009), and and older adults (Chang, Huang, Chen, & Hung,
BDNF may be a critical mediator of exercise-induced 2013a) display larger P3 amplitudes and shorter
benefits to spatial memory (Griesbach, Hovda, P3 latencies than do their less active peers. These
& Gomez-Pinilla, 2009). Evidence also indicates results suggest that physical activity participation
that exercise increases IGF-1 and VEGF (Ding et may be related to the amount of attentional resource
al., 2004), and some research implicates IGF-1 and allocation and the efficiency of evaluation during
VEGF as mediators of the effects of exercise on information processes.
neurogenesis (Fabel et al., 2003). In sum, research exploring potential mechanisms
With regard to cerebral structure as a possible of the effects of exercise on cognitive performance
mechanism, animal studies consistently show that is in its infancy. But there is support for the role of
chronic exercise results in modifications in the exercise in increasing circulating levels of BDNF,
architecture of the brain, with support for both IFG-1, and VEGF in the CNS; increasing angiogene-
increased angiogenesis (Black et al., 1990; Ding et sis, synaptogenesis, white- and gray-matter volume,
al., 2006; Swain et al., 2003) and synaptogenesis and white-matter integrity; and improving brain
(Allen et al., 2001; Creer, Romberg, Saksida, van function. All these changes could clearly serve as
Praag, & Bussey, 2010; van Praag, Kempermann, causative factors for resultant improvements in the
& Gage, 1999). These findings of changes to brain cognitive performance of people across the lifespan.
structure are corroborated by human neuroimag-
ing studies, which have shown that participants
assigned to an exercise condition demonstrate pos- Future Research
itive cerebral adaptations not observed in control
participants (Colcombe et al., 2006; Erickson et al.,
Recommendations
2011; Voss et al., 2013). Additionally, cross-sectional As noted throughout this chapter, interest in a
studies with children have shown that higher car- mind–body connection has been evident for centu-
diovascular fitness is associated with larger brain ries, and empirical evidence supporting a positive
volumes in the hippocampus (Chaddock et al., link between physical activity and cognitive per-
2010a) and basal ganglia (Chaddock et al., 2010b) formance has been growing over the past several
and better white-matter integrity in brain regions decades. But the research to date has limitations.
including the corpus callosum (Chaddock-Heyman These limitations are due in part to study design
et al., 2014). issues but also reflect the relative youth of this area
Lastly, evidence related to the role of neuroelec- of research. In the following paragraphs, limitations
tric (brain function) changes comes largely from are discussed and specific suggestions for future
neuroimaging studies conducted with humans. research are provided.
In particular, researchers have used event-re- As noted earlier in this chapter, the positive
lated potentials (ERP) to explore the influence of relationship between physical activity and cogni-
exercise on the brain’s time-locked synchronized tion has primarily been demonstrated by studies
neuroelectric response to a stimulus. ERP has using a cross-sectional design, which precludes a
been widely used to study implicit information direct assessment of cause and effect. In contrast,
prospective longitudinal studies provide a higher Handy, 2012) and more cognitively engaging forms
level of support by demonstrating that higher of exercise such as coordinative exercise (e.g.,
physical activity levels at baseline are predictive soccer, Chang, Tsai, Chen, & Hung, 2013b; table
of enhanced cognitive performance or reduced tennis, Dai et al., 2013; and tai chi chuan, Fong et
cognitive impairment at subsequent time points. al., 2014) have been associated with cognition in
Some evidence also supports a causal relationship older adults and children. Therefore, examination
from studies using RCT designs. Most RCTs have of different exercise modalities may significantly
been conducted with older adults, which reflects the extend the knowledge base because the underlying
observation that older adults experience age-related mechanisms for various exercise types may differ
cognitive decline and that advancing age is a risk (Cassilhas et al., 2011).
factor for dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. When Relevant to exercise prescription, the current
reviewed meta-analytically, evidence supports that literature is also limited in terms of testing dose–
physical activity results in improvements in cog- response relationships between necessary pre-
nitive performance by older adults. But the extent scription elements and cognition (e.g., frequency,
to which this causal relationship extends to other intensity). Although moderators of the relationship
populations, such as children or young adults, has between exercise and cognitive performance can be
not yet been examined. Additionally, little is known examined using meta-analytic techniques, one lim-
about potential developmental determinants of the itation of this approach is referred to as third-order
effects of physical activity. For example, given that causation (Etnier et al., 1997). An example of this
executive function is developing during childhood, limitation can be seen in the results of the Colcombe
physical activity during childhood may possibly be and Kramer (2003) meta-analysis. Although the
critical for the maximization of brain reserves that moderator analyses tell us which duration (31 to 45
will benefit cognition moving into young adulthood min) and length (greater than 6 months) of exercise
and even into older age. Physical activity during should produce the largest cognitive benefits, we
young adulthood and beyond may not provide the do not know whether the duration findings are
same benefits to cerebral structure because of the confounded by the length findings or vice versa (see
closing of a developmental window. Another com- table 24.1). In other words, substantial overlap may
ment with regard to the RCTs is that their focus has be present in the studies that are included in both
been almost exclusively on behavioral outcomes, of these categories, and, if this is the case, then we
and, ironically, the stronger evidence is found in cannot know which aspect of the prescription is
RCTs that incorporate measures of cerebral struc- driving the results.
ture or function. Future research would benefit from This problem cannot be solved meta-analytically.
simultaneously incorporating behavioral measures, Instead, it requires that empirical studies test dose–
measures of brain structure and cognitive func- response relationships using randomized controlled
tion (e.g., neuroimaging measures), and measures designs. Thus, stronger evidence about prescription
of putative mechanisms with an RCT design to comes from empirical studies that include more
advance our understanding of mechanisms of than one dose of exercise. For example, Davis et
observed benefits to cognitive performance. al. (2011) randomly assigned overweight children
Second, the literature on the relationship to a control condition or to participation in physical
between physical activity and cognition can be activity for 20 min per day or 40 min per day for
criticized because it does not provide guidance a 13-week program. Results showed that cognitive
with regard to prescription (Etnier, 2009). According performance improved significantly only for the
to the ACSM guidelines, an exercise prescription 40-min per day group, which was interpreted as
requires the elements of frequency, intensity, time, evidence for a threshold effect. Although the study
type, total volume, and progression (also known of dose–response relationships in chronic exercise
as the FITT-VP principle) (American College of studies is challenging because lifestyle factors (e.g.,
Sports Medicine, 2014). To date, the aerobic exercise season, school structure, alternative voluntary
modality has been addressed extensively, because activities) are difficult to control and because dose
this type of exercise has been linked to cardiovas- can be manipulated in several ways (e.g., duration,
cular fitness. But recent studies have also suggested intensity, length of program), the examination of
that other relevant fitness indices (e.g., muscular dose–response relationships is important because
strength, motor fitness) may affect cognition and an understanding of this relationship would pro-
brain health. Indeed, resistance exercise (Forte et vide insight into the minimal exercise requirement
al., 2013; Liu-Ambrose, Nagamatsu, Voss, Khan, & needed to maximize the cognitive benefits.
Table 24.1 Moderators of the Effects Reported in Meta-Analytic Reviews

Etnier et al. (1997) Colcombe & Kramer (2003)
Moderator ES # of ES Moderator ES # of ES
Frequency Not assessed Not assessed
Intensity Low −1.12 2 Not assessed
High − 0.70 4
Moderate 0.84 8
Not reported 0.58 103
Type Not assessed Aerobic 0.41 52
Combination 0.59 49
Duration Not assessed 15–30 min 0.17 11
31–45 min 0.61 24
46–60 min 0.47 33
Length Not assessed 1–3 months 0.52 38
4–6 months 0.27 36
>6 months 0.67 27
Age group 6–13 years 0.36 39 55–65 years 0.30 31
14–17 years 0.77 8 66–70 years 0.69 37
18–30 years 0.64 32 71–80 years 0.55 33
30–45 years 0.06 10
45–60 years 1.02 11
60–90 years 0.19 163
Not assessed = not assessed as a moderator or a level of a moderator in this meta-analytic review.
Although some evidence supports the selec- and implicit memory, but not working memory.
tive improvement hypothesis, other studies show Similarly, studies have shown that cardiovascular
general improvement or no effects in response fitness was more predictive of relational memory
to exercise (Kelly et al., 2014; Smith et al., 2010). outcomes, as compared with item memory (Baym
This conflict, however, should be interpreted with et al., 2014; Chaddock, Hillman, Buck, & Cohen,
caution, because of the variety of methodologies 2011; Monti, Hillman, & Cohen, 2012). Thus, future
employed in the existing studies. In other words, study is needed to develop a clear understanding
the relationship between exercise and cognitive of how to prescribe exercise that specifically and
function may be variable depending on character- maximally benefits cognitive performance.
istics of the exercise program itself (FITT-VP) and A final criticism of the status of the literature is
the measure of cognitive performance assessed. that few studies have employed mediation analy-
With regard to the latter, an important point is that ses to examine the role of mediators of this effect.
even within a particular cognitive domain (such as Some studies have considered measures of brain
executive function), the effects of exercise may be structure as mediators of the relationship between
specific to the particular cognitive task used (Etnier physical activity and cognition (Chaddock et al.,
& Chang, 2009). For example, executive function 2010a; Erickson et al., 2009; Weinstein et al., 2012).
is a broad cognitive domain made up of several But mediation analyses have not yet been applied
subcomponents, including working memory, inhi- to studies associated with brain activation through
bition, shifting, and planning. Etnier and Chang ERP or fMRI approaches. Given that people with
(2009) identified the 29 most widely used neuro- higher fitness consistently exhibit more attentional
psychological assessments for measuring executive resource allocation (Chang et al., 2013a; Hillman et
functions and pointed out that the effects of physical al., 2005, 2006a) as well as greater activation in the
activity on these measures have only rarely been frontal area and less recruitment of the anterior cin-
studied. Future research may consider applying gulate cortex (Colcombe et al., 2004; Prakash et al.,
these assessments when examining various aspects 2011) relative to persons with lower fitness, future
of executive functions. This same criticism could studies should statistically test the mediating role of
be levied with respect to memory. Memory is not a these functional changes. An additional important
unitary construct, and a recent study by Pontifex et point here is that the mediational model may be
al. (2014b) showed that poor cardiovascular fitness complicated. To date, a simple mediator model has
was correlated with inferior long-term memory been primarily investigated, but more complicated
models including a multiple mediator model with for cognition, and these hypotheses may be not be
two or more mediators may be involved (Etnier, mutually exclusive.
2008; MacKinnon, 2008). For example, using path Although studies associated with physical activ-
analysis techniques, Szabo et al. (2011) indicated ity and cognition began to appear in publication
that the relationship between fitness and older in 1975, our understanding of this relationship
adults’ frequency of forgetting is mediated, in order, has been dramatically expanded since then by the
by hippocampal volume and spatial memory speed. rapidly growing body of literature incorporating
Interestingly, fitness itself is predicted by not only cross-sectional, prospective, and RCT designs.
physical activity but also by factors such as age, Although some of these designs have inherent
body mass index, gender, and education, suggesting limitations, the body of knowledge supports that
the complexity in the relationship between physi- physical activity is predictive of enhanced cognitive
cal activity and cognition. Etnier (2008) provides performance with growing evidence of a causal
other possibilities for addressing more complicated relationship. Despite the continuing interest in
models to explain the effects of physical activity researching this question with older adults who
on cognition. These include a micromediational tend to experience age-related cognitive decline and
model (i.e., mediators in a sequence), a multiple who are at risk for clinical cognitive impairment,
mediator model (i.e., several different mediators of studies have also begun to advance our knowledge
the effects), and a multiple mediator and microme- about the potential cognitive benefits of physical
diational model (i.e., a combination of the multiple activity by children, middle-aged adults, and special
mediator model and the micromediational model). populations. Although limited, evidence supports
These models provide conceptual frameworks for that physical activity has the potential to improve
examining the complicated relationship among cognition in these groups, and future research is
these variables. certainly warranted. Future research in this area
would benefit from a focus on understanding mech-
Summary anisms from a complex mediational perspective
and from efforts to identify the critical aspects of
Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain an exercise prescription (e.g., FITT-VP principle)
the positive relationship between physical activity to improve cognitive performance. In the absence
and cognition. Currently, evidence in support of the of this information, precise knowledge about how
cardiovascular fitness hypothesis is not strong, and to advise health professionals or people who wish
researchers may benefit by considering the potential to use physical activity purposefully as a means
of nonaerobic exercise programs and by focusing on of enhancing or maintaining cognition remain
mediators other than fitness when exploring mech- unclear. That being said, the current knowledge
anisms of the effects. In contrast, current evidence base suggests that we will do no harm by foster-
supports both the cognitive reserve hypothesis and ing physical activity and that physical activity is
the selective improvement hypothesis as viable potentially useful in terms of benefiting cognition
explanations of the benefits of physical activity across the lifespan.
Research Status for the Physical Activity and Cognition Relationship
The research evidence to date supports

• a beneficial relationship between physical activity (or fitness) and cognition,
• that changes in physical activity cause changes in cognition in older adults, and
• that several mechanisms (e.g., cerebral structure, cognitive function, neurotrophic factors) support the benefits
of physical activity for cognitive performance.
Future research is needed to
• ascertain whether or not there is a causal relationship for children, younger adults, and middle-aged adults,
• expand our understanding of the critical dose of physical activity necessary, and
• identify relevant mediators and moderators of the effects.
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25
Youth Talent
Development
in Sport
Jean Côté, PhD  Veronica Allan, MSc  Jennifer Turnnidge, MSc 
Matthew Vierimaa, PhD  M. Blair Evans, PhD
Abstract
The development of talent in sport across the lifecycle can be understood through the lens
of developmental systems theories. In line with this theoretical approach, this chapter
uses the developmental model of sport participation (DMSP) and the personal assets
framework for sport (PAF) to identify the outcomes associated with athletes’ develop-
mental trajectories and to describe the social and contextual factors that underlie these
processes. To prompt theory-driven research in this domain, this chapter then introduces
interest as a key motivational variable driving athletes’ continued sport involvement,
ultimately facilitating talent development. The role of interest in talent development is
clearly situated within the DMSP and PAF, and practical implications for nurturing the
development and maintenance of interest in sport throughout the lifespan are proposed.
Finally, this chapter presents a critique of the extant talent development literature and
offers directions for future research that may advance the development of theory in
addition to the long-term development of athletes in sport.
467
468 Côté, Allan, Turnnidge, Vierimaa, and Evans
C
ontemporary understandings of human 2013; Stambulova, 1994; Wylleman & Lavallee,
development have been informed by several 2004). Although all these models are founded on
theories that seek to explain the dynamic research, many of them are descriptive in nature
relationship between an individual and his or and fail to provide testable tenets that can be con-
her context (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Ford & ceptualized and measured to capture the full spec-
Lerner, 1992; Gottlieb, 1997; Smith & Thelen, 2003). trum of athlete development. On the other hand,
Accordingly, any discussion of talent in sport should the developmental approach proposed within the
consider the integrative temporal and relational developmental model of sport participation (DMSP)
systems of developmental theories that are known focuses on individual and contextual processes
to lead to successful human development. In a that have been quantified and tested extensively
review of developmental systems theories, Lerner in the literature (see reviews by Bruner, Erickson,
(2002) suggested that whereas each key theory of McFadden, & Côté, 2009; Bruner, Erickson, Wilson,
human development spotlighted particular issues & Côté, 2010; Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009; Côté &
such as motor development, skill acquisition, or Vierimaa, 2014). Accordingly, the DMSP—and its
cognitive achievement, all theories were never- more recent counterpart, the personal assets frame-
theless primarily concerned with illuminating the work for sport (PAF)—are presented in this chapter
relationships between the individual and her or his to explain the mechanisms through which youth
context. As a result, the power of developmental develop along various trajectories in sport. Given
systems theories to explain talent development in the emphasis typically placed on skill acquisition
sport resides in their ability to conceptualize sport throughout the development of sport talent, the
involvement as a system of integrated personal, second part of this chapter explores motivational
social, and contextual variables that interact to variables—in particular, the role of interest—as
shape development over time. the activating ingredient in talent development,
As an example, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological including the conditions that facilitate interest
systems theory (1979) suggests a nested systems and skill acquisition throughout the lifecycle. To
approach to development that is consistent with the conclude the chapter, implications for the interest
extant models of athlete development (e.g., Abbott & construct are discussed in broader sport activity
Collins, 2004; Côté, 1999; Stambulova, 1994; Wylle- contexts, beyond that of sport performance and
man & Lavallee, 2004), as well as empirical research talent development. Finally, a critique of the current
on youth development in sport (see Fraser-Thomas, literature is presented, along with recommendations
Côté, & Deakin, 2005; Holt, 2008). This systems for future research.
approach to development in sport highlights the
dynamic personal, social, and physical features of
varying sport activities throughout the lifecycle. Developmental Systems
When a person’s overall development and well-be-
ing are considered within talent development pro-
in Sport
grams, the objectives of sport participation can be Developmental theorists, including Bronfenbrenner
realized, integrating the immediate experiences of (1977), generally agree that developmental changes
the person along with his or her short- and long- occur most directly through processes that involve
term development. In this time sensitive system, the person–context relations. Accordingly, the changing
physical features of the environment are integrated structure of play and practice throughout devel-
with the social relationships formed by athletes opment in sport serves as the primary process for
in the unique developmental context of the sport interaction between a person and her or his context.
activities in which they engage. For example, interactions between coaches and
This chapter adopts a developmental systems athletes and the types of activities that coaches
approach to examine the factors that influence the emphasize in training and competition at various
talent lifecycle of athletes with special emphasis ages directly influence the skills and motivation
on youth. A number of athlete development models that youth develop through sport.
have been proposed over the last three decades, Although the DMSP and PAF highlight the impor-
integrating concepts such as transitions and drop- tance of fostering participation, performance, and
out, practice and play, as well as early specialization personal development (i.e., the three Ps) for the
and sampling (e.g. Abbott & Collins, 2004; Bailey optimal development of both human and talent
& Morley, 2006; Balyi, Way, & Higgs, 2013; Côté, potential in sport, several problems persist among
1999; Gulbin, Croser, Morley, & Weissensteiner, youth sport programs that focus solely on skill
Youth Talent Development in Sport 469
acquisition at a young age and the high-level per- potential for elite performance is achieved at the risk
formance of a few talented athletes. Several reviews of negative developmental experiences and reduced
(Baker, 2003; Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009; Hill & physical health and enjoyment (trajectory 3). At any
Hansen, 1988; Malina, 2010) demonstrate the neg- stage within the DMSP, youth may choose to dis-
ative effects of early specialization (characterized engage from sport. However, nurturing individual
by deliberate practice in one sport beginning at a capacities for interest throughout development may
young age) and conversely, the positive influence aid in not only reducing potential disengagement,
of sampling during childhood (characterized by but also enhancing opportunities for physical and
diverse sport experiences and deliberate play) on psychosocial development.
athlete development. These reviews reinforce the By focusing on the personal, social, and physi-
idea that youth sport programs are designed in cal features of different activities (e.g., sampling,
ways that may inadvertently limit expertise devel- specialization) across development, the DMSP
opment by impeding natural interest development suggests that the positive outcomes of sport result
and by reducing the pool of talented adolescents. from the integration of processes that include per-
Although several theorists have reflected on how sonal engagement in a sport activity, the social
skills are acquired and talent is developed in sport relationships that are formed within this activity,
(e.g., Baker & Farrow, 2016; Hodges & Williams, and the physical environment in which this activ-
2012), limited research has examined the devel- ity takes place (Côté, Strachan, & Fraser-Thomas,
opment of motivation in ways that sustain talent 2008). More recently, Côté and colleagues (Côté &
development. More specifically, we suggest that Erickson, 2015; Côté, Turnnidge, & Evans, 2014;
interest represents the active ingredient necessary Côté, Turnnidge, & Vierimaa, 2016) integrated
to facilitate skill acquisition and talent development, the features of the DMSP, previous youth sport
in combination with lifelong sport participation and research, and principles from developmental sys-
personal development. tems theories to create the PAF. In essence, the PAF
is a set of key elements that should be combined
Developmental Model to design and deliver quality sport programs that
contribute in a positive way not only to the overall
of Sport Participation development and well-being of the person, but also
Using a developmental systems approach, the DMSP to the development of talent in sport. In line with
posits that continued participation, performance, developmental systems theories, the PAF considers
and personal development through sport result from personal (i.e., personal engagement in activities),
involvement in sport activities and relationships relational (i.e., quality relationships), and environ-
that evolve throughout development (Côté & Fras- mental factors (i.e., appropriate social and physical
er-Thomas, 2016). Within the DMSP, the sampling settings) as the elements necessary to understand
years lay an important foundation for youth to the mechanisms through which development
achieve optimal outcomes in sport over time (Côté & occurs in and through sport. The interaction of
Vierimaa, 2014). Sampling generally occurs between these three dynamic elements constitutes a specific
the ages of 6 and 12 and is characterized by high sport experience, such as a game, practice, or team
amounts of deliberate play, which should occur in social activity. When repeated over time, such as
a variety of sports and activities within a given the span of one season, these specific sport expe-
sport. Following the sampling years, athletes either riences generate changes in an athlete’s personal
continue to participate in sport at a recreational assets (e.g., confidence, competence, connection,
level (trajectory 1) or choose to invest and spe- and character). Eventually, changes in these per-
cialize in one sport during adolescence (trajectory sonal assets will influence the long-term outcomes
2). On the path to either recreational participation of sport in relation to individuals’ three Ps.
or high-level performance, youth who partake in
the sampling years are more likely to experience Personal Assets Framework for Sport
enhanced physical health and psychosocial develop-
ment. In comparison, early specialization involves The PAF outlines outcomes of sport engagement on
high levels of investment and deliberate practice three staggered timescales, ranging from immediate
in a single sport from the time of children’s first sport experiences to long-term outcomes over the
initiation into sport. Although this practice may be course of multiple years. First, personal engagement
necessary for sports in which peak performance in a sport activity, whether it is play or practice, is
occurs early in development (e.g., gymnastics), the triggered by interest in a specific physical or social
setting that holds immediate significance for the within a person to direct and energize behaviors
participant. When immediate involvement in an and intentions to act (Reeve, 2009). Although sev-
activity stimulates positive emotions, liking, and eral frameworks describe the optimal forms of moti-
enjoyment, and the activity continues to be acces- vation (i.e., authentic, self-selected, or self-endorsed
sible to the participant, the participant is likely to motivation; Mack, Sabiston, McDonough, Wilson,
reengage in the activity over time, triggering further & Paskevich, 2010; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and outline
interest and engagement. the internal processes that contribute to these forms
Second, an alignment between the dynamic of motivation, an important question remains: How
elements of sport participation (activities, relation- exactly is optimal motivation achieved throughout
ships, and settings) and growth of personal assets development?
(e.g., the four Cs: competence, confidence, con- According to Sansone and Thoman (2005), how
nection, and character; see Côté, Bruner, Strachan, motivation develops for a specific domain or activ-
Erickson, & Fraser-Thomas, 2010; Lerner, 2002; ity is often neglected in models of self-regulation.
Little, 1993) will influence a person to reengage and They posit that interest is a necessary component
further invest in a specific sport on a short-term of self-regulatory processes that works either with
basis (e.g., a season). Third, multiple seasons or or against factors that influence motivation over
years of repeated experiences that integrate per- time. Krapp and Prenzel (2011) suggest that what
sonal engagement in play and practice activities, differentiates interest from other motivational con-
quality relationships with others, and appropriate structs (e.g., goals, values) is its content specificity.
physical and social settings will lead to continued Because of its focus on concrete activities and
interest, growth of personal assets, and ultimately, content, interest represents an appealing construct
the facilitation of long-term outcomes in the form of through which to examine whether youth invest
the three Ps. Thus, talent development (i.e., perfor- (or withdraw) from sport activities over time. In
mance) is balanced with lifelong sport participation contrast, motivation is more often framed in terms
and personal development. of achievement goals and their expected values
In sum, the PAF is designed to account for the (e.g., Eccles et al., 1983; Nicholls, 1984). In this
processes that occur over time to facilitate posi- chapter, interest is conceptualized as the active
tive developmental outcomes (including talent), ingredient driving the development of optimally
encompassing the interaction of three dynamic experienced motivation and, ultimately, talent
elements—personal engagement in activities, in sport. In line with a developmental systems
quality relationships, and appropriate settings—to approach, the interest construct is theorized to
generate immediate, short-term, and long-term emerge from an athlete’s interaction with his or her
outcomes in sport (Côté et al., 2014). By engaging environment (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). Accordingly,
in immediately enjoyable and challenging sport youth will develop preferences for certain sports
experiences, youth develop personal assets in the based on personal experiences and interactions
form of confidence, competence, connection, and with specific sport contexts. When athletes begin
character (i.e., the four Cs) that will eventually to identify their personal goals and ambitions for a
enable long-term outcomes, defined as the three specific sport, they have developed an individual
Ps. The DMSP provides the developmental structure interest that represents a relatively enduring moti-
in which the mechanisms outlined in the PAF can vation to engage in that sport (Krapp & Prenzel,
be integrated to account for the outcomes of con- 2011). Consistent with this developmental view of
tinued participation, personal growth, and talent interest, achievement goals and expectancy values
development in sport. facilitate the progression of deepening interest and
internalized motivation in a reciprocal manner.
Interest and Talent Understanding Motivation
Development in Sport Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985,
The concept of motivation has transcended the 2002) has been widely supported as a framework
academic realm of psychology, representing a for human motivation and development across
common and well-understood driver of human various domains, ranging from neuroscience and
behavior. From engagement in recreational sport biology to education and health care. Among these
programs to intensive training and competition, domains, SDT has also been recognized as a useful
motivation encompasses the forces that act on and and pragmatic tool in the physical education and
sport literature (see reviews by Van den Berghe, • Enhancing interest in less-interesting (e.g.,
Vansteenkiste, Cardon, Kirk, & Haerens, 2014; boring) tasks predicts higher levels of self-de-
chapter 16 in this volume). SDT provides a nuanced termined extrinsic motivation.
understanding of the elements needed to foster • Enhancing interest in tasks and higher levels
optimal forms of motivation for talent development of self-determined extrinsic motivation predict
over time, which include higher levels of intrinsic motivation.
• identification and integration of meaningful Four different interest-enhancing strategies (e.g.,
and personally relevant goals and values into introducing variety within the task, exploiting
one’s sense of self, extrinsic stimulation, providing self-relevant ratio-
• fulfillment of basic psychological needs, and nales, and challenge enhancement) were employed
• individual factors related to self-determined to test this model, three of which produced direct
and personal goal orientations. support for the hypotheses. By incorporating these
strategies into their everyday practice, athletes can
Particularly with respect to identifying with and learn to cope with the less-interesting aspects of
valuing sport, optimal motivation often takes time training (see table 25.1 for applied examples).
to evolve. In other words, to establish the belief Building on previous theories of interest, the
that sport is a way to satisfy psychological needs four-phase model of interest development (Hidi
and pursue important goals, young athletes may & Renninger, 2006) conceptualizes interest as a
progress through phases that entail having differ- series of progressive stages, not unlike the self-de-
ent types of motivation, understood as “interest termination continuum. To begin, environmental
development.” stimuli trigger short-term changes in cognitive and
For centuries, interest has been widely advocated affective states, producing triggered situational
as an important condition for learning (Krapp & interest for a specific activity or content. This stage
Prenzel, 2011). More recently, interest has been is characterized by stimulation, liking, and positive
evaluated and identified as a key motivational affect. Continued support from the environment,
construct contributing to long-term engagement through either tasks or other involved people, may
and enjoyment in physical education classes (Garn, develop a connection to this activity or content,
Cothran, & Jenkins, 2011; Subramaniam, 2010). In resulting in maintained situational interest. During
the sport context, Green-Demers, Pelletier, Stewart, this stage, the activity or content is approached with
and Gushue (1998) proposed a model of interest focused attention and persistence over an extended
and motivation self-regulation that hypothesizes period. An emerging individual interest develops
the following: when a person begins to seek repeated engagement
Table 25.1 Interest-Enhancing Strategies in Sport

Strategy Definition Applied example(s)
Introduction of variety Adding diversity to the performance of a task. This strat- Frequently rotating training activities during a practice
within the task egy may be used to facilitate situational interest or to session
reduce the monotony of a boring task in later stages of Introducing elements of play during a practice session
interest development.
Exploitation of extrinsic Using external cues to stimulate performance of a Watching other athletes perform the task (i.e., cues from
stimulation task (i.e., stimulation from sources other than the task the physical environment)
itself). This strategy may be used to facilitate situational Visualizing personal success during performance of the
interest or reduce the monotony of a boring task in later task (i.e., cues from within the athlete)
stages of interest development.
Provision of self-relevant Having a personally valid reason for performing a task. Writing out a list of the personal benefits to be gained
rationales This strategy may be used to facilitate the transition from the performance of a task and posting this list in
between situational and individual interest. a relevant location (e.g., locker room) as a reminder
during future training
Challenge enhancement Performance of tasks that are slightly beyond the ath- Setting daily incremental training goals to motivate
lete’s current level of training or abilities. This strategy is improved performance
important for developing individual interest.
Adapted from Green-Demers et al. (1998).
with the activity or content that is not contingent continuum of self-determined motivation, includ-
on external supports. Knowledge is sought out and ing the reciprocal relationship between interest,
consolidated, and personal value for the activity or achievement goals, and expectancy values as factors
content evolves. Finally, an enduring predisposition that influence overall levels of motivation. As a
to reengage with the activity or content over time person moves through the continuum toward more
forms a well-developed individual interest. Knowl- self-determined motivation and well-developed
edge and value continue to develop and are largely individual interest, improvements in performance,
self-generated, but the individual has the ability to participation, and personal development (e.g., three
cope with frustration and sustain creative thinking, Ps) are more likely to occur (i.e., fostering optimal
which may not be evident in the emerging stage. conditions for improvement). Accordingly, high-
The self-determination continuum and the level performance or long-term participation, for
four-phase model of interest development can be example, may occur at any point along the contin-
viewed as parallel processes, characterized by uum in figure 25.1.
both a reduced reliance on external contingencies At the broadest level, theorists have speculated
and supports and the internalization of personal that these interrelations are likely to be bidirectional
values, meanings, and stored knowledge over time in nature (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). But Hulle-
as interest is deepened and motivation becomes man, Durik, Schweigert, and Harackiewicz (2008)
increasingly self-determined. Note that a reciprocal may have been the first to investigate the relation-
relationship exists between deepening interest and ship among all three constructs, examining the
self-determined motivation and the fulfillment of antecedents and consequences of task value judg-
basic psychological needs (Hidi, 2000). Interest ments in two different settings: a college classroom
provides the trigger from which intrinsic motivation and a high school sports camp. This study replicated
can be cultivated and enhanced (Green-Demers et previous findings in the education literature, in
al., 1998; Sansone & Thoman, 2005). Although more which mastery-approach goals (i.e., skill mastery
extrinsic forms of motivation have been associated relative to past personal performance) were found
with negative outcomes such as poor coping skills to predict continued interest, and performance-ap-
and anxiety (e.g., Ryan & Connell, 1989), the early proach goals (i.e., demonstrating ability relative to
stages of interest are associated with stimulation, others) were found to predict performance. In the
liking, and enjoyment (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). college setting, mastery-approach goals were associ-
Progressing toward a state of inherently enjoyable or ated with intrinsic value. Comparatively, high levels
self-rewarding behaviors, social and environmental of mastery-approach goals or performance-approach
conditions that facilitate situational forms of inter- goals, but not both, led to intrinsic value in the
est provide the foundation for not only individual sport context. Consistent with the multiple-goals
interest but also self-determined motivation. model (Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot, &
In fact, interest has been found to have a Thrash, 2002), the sport sample demonstrated the
reciprocal relationship with several motivational complexity of multiple goal effects. When initial
variables, including self-regulation, self-efficacy, interest was high, mastery goals were positively
goals, and values (see review by Renninger & Hidi, associated with continued interest. Alternatively,
2011). As previously stated, achievement goals and when initial interest was low, mastery- and perfor-
expectancy values—stemming from achievement mance-approach goals worked synergistically to
goal theory (Nicholls, 1984) and expectancy value promote continued interest. These findings support
theory (Eccles et al., 1983), respectively—are viewed the notion that after initial interest is triggered, the
as reciprocal influences on the dynamically related type of goal approach and associated values either
interest–motivation continuums presented in this foster or hinder further interest, consequently
chapter. To provide some context, Pintrich (2003) influencing long-term performance outcomes and
notes that achievement goals, expectancy values, talent development.
and interest each represent a different family of In relation to developmental systems theories,
motivational constructs. Despite the longstanding the personal, social, and environmental factors
presence of all three families in the motivation represented within the dynamic elements of the PAF
literature, theoretical integration is only in the are important for triggering and maintaining situa-
beginning stages, largely because of the complex tional interest during the sampling years. The short-
interrelationships among each theory (Wigfield & term objectives of any talent development program
Cambria, 2010). Figure 25.1 demonstrates the par- in sport should focus on the fulfillment of young
allel nature of the four stages of interest and the athletes’ personal assets (i.e., the four Cs), which
Basic needs satisfaction

(competence, autonomy, and relatedness)
Well-
Entry point Triggered Maintained Emerging
developed
(No interest situational situational individual
individual
or motivation) interest interest interest
interest
Personal
meaning
Stimulation or values
Liking Stored
knowledge
Achievement goals and associated values
Affect
Inherent
enjoyment
External
contingencies Self-
rewarding
Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation
Basic needs satisfaction

(competence, autonomy, and relatedness)
Figure 25.1 Integration of processes influencing self-determined motivation, reflecting the development of interest and reciprocal
influence of achievement goals and associated values. As reflected in the figure, the interest development is a direct reflection of the
forms of motivation underpinning the sport activity.
E6768/Horn/F25.01/565560/mh-R2
share many similarities with SDT’s basic needs. athletes initiate, maintain, and fuel their personal
Concurrently, the long-term personal development, interests in sport.
participation, and performance of the athletes
should also be considered. Interested individuals Developmentally Based Strategies
will find themselves meaningfully connecting to the
sport, and changes in the dynamic elements (i.e., Developmental approaches to interest suggest that
activities, relationships, and settings) will gradually young children are inherently attracted to all types
occur to meet the needs, goals, and personal values of new phenomena and experiences. They develop
of the developing athlete. If these conditions are interests in line with preferences that reflect their
met, situational interest may develop into individual perceived strengths and weaknesses. During ado-
interest; thus, the talent development cycle is based lescence, they clarify personal aims and ambitions
on a foundation of sustainable and positive forms (Gottfredson, 1981; Travers, 1978). Aligning the
of motivation. Provided that theories of interest are four-phase model of interest development with a
well-suited to a developmental lens (e.g., Hidi & developmental perspective, childhood may repre-
Renninger, 2006; Gottfredson, 1981; Travers, 1978), sent the optimal time to trigger and maintain sit-
there is a need to postulate heuristics that will aid uational interests, from which individual interests
sport practitioners in the design of developmentally may emerge and develop with continued social
appropriate youth sport programs. As such, the and environmental supports, feelings of choice
next section focuses on person–context strategies and competence, and internalization of relevant
that can be applied throughout development to help values throughout adolescence. In the sport context,
i nterests may be appropriately stimulated and nur- in sport is sustained, dropout may be prevented.
tured according to the central tenets of the DMSP Therefore, this transition represents a critical period
(see Côté et al., 2014): for not only maintaining situational interest but also
enabling the development of individual interest.
• Diversity should precede specialization. During this time, youth should be provided with
• Play and practice activities should be bal- activities and environments that are personally
anced, emphasizing play in childhood and relevant, provide challenge, and promote opportuni-
practice in adolescence. ties for reengagement (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). By
• A mixture of adult-led and youth-led activities this age, the distinction between effort and ability
should be introduced to achieve varied and should be clear (Fry & Duda, 1997; Nicholls, 1978),
unique developmental benefits. although the type of goal orientation optimal for
each individual might not be (e.g., Harackiewicz
To develop sport talent effectively, supports for et al., 2002). Thus, a multiple-goals model may
interest should be incorporated into sport activities provide a generally effective approach (i.e., a focus
and the surrounding physical and social environ- on both mastery and performance), providing youth
ment in a developmentally appropriate manner. with the opportunity to explore different goals with
Optimal stages of interest development can be clas- varied sources of motivation (e.g., Harackiewicz et
sified within the DMSP (Côté & Abernethy, 2012). al., 2002; Hulleman et al., 2008). Harwood (2002)
provides support for this approach, noting differ-
Childhood: Diversity and Sampling ences in athletes’ competition-specific and overall
With a focus on diverse sport experiences and play sport goal orientations. Role models, experts, and
and because of children’s inherent attraction to new peer support also become increasingly important
activities and phenomena, the sampling years are during this time, while the role of parents is often
an ideal time for the facilitation of situational inter- reduced (e.g., Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2016). At all
est. Children should be exposed to a variety of sport social levels, encouragement in the face of difficulty
contexts and opportunities to engage in both adult- is crucial to the maintenance and development of
led and youth-led activities that offer stimulation individual interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).
and fun (e.g., Côté et al., 2014). External supports
are extremely important for maintaining situational Late Adolescence and Adulthood:
interest; thus, children should be provided with Personal Engagement
options, encouragement, and relevant knowledge Whether engaged in recreational physical activity
to facilitate positive feelings in the early stages or competitive sport, emerging or well-developed
(Hidi & Renninger, 2006). At this age, children are individual interests are a primary objective of
unable to make the distinction between ability and participation during the adolescent years. For this
effort (Fry & Duda, 1997; Nicholls, 1978), meaning to occur, people require a number of resources to
that specific goal orientations are less important develop personal meaning, intrinsic value, and
than simply experiencing opportunities to interact stored knowledge: access to appropriate sport envi-
with the environment and develop interests. Early ronments, role models, or experts; activities that
sport experiences should set the stage for future provide meaning or personal relevance; a positive
identification and integration of personal meanings social climate or collective cause; encouragement in
and values that reflect positive attitudes toward the face of difficulty; a mastery motivational or mul-
physicality and movement to develop talent in the tiple-goals approach, in line with individual needs
long-term. or orientations; opportunities for leadership, chal-
lenge, and knowledge building; and opportunities
Early Adolescence: Choosing a Path to feel in control, competent, and connected with
Transitioning into adolescence, youth begin to others (Hansen & Larson, 2007; Hidi & Renninger,
perceive personal strengths and weaknesses that 2006; Hulleman et al., 2008; Pearce & Larson, 2006;
influence interests. During this time, youth who had Ryan & Deci, 2000; Smoll, Smith, & Cumming,
previously sampled sport activities are faced with 2007). For optimal talent development, well-devel-
the decision to specialize in one sport on the path to oped individual interest is necessary to maintain
high-level performance or to continue participating motivation and optimal psychosocial outcomes as
in sport at a recreational level. This decision will higher levels of performance are achieved.
largely depend on the personal aims and interests In an ideal world, triggered situational inter-
of each person, but as long as some level of interest est in sport would always lead to well-developed
individual interest and self-determined motivated recreational participation) at any time (Côté & Fra-
participation later in life. But youth may drop out ser-Thomas, 2016). Hidi and Renninger (2006) note
or transition horizontally between developmental that people may shift between stages of interest if
trajectories in sport (e.g., from specialization to opportunities for reengagement are not provided.
Talent Development Pathway
The pathway shown here integrates the DMSP and PAF to promote interest and skills throughout talent development.
This talent development pathway is intended to promote high-level performance, long-term participation, and personal
development. Other pathways may emphasize more recreational forms of sport participation that also foster all three Ps.
Sampling Years—Childhood
Activities
• High amount of deliberate play.
• Low amount of deliberate practice.
• Involvement in a variety of sports.
Relationships
• Parents support participation in various sport contexts.
• Coaches recognize individual differences and support multisport participation.
• Peers promote a sense of belonging.
Setting
• No selection of “best” athletes occurs (i.e., no talent identification).
• Competitive structure offers short-term competition, but no long-term standings or championships.
Specializing Years—Early Adolescence
Activities
• Deliberate play and practice are balanced.
• Involvement in fewer sports and more focused involvement in one sport.
Relationships
• Parents increase support to one sport as chosen by son or daughter.
• Coaches provide challenging and enjoyable tasks that trigger individual interest.
• Peers foster relationships built on integrity, support, and respect.
Setting
• Environment supports engagement in meaningful and challenging activities.
• Competitive structure promotes the values of sportspersonship.
Investment Years—Late Adolescence
Activities
• Low amount of deliberate play.
• High amount of deliberate practice.
• Involvement in one sport.
Relationships
• Parents provide necessary support to highly invested son or daughter.
• Coaches promote self-regulation and provide initiative-building opportunities.
• Peers relationships contribute to performance and well-being.
Setting
• Environment provides opportunities for reengagement.
• Performance context values personal development.
Interests typically dwindle during adolescence as Moreover, Côté and colleagues (2014) proposed two
people learn to cope with new developmental tasks additional features that pertain specifically to youth
and form self-identities (Krapp & Prenzel, 2011). in the sport setting:
Thus, supports to trigger and enrich interests in
physical activity and sport should be made avail- • Access to diverse sport contexts
able throughout development. For example, sport • Sport contexts with fewer youth and lower
organizations should offer recreational leagues adult-to-youth ratios
across a variety of sports to facilitate movement
across levels of participation. People at any stage First, environments that are physically safe
of development, particularly during the adolescent and free of psychological harms are important for
years, should also be provided with opportunities providing youth with a sense of security. Affording
to get involved or reengage in sport. To encourage youth secure environments in which to interact
participation, performance, and personal develop- encourages exploration, experimentation, and
ment through sport, opportunities to develop talent opportunities for both play and practice, while
should not be limited to those who enter sport, reducing feelings of fear that may be negatively
especially one sport, at an early age. By providing associated with engagement (Lerner et al., 2000;
such opportunities, the motivation, confidence, and NRCIM, 2002). Building on this point, youth should
competence to produce a physically skilled person be provided with access to diverse sport contexts,
may be instilled throughout development. irrespective of facility and equipment quality (Côté
et al., 2014). Opportunities for diverse interactions
with the environment, offered by each of these
Conditions that Foster Interest setting features, facilitate situational interest and
and Skill Acquisition build a foundation for talent development (Hidi &
Renninger, 2006). Environments should be struc-
A substantial body of literature describes the con-
tured to promote clear and consistent boundaries
ditions that facilitate positive assets and continued
and expectations, as well as provide age-appro-
participation in youth sport (e.g., Côté, 1999; Côté
priate monitoring and supervision (Lerner et al.,
& Fraser-Thomas, 2016; Côté et al., 2014; Hansen &
2000; NRCIM, 2002). Furthermore, sport contexts
Larson, 2007; Larson, 2000; Lerner, Fisher, & Wein-
with fewer people or lower adult-to-youth ratios
berg, 2000; NRCIM, 2002). But the need remains
may facilitate effort and involvement in a variety
to outline the conditions that cultivate personal
of roles and positions (Côté et al., 2014; Hansen
interest in addition to skill acquisition within the
& Larson, 2007). Each of these setting features
youth sport context. Whereas the previous section
highlights the role of adults in managing the phys-
discussed a developmental approach for nurturing
ical context in youth sport. Youth should also be
interest and talent development in sport, the essen-
provided with opportunities to engage in different
tial elements that contribute to interest, motivation,
roles, such as taking on a leadership position or
and positive assets among developing athletes at
playing different positions, while receiving appro-
each organizational level of the PAF are presented
priate direction or intervention as needed (e.g.,
here.
Pearce & Larson, 2006).
Physical Environment Considering the physical, cognitive, social, and
affective processes that contribute to skill acquisi-
At the broadest level of influence, the physical con- tion in sport, a setting that provides opportunities
text sets the stage for performance, participation, for skill building should involve exposure to learn-
and personal development. The National Resource ing conditions that support physical, intellectual,
Council and Institute of Medicine (NRCIM, 2002) psychological, emotional, and social skills (NRCIM,
outlines eight features of settings that develop 2002). An environment that fosters holistic devel-
positive assets in youth and cultivate interest in opment empowers youth with the tools to pursue
an activity. Of these features, four pertain to the a wide array of physical pursuits with confidence
physical environment: and competence. Lastly, the call to integrate family,
• Physical and psychological safety school, and community efforts has been echoed in
the literature surrounding skill acquisition (Côté
• Appropriate structure
& Abernethy, 2012), athlete development (Côté
• Opportunities for skill building & Fraser-Thomas, 2016), and policies for youth
• Integration of family, school, and community development (Lerner et al., 2000; NRCIM, 2002). To
efforts endorse a culture that facilitates long-term engage-
ment in physical activity and sport, characterized are fostered though a warm social climate that
by lifelong participation, personal development, promotes love and caring, positive social norms
and performance, consistent understanding and and values, secure and supportive relationships,
collaboration is necessary among key stakeholders and opportunities for friendship and belonging. In
in this domain. line with attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969), secure,
If the physical environment plays an important meaningful connections with others may facilitate
role in triggering and maintaining situational inter- exploration and experimentation, leading to the
est, one final setting feature is recommended—the discovery of new interests and capacities. Further-
capacity for stimulation and personal relevance. To more, the development of interest, particularly
trigger initial interest, sustain situational interest, in the early stages, is often contingent on social
and work toward an emerging individual inter- encouragement and support (Hidi & Renninger,
est, the environment must stimulate enjoyment 2006). Research in youth development has also
and positive affect, while also offering personal shown that working toward a collective goal or
meaning and relevance (Hidi & Renninger, 2006; cause can foster intrinsically motivated behaviors,
Renninger & Hidi, 2011). Environments can stimu- even when these actions are initially engaged for
late interest and encourage personal relevance by extrinsic reasons (Pearce & Larson, 2006). Second,
offering opportunities to engage in diverse activi- social environments that adopt mastery motiva-
ties, interactions, and roles, all while maintaining tional or multiple-goal approaches to skill develop-
a sense of autonomy and freedom to explore the ment and provide appropriate support for efficacy
sport setting safely. and mattering may fulfill the need for competence
and confidence. Several researchers have noted the
Relationships benefits of a mastery approach, alone or in com-
A social environment that offers the following bination with performance-approach goals in the
characteristics has been shown to foster optimal youth sport and physical education contexts (e.g.,
developmental experiences for youth (Lerner et al., Fox, Goudas, Biddle, Duda, & Armstrong, 1994;
2000; NRCIM, 2002): Hodge & Petlichkoff, 2000; Walling & Duda, 1995).
Sport practitioners need to understand optimal goal
• Loving and caring climate orientations and climates for success, which may be
• Supportive adult relationships individually or context specific (Harwood, 2002).
• Opportunities for belonging Considering the role of the coach, positive
reinforcement and instructional support during
• Positive social norms and values learning is important for youth to feel capable and
• Support for efficacy, mattering, and self- effective (e.g., Smith et al., 2007; Smoll et al., 2007).
esteem Similarly, the degree to which coaches’ behavior
provides support for athletes’ functioning as auton-
Additionally, research in education and youth omous individuals is known to be a key contributor
sport consistently points to the importance of a to motivation and positive athlete experiences (see
mastery motivational climate (e.g., Ames, 1992; review by Ntoumanis, 2012). For example, percep-
Smith, Smoll, & Cumming, 2007; Smoll et al., 2007) tions of more autonomy-supportive coach behavior
and, more recently, a multiple-goals approach have been associated with positive athlete outcomes
(e.g., Harackiewicz et al., 2002; Harwood, 2002; such as well-being (Adie, Duda, Ntoumanis, 2012)
Hulleman et al., 2008). One final feature, auton- and initiative and identity reflection (Coatsworth
omy-supportive relationships, also contributes to & Conroy, 2009).
self-determined motivation and enhanced well-be- All in all, the essential elements of relationships,
ing in sport (e.g., Adie, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2008; including those with coaches, parents, and peers,
Smith, Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2007). form a strong support network for the fulfillment
On the whole, each of these relationship features of athletes’ personal assets. Quality relationships in
contributes to the fulfillment of basic needs in SDT the youth sport environment contribute to interest
or personal assets such as connection, competence, and motivation to invest further in a talent devel-
confidence, and character. When basic psycholog- opment pathway.
ical needs or personal assets are the focus of sport
programs, interest is deepened and motivation
is increasingly self-determined (Hidi, 2000); as a
Personal Engagement in Activities
result, psychological engagement is more likely to To achieve long-term positive outcomes in sport
occur. First, connection and character development (Côté et al., 2014), the DMSP suggests that
• diversity should precede specialization in (e.g., studying psychological processes and social
sport, experiences that influence engagement in sport
• play and practice activities should be bal- over time).
anced, and Although the theoretical and conceptual frame-
works described in this chapter reflect attempts
• a mixture of adult-led and youth-led activities
to explore these questions, existing sport devel-
should be included.
opment research nevertheless faces challenges.
Through each of these processes, youth are afforded Further development of theory is vital. Whereas
opportunities to explore their options, discover what the breadth of many existing frameworks, such as
they like and what they are good at, and develop a the DMSP and PAF, describe how people, places,
range of competencies that enable engagement in a and activities shape talent development, they are
variety of physical pursuits, ultimately contributing at times limited by the extent to which they can be
to talent development. Furthermore, activities that evaluated and tested as theory (e.g., falsifiability,
focus on the personal assets of the athletes are generality, precision, refutability; Gawronski &
more likely to promote interest, motivation, and Bodenhausen, 2015). As such, by applying theories
continued engagement in physical activity and (e.g., interest development) that are consistent
sport. While participating, youth should feel that with these broad frameworks, researchers have a
structure to guide them as they develop and test
• they are capable and effective (e.g., compe- hypotheses about talent development. Although
tence and confidence), this approach may involve adapting existing
• they are working toward a collective cause or models, sport researchers should also seek oppor-
are connected with others (e.g., connection), tunities to develop unique theories to apply within
and talent development.
• their sport participation is governed by moral Even when equipped with these novel theoretical
behaviors that include courage, honesty, and and conceptual frameworks, talent development
empathy (e.g., character). researchers should capitalize on opportunities to
conduct work that expands across the “silos” of
Following from the collaborative tenets set out by sport science. As an example, whereas applied
the DMSP and PAF, one additional element is pro- practitioners who work within elite sport orga-
posed: To trigger and maintain interest, activities nizations often collaborate as integrated service
must be stimulating and personally relevant (Hidi teams (e.g., medical doctors, physiologists, mental
& Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011). Alto- trainers, chiropractors; Theberge, 2008), talent
gether, personal engagement in activities that reflect development researchers are often constrained
these essential elements will promote a holistic to their own unique domains and do not adopt
approach to talent development. integrated research agendas (Phillips, Davids, Ren-
shaw, & Portus, 2010). Phillips et al. (2010) notably
argued that opportunities are available not only
Future Research to link a wider range of concepts when adopting
Recommendations an integrated approach to development (e.g., phys-
iological indices of stress, developmental stage,
Based on the research reviewed in earlier sections of motor performance, physical strength and fitness
this chapter, clear and expanding evidence supports indices) but also to develop multidisciplinary theo-
the belief that talent development is much more retical rationale. By pairing psychological concepts
than skill acquisition. Whereas physical skills and such as interest with concepts that typically reside
capabilities are often considered within definitions in other domains, such as developmental stages
of talent, an array of personal, psychological, and related to motor skill acquisition, talent devel-
social forces interact to shape development in sport opment researchers can extend the relevance of
(Henriksen, Stambulova, & Roessler, 2010, 2011). psychological concepts and apply them to improve
Talent research in sport psychology has emerged sport systems.
over time from a focus on understanding how tal- Interest development offers opportunities to
ented people are unique (e.g., Abernethy, 1990) to shape questions asked by sport researchers. For
an emphasis on integrating the broader psycholog- example, researchers applying this perspective may
ical dimensions of the talent development process ask questions like the following:
• Are unique coaching or parenting approaches different points in time during development and
necessary according to unique phases of inter- explore whether specific network compositions or
est development? patterns of change link to personal development
• Can interest be contagious, whereby athletes and interest in sport. Another opportunity lies in
with well-developed interest influence the the further development of qualitative approaches:
peers surrounding them? Case study research provides a notable opportunity
to study the complexity inherent in sport devel-
To advance toward research that explores ques- opment. Relating to talent development in sport
tions of interest development in sport, we present clubs, Henriksen et al. (e.g., 2010, 2011) conducted
three recommendations: several case studies with recognized national and
international sport clubs. Adopting an ecologi-
1. Develop sport-specific measurement tools. cal approach, the authors not only detailed the
2. Adopt unique quantitative and qualitative nature of the organizational culture surrounding
approaches. each sport club but also identified notable social
3. Use available knowledge translation strategies and contextual characteristics of these successful
to ensure that research can be adapted by programs (e.g., importance of group environment,
youth sport organizations worldwide. connections with broader schools and communi-
ties). As another example of case study research,
First, when adapting developmental theories Balish and Côté (2014) examined talent develop-
from other fields, researchers need to consider the ment within a small Canadian sport community
unique micro- and macro environment of youth and reflected on characteristics of the community,
sport and the way in which that environment sport activities, and culture that shaped ath-
changes from early childhood to late adolescence. letes’ experiences in sport. The growing body of
For example, sport is often designed so that training knowledge emanating from case study research
is structured and guided by adults, which may pose in sport collectively serves to inform our evolving
unique challenges for developing autonomy through understanding of the processes underpinning the
the initials phases of interest development. With development of talent across the lifecycle.
this in mind, the use of novel theoretical frame- Finally, a vital future direction involves ensur-
works from other research areas necessitates the ing that contemporary findings involving talent
development of sport-specific measurement tools. development in sport have the opportunity to have
For example, although the theory and existing a direct positive influence on the development of
measures to explore the interest construct were young athletes. When considering the numerous
developed in domains such as education (e.g., Hidi domains of applied health research, established
& Renninger, 2006), the relevance of this theory in strategies are in place for designing research and
the sport context must be evaluated. Subsequently, implementing interventions in ways that facili-
the development and validation of a tool to assess tate optimal uptake. As one example, translation
athletes’ interest development in sport is an import- research may help identify a broader scope of
ant next step. realms through which talent development could be
Second, the integration of new methodologies effectively shaped. Notably, whereas approaches to
represents an important area for future research. translate sport findings often include interventions
As was evidenced by the influence of research with coaches (e.g., Smith & Smoll, 2007) or sport
involving-large scale and publicly available data for programs designed for youth (e.g., Brunelle, Danish,
studying relative age and birthplace effects (e.g., & Forneris, 2007), research from a broader range of
MacDonald, Cheung, Côté, & Abernethy, 2009), health domains reveals that a much wider assort-
new methodological approaches have the oppor- ment of opportunities can influence talent devel-
tunity to redefine how development is studied. opment (e.g., legislation, marketing, guidelines;
Regarding quantitative approaches, social network Michie, van Stralen, & West, 2011). On the other
analysis provides novel theories, methods, and hand, translation research could also inform how
analyses that could advance our understanding of individual interventions are designed to ensure that
the talent lifecycle (see Borgatti, Mehra, Brass, & they are not only effective but also reach important
Labianca, 2009). As an example of its potential use, populations and can be implemented and adopted
researchers could adopt personal social network over time by targeted sport organizations (e.g.,
designs to construct social networks of athletes at Evans, McGuckin, Gainforth, Bruner, & Côté, 2015).
Summary Baker, J., & Farrow, D. (Eds.) (2016). The handbook of

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26
Positive Youth
Development
Through
Physical Activity
Progress, Puzzles, and Promise
Maureen R. Weiss, PhD
Abstract
The positive youth development (PYD) framework has gathered tremendous momentum
over the last decade. In addition to the appeal of this framework for educational and
peer contexts, sports and physical activities offer promising school- and community-based
settings for enhancing positive youth outcomes. The empirical research on PYD through
physical activity has progressed measurably over the past decade, revealing participants’
perceptions of their experiences on life skills learning and psychosocial and behavioral
outcomes. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive look at research
and application of PYD in physical activity contexts. I begin by providing a historical
reflection on sport as a context for promoting youth development. Second, I review the
theoretical underpinnings of the PYD approach and translation to physical activity
contexts. Third, I synthesize and consolidate the research on PYD through physical
activity—progress made using qualitative, correlational, intervention, and evaluation
designs. Fourth, I describe three exemplar physical-activity-based PYD programs, includ-
ing their social-contextual features and targeted outcomes that are compatible with the
PYD framework. Finally, based on the review of empirical research I address puzzles and
promise—measurement, developmental, and conceptual issues that may be essential
for advancing the knowledge base in PYD through physical activity.
483
484 Weiss
I
n the past decade, physical activity researchers issues (puzzles) that emerge in existing PA-PYD
have embraced the positive youth development research and discuss how these might be addressed
(PYD) framework to understand the multitude of in future research studies (promise). I conclude by
social and environmental factors that promote desir- suggesting that academics can contribute meaning-
able attributes, characteristics, and skills, while fully to PA-PYD by collaborating with community
at the same time preventing unhealthy behaviors organizations to provide evidence-based best prac-
(e.g., Gould & Carson, 2008; Petitpas, Cornelius, Van tices that will benefit youth participants in physical
Raalte, & Jones, 2005; Weiss, Kipp, & Bolter, 2012). activity contexts and beyond.
Positive youth development refers to the acquisition
of physical, social, and psychological competencies
and attributes that enable children and adolescents Historical Foundations of PYD
to navigate life experiences in multiple domains
(e.g., home, school). Learning and mastering com-
in Youth Sport Psychology
petencies or life skills, in turn, provide youth with Youth sport as a context of academic research
the ability to make informed choices, demonstrate emerged in the early 1900s and escalated in empir-
adaptive behaviors, attain healthy outcomes, ical inquiry in the 1960s and 1970s (Weiss & Gill,
and evolve into contributing citizens. Given the 2005). The explosion of interest in the benefits of
longstanding belief that sport participation holds sport participation appeared concurrently with
potential for promoting positive youth outcomes concerns about increased emphasis on competition
(Wiggins, 2013), it is not surprising that sports and and winning and negative coaches’ and parents’
physical activities are seen as a context in which behaviors. Early descriptive studies gave way to
positive youth development can be fostered. theory-driven inquiries of sport participation as
In this chapter, I use physical activity as an a source of improving self-perceptions, social
inclusive, overarching term for the many structured relationships, motivation, and moral development
contexts in which children and youth engage (Weiss (Horn, 2004a, 2004b; Weiss, Amorose, & Kipp,
& Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009). These contexts include, 2012). Social-cognitive theories guided the majority
for example, organized sport, after-school commu- of studies, but these were not dubbed as positive
nity programs, motor skill programs, recreational youth development in orientation. Yet knowledge
activities, school physical education, and dance. gained from these studies identified key social and
Thus, I will primarily use the term physical activ- environmental factors that are associated with psy-
ity in my review and include studies conducted in chological well-being among youth (Horn, 2004a;
organized youth sport as well as broader physical Weiss, Kipp, & Bolter, 2012). For example, findings
activity–oriented programs. Although a body of consistently showed that coaches who provide
knowledge has been developed on PYD in physical positive informational feedback, demonstrate an
education settings, I will not cover this research but autonomy-supportive style, and create a mastery
refer interested readers to publications that include motivational climate are associated with youth
this context as a source of PYD (e.g., Hellison, 2003; participants who report favorable self-perceptions,
Weiss, 2011; Weiss, Kipp, & Bolter, 2012). emotions, and motivational orientations and behav-
I provide a comprehensive review of the PYD iors (Amorose, 2007; Horn, 2008). These types of
framework as it applies to physical activity con- coaching behaviors and climates are compatible
texts. First, I situate PYD within the historical with social-contextual features of effective PYD
context of longstanding youth sport psychology programs.
research, demonstrating that PYD concepts and A specific interest in developmental sport psy-
processes were evident early on. Second, I describe chology emerged in the 1980s, as researchers began
how systems theories undergird approaches to using an approach that emphasized children’s
PYD and describe multiple conceptualizations of cognitive, social, physical, and emotional maturity
PYD by key developmental psychologists. Third, I when asking research questions and designing
synthesize empirical research on PYD in physical studies (Duda, 1987; Garcia Bengoechea, 2002;
activity contexts, indicating progress in qualitative, Horn, 2004a; Weiss, 2004; Weiss & Bredemeier,
correlational, intervention, and evaluation studies. 1983). Specifically, participants in these studies
Fourth, I describe exemplar physical activity–based were selected based on cognitive- or physical-devel-
PYD (PA-PYD) programs that feature requisite opmental level (e.g., Fry & Duda, 1997; A.L. Smith,
components that justify being labeled as a youth 1999), thus allowing the testing and application of
development program. Finally, I identify critical theory. Integration of developmental theory and
Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity 485
research marked a shift from primarily descriptive ory (see Agans et al., 2016) offer a comprehensive
to more frequent experimental studies that resulted way of considering the array of personal and
in identifying processes and mechanisms influenc- contextual assets that influence PYD throughout
ing psychosocial outcomes (e.g., Gibbons, Ebbeck, & the lifespan. In the ecological systems model, the
Weiss, 1995; Smoll, Smith, Barnett, & Everett, 1993; systems that influence and interact with human
Theeboom, De Knop, & Weiss, 1995). development are portrayed in increasingly proximal
In summary, youth sport psychology studies to distal layers in relation to the individual, includ-
conducted in earlier decades were not specifically ing the microsystem (e.g., parents, peers, teachers),
labeled as positive youth development, but they mesosystem (interactions among individuals in the
certainly qualify for this designation given the microsystem), exosystem (e.g., community orga-
valuable information provided on social and envi- nizations, policy makers), and macrosystem (e.g.,
ronmental factors that influence positive outcomes. cultural attitudes and ideologies of the community
Thus, I identify this early research as the first or society. The final system undergirding all layers
wave of PA-PYD work, because it is important to is the chronosystem, signifying change in environ-
recognize the decades of youth sport research that mental events and transitions across the life span.
offer a prelude to present-day PA-PYD research. I This latter system emphasizes a developmental lens;
elaborate on these historical beginnings of PA-PYD interactions among systems and the individual vary
research (Weiss, 2016) as well as how past and as a result of cognitive and physical maturation and
present youth sport psychology research maps onto social experiences.
the PYD framework (Weiss, Kipp, & Bolter, 2012). In The ecological systems model has been an
doing so, my intent is to accentuate the important appealing way of situating dynamic relationships
contributions of early sport science researchers in among a multitude of social and contextual factors
launching a field of inquiry on physical activity as that relate to youth development through physical
a context for promoting youth development. activity (Dzewaltowski, 2008; Garcia Bengoechea,
2002; Garcia Bengoechea & Johnson, 2001; Strachan
et al., 2016). This heuristic and enduring model is
Theoretical Perspectives inclusive of the many direct, indirect, and bidirec-
Underlying tional social, environmental, and cultural factors
influencing youths’ attitudes and behaviors, and the
the PYD Framework dynamic changes over time in youth development
as a function of sociocultural and life transitions.
Positive youth development is a worldview that rep- Emanating from a systems approach, develop-
resents a shift in focus on treating and preventing mental psychologists have conceptualized PYD
undesirable behaviors to nurturing and promoting in unique ways. Benson (2006) coined the term
desirable behaviors in youth, enabling them to developmental assets and specified 20 internal
successfully function and thrive in many contexts assets (e.g., school engagement, interpersonal
(e.g., Catalano et al., 2004; Damon, 2004; Larson, competence) and 20 external assets (e.g., family
2000; Lerner & Lerner, 2006). The PYD framework support, positive peer influence) that promote
acknowledges the many social, environmental, healthy and prevent risky behaviors. Larson
and cultural factors that influence—and are influ- (Larson, Hansen, & Moneta, 2006) labeled assets
enced by—a person’s attitudes, beliefs, and behav- as growth or developmental experiences, including
iors from childhood through adulthood. Positive personal (e.g., initiative, goal setting) and inter-
youth development occurs when young people personal (e.g., prosocial norms, leadership skills).
experience opportunities to develop behavioral Lerner’s Five Cs framework has been widely applied
and psychosocial competencies (i.e., life skills) in physical activity research and includes assets of
through supportive interactions and relationships competence, confidence, connection, caring, and
with important others in family, peer, school, and character (Lerner, Almerigi, Theokas, & Lerner,
community settings. 2005); a sixth C, contribution (to community and
Because the PYD approach emphasizes dynamic society), is attainable upon mastering the Five Cs.
interactions and bidirectional influences between These theorists and their customized frameworks
people and the social, environmental, and cultural inspired and advanced PYD research in multiple
contexts in which they live, ecological systems social contexts, including sport and physical activ-
theory (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998) and the ity (see Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin, 2005; Weiss,
recent relational-developmental-systems metathe- Kipp, & Bolter, 2012).
486 Weiss
According to the PYD approach (Catalano et al., • Ensuring supportive and trusting social rela-
2004; Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Lerner & Lerner, tionships
2006; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003), effective youth • Implementing activities to improve physical
development occurs when programs provide for and and psychosocial life skills within a caring
youth participants experience and mastery-oriented climate
• opportunities to engage in skill-building
activities; Progress in Applying PYD to
• supportive adult and peer relationships, and
• a climate that emphasizes learning, mastery,
the Physical Activity Domain
and autonomy support. In 2005 Petitpas and his colleagues integrated con-
cepts of PYD from the developmental psychology
Eccles and Gootman (2002) elaborate on the literature to customize a framework for enhancing
social-environmental components of youth pro- psychosocial development in sport contexts. They
grams that optimize attainment of personal assets state,
(see table 26.1 for a listing of these contextual fea-
tures, including definitions and examples). Youth sport programs that promote psychoso-
Collectively, best practices for PA-PYD programs cial development are those that use sport as
include a number of key features to attain positive a vehicle to provide experiences that promote
youth outcomes: self-discovery and teach participants life skills in
an intentional and systematic manner . . . these
• Explicitly targeting personal competencies programs have clearly defined goals and strate-
or life skills gies to enhance the generalizability and transfer
of life skills to other important life domains.
• Creating an intentional curriculum of skill
building opportunities Petitpas, 2005, p. 66
• Training adult leaders to deliver the curricu- Their framework for planning, implementing, and
lum as intended evaluating youth sport programs accentuates efforts
Table 26.1 Contextual Features of Effective PYD Programs

Feature Definition and examples
Physical and psychological safety • Provides secure and health-promoting facilities and practices
• Allows for safe and appropriate peer interactions
• Discourages unsafe health practices and negative social interactions
Appropriate structure • Provides clear, appropriate, and consistent rules and expectations
• Provides adult supervision, guidance, and age-appropriate monitoring
• Structural characteristics occur in a social atmosphere where clear boundaries are known and respected
Supportive relationships • Offers opportunities to form adult and peer relationships that are warm, close, caring, and respectful
• Guidance and support from adults is available, appropriate, and predictable
Opportunities to belong • Emphasizes inclusion of all members, regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, culture, and ability
• Maintains a social environment that appreciates and encourages individual differences
Positive social norms • Maintains expectations for socially appropriate behavior
• Encourages desirable values and morals
Support for efficacy and mattering • Allows for and supports autonomy
• Values individual expression and opinions
• Focuses on individual improvement, not absolute performance
• Enables individuals to accept challenging responsibilities and carry out actions aimed at making a differ-
ence
Opportunities for skill building • Offers opportunities to learn and improve physical, intellectual, psychological, emotional, and social skills
that enhance well-being
• Prepares individuals for competent and healthy functioning in the future
Integration of family, school, and • Provides opportunities for experiences that integrate transactions among family, school, and community
community efforts
Adapted from Eccles and Gootman (2002).
to facilitate transfer of learned skills from the sport level, and physical health as an important goal
context to other domains and includes four partic- of PA-PYD programs. Given currently high levels
ular PYD-related elements: of physical inactivity and obesity among youth,
leveraging PA-PYD programs to make a significant
• Context: Youth are engaged in an intrinsically impact on physical activity levels and subsequent
motivating and optimally challenging activity health benefits is a critical area to consider for
that has clear goals, allows them to feel valued future research (Dzewaltowski & Rosenkranz, 2014;
within the group, and is conducted within a Weiss, 2013).
psychologically safe environment. Following publication of the PYD framework in
• External assets: Youth learn from and estab- the general psychology literature (e.g., Larson, 2000)
lish close relationships with caring and com- as well as in its application to sport (Petitpas et al.,
passionate adult and peer mentors, benefit 2005), several conceptual articles addressed the sig-
from parental monitoring and involvement, nificance of PYD to physical activity contexts (e.g.,
and have community service opportunities in Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005; Gould & Carson, 2008;
which they can demonstrate leadership and Weiss & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009). A flurry of research
help others. studies was published over the next decade. In the
• Internal assets: Youth learn life skills and following sections, I synthesize and consolidate
strategies for generalizing these skills to other PA-PYD studies based on qualitative, correlational,
domains, such as goal setting, problem solv- intervention, and evaluation designs.
ing, and self-regulation.
• Research and evaluation: Programs are Qualitative Studies
assessed for effectiveness, including out-
comes, processes, and implementation fidelity. Early studies entailed interviews with adolescent
athletes about perceptions of life skills learning
Petitpas et al.’s (2005) article was influential to and developmental outcomes through sport par-
the youth sport psychology field because it laid the ticipation (e.g., Camiré, Trudel, & Forneris, 2009a;
foundation for applying PYD to the physical domain. Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2009; Holt, Tink, Mandigo,
It also inspired sport science researchers to situate & Fox, 2008). Holt et al. (2008) explored social and
youth sport research within the PYD framework, contextual influences on soccer players’ concep-
identify gaps in the literature, and offer practical tions of life skills learning through high school
applications for school and community programs experiences. Fieldwork included observations of
(Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005; Gould & Carson, 2008; practices and games, inspection of school policy
Weiss, 2008; Weiss & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009). documents, and interviews of the head coach and
As noted earlier, a relatively broad base of players. These multiple methods revealed both
research in youth sport psychology has focused on distal (e.g., national and provincial policies) and
PYD-related concepts. In 2012 Weiss and colleagues proximal (coach’s philosophy) influences on ath-
comprehensively reviewed this research based on letes’ perceptions of learning initiative, respect,
developmentally appropriate theories (e.g., self-de- and leadership through soccer.
termination theory, competence motivation theory, Parallel to interview studies with athletes were
achievement goal theory) and organized studies interviews conducted with youth sport and high
using Lerner’s Five Cs framework of competence, school coaches (e.g., Falcão, Bloom, & Gilbert, 2012;
confidence, connection, character, and caring. Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007; Trottier &
Research on social assets included relationships Robitaille, 2014; Vella, Oades, & Crowe, 2011). In
(parents, peers, coaches), interpersonal compe- some studies, researchers questioned coaches about
tencies (e.g., peer acceptance, leadership skills), their philosophy of teaching life skills and strategies
and moral development (e.g., prosocial behaviors, for facilitating youth development. In other studies,
social responsibility). Psychological assets included coaches were interviewed about perceptions of
self-perceptions (e.g., global self-worth, perceived participating in a coach training program designed
physical competence), emotions (enjoyment, anx- to help them promote positive youth outcomes.
iety), and motivational orientations and behaviors Whereas Camiré (Camiré, Trudel, & Forneris, 2009a,
(e.g., self-determined participation). Weiss et al. 2009b, 2014) separately reported athlete, coach, and
also emphasized physical assets, such as motor skill parent perspectives of high school sport as a means
development, sport-specific skills, physical activity of promoting PYD, other researchers included some
488 Weiss
combination of athletes, coaches, parents, admin- Correlational studies have contributed to our
istrators, and academics within the same study to understanding of associations between social-en-
inform conceptions of teaching life skills (Camiré, vironmental variables (e.g., coaching behaviors,
Trudel, & Bernard, 2013; Johnston, Harwood, & motivational climate) and youth outcomes (e.g., goal
Minniti, 2013; Jones & Lavallee, 2009). setting, emotion regulation). Experimental designs
Qualitative methods, notably group or individual used in intervention studies can uncover causal
interviews, have been predominant in pursuing relationships and reveal mediating and moderating
how life skills are taught and the degree to which variables that might explain associations between
stakeholders converge in perceptions of life skills social-contextual aspects and PYD outcomes.
learning. Most studies employed small samples
within a specific context (e.g., swim club, high Intervention Studies
school), and variations abound in sport and team
demographics. I now turn to studies using quanti- Intervention studies have become more frequent in
tative methods to test hypotheses stemming from recent years. Earlier inquiries were characterized
the PYD approach. by short-term exposure, small samples, and limited
outcomes (e.g., Brunelle, Danish, & Forneris, 2007;
Harwood, 2008; Papacharisis, Goudas, Danish, &
Correlational Studies Theodorakis, 2005). In interrelated articles, Coats-
Several PA-PYD studies employed correlational worth and Conroy (2006, 2009; Conroy & Coats-
designs using survey methods to assess relation- worth, 2006, 2007) investigated the effect of a coach
ships among social-environmental attributes and training program on improving psychosocial out-
psychosocial outcomes. For example, Strachan, comes among 7- to 18-year-old youth participating
Côté, and Deakin (2009a, 2009b) surveyed adoles- in a 7-week swim season. In one study (Coatsworth
cent participants and examined (a) relationships & Conroy, 2006), coaches in the experimental group
among developmental assets (external and internal) attended a 2-hr cognitive-behavioral training pro-
and burnout and enjoyment, and (b) differences gram that imparted strategies for promoting positive
between sport specializers and sport samplers on outcomes using protocols similar to those of Smith
developmental assets, burnout, and enjoyment. and Smoll (2007) in their longstanding research
Similarly, Gould and colleagues (Gould & Carson, on coach effectiveness training. The control group
2011; Gould, Flett, & Lauer, 2012) administered attended a 2-hr workshop on injury prevention
surveys to adolescent athletes and assessed rela- and first aid. Younger boys and girls (11 years old
tionships among perceived coaching behaviors, and younger) who swam for intervention coaches
motivational climate, and developmental outcomes. showed the greatest season-long improvements in
In another set of companion studies, Gano-Over- global self-esteem. In another aspect of the project,
way, Fry, and colleagues (Fry et al., 2012; Gano-Over- Coatsworth and Conroy (2009) found that coach
way et al., 2009) investigated relationships among autonomy support, psychological need satisfaction,
PYD variables with 9- to 16-year-old low-income and self-perceptions were predictive of PYD out-
youth attending a sport camp designed to promote comes of identity and initiative.
physical, social, and academic skills. Findings More recent intervention studies targeted samples
revealed that a climate created by caring and com- of underserved, vulnerable, and ethnically diverse
passionate instructors was meaningfully related participants. Bruening and colleagues (Bruening,
to young people’s confidence in managing positive Dover, & Clark, 2009; Fuller, Percy, Bruening, &
and negative emotions and expressing empathy, Cotrufo, 2013) implemented a 6-month after-school
which in turn were associated with more frequent PA-PYD program with youth of color in a high-pov-
helping behaviors and favorable perceptions of hope erty, health-risky urban setting. Program impact
and happiness. Bruner and colleagues (Bruner, was assessed for small samples of 9- to 13-year-old
Eys, Wilson, & Côté, 2014; Taylor & Bruner, 2012) girls (Bruening et al., 2009) and 10- to 14-year-old
assessed the relationship between adolescent ath- boys (Fuller et al., 2013) using interviews with
letes’ perceptions of team cohesion and personal participants and parents. Improvements emerged
assets and found that task or social cohesion was for physical and social competence, self-worth,
significantly related to perceived social skills. Many responsibility, sense of belonging, and acquisition
other studies using correlational designs are evident of life skills. Program components associated with
in the literature. positive change included life skills programming,
relationships with mentors, and opportunities to and global self-worth at postprogram assessment
learn in a psychologically safe environment. in the previous year.
Similarly, Anderson-Butcher and colleagues Armour and Sandford (2013; Armour, Sand-
(Anderson-Butcher et al., 2013; Anderson-Butcher, ford, & Duncombe, 2013; Sandford, Duncombe, &
Riley, Amorose, Iachini, & Wade-Mdivanian, 2014; Armour, 2008) conducted a longitudinal evaluation
Riley & Anderson-Butcher, 2012; Riley et al., 2017) of two national PA-PYD programs in the United
assessed the effect of Learning in Fitness and Kingdom. Teachers identified disengaged adoles-
Education (LiFE) Sports Camp, a 19-day universi- cents who might benefit from a program designed
ty-sponsored PA-PYD program designed to enhance to promote team building, communication, and
social and psychological assets among 9- to 16-year- responsibility skills. A mixed-methods approach
old low-income youth of color. Significant pre- to included interviews with and surveys completed by
postintervention improvement emerged for social students, mentors, and school staff; field notes from
responsibility, social competence, and emotion observations of participants; and reflective journals
management. Positive outcomes were associated by students and mentors. Most youth improved in
with effective adult counselors, opportunities to confidence, communication, teamwork, and social
learn life skills, and favorable peer interactions. responsibility over the 1-year intervention and
Many PA-PYD intervention studies employed retained this improvement 2 years later. Caring
pre–post only designs with no control or com- and supportive mentor–youth relationships were
parison group. Thus, definitive conclusions about attributed for the positive outcomes.
program effectiveness in promoting PYD cannot be
made. A longitudinal component tracking whether
improvements from pre- to postintervention are Exemplar PA-PYD Programs
retained at a later time would strengthen evidence
In this section, I highlight three national PA-PYD
of effectiveness.
organizations or programs that include essential
features that define the PYD approach:
Evaluation Studies
• A caring and mastery motivational climate
In recent years, studies have been designed to • Supportive and trusting relationships
evaluate the effectiveness of existing PA-PYD pro-
• An intentional curriculum of skill-building
grams in achieving desirable outcomes in youth.
opportunities
In a series of interrelated papers, Ullrich-French
and colleagues evaluated the effect of a universi- • Evaluation research to assess program effec-
ty-sponsored program that used physical activity tiveness
as a vehicle for improving social and psycholog-
These PA-PYD programs are Teaching Personal and
ical outcomes among 9- to 16-year-old low-in-
Social Responsibility (www.tpsr.org), The First Tee
come youth (McDonough, Ullrich-French, Ander-
(www.thefirsttee.org), and Girls on the Run (www
son-Butcher, Amorose, & Riley, 2013; Ullrich-French
.girlsontherun.org).
& McDonough, 2013; Ullrich-French, McDonough, &
Smith, 2012). The program was implemented daily
for four weeks and entailed Teaching Personal and Social
• intentional lesson planning to improve aca- Responsibility
demic, social, and physical skills; I consider Don Hellison a visionary when it comes to
• staff training on program goals and teaching PYD through physical activity. He was implement-
strategies; and ing a systematic approach using physical activity as
• emphasis on supportive relationships with a medium to empower youth and promote personal
adult leaders and peers. assets long before the PYD movement caught on
with sport science researchers. As a physical edu-
Findings revealed that perceived social competence cator working with students and training teachers
and global and physical self-perceptions increased in urban areas of Portland, Oregon, and Chicago,
from pre- to postprogram assessment. Youth who Illinois, Hellison (1995, 2003, 2011; Hellison et al.,
returned the following year, compared with those 2000) created Teaching Personal and Social Respon-
who did not return, reported higher leader support sibility (TPSR), a youth development approach to
490 Weiss
promote prosocial values, social skills, and resil- intentional life skills curriculum (internal assets)
iency. The framework has been applied in a variety to achieve positive psychosocial and behavioral
of physical activity settings (e.g., school physical outcomes. Positive youth development is the result
education, after-school programs) with youth from of integrating context, external assets, and internal
diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic back- assets, and is represented by The First Tee nine core
grounds. The program includes trained teachers values—honesty, integrity, respect, responsibility,
who provide a mastery-oriented and caring climate, courtesy, sportsmanship, confidence, judgment,
engage in autonomy-supportive behaviors, and bal- and perseverance. Table 26.3 provides a summary
ance empowering students with teaching explicit of the coaching philosophy, life skills curriculum,
values to optimize opportunities for thriving. Table and targeted developmental outcomes.
26.2 displays a summary of program goals, curric- Weiss and colleagues provided evidence of
ular activities, and teacher strategies. program effectiveness in a series of three studies
Peer-reviewed evaluation studies of program (Weiss, Bolter, & Kipp, 2014, 2016; Weiss et al.,
impact include Hellison and Walsh (2002), Hell- 2013). For example, Weiss and colleagues (2016)
ison and Wright (2003), Walsh (2008a, 2008b), compared participants in The First Tee to youth in
Walsh, Ozaeta, and Wright (2010), and Wright and other organized activities and found that youth in
Burton (2008). Walsh et al. (2010) implemented a The First Tee scored favorably on the majority of life
once-weekly, 2-year after-school program for under- skills and developmental outcomes. In a longitudi-
served youth of color. Qualitative analysis of youth nal component, they found that a sample of youth
and instructor interviews and reflective journals in The First Tee showed stable or improved scores
revealed that youth were successful in transferring over three years on self-reported ability to transfer
TPSR goals to the school environment, providing life skills learned in The First Tee to other situations.
evidence of program impact. Findings from this line of research show that The
First Tee is having a positive impact in teaching life
The First Tee skills and improving developmental outcomes, such
as confidence, respect, and regulation of emotions.
The First Tee is a PA-PYD program whose mis-
sion is “to impact the lives of young people by
providing educational programs that build char-
Girls on the Run
acter, instill life-enhancing values, and promote Girls on the Run is a PA-PYD program designed to
healthy choices through the game of golf” (www. develop and enhance girls’ social, psychological,
thefirsttee.org). The program uses golf as a moti- and physical competencies to navigate life experi-
vating context in which life skills are taught and ences successfully. The program uses running and
developmental outcomes are promoted. Over 220 other physical activities as a platform for teaching
chapters serve diverse populations in urban, sub- life skills and developing holistic health outcomes in
urban, and rural settings. The program relies on preadolescent (grades 3 through 5) and adolescent
coaches, peer mentors, and community volunteers girls (grades 6 through 8). The mission, “We inspire
as external assets, with systematic coach training girls to be joyful, healthy and confident using a
to develop supportive relationships and deliver the fun, experience-based curriculum which creatively
Table 26.2 Components of the TPSR Model

Goals: five levels of responsibility Curricular activities Teacher strategies
1. Respect for the rights and feelings of others (self-control, includ- Integrate physical activity and life skills Awareness talks
ing others, resolving conflicts in a mutually beneficial way) within the same lesson
2. Effort (self-motivation, on-task persistence) Facilitate transfer of life skills to other Direct instruction
domains (school, home, neighborhood)
3. Self-direction (working independently, goal setting, courage to Shift responsibility from the teacher to Individual decision making
resist peer pressure) the students themselves
4. Helping others and leadership (caring, compassion, and sensi- Build trusting, respectful relationships Group evaluation meetings
tivity) among instructors and students
5. Outside the gym (generalizing personal and social skills to other Build trusting, respectful relationships Reflection time
domains) among the students themselves
integrates running,” is accompanied by a vision ture physical, emotional, and spiritual health; to lead
that “every girl knows and activates her limitless with an open heart and assume positive intent; and to
potential and is free to boldly pursue her dreams” stand up for ourselves and others. Table 26.4 provides
(www.girlsontherun.org). Over 220 councils serve a summary of the coach training content, life skills
youth diverse in race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic curriculum, and targeted developmental outcomes.
status in all 50 states and in urban, suburban, and Early evaluation studies of program impact were
rural settings. conducted by DeBate and her colleagues (DeBate et
Girls on the Run adopts Lerner’s Five Cs approach al., 2009; DeBate & Thompson, 2005; DeBate, Zhang,
to PYD—the goal is that girls develop and improve & Thompson, 2007; Gabriel, DeBate, High, & Racine,
competence, feel confident in who they are, create 2011). More recently, Weiss and her colleagues
positive connections with peers and adults, develop (2017) conducted a rigorous evaluation study using
strength of character, respond to others and them- a matched control group and longitudinal design,
selves with care and compassion, and make a finding that participants in Girls on the Run com-
meaningful contribution to community and society. pared favorably to the control group and improved
Besides these personal assets, Girls on the Run honors in competence, confidence, connection, character,
its core values: striving to be intentional in decision and caring. These improvements were sustained at
making; to embrace individual differences and find a follow-up assessment three months after season’s
strength in connectedness; to express joy, optimism, end. Details of this study can be found at www
and gratitude through thoughts and actions; to nur- .girlsontherun.org/impact.
Table 26.3 Components of The First Tee Program

Developmental outcomes
Coach philosophy: four building blocks Life skills curriculum Nine core values Nine healthy habits
Activity-based: (a) doing vs. telling (getting kids involved right away) 1. Meeting and 1. Respect 1. Energy
and (b) fun and seamless (integrate golf and life skills into one enjoy- greeting 2. Responsibility 2. Play
able activity) 2. Showing respect 3. Courtesy 3. Safety
Mastery-driven: (a) intention equals attention (each lesson should 3. Managing emo- 4. Honesty 4. Vision
have an explicit purpose), and (b) balance process and outcome tions 5. Integrity 5. Mind
(define success as improvement based on each child’s abilities and 4. Goal setting 6. Sportsmanship 6. Family
give feedback accordingly) 5. Resolving conflicts 7. Confidence 7. Friends
6. Making healthy 8. Judgment 8. School
Empower youth: (a) youth centered (encourage youth to actively choices 9. Perseverance 9. Community
participate in learning and decision making) and (b) relationship 7. Appreciating
focused (build rapport and trust with youth to optimize a positive diversity
experience) 8. Helping others
Continuous learning: (a) Good-better-how = feedback approach to 9. Getting help from
motivate youth to continue improving and (b) coachable moments others
(taking advantage of opportunities to teach or reinforce a concept) 10. Planning for the
future
Based on information from www.thefirsttee.org.
Table 26.4 Components of the Girls on the Run Program

Coach training Life skills curriculum Developmental outcomes
Welcome and introductions Identity: self-care, self-awareness, knowing self • Competence (physical, social, emotional)
Context • Confidence (physical, social, emotional)
• Connection (to peers, coaches, parents, and
Facilitating an activity Connectedness: selecting healthy relationships and keeping others)
Practicing a lesson them healthy • Character (personal, social responsibility)
• Caring (empathy and sympathy)
Building relationships Empowerment: celebrating and sharing our strengths
• Contribution (to community and society)
Positive, inclusive environment • Physical activity attitudes and behaviors
Mastery climate • Other healthy habits (nutrition, less screen
time)
Based on www.girlsontherun.org
492 Weiss
Future Research (www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/questionnaires),

coaching behaviors (e.g., Bolter & Weiss, 2012), and
Recommendations motivational climate (e.g., R.E. Smith, Cumming, &
Smoll, 2008). Measures customized and validated
Out-of-school-time programs are more important for the physical domain have significantly contrib-
than ever for promoting youth development and uted to understanding youth development through
preventing unhealthy behaviors, because school- physical activity.
time hours are increasingly devoted to classroom A third type of instrumentation includes scales
learning and competency testing. Because millions that were specifically developed to assess PYD out-
of children participate in physical activity pro- comes. Geldhof et al. (2013, 2014) developed and
grams, it is not surprising that the PYD framework validated short (34 items) and very short (17 items)
has resonated with researchers and practitioners in measures of the Five Cs, reflecting Lerner’s frame-
this domain. But as with other areas of research, work. Extensive testing with thousands of youth
gaps remain in understanding how PYD can be in grades 5 through 12 revealed strong construct
facilitated in physical activity contexts. In the next validity, factorial invariance, and longitudinal
section, I discuss three important issues that need stability. Researchers derived the measure based
to be considered in future research. on existing age-appropriate and valid instruments
that assess competence, confidence, connection,
Measurement Issues character, and caring (e.g., Harter’s Self-Perception
Profile). The instruments were customized to and
A critical issue in conducting high quality PA-PYD analyses were conducted by age or grade, resulting
research is identifying and developing measures in some modifications to number and selection
that are conceptually sound and possess strong of items. The authors recommended using scale
psychometric properties to assess PYD outcomes. In scores for individual Cs, rather than a composite
the past couple of decades, several measures have PYD score, based on confirmatory factor analyses.
been used with varying evidence of validity and These scales for the Five Cs assess young people’s
reliability. I discuss and critique these approaches personal assets that cut across multiple domains
in the following paragraphs. and offer alternative or additional ways for assess-
First, some researchers, especially in studies ing developmental outcomes to the previous types
conducted before the more recent PYD movement, of measures discussed.
selected valid and age-appropriate instruments from In contrast to the Five Cs approach, Vierimaa,
the psychology literature (see Brustad, 1998; Horn, Erickson, Côté, and Gilbert (2012) proposed a 4Cs
2004a, for an overview). Harter’s (1985, 1988, 2012a) sport-specific measure of PYD outcomes. They
Self-Perception Profile has been used to assess, for collapsed character and caring dimensions into
example, perceived physical competence, social one domain (identified as character) based on their
competence, and self-worth (e.g., Horn & Weiss, rationale that caring and character “were not well
1991; A.L. Smith, 1999). This instrument went differentiated in the sport development literature”
through extensive psychometric testing with large (p. 602), although no examples or citations were
populations of diverse youth and has shown strong provided. An argument can be made, however, that
support in the physical domain (Horn, 2004a). character (e.g., Bolter & Weiss, 2012) and caring
Measures adapted from the psychology literature behaviors (e.g., Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010) are con-
have served us well in assessing youth outcomes ceptually distinct constructs that may show empir-
in physical activity contexts. ical overlap (moderately high correlations) depend-
Second, other researchers developed sport-spe- ing on how the constructs are defined and assessed
cific measures to assess particular youth outcomes. for a particular research question. Thus, I contend
Instruments include prosocial behaviors (Kavus- that collapsing character and caring into one con-
sanu & Boardley, 2009), friendship quality (Weiss & struct is not justified, because it misrepresents
Smith, 1999), and social responsibility (Li, Wright, theoretical tenets of the Five Cs framework of PYD.
Rukavina, & Pickering, 2008), among others, which Vierimaa and colleagues propose a toolkit of mea-
were extensively tested with diverse youth popula- sures to assess competence, confidence, connection,
tions and have demonstrated strong psychometric and character, but they do not address age appropri-
properties. Valid and age-appropriate measures ateness—their measures were validated with college
have also been developed for social-contextual fac- athletes, high school participants, or elementa-
tors related to PYD, such as teammate relatedness ry-age youth. They caution, “The reliability and
validity of these measures have yet to be tested . . . Tee, the authors demonstrated content and construct
research should critically examine these tools and validity, including longitudinal factorial invariance,
refine them as needed” (p. 611). Given this infor- and internal consistency reliability of the LSTS.
mation, recommending the 4Cs instrument may Because life skills learning is a key goal of PYD
have been premature without further psychometric programs, the LSTS provides a valid and develop-
testing. But after a measure is published, studies mentally appropriate instrument that researchers
using this measure follow suit, such as Erickson and can use to evaluate the effect of youth programs in
Côté (2016) who refer to Vierimaa et al., “for more teaching social and behavioral competencies that
extensive discussion of the reliability and validity can be generalized to other areas of young people’s
of each instrument” (p. 267). Moreover, the authors lives. The inclusion of behavioral indices of life
sum the scores for the 4Cs to create a composite PYD skills transfer along with youths’ self-reports, such
score, even though analyses were not conducted to as observation checklists and coaches’ or parents’
establish a higher-order PYD construct. ratings, offer ways of strengthening evidence of
The Youth Experiences Survey (YES; Hansen program effectiveness.
& Larson, 2005) is another measure specifically In summary, measures exist to assess youth
developed to assess PYD outcomes, and it has outcomes that have strong psychometric properties,
been a popular choice in the PYD literature (e.g., are developmentally appropriate, and are consistent
Gould & Carson, 2011). The YES was designed to with the PYD framework. These include Geldhof
assess personal and interpersonal assets and was et al.’s (2013, 2014) measures as well as those
derived based on qualitative studies with youth emanating from the psychology literature or spe-
participating in a wide range of activities, including cifically developed for sport-specific inquiry. The
sport. The YES is described on Larson’s website YES and YES-S require further validation efforts to
but was not subjected to rigorous psychometric lend credibility to study findings. The same goes
testing before widespread use in PA-PYD studies. for the 4Cs measures, as the authors (Vierimaa et
In 2012 MacDonald, Côté, Eys, and Deakin tested al., 2012) themselves conclude, “Research should
the factor structure of the YES with 9- to 19-year- critically examine these tools and refine them as
old female and male athletes participating in 32 needed” (p. 611). The take-home message is that
sports in high school or community settings. None appropriate measurement of PYD outcomes and
of the tested models fit the target YES structure, processes is crucial to ensure conceptual clarity
so several exploratory factor analysis models were and trustworthy results.
analyzed. Five dimensions (rather than 11 for the
YES) emerged in the final model, and the instru-
ment was named the YES-S. The authors concluded,
Developmental Issues
“Researchers interested in aspects of PYD through Closely aligned with measurement issues are devel-
sport can utilize this measure to investigate the opmental considerations in PA-PYD research. Wide
process of youth development in the sport domain,” age ranges have been used to assess relationships
but go on to say, “The proposed structure of the between sport or physical activity participation and
YES-S is not definitive and needs further validation” youth outcomes. Efforts to maximize sample size
(p. 338). Given the age range, number of sports, for data analyses have sometimes compromised
and recreational and competitive contexts, further the knowledge that psychosocial and behavioral
psychometric testing is necessary. Yet researchers differences exist among children and adolescents.
are using the YES-S without conducting validation For example, conceptions of social and psycho-
tests by gender, age, sport type, or context (e.g., logical constructs, such as perceived competence,
Bruner et al., 2014; Cronin & Allen, 2015). Instead, motivational orientation, and adult and peer rela-
authors state that the measure has shown evidence tionships, can vary considerably by age or develop-
of validity and reliability and cite the MacDonald mental level (e.g., Horn, 2004b; Weiss & Williams,
et al. paper. 2004). Researchers should justify their selected age
Finally, Weiss and colleagues (2014, 2016) devel- sample, choose appropriate measures to account
oped and validated the Life Skills Transfer Survey for variations in cognitive maturity, and conduct
(LSTS), a measure tapping youths’ perceptions of analyses that take age or developmental level into
generalizing or transferring skills learned from par- account.
ticipating in a particular program to other domains Geldhof et al. (2013, 2014) considered age-related
of their life, such as school and home. In a series of variability by selecting and testing PYD measures
three studies with youth participants in The First specific to age or grade level. Harter (2012a, 2012b)
494 Weiss
has long employed a cognitive-social-developmental the use of terminology, distinction between PYD
approach to validating self-perception and social outcomes and processes, and the need for process
support scales. Coatsworth and Conroy (2009) used evaluation, or implementation fidelity, studies to
age as a control variable in examining relationships supplement inquiries of PYD outcomes attained
among coaching behaviors, need satisfaction, and through participation. In the following paragraphs,
PYD outcomes in youth swimmers. The First Tee I clarify why these conceptual areas pose a gap in
and Girls on the Run organizations customized the literature and ideas for how researchers might
their life skills curricula based on developmental close that gap.
appropriateness. Age and, more appropriately, First, readers have no doubt encountered a
developmental level, matters. variety of terms used in the broad array of PA-PYD
Given the current status of PA-PYD studies that research studies, including those used for char-
use a large bandwidth of ages, future researchers acterizing programs and describing psychosocial
should consider designing developmental-oriented outcomes. Terminology varies for describing sam-
studies (Weiss & Bredemeier, 1983; Weiss & Rae- ples, such as youth sport, youth development, and
deke, 2004). They can do this by dual-focused community programs, among others.
Some programs are referred to as sport-based youth
• selecting ages of participants based on cogni- development (SBYD), some as developmentally
tive, social, or physical developmental criteria focused youth sport (DYS), and others as physical
(e.g., Fry & Duda, 1997; A.L. Smith, 1999); activity-based positive youth development (PA-
• comparing age groups based on cognitive, PYD). Related to these different names is whether a
social, or physical maturity differences (e.g., program is justified being called youth development
Amorose & Weiss, 1998; Horn & Weiss, 1991); in a particular study, based on whether evidence
and exists of an intentional curriculum, instructor train-
• following youth longitudinally on PYD con- ing, and targeted PYD outcomes. For example, in a
structs of interest (e.g., Gabriel et al., 2011; study by Inouye, Wegner, Jordan, and Funk (2015),
Weiss et al., 2016). the purpose was to examine developmental out-
comes among 12- to 18-year-olds in “an after-school
Researchers can also include an index of physical or program that uses running related activities for
cognitive maturity as a control variable in analyses youth development” (p. 372). Program goals were
(e.g., Kipp & Weiss, 2013; A.L. Smith, 1999). Designs identified as increasing self-efficacy, academic per-
that employ intentional sample selection based formance, and healthy lifestyle behaviors, but how
on developmental level would provide knowledge the program qualifies as satisfying PYD tenets (e.g.,
about PYD processes and outcomes that translate to intentional curriculum of life skills; coach training
practical applications for PA-PYD programs. to deliver curriculum) to achieve these outcomes
A particular area of interest in PA-PYD research was not described. By contrast, other studies fully
would be determining youths’ resilience in making describe programs as PA-PYD based on a life skills
the developmental transition in school level, such curriculum, instructor training, supportive mentor–
as from elementary to middle school, and in sport child relationships, and targeted outcomes based on
level, such as from recreational to select teams the PYD framework (e.g., Anderson-Butcher et al.,
(Horn, this volume; Weiss & Williams, 2004). These 2014; Gano-Overway et al., 2009; Ullrich-French et
transitions challenge youth to apply learned life al., 2012; Weiss, Stuntz, et al., 2013). Authors should
skills to new and challenging situations (e.g., fit- describe program processes and outcomes that jus-
ting in with new peer groups; adjusting to a greater tify being labeled as youth development in focus.
emphasis on social comparison). A developmental Another issue with regard to terminology is the
perspective that takes into account cognitive, interchangeable use of terms denoting PYD out-
social, or physical maturity can uncover important comes across studies. These include developmental
differences between children and adolescents in assets, psychosocial outcomes, developmental expe-
perceptions and behaviors at different life stages, riences, life skills, and developmental outcomes.
which can inform curriculum development and This variation of terms can be confusing when
coach training of PA-PYD programs. trying to discern study purposes and findings. Some
terms are linked with a particular theorist (e.g.,
Conceptual Issues Larson: developmental experiences; Lerner: Five
Cs), but all refer to PYD outcomes. Most outcomes
A third important issue that needs to be considered studied in the PA-PYD literature have been social,
in future research is conceptual clarity regarding psychological, or academic variables. Few studies
Translating PYD Research to Action Strategies
Positive youth development researchers can contribute meaningfully to school and community programs by providing
evidence-based best practices for developing curricula, implementing coach training, and achieving developmental
outcomes. The significance of PYD through physical activity is in making a difference to organizations and their
staff, coaches, parents, and youth participants. By collaborating, researchers and community partners can share
in the process of integrating research and application to assist youth in attaining competencies and attributes for
successfully navigating life experiences (Holt et al., 2013).
Weiss and Wiese-Bjornstal (2009) synthesized knowledge from the PYD framework and youth sport psychology
research to provide stakeholders with evidence-based strategies to promote PYD through physical activity, including
coaches, parents, health care providers, community leaders, and youth participants (see lists below). This translation
of the PYD framework to inform best practices is a guide for collaboration among academics and practitioners. The
authors’ conclusion provides a concise and appropriate summary of the PA-PYD literature: “A caring and mastery-ori-
ented climate, supportive relationships with adults and peers, and opportunities to learn social, emotional, and
behavioral life skills—these are the nutrients for promoting positive youth development through physical activity” (p. 6).
Physical Activity Leaders (such as coaches, physical education teachers, and fitness instructors)
• Seek education and attain professional competencies in PA-PYD
• Follow evidence-based leadership and physical training practices
• Create a mastery climate and encourage effort and improvement
• Allow youth choices and engage in shared decision making
• Show caring behaviors and develop warm relationships with youth
• Use behavior-contingent praise and give quality informational feedback
• Structure enjoyable physical activity sessions
• Teach life skills such as personal and interpersonal assets
Parents and Family Members (such as parents, grandparents, siblings, extended family,
and other relatives)
• Provide social support for child’s physical activity participation
• Value and enjoy physical activity for child
• Model positive physical activity attitudes and behaviors
• Convey supportive belief in child’s abilities and efforts
• Integrate family efforts with school and community activities and initiatives
• Encourage perseverance, problem solving, and resiliency to challenges
Health Care Providers (such as physicians, nurses, athletic trainers, and mental health
rofessionals)
p
• Educate youth about health benefits of physical activity
• Promote physical activity to enable holistic health outcomes
• Teach safe participation and training practices
• Teach physical activity providers first-aid training for staff and youth
• Empower youth to make healthy choices
• Discuss mental health and physical energy benefits of an active lifestyle
Youth Peers (such as friends, teammates, opponents, and classmates)
• Motivate and encourage each other
• Develop diverse physical activity friendships
• Recognize and acknowledge accomplishments of other youth
• Teach physical activity skills to each other
• Respect, care about, and help all youth
• Work with different partners, small groups, and teams
(continued)
495
496 Weiss
(continued)
Youth Participants (of all ability levels, cultures, genders, and socioeconomic statuses)
• Value and understand the benefits of physical activity
• Seek physical activity opportunities
• Accept responsibility for making good physical activity choices
• Use leisure time for physical activity
• Engage in a variety of physical activities
• Help family members and friends to be more physically active
• Assume leadership responsibility with younger peers
Physical Activity Administrators (such as athletic directors, sport managers,
and park and recreation administrators)
• Establish variety in offering diverse, innovative physical activity choices
• Listen to youth voices in program offerings and design
• Employ intentional programming and experiential learning
• Invest in leader training and hire trained leaders
• Provide gender-, culture-, and ability-diverse leadership
• Generate physical, psychological, and social safety
• Establish clear behavioral expectations for leaders and youth
Community Leaders and Providers (such as elected officials, government, nonprofits,
youth-serving organizations, P-12 schools, colleges and universities, and law enforcement)
• Invest in supportive community design and facility infrastructure
• Advocate for policies to support physical activity
• Develop public–private partnerships and collaborations
• Establish and maintain environmental safety
• Create sustainability and accountability for activity options
• Fix opportunity gaps to ensure participation of underactive youth
• Market and promote opportunities to diverse microcultures
Adapted from Weiss and Wiese-Bjornstal (2009).
have included physical assets, such as physical Processes or mechanisms are intended to explain
activity, motor skills, or physical health, yet these participant differences in, relationships among,
should be part and parcel of PA-PYD programs and intervention effects on PYD outcomes such as
(Weiss & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009). Dzewaltowski physical, social, and psychological assets. Outcomes
and Rosenkranz (2014) argue that, in addition to and processes are interconnected but conceptually
the notion of PYD through physical activity, we distinct variables. For example, Vierimaa et al.
should also envision physical activity through PYD. (2012) state, “The 4Cs have recently been suggested
That is, the PYD framework can be used as a way as a framework of desirable athlete outcomes that
to advance physical activity behavioral science, can also be used to measure coaching effectiveness”
in which physical activity is a main outcome of (p. 602). This statement lacks conceptual clarity
PA-PYD interventions. In summary, researchers because the 4Cs represent youth outcomes, whereas
should be intentional with terminology and provide coaching effectiveness is a process-product variable
operational definitions as appropriate to be clear (Amorose, 2007; Horn, 2008). The degree to which
and coherent for readers. coaching behaviors, such as informational feed-
A second conceptual issue is clearly distin- back, autonomy-support, and motivational climate,
guishing between PYD outcomes and processes in correlate with athlete outcomes (i.e., 4Cs) would
research studies and applications from findings. be an index of coaching effectiveness, not the 4Cs
themselves. Given the essential social-contextual employ these designs to enable evidence of causal
factors related to PYD outcomes (Eccles & Gootman, relationships and reveal mediator and moderator
2002; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003), researchers need variables that explain outcomes. Using mixed
to be coherent in describing and distinguishing methods that provide quantitative and qualitative
outcome and process variables in their studies. In insights to findings (e.g., Henderson, Powell, &
addition, more PA-PYD studies might pursue how Scanlin, 2005) and selecting psychometrically
processes, such as motivational climate, parental sound and age-appropriate measures of outcomes
involvement, and coaching behaviors explain vari- and processes are crucial to addressing study
ations in psychological, social, and physical out- questions and translating empirical findings to evi-
comes. These factors have been frequently studied dence-based best practices for youth development
in the youth sport psychology literature and figure programs and stakeholders promoting PYD through
dominantly in understanding whether and why physical activity.
outcomes are successfully attained.
A third conceptual issue is the gap of imple-
mentation fidelity studies in PA-PYD. That is, are references
coaches delivering curricular lessons as intended Agans, J.P., Vest Ettekal, A., Erickson, K., & Lerner, R.M.
to achieve the organizational mission, core values, (2016). Positive youth development through sport: a
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& Basch, 2012)? For example, Iachini and her (Ed.), Positive youth development through sport (2nd ed.,
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which the Girls on the Run curriculum was being the relationship between coaching behavior and moti-
implemented as intended. Some variability among vation from a self-determination theory perspective. In
sites emerged that was attributed to a number of M.S. Hagger & N.L.D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Intrinsic
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parental involvement, support from council staff, (pp. 209–227). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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for making changes to the design and implemen- developmental examination. Journal of Sport & Exercise
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and delivery of coach training. Process evaluation vanian, R., Davis, J., & Amorose, A. (2013). Exploring
studies are sparse in PA-PYD research and, when the impact of a summer sport-based youth development
program. Evaluation and Program Planning, 37, 64–69.
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offer a practical way for organizations and programs Anderson-Butcher, D., Riley, A., Amorose, A., Iachini,
to strengthen curricula, lesson content, pedagogical A., & Wade-Mdivanian, R. (2014). Maximizing youth
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Physical activity researchers have enthusiastically Evidence from a four-year evaluation. Educational
embraced the PYD framework as evidenced by Review, 65, 85–108.
numerous studies published in the past decade. Armour, K., Sandford, R., & Duncombe, R. (2013). Positive
Qualitative and correlational studies still predom- youth development and physical activity/sport interven-
inate, and some findings reiterate information from tions: mechanisms leading to sustained impact. Physical
early youth sport research (e.g., psychological ben- Education and Sport Pedagogy, 18, 256–281.
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and evaluation studies have gathered momentum Scale (SCBS). Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychol-
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Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P.A. (1998). The ecology Cronin, L.D., & Allen, J.B. (2015). Developmental expe-
of developmental processes. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & riences and well-being in sport: The importance of the
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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 80, 87–101. physical activity frequency among third- to eighth-grade
Brunelle, J., Danish, S.J., & Forneris, T. (2007). The impact girls who participated in a developmentally focused
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Bruner, M.W., Eys, M.A., Wilson, K.S., & Côté, J. (2014). DeBate, R.D., & Thompson, S.H. (2005). Girls on the Run:
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Index
Note: The italicized f and t following page numbers refer to figures and tables, respectively.
A amotivation approach goals 195-196, 269
AASP. See Association for Applied in cognitive evaluation theory 292 arousal 213-214, 222-223. See also
Sport Psychology defined 293 anxiety
ABQ (Athlete Burnout Questionnaire) in self-determination theory 294t, arousal regulation 43-44, 43t
411, 418 414 arthritis, and physical activity 428-
abusive leadership 166 Andersen, M.B. 388-389 432
achievement goal theories anger, and perfectionism 107-108 Arthritis Self-Management Program
advancement in 272-275 anticipated regret 339 (ASMP) 430, 431
athlete burnout application 414 anticipation, in sport Arthritis ToolKit 431
described 414 perceptual-cognitive skills 230- aschematics 65-66
Elliot's framework 278, 278f 234, 233f ASMP (Arthritis Self-Management
family influence application 119, research recommendations 241- Program) 430, 431
125 242 assertive self-presentation tactics 92
history of 266-271, 267f, 268t-269t, skill development and acquisition assessments
271t 237-241, 241f athletic burnout 418-419
interest development and 472, 473f skill interaction 234-236, 235f, 236f sport injury response 397, 397t
moral behavior application 195-196 antidepressant drugs 360-361 Association for Applied Sport Psychol-
motivational leadership application antiexercise bias 357 ogy (AASP)
157-158 antisocial behavior certification criteria 39
Nicholls' framework 276, 277f contextual influences on 199-200 ethical guidelines 39
parsimony principle and 273 defined 193 special interest groups 9
peer influence application 136, individual difference variables in sport and exercise psychology defi-
140-141 195, 196, 198 nition 4
research design issues 275-276 moral disengagement and 195, athlete burnout
research recommendations 276- 201-202 defined 410
283 anxiety dimensions of 411t
acquisitive motives 81 attentional control theory 218-219 entrapment-based perspective
ACT (attentional control theory) 218- CAT model 216, 216f 412t, 413-414
219 conscious-processing hypothesis measurement of 411
action plan reconstruction hypothesis 217 motivational perspectives 412t,
240 coping behaviors 219-222 414-415
active free play (AFP) definitions and types 212 perfectionism and 104-106
benefits and trends 120-121 in disabled athletes 379-380 prevention and intervention 416,
defined 118 ironic processes theory 217-218 420-421
ecological model 120, 127 IZOF hypothesis 215-216 research recommendations 418-
family influence on 120-123 multidimensional theory 214-215, 421
research on increasing 126-127 215f self-determination theory and 415-
additive task structures 252 pain anxiety 430-431 416
ADHD (attention deficit–hyperactivity perceptual-cognitive skills and stress-based perspective 412-413,
disorder) 455 234-235, 238-240, 239f 412t
adherence perfectionism and 107 Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)
arthritis management 429-432 performance anxiety model 213, 411, 418
diabetes management 433-434 213f, 222 athlete–coach relationships 158-159
injury rehabilitation 395 physical activity links 355, 356 athlete engagement
adolescence. See youth Pitts-McClure hypothesis 354-355 burnout and 420
AFP. See active free play processing efficiency theory 218 interest development and 477-478
aggression research recommendations 222- athlete leaders 161-162
empathy effects on 197-198 223 athletic identity
in masculine norm 200 sport injuries and 389 athlete burnout and 414
Ajzen, I. 338-339 applied sport psychology (term) 5. in disability sport 376-379, 381-383
alexithymia, and anxiety 221-222, 223 See also sport and exercise psy- postinjury 394
Alzheimer's disease 357 chology in self-system 64-65
503
504 Index
athletic trainers, in injury rehabilita- BPS (British Psychological Society) coaches

tion 398 4-5 athlete moral behavior and 199-
athletic training bracketed morality 200 200
anticipation development 237-238, brain-derived neurotrophic factor athlete relationships 158-159
240-241, 241f (BDNF) 456 efficacy beliefs 159-161
exergames for 250 brain reserve model 450 motivational leadership in 157, 158
attentional control theory (ACT) 218- brain structure, and cognition 456 transformational leadership in 155
219 Bray, S.R. 22 coactive group structures 252
attention deficit–hyperactivity disor- Brief Implicit Attitude Test (BIAT) 197 Coakley, J. 413
der (ADHD) 455 British Medical Association 365 cognition and physical activity
attitudes British Medical Journal 362, 365 discrepant views of 356-357
moral behavior and 197 British Psychological Society (BPS) general population studies 451-454
in theory of planned behavior 339 4-5 mechanisms affecting 455-456
augmentation effect 154, 155 burnout. See athlete burnout moderators of 457, 458t
authoritarian parents 119 research recommendations 456-
C
authoritative parents 119, 125 459
Calvo, M.G. 218-219
automatic processing 342-343 special population studies 454-455
Canadian Diabetes Association (CDA)
autonomous motivation. See intrinsic theories of 448-451
435
motivation cognitive-affective model of athlete
Canadian Sport Psychology Associa-
autonomous orientation 295-296 burnout 412-413
tion (CSPA) 39
autonomy cognitive anxiety 212, 214-215, 219
cardiovascular fitness hypothesis 449
achievement goal theory 276-277 cognitive evaluation theory (CET)
Carron, A.V. 173-174, 174f, 180
basic psychological needs theory 291-293, 291f
CASA (social actors) paradigm 254
297 cognitive-motivational-relational
CAT (cusp catastrophe) model 216,
cognitive evaluation theory 292 theory 220-221
216f
moral behavior and 199 cognitive reserve hypothesis 449-450
causality orientations theory (COT)
perceived 319-321 cohesion
291f, 295-296
relationships motivation theory 298 in group dynamics 177-178
CDA (Canadian Diabetes Association)
self-motivation theory 157, 251 teambuilding effects on 180, 182
435
supportive social contexts 302f Colcombe, S.J. 451
CDC (Centers for Disease Control)
autonomy-supportive style 157, 292 commitment, in 3C model 158-159
431-432
autophotography 29 communication, group dynamics 179,
CDSMP (Chronic Disease Self-Manage-
avoidance coping 214, 395 180
ment Program) 431
avoidance goals 107, 195-196, 269 community-based participatory action
CEF (Consultant Evaluation Form) 40
B Centers for Disease Control (CDC) research 28
balanced psychological need satisfac- 431-432 competence
tion theory 299. See also need CET (cognitive evaluation theory) achievement goal theory 267, 269,
satisfaction 291-293, 291f 276-277
Bandura, A. 136, 139, 192-193, 204, change stages, in TTM 339-340, 340t basic psychological needs theory
338 Chatzisarantis, N.L.D. 23 297
basic psychological needs theory Chelladurai, P. 152, 153-154, 153f cognitive evaluation theory 292
(BPNT) 291f, 296-297. See also Cheng, W-N.K. 213, 213f, 222 moral behavior and 199
need satisfaction Children/Youth Physical Self-Percep- perceived 316-319, 317t, 335, 394
Bass, B.M. 154 tion Profile (CY-PSPP) 59 relationships motivation theory
Baumrind, D. 119-120, 125 child safety, and active free play 122- 298
BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic 123, 127 self-motivation theory 157, 251
factor) 456 chronic disease management supportive social contexts 302f
Beauchamp, M.R. 174 arthritis 428-432 competence motivation theory 119,
behavioral economics 344 diabetes 432-435 125, 136
behavior change wheel 342-343 health care providers' role 427, competence (effectance) motivation
behavior outcome measurements 19 431, 434, 437-438 theory 314
Bélanger-Gravel, A. 27 knowledge translation initiatives Competitive Self-Presentation Con-
bias 431-432, 434-435 cerns Inventory (CSPCI) 85-86
athlete identity and 377 primary versus tertiary prevention complementarity, in 3C model 158-159
in mental health research 357, 358, 426-427 concerted cultivation 122
360, 366 research recommendations 435- concussions 395
research methods and 22, 26 438 conditional regard 301
BIAT (Brief Implicit Attitude Test) 197 self-management role 427 conflict, in peer relationships 138-139
big five factors 379, 383 self-regulation strategies 427-428 congruency hypothesis 153, 154
biofeedback 400 Chronic Disease Self-Management Pro- conjunctive task structures 252-256
blinding procedures 22 gram (CDSMP) 431 Conroy, D.E. 85
BPNT (basic psychological needs CI (contextual interference) effect conscious-processing hypothesis
theory) 291f, 296-297. See also 240-241, 241f (CPH) 217
need satisfaction closeness, in 3C model 158-159 Consultant Evaluation Form (CEF) 40
Index 505
contextual information, in anticipation research design issues 359-360, positive youth development and
232-234, 233f 365, 366 485
contextual interference (CI) effect research recommendations 366 of sport injuries 390
240-241, 241f TREAD-UK trial 362-365, 363f, education, in sport and exercise psy-
continuing education 11 364f, 366 chology 9-11
controlled motivation. See extrinsic descriptive norms 176 ego orientation
motivation developmental assets (term) 485 achievement motivation theory
controlled orientation 295-296 developmental model of sport partici- 119, 157-158, 195, 267, 269
controlling style 292 pation (DMSP) 469 athlete burnout and 414
control theory 69 developmental progressions. See also moral behavior and 196
converging evidence 19-20 positive youth development; in motivational climate 141-142
coordination, in group dynamics 178- talent development perfectionism and 107
179 motivation orientation 321-322 Elite Athlete Self-Description Ques-
coping behaviors perceived autonomy 319-321 tionnaire (EASDQ) 60
anxiety and 219-222 perceived competence 316-319, Elliot, A.J. 195, 269, 276-277, 278, 278f
defined 214 317t EBM (evidence-based medicine) 12,
perfectionism and 108 performance control 322-323 357-360, 358f
postinjury 395 research recommendations 323- emotional intelligence 165
research recommendations 222- 326 emotion-focused coping 214
223 in sport injury research 399 emotions
coping resources, and sport injuries diabetes, and physical activity 432- alexithymia and 221-222
389 435 cognitive-motivational-relational
correlational research designs Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) theory 220-221
described 24-26 434, 435 in moral behavior research 202-
dominance of 31 disabilities 203, 204
issues in 90, 282 athletic identity and 376-379 empathy 197-198
COT (causality orientations theory) personality traits and 379-380 enjoyment, as physical activity cor-
291f, 295-296 research recommendations 383- relate 336
counseling, in chronic disease man- 384 entity (fixed) mind-set 157, 315, 319
agement 437-438 term rejection 377 environmental influences on
CPH (conscious-processing hypothe- war veterans 381-383, 383-384 achievement goals 280-281
sis) 217 disablement models of postinjury group dynamics 174-175
critical appraisal skills 359-360, 366 response 391 interest development 476-477
cross-sectional survey designs 24-25 discounting hypothesis 67 leadership 153, 156, 163
CSPA (Canadian Sport Psychology diversity motivation 157, 324-326
Association) 39 cultural competency and 12-13, 48 epidemiological models
CSPCI (Competitive Self-Presentation parenting styles and 126 physical activity and sedentary
Concerns Inventory) 85-86 psychological skills training and behavior 334, 334t
cultural competency 12-13, 48 48 sport injury 390-391
cultural influences on in sampling 67 ERP (event-related potentials) 456
communication 180 DMP (dualistic model of passion) 299, ethical guidelines 38-39
leadership 163-164 300-302 ethnography 27
moral behavior 204 doping. See performance-enhancing European Federation of Sport Psychol-
cusp catastrophe (CAT) model 216, drug (PED) use ogy 5
216f DPP (Diabetes Prevention Program) evaluation, of practitioners 40
CY-PSPP (Children/Youth Physical 434, 435
event-related potentials (ERP) 456
Self-Perception Profile) 59 drive theory 214
evidence-based medicine (EBM) 12,
DMSP (developmental model of sport
D 357-360, 358f
participation) 469
Darling, N. 120, 125 executive function, and physical activ-
dualistic model of passion (DMP) 299,
Deci, E.L. 290-291, 414 ity 450-451, 458
300-302
decision making development 320-321 exercise. See physical activity
dual-process theories 204
defensive self-presentation tactics 92 exercise and self-esteem model
Dwek, C.S. 157, 276, 315, 318-319
degenerative paradigm 274 (EXSEM) 60-62
dynamic recursive model of sport
dementia, and physical activity 455 exercise groups
injury 390
DEMO trials 365-366 cohesion in 177-178, 182
dependent variables 21 E moral behavior in 203
depression and physical activity EASDQ (Elite Athlete Self-Description exercise identity 65
antidepressants versus exercise Questionnaire) 60 exercise prescription 457
360-361 eating disorders 82 exercise psychology (term) 4
discrepant views of 355-356 Eccles, J.S. 118-119, 125, 315 exerciser schematics 65-66
negative media campaigns 362, ecological frameworks exergames (exercise video games)
365 active free play model 120, 127 defined 248
perfectionism and 106 physical activity interventions and modalities of 248-249
postinjury 394 335, 335f partners in 253-258, 254f, 255f
506 Index
exergames (continued) friendships (peer relationships) 135, harmonious passion

physical activity use 249-250 136, 138 athletic burnout and 418
popularity of 248 full-factorial design 21 in dualistic model of passion 300-
research recommendations 256-258 full range model of leadership 154 301
sport training use 250 moral behavior and 198
G Harter, S. 119, 125, 314, 316-319
theoretical basis 251-256
Gammage, K.L. 88 Hatzigeorgiadis, A. 27
therapeutic use 250-251
expectancy-value theory GCT (goal contents theory) 291f, 297- health, and physical activity. See spe-
family influence application 118- 298 cific health issues
119, 125 gender differences health belief model 390
interest development application cohesion 178 health care providers, and disease man-
472 leadership 163 agement 427, 431, 434, 437-438
motivation application 315 norm perceptions 177 helicopter parents 122
experimental research designs 21-22, parenting styles 126 help-seeking behavior, postinjury 395
31 peer support 142 hereditary factors, in leadership 156,
EXSEM (exercise and self-esteem perceived competence 316 162
model) 60-62 generalizability, in research 27, 30 hierarchical model of intrinsic and
extraordinary science (term) 274 Girls on the Run 490-491, 491t extrinsic motivation (HMIEM)
extraversion goal contents theory (GCT) 291f, 297- 299-300, 299f
in disabled athletes 380 298 hierarchical self-structure 58-60, 60f,
leadership and 162-163 goal profiling research 270, 271t, 283 61
extreme sports, and fear 380 goals and goal setting. See also history, of sport and exercise psychol-
extrinsic (controlled) motivation achievement goal theories ogy 6-9
developmental progression of 321- in exergames 251 HMIEM (hierarchical model of intrin-
322, 323-324 perfectionism and 107 sic and extrinsic motivation)
in dualistic model of passion 301 as psychological strategy 42-43 299-300, 299f
in goal contents theory 297-298 good parenting ideal 122-123 home advantage 174-175
hierarchical model 299-300, 299f Gould, D. 22 hope, in athletic burnout 418
moral behavior and 196 grandparents 122 Hopker, S.W. 356
in organismic integration theory Griffith, Coleman 7 Howle, T.C. 85
293-295, 294t grit 380
grounded theory approach 27 I
eye gaze behavior
group dynamics identities. See athletic identity; moral
anticipation 231, 234-235, 235t
cohesion 177-178 identity; social identity
attention control 218-219
communication 179, 180 identity foreclosure 378
quiet eye training 220
coordination 178-179 identity negotiation 378
Eys, M.A. 173-174, 174f
defined 172 IGF-1 (interleukin growth factor-1) 456
Eysenck, M.W. 218-219
in exergames 252-258 imagery 41-42, 220
F group environment 174-175 implementation intention 339
failure, and perfectionism 104, 105, 107 groupness traits 172 implicit learning 240
familiarity detection 231-232 group structure 175-177 implicit theories of ability 157, 315,
family influences norms 176-177 319, 326
on active free play 120-123 peer research integration 144 impression construction 79-80, 80f
on autonomy 320-321 physical activity contexts 172-173 impression management. See self-pre-
good parenting ideal 121-122 research recommendations 182-184 sentation
leadership 155, 156, 158, 163 team building 179-182, 181f impression motivation
on moral behavior 203 theoretical frameworks 173-174, 174f 2 × 2 model 80-82, 81f
parenting theories and styles 118- group-dynamics-based exercise inter- two-component model 79-80, 80f
120, 122, 125 ventions 182 Impression Motivation in Sport Ques-
research recommendations 125-127 growth or development experiences tionnaire (IMSP) 86
on sport participation 123-124 (term) 485 incremental mind-set 157, 315, 319
feedback guilt, in moral behavior 194, 195, 198 independent variables 21
implicit theories in 319, 326 individual differences. See also per-
intrinsic motivation and 292-293 H fectionism; self-perceptions;
Feltz, D.L. 159, 160 habits in behavior change 343-344, self-presentation
Ferguson, E. 337 346 in causality orientations theory
film-based occlusion research 230-231 Hagger, M.S. 23, 340 295-296
First Tee, The 490, 491t Hall, C.R. 88 coping behaviors 221-222, 223
Fishbein, M. 339 Hall, E.G. 85 leadership determinants 165
Five Cs 485, 491, 492 Hanin, Y.L. 215-216 moral behavior 193-198, 194t
fixed (entity) mind-set 157, 315, 319 HAPA framework 340-341 response to leadership 156
flow theory 251-252 hardiness individual importance hypothesis 67
focus groups 28 anxiety and 221, 223 individualized zone of optimal func-
followership 156, 164 in disabled athletes 380 tioning (IZOF) hypothesis 215-
Four Cs 470, 492-493 postinjury 394, 396 216
Index 507
Ingledew, D.K. 337 knowledge translation MD (moral disengagement) 194-195,

inhibitive morality chronic disease management 431- 194t, 201-202
defined 193 432, 434-435 measurements
moral disengagement and 195 sport and exercise psychology achievement goals 282
motivation type and 196 11-13, 47-48 arousal 213-214
injunctive norms 176 Köhler effect 252-253, 255-256 athletic burnout 411
integrated behavior change model 340 Kowalski, R.M. 79-80 moral behavior 193t
integrated model of psychological Kramer, A.F. 451, 453 perfectionism 100-103, 100t
response to the sport injury and KTS (knowledge transfer strategies) positive youth development 492-
rehabilitation process 391-392, 12 493
393f Kuhn, T.S. 274 psychological strategies 47
integrative contextual model 120 in quantitative research 19
L
intention, in planned behavior theory in self-determination research 303-
laissez-faire leadership 154
338-339 304
Lakatos, I. 274
interest development, in sport self-perceptions 59-60
Lancet 365
developmentally based 473-476 self-presentation 84-86, 91
Lawlor, D.A. 356
four-phase model 471-472 mental health and physical activity.
Lazarus, R.S. 220-221
motivation and 470-472, 471t, 473f See also anxiety
leadership
interleukin growth factor-1 (IGF-1) 456 critical appraisal of research 359-
in athletes 161-162
internalization 293 360, 366
coach-athlete relationships and
Internet. See technology use depression research 360-366
158-159
interpersonal theory of psychiatry discrepant views of 354-357
efficacy beliefs and 159-161
135-136 evidence-based medicine and 357-
full range model 154
interpretative phenomenological anal- 360, 358f
historical research 152
ysis (IPA) 28 perfectionism and 106
integrated model 162-164, 163f
interpretivism 27 Pitts-McClure hypothesis 354-355
motivational models 156-158
intervention fidelity 24 postinjury 394
multidimensional model 152, 153-
intervention research designs 22-24, 31 research bias in 357
154, 153f
interviews, in qualitative research research recommendations 366
nature versus nurture in 156
28-29 TREAD-UK trial 362-365, 363f,
research recommendations 164-
intraindividual variability 68-69 364f, 366
166
intrinsic (autonomous) motivation mental skills training. See also specific
transformational 154-156
cognitive evaluation theory 291- skills
Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) 154
293, 291f in disability sports 379
Leary, M.R. 79-80
developmental progression of 321- as sport injury intervention 397
Lee, H. 120
322, 323-324 mental toughness 46-47, 379-380
Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS) 493
in dualistic model of passion 300- meta-analysis 26, 27
lifespan and developmental issues. See
301 meta-perceptions 158
cognition and physical activity;
goal contents theory 297-298 Michelson, Albert 272
positive youth development;
hierarchical model 299-300, 299f Michie, S. 341
talent development
moral behavior and 196 mild cognitive impairment 455
Lifestyle Interventions and Indepen-
organismic integration theory 293- military
dence for Elders (LIFE) 453-454
295, 294t disabled veterans 381-383, 383-384
little emperor parents 122
inverted-U hypothesis 214 use of sport psychology 8
longitudinal research designs 25
IPA (interpretative phenomenological mindfulness 45-46
LSS (Leadership Scale for Sports) 154
analysis) 28 mixed-method research 30
LSTS (Life Skills Transfer Survey) 493
ironic processes theory of mental con- mobile interviews 28-29
trol 217-218 M mood states, and sport injuries 389
IZOF (individualized zone of optimal MAC (mindfulness-acceptance-com- moral atmosphere 200
functioning) hypothesis 215-216 mitment) 45-46 moral behavior
maladaptation, and perfectionism consequences of 200-201
J
106-108 contextual influences on 199-200
Jackson, A. 22
Markland, D. 337 defined 193
Janssen, I. 122
Martens, R. 214-215, 215f individual difference variables in
Journal of Sport Psychology in Action
Martin Ginis, K.A. 22, 88 193-198, 194t
(JSPA) 12
masculine norms 200 measurement of 193t
journals of sport and exercise psychol-
mass media 362, 365-366 research recommendations 203-
ogy 9t
Masters, R.S.W. 217 204
K masters athletes 66 research trends 192, 201-203
kinesiologists, in injury rehabilitation mastery orientation See task orien- theoretical frameworks 192-193
398 tation moral disengagement (MD) 194-195,
kinesiology 6 MAT (multidimensional anxiety 194t, 201-202
knowledge to action model 12 theory) 214-215, 215f moral identity 198
knowledge transfer strategies (KTS) 12 McEwan, D. 174 moral reasoning 204
508 Index
Morgan, William 354-355 Nicholls, J.G. 119, 125, 157, 195, 269, conceptualization of 134-135
motivation. See also exergames; 276, 277f defined 134
self-determination theory nonexerciser schematics 65-66 justifying study of 134
athlete burnout and 412t, 414-416 nonverbal self-presentation tactics 83 modeling by 142-143
defined 314 normal science (term) 274 motivational climate and 140-142
developmentally based research norms peer groups 134, 135
325t group dynamics 176-177 peer referenced 135
developmentally based theories moral behavior 200 perceived competence and 318
314-316 nudging, in behavior change 344-345, physical activity influence 142-143
extrinsic. See extrinsic motivation 346 positive relationship strategies 145
interest development and 470-472, research recommendations 143-145
471t, 473f O
self-efficacy and 139-140
intrinsic. See intrinsic motivation obsessive passion
support of 142
as key in sport and exercise 248, athletic burnout and 418
theoretical frameworks 135-137
290 in dualistic model of passion 300-
perceived autonomy 319-321
orientation development 321-322, 301
perceived behavioral control 335, 339
323-324 injury risk behaviors and 389
perceived competence 316-319, 317t,
participation motives 336-337 moral behavior and 198
335, 394
perceived autonomy in 319-321 Occam's razor 273
perceptions, in 3C model 158-159
perceived competence in 316-319, older adults
perceptual-cognitive skills, in antici-
317t cognition and 451, 452, 453-454, 455
pation
research recommendations 323- possible selves 66
anxiety effects on 234-235, 238-
326 Olympus (exergame) 251
240, 239f
types of 196 online interviews 29
familiarity detection 231-232
motivational climates OPERA trial 365
gaze behavior 231, 234-235, 235t
leadership and 156-158 optimism, and sport injuries 389
interaction among 234, 235f
meteorological model 278-280, organismic integration theory 291f,
postural cues 230-231
279f 293-295, 294t
probability assignment 232-234,
peer influences on 140-142 organization fit, and athletic burnout
233f
motivational interviewing 44 419-420
skill development and acquisition
Motl, R.W. 85 other-efficacy 136, 139-140, 160-161
237-241, 241f
MPS-F (Multidimensional Perfection- outcome goals 42
perfectionism
ism Scale) 100 outdoor sports, for disabled veterans
athlete burnout and 104-106, 417-
MPS-H (Multidimensional Perfection- 382-383
418
ism Scale) 100 overtraining syndrome 412
described 96
MSPE (mindfulness workshops) 46 P dual nature of 96-98, 97t, 108
multidimensional anxiety theory PAC (parents as agents of change) factors in literature review 101-102
(MAT) 214-215, 215f 125-126 influence in sport 96
multidimensional model of leadership PAF (personal assets framework) 469- maladaptation and 106-108
152, 153-154, 153f 470 measurement of 100-101, 100t
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale mental health and 106
pain acceptance and anxiety 430-431
(MPS-F) 100 models of 101, 102f
parenting. See family influences
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale perils of 99
parents as agents of change (PAC)
(MPS-H) 100
125-126 research recommendations 108-109
multidimensional self-structure
parsimony principle 273 sport performance and 103-104
58-60, 59f
participation, in sports. See sport par- as vulnerability 98-100
multidisciplinary approaches, to sport
ticipation performance anxiety. See anxiety
injury research 400
participation motives 336-337 performance control perceptions 322-
N partners, in exergames 253-258, 254f, 323
narcissism 255f performance-enhancing drug (PED)
anxiety and 221, 223 PASAS (Physical Activity and Sport use
response to leadership and 156, Anxiety Scale) 85-86 coach behavior and 199
164 passion individual difference variables in
narrative inquiry 28 athletic burnout and 418 194-197
need satisfaction dualistic model 299, 300-302 research trends in 202
athlete burnout and 416 in moral behavior 198 performance goals 42
balanced theory 299 sport injuries and 389 permissive parents 119, 122
basic psychological needs theory pattern recognition 231-232 personal assets framework (PAF) 469-
291f, 296-297 PEDs. See performance-enhancing 470
cognitive evaluation theory 292 drug (PED) use personal factors in
in moral behavior 199 peer reviews, in EBM 359 leadership 153, 156, 161-162
relationships motivation theory peers motivation 157
298 acceptance and friendships of 137- personality traits, and disabilities
supportive social contexts 302f 138 379-380, 383
Index 509
PET (processing efficiency theory) practitioners 38-40 experimental designs 21-22, 31

218 Prapavessis, H. 180 intervention designs 22-24, 31
p-hacking 31 primary prevention 426 issues in 18-20, 20t
phenomenological research 27-28 proactive morality 193, 196 meta-analysis 26, 27
photovoice 29 probability assignment, in anticipation quasi-experimental design 21
physical activity. See also active free 232-234, 233f questionnaire use 275-276, 280
play; exercise groups problem-focused coping 214, 219 quiet eye training 220
in behavioral epidemiology frame- process goals 42
R
work 334, 334t processing efficiency theory (PET) 218
randomized controlled trial (RCT)
behaviors and contexts 335, 335f professional boundaries 38-39
in cognition and physical activity
behavior theories 337-341, 338f, professional competencies 9-11, 39-40
453-454
341t professional development 11
described 22-24
for chronic disease management. professional organizations 8t
RE-AIM sports setting matrix (RE-AIM
See chronic disease manage- progressive paradigm 274
SSM) 390
ment prolympism 376
referrals to other practitioners 39
cognition and. See cognition and prosocial behavior
reflective practice 40
physical activity contextual influences on 199-200
reflective processing 342-343
continuum of 334, 335f defined 193
rehabilitation adherence 395
in early childhood 121, 126 individual difference variables in
relatedness
in ecological framework 335, 335f 195, 196, 198
achievement goal theory 276-277
exergames for 249-250 prospective studies 452-453
basic psychological needs theory
health links. See specific health protective motives 81
297
issues proxy efficacy 160-161
moral behavior and 199
as injury-related barrier interven- PSDQ (Physical Self-Description Ques-
relationships motivation theory
tion 398 tionnaire) 59-60
298
motivation for. See motivation PSPP (Physical Self-Perception Profile)
self-motivation theory 157, 251
peer influences on 142-143, 144 59
supportive social contexts 302f
psychological correlates 335-336 psychological construct measurements
relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE)
self-esteem and 60-64, 63f 19
136, 139-140, 161
self-presentation and 86-88 psychological skills
relationships motivation theory (RMT)
social acceptance and 78 for anxiety 219-220
291f, 298, 304
social physique anxiety and 88 approaches to training 40
relaxation strategies 220
subjective norms and 176 for diverse populations 48
reliability, in research 20
youth trends and benefits 118, 120- strategy descriptions 40-44
replication, in research 19
121 strategy measurements 47
reproducibility, in research 19
Physical Activity and Sport Anxiety psychologists versus practitioners 38
research design issues
Scale (PASAS) 85-86 psychology 6. See also sport and exer-
achievement goal theories 275-276,
physical activity psychology (term) 4 cise psychology
280, 282
Physical Self-Description Question- psychosocial growth, in wounded vet-
age and maturity in 493-494
naire (PSDQ) 59-60 erans 381-383
anticipation research 241-242
physical self-discrepancies 64 public health context
athletic burnout 420
Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) behavior change wheel 342-343
cognition and physical activity
59 correlates to physical activity 335-
456-457
Pitts-McClure hypothesis 354-355 336
correlational design prevalence 31
planned behavior theory 338-339 habits and behavior change 343-
depression research 359-360, 365,
playing-form activity 237 344
366
Popper, K.R. 274 increasing physical activity in 334
leadership research 165
intention-behavior gap 339
positive youth development (PYD) moral behavior research 202-203
movement behaviors in 334-335,
action strategies 495-496 perfectionism research 108-109
335f, 335t
contextual features 486, 486t in public health context 345-346
nudging in behavior change 344-
defined 484, 485 self-determination theory 303
345
exemplar programs 489-491 self-perception research 67
participation motives 336-337
historical foundations 484-485 self-presentation research 90, 91
physical activity behavior theories
research recommendations 492- research methods
337-341, 338f, 341t
497 mixed-method approach 30
research recommendations 345-
research studies in 487-489 qualitative research 26-30
346
theoretical frameworks 485-486 quantitative 18-26
tailored interventions in 344
translation to physical activity con- research recommendations 30-32
PYD. See positive youth development
text 486-487 research paradigms 272-274
possible selves 66 Q resilience
posttraumatic growth 396, 398 qualitative research 26-30 in disabled athletes 380
postural cues, in anticipation 230-231 quantitative research in injury rehabilitation 398
practice activities, in sport 237-238, correlational designs 24-26 perfectionism and 98, 99, 101, 104
240-241, 241f described 18 rewards 292
510 Index
RISE (relation-inferred self-efficacy) defined 58 SMPS (Sport Multidimensional Perfec-

136, 139-140, 161 in disability sports 382, 383 tionism Scale) 100
risk compensation 399-400 as physical activity correlate 336 social actors (CASA) paradigm 254
risk-taking behaviors relation-inferred 136, 139-140, 161 social cognitive theory
self-presentation and 82, 89 in social cognitive theory 136, 338 described 338
sensation seeking 380 self-enhancement hypothesis 62-64 moral behavior application 192-
in sport injury research 399 self-esteem 193, 204, 205
RMT (relationships motivation theory) defined 58 peer research application 136, 139
291f, 298, 304 management strategies 67-68 social comparisons
roles, in group dynamics 175-176, 177 physical activity and 60-64, 63f in exergames 252-253
rumination, in athlete burnout 105 versus self-compassion 45, 68 self-perception and 58, 68
Ryan, R.M. 290-291, 414 self-handicapping tactics 68, 83 social complexity, in peer research
self-monitoring 346 135
S Self-Perception Profile 492 social identity 198
sampling (sport and play experiences) self-perceptions social influences. See also family
469, 474 athletic identity in 64-65 influences; group dynamics;
sampling issues (research) defined 58 leadership; peers
quantitative research 18-19 exerciser self-schemata in 65-66 on achievement goals 280-281
self-presentation studies 91 measurement of 59-60 on athletic burnout 419
self-system research 67 possible selves in 66 in disability sports 381-382, 383
Scale for Effective Communication in research recommendations 67-70 on injury rehabilitation 398-399
Sports Teams 179 self-discrepancies in 64 interest development and 477
SCBS (Sportsmanship Coaching self-esteem, self-concept in 58-64 on leadership 163
Behaviors Scale) 200 self-structure models 58-60, 59f, on motivation 292, 324-326
scientific advancement 272-275 60f, 61 social media
sedentary behavior self-presentation as communication forum 180
on exercise continuum 334, 335f controlling 89 ethical use of 13
as habit 343 defined 78 as online service platform 48
research recommendations 346 goals of 78 social network analysis 183, 184
self-concept and 68 harmful potential of 82 social physique anxiety (SPA) 88
selective improvement hypothesis measurement of 84-86 socioenvironmental factors. See envi-
450-451 models of 79-82, 80f, 81f ronmental influences; social
self-compassion 45, 68 origins of 79 influences
self-concept, defined 58. See also peers and 136-137 somatic anxiety 212, 215, 219
self-perceptions in physical activity context 86-88 SPA (social physique anxiety) 88
self-concordance model 299 research recommendations 90-91 spatial occlusion method 230-231
self-confidence, and anxiety 216 risky behaviors and 82, 89 specific peers 135, 136
self-criticism self-esteem and 67-68 SPEQ (Self-Presentation in Exercise
athlete burnout and 104-105 in sport context 88-89 Questionnaire) 85
in perfectionism 97-101, 102f tactics for 82-84, 83t SPES (Self-Presentation Efficacy Scale)
self-determination theory self-presentation efficacy 87-88 88
athlete burnout application 415- Self-Presentation Efficacy Scale (SPES) Spink, K.S. 180
416 88 spirituality, in sport injury research
described 290-291, 340, 414-415 Self-Presentation in Exercise Question- 400
exergames based on 251 naire (SPEQ) 85 sport and exercise psychology. See
extensions of 298-302 Self-Presentation in Sport Question- also physical activity; sport per-
interest development and 470-473, naire (SPSQ) 85-86 formance
471t, 473f Self-Presentation Motives for Physical defined 4-6
mini-theories within 291-298, 291f, Activity Questionnaire (SMPAQ) history of 6-9, 354-355
304 85 individual differences in. See indi-
moral behavior application 196, self-report measures 19 vidual differences
202 self-talk 41, 220 journals of 9t
motivational leadership application self-worth knowledge translation in 11-13,
156-157 athlete burnout and 104-105, 106 47-48
motivation continuum 294t in perfectionism 99-100 morality issues. See moral behavior
peer research application 136 sensation seeking 380 novel constructs in 44-47
practical applications 302, 302f sibling influence, on sport participa- organizations for 8t
research recommendations 302- tion 124 parent disciplines 6
304 simulation training, for anticipation practitioners of 38-40
return to play application 396 238 professional competencies in 9-11,
self-efficacy Smith, R.E. 412-413 39-40
in chronic disease management SMPAQ (Self-Presentation Motives for psychological strategies in 40-44,
429-430, 433-434, 436-437 Physical Activity Questionnaire) 47
of coaches 159-161 85 research in. See research methods
Index 511
societal relevance challenge 367 interest development and 470-478, TREAD-UK trial 362-365, 363f, 364f,
socioenvironmental factors. See 471t, 473f 366
environmental influences; research recommendations 478-479 tripartite model of perfectionism 101,
social influences task orientation 102f
sport entrapment 412t, 413-414 in achievement motivation theory Triplett, Norman 7
sport injuries 119, 157-158, 195, 267 TRIPP (translating research into sport
concussions 395 athlete burnout and 414 injury prevention practice) 390
defined 388 incremental mind-set and 315 TTM (transtheoretical model) 339-
prevention of 390-391 moral behavior and 196 340, 340t
rehabilitation interventions 397- in motivational climate 141 2 × 2 models
398, 397t in perfectionism 107 achievement motivation 195, 269
research recommendations 399-400 as physical activity correlate 336 perfectionism 101, 102f
response assessment 397, 397t teachers, leadership in 155, 156 self-presentation 80-82, 81f
responses to 392-396 Teaching Personal and Social Respon- two-component models
response theories 391-392, 393f sibility 489-490, 490t perfectionism 101, 102f
return to play 396-397 team building 179-182, 181f self-presentation 79-80, 80f
vulnerability to 388-390 team perfectionism 103
team science 343 V
Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism
team sports validity, in research 20, 20t, 27, 30
Scale (SMPS) 100
cohesion in 178 Vallerand, R.J. 299-300
sport participation. See also team
communication in 179, 180 vascular endoethelial growth factor
sports
as group dynamics focus 172-173 (VEGF) 456
developmental model 469
home advantage 174-175 verbal abuse, of opponents 200-201
disability sports 379-383
norms in 177 verbal self-presentation tactics 82-83
family influence on 123-124
teamwork theory 174 veterans, disabled 381-383, 383-384
peer relationships and 137-139
technology use. See also exergames virtual partners 254-258, 255f
youth trends in 118
communication 180 vision. See eye gaze behavior
sport performance. See also anticipa-
tion; anxiety ethics and 13 W
arousal in 213-214, 222-223 motivation and 304, 346 war veterans 381-383, 383-384
perfectionism and 103-104 online interviews 29 Wegner, D.M. 217-218
performance control perceptions online service platforms 48 Weinberg, R.S. 22
322-323 research uses 281 Williams, J.M. 388-389
self-presentation and 88-89 temporal occlusion method 230-231 writing, as data analysis 30
sport psychology (term) 4 temporal selves 383
Sportsmanship Coaching Behaviors tertiary prevention 426 Y
Scale (SCBS) 200 test of interaction or moderation 21 Yates, Dorothy 8
sports medicine psychology TFAI (Three-Factor Anxiety Inventory) YES (Youth Experiences Survey) 493
interventions in 397-399 213, 222 the yips 104
postinjury psychology 391-397 thematic analysis 29-30 youth. See also positive youth develop-
preinjury psychology 388-391 theoretical domains framework 341, ment (PYD)
research recommendations 399- 342t cognition and physical activity in
400 theory, defined 337 454, 455
sport specialization 469 theory of planned behavior (TPB) cohesion in 178
sportspersonship orientations 197 338-339 correlates of physical activity in
SPSQ (Self-Presentation in Sport Ques- 3 × 2 models 270 335-336
tionnaire) 85-86 3C Model 158-159 moral behavior research on 203
stages of change 339-340, 340t Three-Factor Anxiety Inventory (TFAI) motivation orientation in 321-322,
Steinberg, L. 120, 125 213, 222 323-324
three Ps, in developmental systems norms effects on 177
stress
470 perceived autonomy in 319-321
in athlete burnout 412-413, 412t
tiger moms 122 perceived competence in 316-319,
in sport parents 124
TPB (theory of planned behavior) 317t
stress and injury model 388-389
338-339 performance control perceptions in
structural development theories 192-
training. See athletic training; psycho- 322-323
193, 204, 205
logical skills physical activity in 118, 120-121,
subjective norms 177, 339
training-form activity 237 126
survey-based studies 24-26
trait anxiety 212, 219 psychological skills training for
SwanBoat (exergame) 253
transactional leadership 154 48
systems model, in sport injury
transcontextual model 340, 391 self-esteem, self-concept in 61-62,
research 390-391
transformational leadership 154-155 63
T translating research into sport injury sport specialization in 469
talent development prevention practice (TRIPP) 390 talent development in. See talent
developmental pathway 475 transtheoretical model (TTM) 339- development
developmental systems 468-470 340, 340t Youth Experiences Survey (YES) 493
About the Editors
Thelma S. Horn, PhD, is a professor and member of the
graduate faculty at Miami University of Ohio. Horn is an
editorial board member of several journals in the sport
and exercise psychology and general psychology fields.
She is a former editor and associate editor of the Journal
of Sport & Exercise Psychology and was an associate editor
for the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology.
Photo courtesy of Jennifer Edwards, Miami University.

Horn received her PhD in psychology of sport and
physical activity from Michigan State University. She
earned a master of arts degree in coaching behavior
from Western Michigan University at Kalamazoo and
a bachelor of arts degree in psychology from Calvin
College in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Besides being editor of the previous three editions
of Advances in Sport Psychology, Horn has published
many articles on topics within the psychology of sport
and physical activity field. In 1999, she was co-winner
of the research writing award from Research Quarterly
for Exercise and Sport. Horn also was recently inducted
as a fellow in the National Academy of Kinesiology. In
her free time, Horn enjoys reading, writing, running,
and spending time with family and friends.
Alan L. Smith, PhD, is a professor and the chairperson

of the department of kinesiology at Michigan State
University. Smith has served as associate editor of the
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology and on the edito-
rial boards of Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly; Child
Development; International Journal of Sport Psychology;
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology; Kinesiology Review;
and Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology. Smith
is a fellow of the National Academy of Kinesiology (USA)
and is a past president of the North American Society for
the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity.
Smith received his PhD in exercise and movement
Photo courtesy of Jeffrey Seguin.
science from the University of Oregon. He earned a

master of science degree in exercise and sport science
from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro
and a bachelor of arts degree in psychology from the
University of Rochester (New York).
Smith’s research addresses the link between young
people’s sport and physical activity involvement and
their psychological and social functioning. He is widely
known for his research on peer relationships in the phys-
ical activity domain and the motivational implications
of these relationships for children and adolescents. His work has been funded by the National Institute
of Mental Health and the U.S. Department of Education as well as other agencies. In his free time, Smith
enjoys running and spending time with his family.
512
Contributors
Veronica Allan, MSc Martin S. Hagger, PhD
Queen's University, Canada Curtin University, Australia
Mark R. Beauchamp, PhD Howard K. Hall, PhD
University of British Columbia, Canada York St John University, UK
Stuart J.H. Biddle, PhD Nicholas L. Holt, PhD
University of Southern Queensland, Australia University of Alberta, Canada
Ian D. Boardley, PhD Meghan Ingstrup, MA
University of Birmingham, UK University of Alberta, Canada
Lawrence R. Brawley, PhD Ben Jackson, PhD
University of Saskatchewan, Canada University of Western Australia, Australia
David P. Broadbent, PhD Christopher M. Janelle, PhD
Brunel University, UK University of Florida, USA
Jennifer Brunet, PhD Richard J. Keegan, PhD
University of Ottawa, Canada University of Canberra, Australia
Valerie Carson, PhD Todd M. Loughead, PhD
University of Alberta, Canada University of Windsor, Canada
Miranda A. Cary, MSc Jeffrey J. Martin, PhD
University of Saskatchewan, Canada Wayne State University, USA
Yu-Kai Chang, PhD Kathleen T. Mellano, MS
National Taiwan Sport University, Taiwan Michigan State University, USA
Jean Côté, PhD Krista J. Munroe-Chandler, PhD
Queen's University, Canada University of Windsor, Canada
Peter R.E. Crocker, PhD Colm P. Murphy, BSc
University of British Columbia, Canada Brunel University, UK
Thomas Curran, PhD Kacey C. Neely, PhD
University of Bath, UK University of Alberta, Canada
Panteleimon Ekkekakis, PhD Rich Neil, PhD
Iowa State University, USA Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK
Robert C. Eklund, PhD Jocelyn L. Newton, PhD
Florida State University, USA University of Wisconsin–LaCrosse, USA
Jennifer L. Etnier, PhD Christine E. Pacewicz, MA
University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA Michigan State University, USA
M. Blair Evans, PhD Kurtis Pankow, BSc
Pennsylvania State University, USA University of Alberta, Canada
Mark Eys, PhD Shannon Pynn, BPE
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada University of Alberta, Canada
Deborah L. Feltz, PhD Thomas D. Raedeke, PhD
Michigan State University, USA East Carolina University, USA
Jenna D. Gilchrist, MA Peter C. Rouse, PhD
University of Toronto, Canada University of Bath, UK
Michelle D. Guerrero, MHK Hayley C. Russell, PhD
University of Windsor, Canada Gustavus Adolphus College, USA
Nancy Gyurcsik, PhD Catherine M. Sabiston, PhD
University of Saskatchewan, Canada University of Toronto, Canada
513
514 Contributors
Stephen Samendinger, PhD Matthew Vierimaa, PhD

Michigan State University, USA Queen's University, Canada
Christopher Shields, PhD Maureen R. Weiss, PhD
Acadia University, Canada University of Minnesota, USA
Brett Smith, PhD Andrew C. White, MA
University of Birmingham, UK University of Minnesota, USA
Martyn Standage, PhD Diane M. Wiese-Bjornstal, PhD, CCC-AASP
University of Bath, UK University of Minnesota, USA
Jennifer Turnnidge, MSc A. Mark Williams, PhD
Queen's University, Canada University of Utah, USA
Sarah Ullrich-French, PhD Kristin N. Wood, MA, ATC
Washington State University, USA University of Minnesota, USA
Ineke Vergeer, PhD Tim Woodman, PhD
University of Southern Queensland, Australia Bangor University, UK

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Advances

Thelma S. Horn, PhD

Alan L. Smith, PhD

PART I Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology 1

Chapter 3 Applied Sport and Exercise or Physical Activity Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . 37

PART II Individual Differences in Behavior 55

Self-Esteem and Self-Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Chapter 5 Self-Presentation Concerns in Physical Activity and Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Self-Presentation Origins and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Chapter 6 Perfectionism in Competitive Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Debating the Meaning of Perfectionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

PART III Socioenvironmental Factors 115

Definitions of Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Chapter 8 Peers and Psychological Experiences in Physical Activity Settings . . . . . 133

Chapter 9 Leadership in Physical Activity Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Major Theoretical Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Relevancy of Group Dynamics Across Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

PART IV Behavior and Performance 189

Structural Development Versus Social Cognitive Perspectives on Moral Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Chapter 12 Performance Anxiety, Arousal, and Coping in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Defining and Operationalizing Anxiety, Arousal, and Coping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Chapter 13 Anticipation in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Key Perceptual-Cognitive Skills Underpinning Anticipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Chapter 14 Exergames to Enhance Physical Activity and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Exergame Modalities and Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

PART V Motivated Behavior 263

History of Achievement Goal Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Chapter 16 Self-Determination-Based Theories of Sport, Exercise,

Chapter 17 Developmentally Based Perspectives on Motivated Behavior

Theories on Motivated Behavior in Sport and Physical Activity Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Chapter 18 Public Health Perspectives on Motivation

Psychological Correlates of Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

PART VI Health 351

A 50-Year Chronicle of Contrasting Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Chapter 20 Disability, Physical Activity, and Psychological Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Chapter 21 Sports Medicine Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Preinjury Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

Chapter 22 Athlete Burnout in Competitive Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Defining and Measuring Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

Chapter 23 Physical Activity and Self-Management of Chronic Disease . . . . . . . . . . 425

Physical Activity as a Primary and Tertiary Prevention Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

PART VII Lifespan and Developmental Issues 445

Theories for the Effects of Physical Activity on Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Chapter 25 Youth Talent Development in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

Developmental Systems in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Chapter 26 Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity:

Historical Foundations of PYD in Youth Sport Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

­ articipation. The one that was consistently the

Disciplinary Links time. Even so, as discussed later in this chapter, an

Areas of Specialization in Kinesiology and Psychology

AASP Special Interest Groups

• Adaptive Sport and Physical Activity • Performance Consulting in Collegiate Sport

­ amulski, 2003; Wylleman, Harwood, Elbe, Reints

references Biddle, S.J.H., Markland, D., Gilbourne, D., Chatzisa-

Table 2.1 Forms of Validity and Methods to Support Them

Research Designs measures of performance (e.g., time spent on a task)

Types of Experimental Design

Experiments in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Interventions in Sport and Exercise Psychology

because of the intervention and reflect the pro- Correlational Designs

How Psychologists Develop Surveys

a questionnaire. Because questionnaires often significance, because statistical significance of an

Meta-Analytic Research in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Allen-Collinson, 2016). Perhaps the most popular Collecting and Analyzing

articipation. The one that was consistently the

amulski, 2003; Wylleman, Harwood, Elbe, Reints

sychological or physical injury to another; Husman