What is NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) ?

NDT refers to an array of inspection techniques that allow inspectors to collect data about a
material without damaging it.

NDT stands for Non-Destructive Testing. It refers to an array of inspection methods that
allow inspectors to evaluate and collect data about a material, system, or component without
permanently altering it.

In the field, NDT is often used as an umbrella term to refer to non-destructive inspection
methods, inspection tools, or even the entire field of non-destructive inspections.

For commercial applications, the goal of NDT is to ensure that critical infrastructure is

properly maintained in order to avoid catastrophic accidents.

While NDT methods are typically associated with industrial use cases, like inspecting weak
points in a boiler at an oil refinery, uses in medicine are actually some of the most common.

For example, an expecting mother getting an ultrasound to check on the health of her baby
would be considered an NDT use case, as would getting an X-ray or MRI to learn more
about an injury.

But it’s important to note that NDT does not necessarily require the use of special tools, or
any tools at all.

For instance, when inspectors in industrial settings review the outside of a pressure vessel
with their naked eye, that would fall under the NDT designation, since they are collecting
data on the status of the boiler without damaging it. On the other hand, using a sophisticated
tool like an ultrasonic sensor to look for defects in a certain material or asset would also be
called NDT.

What is the importance of NDT (Non-Destructive Testing)?

When it comes to ensuring that assets are properly maintained, the importance of non-
destructive testing cannot be over emphasized.

Here are the top reasons NDT is used by so many companies throughout the world:

 Savings. The most obvious answer to this question is that NDT is more appealing than
destructive testing because it allows the material or object being examined to survive the
examination unharmed, thus saving money and resources.
 Safety. NDT is also appealing because almost all NDT techniques (except radiographic
testing) are harmless to people.
 Efficiency. NDT methods allow for the thorough and relatively quick evaluation of assets,
which can be crucial for ensuring continued safety and performance on a job site.
 Accuracy. NDT methods have been proven accurate and predictable, both qualities you
want when it comes to maintenance procedures meant to ensure the safety of personnel and
the longevity of equipment.

"NDT is the life blood of a well-run facility, and the high importance of NDT is known by
any trained inspector. NDT techniques and repeatable results depend on highly trained
technicians with experience and integrity. Not only does the technician need to be certified
in a specific NDT method, but they also need to know how to operate the equipment being
used to gather data. Understanding equipment capabilities and limitations is the difference
between making an accept or reject determination."

Discuss different types of NDT methods?

1. Thermal/Infrared Testing

Flash Thermography for Battery Inspection

Infrared Non-Destructive Testing has been around for more than 30 years, but has recently
gained more momentum. Infrared non-destructive testing is based on the principle of
thermal wave imaging. It is considered an active thermography method, as opposed to a
passive method.
The active part comes from using an external heat source to warm up the part. Whereas in
standard thermography, the camera is usually capturing heat, inherent to the process.

Examples of Thermal/Infrared Inspections:

Finding disbonds in aluminum structures like on an aircraft fuselage or seeing corrosion

behind painted surfaces. Other examples include: identifying failure points in
microelectronics, evaluating laser weld penetration, and visualizing wheel cracks.

2. Radiography Testing

Radiographic testing (RT) uses X-radiation or gamma radiation to find imperfections in a

component or system. An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is used to send radiation
into the material being tested. The radiations are then caught by a detector. The resulting
shadowgraph is then used by inspectors to look for potential issues.

Example of Radiography Inspections:

X-rays and CT scans can be used in industrial radiography to see detailed images of the
tested material.

3. Visual Inspections

Visual testing is a way of checking the condition of a material by looking at it. This is the
most basic form of testing, and you can do it just by looking at the material. For more
detailed visual inspections, you can use a Remote Visual Inspection device to get a closer
look.

Example of Visual Testing:

Maintenance professionals use the visual testing method on a daily basis to check for
common signs of wear and tear on industrial machinery.
4. Leak Testing

Leak testing is used to study leaks and identify defects in structures or vessels. Inspectors
often use soap-bubble examinations, pressure gauges, and listening devices to conduct leak
testing.

Example of Leak Testing:

A good example of leak testing is using it to find leaks in sealed packaging or devices that
do not include an opening for filling.

5. Acoustic Emission Testing

Accoustic Emission Testing (Image Source)

Acoustic emission (AE) testing uses acoustic emissions to identify potential defects in an
asset. This testing involves looking for acoustic energy bursts, as these bursts indicate
defects. The arrival time, location and intensity of a burst are also examined to identify
potential issues.

Example of Acoustic Emission Testing:

AE testing is commonly used to inspect structures such as pressure vessels, pipelines,

storage tanks, aircraft structures and steel cables for any defects.

6. Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing uses high-frequency sound waves to detect and evaluate flaws, measure
dimensions, and characterize materials. It is performed with an ultrasonic receiver and
transmitter.

Example of Ultrasonic Inspections:

Ultrasonic testing can be used to identify defects and deformation in the wheels and axles of
railway carriages.

7. Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle testing is a process of detecting flaws in a material by observing

disruptions in the flow of the material’s magnetic field. To carry out these tests, an inspector
first induces a magnetic field in a magnetically susceptible asset. They then sprinkle iron
particles over the surface of the material. These particles will reveal any disruptions,
providing a visual indication of where the imperfections are located.

Examples of Magnetic Particle Testing:

A good example for magnetic particle testing is using it to inspect internal and external
surfaces of boiler and pressure vessels.

8. Liquid Penetrant Testing

When conducting liquid penetrant testing, an inspector will apply a coating of liquid with a
fluorescent or visible dye to an asset. They will then remove any excess solution from the
surface of the asset. The remaining solution is left in any breaks or defects in the surface.
These defects will be revealed by the dye, which can then be removed using ultraviolet
light. With regular dyes, inspectors will study defects by the contrast between the developer
and penetrant.

Example of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:

 A good example for penetrant testing can be used for inspecting weld metal build-up on
plates.

9. Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is a form of electromagnetic testing where inspectors measure the
strength of eddy currents (electrical currents) in a material’s magnetic field. By looking for
interruptions in the current, inspectors can often spot defects in the asset or material.

Examples of Eddy Current Testing:

This type of test method can be used for surface scanning, subsurface inspection, weld
inspection, fastener hole inspection, tube inspection, heat treatment verification, and metal
grade sorting.

Make a list of different types of wrenches and discuss about any five type of wrenches
which are mostly used?

Following are the 31 types of wrenches and their uses:

1. According to the Standard Types of Wrenches

1. Pipe wrench
2. Chain wrench
3. Socket wrench
4. Torque wrench
5. Ratcheting Wrench
6. Oil Filter Wrench
7. Combination wrench
 8. Adjustable wrench
9. Impact Wrench
10. Crowfoot Wrench
2. According to the Special Types of Wrenches
1. Pedal Wrench
2. Monkey wrench
3. Pliers Wrench
4. Strap wrench
5. Plumber’s Wrench
6. Tap Wrench
7. Spud Wrench
8. Alligator Wrench
9. Basin Wrench
10. Armorer’s Wrench
11. Dog Bone Wrench
12. Drum Key
13. Bung Wrench
14. Fan Clutch Wrench
15. Hammer Wrench
16. Torx Key
17. Cone Wrench
18. Garbage Disposal Wrench
19. Tension Wrench
20. Spoke Wrench
21. Spanner Wrench

#1 Pipe Wrench

Pipe Wrench
As per its name, this spanner is used to fasten or dismantle pipes and their units. Its jaw is
made of forging tough steel. On its movable jaw flat threads are cut and on its fixed jaw, a
plate is joined with a groove In it.

A knurled round nut is fitted in this groove. On revolving this nut, the movable jaw
increases or reduces the size by moving up or down. A spring is fixed between the fixed and
movable jaw, which helps in the proper grip of the job. Pipe wrenches are made of 6”, 9”,
and 18”.

#2 Chain Wrench

Chain Wrench
In order to fasten or dismantle pipes or round jobs of larger diameter, a chain wrench is
used. When the job is held in the wrench it is revolved. A plate having cuts in its mouth is
fitted, which is joined with a rivet. Chain drips the job very strongly.
 #3 Socket Wrench

Socket Wrench
The socket wrench (or ratchet) uses a ratcheting mechanism to allow you to quickly tighten
or loosen the nuts or bolts without removing the wrench from the fastener.

This type of wrench is available with 1/4″, 3/8″ (most common), 1/2″, and 1″ drives, you fit
just the right size socket you will need at the top of the drive. If an obstacle is found while
turning the handle, You can reverse the course just to give yourself room and then continue
working.

#4 Torque Wrench

Torque Wrench
These types of wrenches are made to provide a certain amount of torque without overtaking
or tightening. There can be different types available (involving manual, digital, and other
variations).

It is commonly used for automotive work for tightening wheel lug nuts. A torque wrench
may be used on bicycles, farming equipment, or any situation where tightening the nut or
bolt to a particular torque specification is usually determined by the manufacturer.

#5 Ratcheting Wrench

Ratcheting Wrench
The ratcheting wrench is similar to the combination wrench, the ratcheting wrench has at
least one end inside which is a ratcheting device.

This wrench permits you to turn the wrench to tighten or loosen without removing and
readjusting the position of the wrench handle hitting an obstacle after each turn. This makes
it very easy to work in tight areas.

Write short notes on Vibration monitor, compressor and chain pulley block?

Vibration monitor:
 It is a device which analyse or monitor vibration caused by mainly unbalancing. ibration analysis
is a process of looking for anomalies and monitoring change from the established vibration
signature of a system. The vibration of any object in motion is characterized by variations of
amplitude, intensity, and frequency. These vibration signatures can be correlated to physical
phenomena, making it possible to use vibration data to gain insights into the health of equipment.
Vibration analysis can be used to:

 Find a developing problem that can be repaired to increase machine lifetime

 Detect and monitor a chronic problem that cannot be repaired and will only get worse
 Establish acceptance testing criteria to ensure that installation/repairs are properly conducted
 24/7 continuous vibration monitoring can be use to predict failures as part of a 

Motor Vibration Monitoring

Motors will likely experience high vibration levels at some point during their lifetime.
Performing predictive maintenance through motor vibration monitoring can prevent issues
resulting from a variety of motor faults, including those often found in motor bearings, gearboxes
and rotors:

Bearing Condition Monitoring

Bearing defects are often the source of vibration in machinery, but bearing condition monitoring
can help keep identify these defects and determine when repairs or replacements are needed.
Bearing defects can include excessive loads, true or false brinelling, over heating, reverse
loading, normal fatigue failure, corrosion, loose or tight fits, and misalignment, among other
potential problems.

Gearbox Vibration Monitoring

Another application for machine condition monitoring includes gearbox vibration monitoring. In
gearboxes, impacting and friction can occur, and a single crack in a gear could cause a slight
change in speed once the defective teeth are inside of the load zone. This will result in impacting,
and if there is insufficient lubrication for the gear teeth, friction will also occur. Machine
vibration monitoring can detect these instances of impacting and friction in predictive
maintenance.

Rotor Vibration Monitoring

There are several causes of lateral vibrations in rotors, including instability and unbalance, along
with other types of forces impacting the rotor. Cracks are often formed, frequently leading to
reduced natural frequencies as a result of reduced rigidness. Rotor vibration analysis can monitor
the rotor’s behavior to help locate a developed crack.

Compressor:
compressor, device for increasing the pressure of a gas by mechanically decreasing its volume.
Air is the most frequently compressed gas but natural gas, oxygen, nitrogen, and other
industrially important gases are also compressed. The three general types of compressors are
positive displacement, centrifugal, and axial. Positive displacement compressors are usually of
the reciprocating piston type, in which the gas is drawn in during the suction stroke of the piston,
compressed by decreasing the volume of the gas by moving the piston in the opposite direction,
and, lastly, discharged when the gas pressure exceeds the pressure acting on the outlet
valve. Reciprocating compressors are useful for supplying small amounts of a gas at relatively
high pressures.

Centrifugal compressors increase the kinetic energy of the gas with a high-speed impeller and
then convert this energy into increased pressure in a divergent outlet passage called the diffuser.
Centrifugal compressors are particularly suited for compressing large volumes of gas
to moderate pressures. In axial compressors the gas flows parallel to the axis of rotation of the
rotor, which has many rows of aerodynamically shaped blades extending radially outward. The
rotor is surrounded by a stationary casing that contains a similar number of rows of blades
extending inward and fitting between the rows of rotor blades. As gas passes through the
compressor, its velocity is alternately increased and decreased. During each increase in velocity
the kinetic energy of the gas is increased, and during each decrease in velocity this kinetic energy
is converted into an increase in pressure. This type of compressor is used for jet aircraft engines
and gas turbines.

Chain pulley block:

A Chain Block is a lifting and lowering device that uses a chain to raise and lower large items.
Chain blocks are made up of two wheels around which a chain is coiled. 
Whenever you pull on the Hand chain, it wraps around the wheels and starts to hoist the object. It
has been secured to the rope or chain using a hook and chain. Additionally, lifting slings or chain
bags might have chain blocks connected to them to distribute the weight equally.
Chain blocks are a very adaptable method of lifting heavy weights, and they are often controlled
by hand. Lifting chain, hand chain, and base hook are components of a typical Chain Block. 
The base hook of the Chain Pulley Block connects it to the object’s weight. Consider utilizing
slings to help you keep track of bigger items. Tension builds when the hand chain is pulled,
which causes the weight to rise from the ground and creates tension in the internal chain.
A Chain Block comprises three major components: a load chain, a hand chain, and a hook. Chain
blocks are also powered by electricity, although manual chain blocks may also be utilized in
many situations. 
The grasping hook must be used to link the chain block to the load before using it. 
Chain Blocks are often employed in garages because of their lifting capabilities, which allow
them to quickly and efficiently remove engines from automobiles. Because a single person can
control them, Chain Blocks are an incredibly efficient method to execute operations that would
otherwise need more than two personnel. 
Installation and maintenance of machinery may be done using chain block lifting equipment.
They are also ideal for overhead work and small places. You can choose also an alternative of a
Chain Pully Block is Electric Chain Hoist.
Discuss about usage of lubrication in industry and lubricants?

Lubrication:

Lubrication can be defined as the application of some materials between two objects moving
relative to each other to allow smooth operation as much as necessary. Either oil or grease is used
for rolling bearings to prevent noise, wear and tear, and heat from being generated from their
rolling and sliding movements, and in some special cases, solid lubricants are occasionally used.
The amounts and kinds of lubricants for rolling bearings are determined depending on operation
speed, temperature, and surrounding condition, and so on. Because lubricants have spent their
service-life or polluted with foreign materials, they cannot serve their function well hence they
have to be periodically replaced or oiled.

Purpose of Lubrication:
The main purposes of lubrication are as follows: i. To prevent wear and premature fatigue by
forming the lubrication film on the surface of load transferring parts to prevent contacts between
metals. ii. To enhance the favorable driving characteristics, such as low noise or friction. iii. To
prevent overheating of bearings and to prevent lubricants deterioration by radiating the generated
heat to outside. It works particularly well if the circulation lubrication method is adopted. iv. To
prevent foreign material penetration, rust, and corrosion.

Lubricants:
In all types of machines, the surfaces of moving or sliding or rolling parts rub against each other.
Due to the mutual rubbing of one part against another, a resistance is offered to their movement.
This resistance is known as friction. It causes a lot of wear and tear of surfaces of moving parts.
Any substance introduced between two moving/sliding surfaces with a view to reduce the friction
(or frictional resistance) between them, is known as a lubricants. The main purpose of a lubricant
is to keep the moving/sliding surfaces apart, so that friction and consequent destruction of
material is minimized. The process of reducing friction between moving/sliding surfaces, by the
introduction of lubricants in between them, is called lubrication.

Function of Lubricants:
(1) It reduces wear and tear of the surfaces by avoiding direct metal to metal contact between the
rubbing surfaces, i.e. by introducing lubricants between the two surfaces (2) It reduces expansion
of metal due to frictional heat and destruction of material (3) It acts as coolant of metal due to
heat transfer media (4) It avoids unsmooth relative motion (5) It reduces maintenance cost (6) It
also reduces power loss in internal combustion engines

Classification of Lubricants:
Lubricants are classified on the basis of their physical state, as follows; (a) Liquid lubricants or
Lubricating Oils, (b) Semi-solid lubricants or Greases and (c) Solid lubricants. (a) Liquid
lubricants or Lubricating oils: Lubricating oils also known as liquid lubricants and further
classified into three categories; (i) Animal and Vegetables oils, (ii) Mineral or Petroleum oils and
(iii) blended oils.