J Appl Physiol 123: 190–196, 2017.
First published May 4, 2017; doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00924.2016.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Aging and Exercise
Lower limb explosive strength capacity in elderly women: effects of
resistance training and healthy diet
Peter Edholm, Emelie Strandberg, and Fawzi Kadi
School of Health and Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
Submitted 18 October 2016; accepted in final form 27 April 2017
Edholm P, Strandberg E, Kadi F. Lower limb explosive strength
capacity in elderly women: effects of resistance training and healthy
diet. J Appl Physiol 123: 190 –196, 2017. First published May 4, 2017;
doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00924.2016.—The effects of 24 wk of re-
sistance training combined with a healthy diet on lower limb explo-
sive strength capacity were investigated in a population of healthy
elderly women. Participants (n ⫽ 63; 67.5 ⫾ 0.4 yr) were randomized
into three groups; resistance training (RT), resistance training and
healthy diet (RT-HD), and control (CON). Progressive resistance
training was performed at a load of 75– 85% one-repetition maximum.
A major adjustment in the healthy dietary approach was an n-6/n-3
polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratio below 2. Lower limb maxi-
mal strength, explosive force capacity during dynamic and isometric
movements, whole body lean mass, and physical function
were assessed. Whole body lean mass significantly increased by
1.5 ⫾ 0.5% in RT-HD only. Isometric strength performance during
knee extension as well as the performance in the five sit-to-stand and
single-leg-stance tests increased similarly in RT and RT-HD. Im-
provements in dynamic peak power and time to reach peak power (i.e
shorter time) during knee extension occurred in both RT (⫹15.7 ⫾ 2.6
and ⫺11.0 ⫾ 3.8%, respectively) and RT-HD (⫹24.6 ⫾ 2.6 and
⫺20.3 ⫾ 2.7%, respectively); however, changes were significantly
larger in RT-HD. Similarly, changes in peak force and rate of force
development during squat jump were higher in RT-HD (⫹58.5 ⫾ 8.4
and ⫹185.4 ⫾ 32.9%, respectively) compared with RT (⫹35.7 ⫾ 6.9
and ⫹105.4 ⫾ 22.4%, respectively). In conclusion, a healthy diet rich
in n-3 PUFA can optimize the effects of resistance training on
dynamic explosive strength capacity during isolated lower limb move-
ments and multijoint exercises in healthy elderly women.
NEW & NOTEWORTHY Age-related decline in lower limb explo-
sive strength leads to impaired ability to perform daily living tasks.
The present randomized controlled trial demonstrates that a healthy
diet rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) enhances
resistance training-induced gains in dynamic explosive strength ca-
pacity during isolated lower limb movements and multijoint exercises
in healthy elderly women. This supports the use of strategies com-
bining resistance training and dietary changes to mitigate the decline
in explosive strength capacity in older adults.
aging; muscle mass; omega-3 fatty acids; rate of force development;
physical function
THE GRADUAL LOSS of muscle mass and muscle function in
elderly contributes to a progressive loss of independence and
deterioration of quality of life (7). Elderly women are partic-
ularly vulnerable given a lower muscle mass and muscle
strength compared with elderly men, even when normalized for
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: F. Kadi, School of
Health and Medical Sciences, Örebro Univ., 701 82 Örebro, Sweden (e-mail:
fawzi.kadi@oru.se).
190 8750-7587/17 Copyright © 2017 the American Physiological Society
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body mass (35). As age-related functional disabilities are more
common among women than men, special attention should be
paid to the design of exercise-based preventive approaches
aiming to delay the loss of muscle function and muscle mass in
elderly women (24).
Additionally, given that older adults may spend more years
healthy and disability free than past and current elderly popu-
lations (29), it is important to gain more knowledge on exer-
cise-based interventions in apparently healthy elderly.
The ability to rapidly generate muscle force (i.e., explosive
capacity) is one of the strongest predictors of functional status
in elderly (12). A decline in lower limb explosive capacity in
older adults has been linked to impaired ability to perform
daily living tasks including climbing stairs and rising from a
chair together with reduced ability to recover from a trip or a
slip, which is important in fall prevention (35, 36). Addition-
ally, several reports have highlighted a greater age-related
decline in lower limb explosive capacity compared with max-
imal muscle strength (2, 17, 22, 35). Among strategies used to
delay the decline in muscle function, resistance training is
currently considered as the most important nonpharmacologi-
cal preventive measure (30). The ability of resistance training
to improve explosive capacity in elderly has previously been
investigated, and significant changes have been reported in
some (9, 16, 19, 21, 23) but not all studies (13, 18, 37). Taken
together, these studies clearly show that compared with
changes in maximal muscle strength, improvements of the
explosive capacity have been less frequently reported in aged
populations. In addition, despite large increases in maximal
muscle strength, several studies reported no improvements in
whole body lean mass of healthy elderly women in response to
resistance training alone (20, 25, 46). The so-called “anabolic
resistance” has been put forward as a putative mechanism
behind blunted hypertrophic response in resistance-trained
older subjects (14). Accordingly, there is a growing interest in
identifying dietary strategies able to optimize the myotrophic
effects of resistance training. Recently, Smith et al. (38, 39)
reported that supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid (n-3 PUFA)-rich fish oil enhances muscle mass, muscle
strength and muscle protein synthesis rate through activation of
the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) growth signaling
pathway in elderly men. Furthermore, increased n-3 PUFA
intake can reduce serum levels of the proinflammatory precur-
sor arachidonic acid and total n-3 fatty acids were indepen-
dently associated with lower levels of proinflammatory mark-
ers and higher levels of anti-inflammatory markers (10, 41).
Therefore, it is hypothesized that resistance training combined
with a healthy diet rich in n-3 PUFA in elderly women would
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 Aging, Explosive Strength, Resistance Training, and Diet • Edholm P et al.
have additive effects on gains in explosive muscle performance
compared with resistance training alone. We have previously
conducted a three-armed block-randomized, controlled trial on
the combined effects of resistance training and a whole diet
approach rich in n-3 PUFA over 24 wk in a population of
healthy and physically active elderly women (41). In the
present study, we aimed to determine the effects of this
intervention on maximal strength, explosive force capacity,
and physical function in the same study population.
METHODS
Study Design
A three-armed block-randomized, controlled trial on the effects of
resistance training and diet in elderly women has previously been
performed (41). Here we report on the effects of the intervention on
explosive muscle performance and physical function in the same
study population. Participants were assigned to a control group [CON:
n ⫽ 18; 67.5 ⫾ 0.3 yr, 67.7 ⫾ 2.0 kg, 165.1 ⫾ 1.1 cm, and body mass
index (BMI) ⫽ 24.8 ⫾ 0.7 kg/m2], resistance training (RT: n ⫽ 17,
67.9 ⫾ 0.5 yr, 65.8 ⫾ 2.0 kg, 163.1 ⫾ 1.4 cm, and BMI ⫽ 24.6 ⫾ 0.7
kg/m2), and resistance plus healthy diet (RT-HD: n ⫽ 20, 67.2 ⫾ 0.3
yr, 65.7 ⫾ 2.4 kg, 164.5 ⫾ 1.2 cm, and BMI ⫽ 24.3 ⫾ 0.9 kg/m2).
All subjects were carefully informed about the design of the study
including possible risks of the experimental procedures before written
informed consent was obtained. The study was conducted according
to the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the regional ethical
review board of Uppsala, Sweden.
Participants
Before inclusion, a medical history form and electrocardiograms
were assessed by a physician. Exclusion criteria were 1) living in a
nursing home; 2), self-reported inability to walk; 3) cardiovascular,
pulmonary, metabolic, rheumatologic, and psychiatric diseases; 4)
musculoskeletal problems; 5) using medication; 6) food allergy; and
7) unexplained weight loss (ⱖ 5% of body weight during the preced-
ing 12 mo). To be included in the study elderly women had to be aged
between 65 and 70 yr and with a BMI ⬍30, fasting glucose ⬍6
mmol/l, fasting cholesterol ⬍8 mmol/l, systolic blood pressure ⬍140
mmHg, and diastolic blood pressure ⬍90. In addition, the subjects had
to be recreationally active. All subjects included in the study partic-
ipated in various recreational physical activities such as walking,
jogging, cycling, swimming, Nordic walking, and skiing. None of the
subjects had previously participated in structured resistance training.
Measurement of physical activity level using accelerometry showed
that participants accumulated more than 30 min of moderate-to-
vigorous physical activity per day on 5 or more days/week, and there
were no changes in activity level in any group throughout the
intervention (41). After randomization, eight subjects withdrew from
the study (3 from CON, 4 from RT, and 1 from RT-HD) and did so
for reasons not related to the intervention.
Strength Measurements
Before the start of the study (~2 wk), the subjects were familiarized
with the equipment and testing procedures. All performance measures
were performed at the same time of the day in all groups before and
after the intervention.
One-repetition maximum. One-repetition maximum (1RM) tests
were performed during leg-press exercise. Following the warm-up
period, the initial load was set at 90 –95% of the estimated 1RM and
increased with ~2.5–5% after each successful lift until failure. A
3-min resting period was allowed between consecutive attempts, and
the 1RM was obtained within five attempts.
Maximal dynamic leg power and time to peak power. Tests were
performed using a knee-extension machine with the subject firmly
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191
strapped while seated with a 90° hip angle and 80° knee angle. The
axis of the adjustable lever arm was aligned with the center of the
knee joint, and an adjustable padded crossbar was applied against
the tibia at a point above the malleoli corresponding to one-third of the
distance between the lateral femoral epicondyle and lateral malleolus.
A force sensor (K. TOYO 333A) and a linear encoder (Muscle
Laboratory; Ergotest Technology, Oslo, Norway) were used to mon-
itor force and vertical displacement generated during the concentric
phase of a knee extension exercise. Subjects were instructed to
perform a maximal bilateral knee extension as forcefully and quickly
as possible. Verbal encouragements were provided during each trial.
All tests were performed against a load corresponding to 70% of 1RM
assessed at baseline. Each subjects performed three trials, and trials
with an initial countermovement (identified by a visible drop in the
force signal) were excluded and a new trial was performed. Onset of
muscle contraction was defined as the time point where the knee
extension power exceeded 1.0 W above the baseline level. Time to
peak power was calculated from the trial with the highest peak power
output. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) of 0.98 and 0.91 were
obtained for knee extension peak power and time to peak power,
respectively.
Maximal isometric leg strength and rate of force development
during isometric contractions. Tests were performed in seated posi-
tion using an adjustable chair with a 90° angle of hip and knee joints
and with restraining straps crossing the torso and the tested leg. A
force sensor (K. TOYO 333A) was attached above the malleoli at
one-third of the distance between the lateral femoral epicondyle and
lateral malleolus. Subjects were instructed to exert maximal muscle
force as “fast and forcefully” as possible and to maintain it for 3–5 s.
Verbal encouragements were provided during each trial. All isometric
measurements were performed on the dominant leg, and each subject
performed three knee extensions at maximal voluntary effort sepa-
rated by a rest period of 2.5 min. Trials with an initial countermove-
ment (identified by a visible drop in the force signal) were excluded
and a new trial was performed. Onset of muscle contraction was
defined as the time point where the knee extension force exceeded 2.0
N above the baseline level, which corresponded to ~1% of maximal
peak force (1). The trial with the highest isometric force was selected
for further analysis of the rate of force development during isometric
contraction (isoRFD). IsoRFD was determined as the greatest increase
in force in a given 50-ms time period (19). ICCs of 0.93 and 0.88 were
obtained for trial-to-trial reliability regarding isometric peak force and
RFD, respectively.
Physical function. Five sit-to-stand (5-STS), single-leg-stance
(SLS), timed-up-and-go (TUG), and squat jump (SJ) tests were used
to assess physical function. During the 5-STS, subjects were in-
structed to stand fully upright from a chair and sit down and repeat
this sequence five times (15). For the SLS balance test, subjects were
instructed to stand barefoot on one leg (the dominant leg) with arms
crossed and eyes closed (40). For the TUG, the subjects were in-
structed to stand up from a chair, walk at a “comfortable speed” to the
3-m mark, turn around, walk back, and sit down (33). To obtain a
measure of physical function in relation to muscle power, a SJ was
performed on a force platform (Kistler 9281 B; Kistler Nordic). The
SJ started from a static position with knee bent in a 90° angle. The
hands were kept on the hip during the whole jump. Subjects per-
formed familiarization trials with gradually increased effort. Each
subject performed three maximal trials separated by 1.5 min of rest.
Trials with an initial countermovement (identified by a visible drop in
the force signal) were excluded and a new trial was performed. During
each squat jump, maximal ground reaction force (sjMAX) and rate of
force development (sjRFD) were calculated from the concentric phase
of the squat jump. The two parameters (sjMAX and sjRFD) are
directly correlated to jump performance and are not influenced by
technical aspects such as landing technique (28). ICCs of 0.97 and
0.88 were obtained for trial to trial reliability regarding sjMAX and
sjRFD, respectively.
192 Aging, Explosive Strength, Resistance Training, and Diet • Edholm P et al.
Resistance Training
Supervised progressive resistance training was performed by RT
and RT-HD twice a week during 24 wk as previously described (41).
Subjects performed three sets per exercise with 2-min rest between
sets and 3-min rest between exercises. Each training session lasted
~60 min (including warm-up and cool-down). During the first 2 wk,
the workload was set to 12–15 repetitions per set at 50% of 1RM.
Thereafter, the workload increased to 8 –12 repetitions per set at
75– 85% of 1RM for the rest of the intervention. Importantly, subjects
were instructed to perform the concentric phase of each repetition as
fast as possible, while lowering the weight in a controlled manner
using a slow-to-moderate speed. The resistance training program
included the following exercises: knee extension, leg press, squat,
seated row, and pull-down.
Diet and Dietary Assessment
The subjects in the RT-HD group attended a dietary consultation
and were given a diet plan. Details of the prescribed diet including
nutrient goals and prescribed key foods have been presented else-
where (41). Briefly, the prescribed diet was in line with the current
dietary guidelines in Europe and US, i.e., a healthy diet rich in
wholegrain products, vegetables, fruits, fish, and polyunsaturated fats
from vegetable oils and nuts. The dietary plan was based on an intake
of 44 E% carbohydrates (fiber intake ⬎25 g/day), 36 E% fat (mainly
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids), and 20 E% protein
with the following major adjustment: the n-6/n-3 ratio ⬍2. Subjects in
CON and RT were carefully instructed to maintain their habitual
dietary intake throughout the study. The dietary intake was monitored
using a food record over a period of 6 days at three time points
(baseline, week 12, and week 24). Assessment of dietary intake
revealed that there were no significant differences in macronutrient
intake among the three groups at baseline and that subjects in CON
and RT did not alter their nutritional habits throughout the interven-
tion period (41). Total energy intake (kcal/day) remained unchanged
throughout the intervention period in all groups (CON: pre
1,669 ⫾ 435 vs. post 1,569 ⫾ 397; RT: pre 1,667 ⫾ 338 vs. post
1,715 ⫾ 432; and RT-HD: pre 1,583 ⫾ 443 vs. post 1,769 ⫾ 272).
Similarly, there were no changes in E% carbohydrates, E% proteins,
and E% fat throughout the intervention. In accordance with the dietary
goals, the n-6/n-3 ratio significantly decreased by 42% (from
3.1 ⫾ 0.3 to 1.8 ⫾ 0.2, P ⬍ 0.01).
Whole Body Lean Mass
Dual X-ray absorptiometry (LUNAR Prodigy; GE Medical Sys-
tems) and the Hologic Apex version 2.3 software were used for the
A #
Maximal dynamic power (W)
Fig. 1. Knee extension peak power (A) and
time to peak power (B) PRE (open bars) and
POST (closed bars) 24 wk of resistance train-
ing. *P ⬍ 0.05, significant difference vs.
PRE; #P ⬍ 0.05, significant difference in
amplitude of changes between resistance
training (RT) and resistance training and
healthy diet (RT-HD; P ⬍ 0.05). Data are
means ⫾ SE; n ⫽ 55.
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assessment of whole body lean mass in the fasted state at baseline and
by the end of the intervention period.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using SigmaStat software
(SYSTAT Software Version 12). Level of statistical significance was
set to P ⬍ 0.05. All data are presented as means ⫾ SE. With an
␣-level set at 0.05, the power of statistical tests ranged between 0.80
and 0.90. The effects of the intervention were analyzed using a
repeated-measures ANOVA with one within-subject (time) and one
between-subject (group) factor followed by Holm-Sidak post hoc proce-
dure. When significant changes were captured using the repeated-
measures ANOVA, differences in amplitude of changes between RT and
RT-HD were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Associations between
variables were assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
RESULTS
Dynamic Muscle Characteristics
At baseline there were no significant between-group differ-
ences in maximal dynamic muscle strength (i.e., leg-press
1RM), knee extension peak power, and time to reach peak
power. By the end of the 24-wk intervention, maximal muscle
strength during leg-press exercise significantly increased (P ⬍
0.01) in both RT (from 122.3 ⫾ 5.1 to 186.7 ⫾ 5.0 kg,
corresponding to ⫹52.2 ⫾ 4.3% changes) and RT-HD (from
120.8 ⫾ 4.2 to 191.3 ⫾ 5.7 kg, corresponding to ⫹59.9 ⫾
3.8% changes). Importantly, the explosive capacity in dynamic
movements also increased as evidenced by the significant
changes in knee extension peak power in both RT (⫹15.7 ⫾
2.6%) and RT-HD (⫹24.6 ⫾ 2.6%). Interestingly, changes in
knee extension peak power were significantly (P ⬍ 0.05) larger
in RT-HD compared with RT (Fig. 1A). Time to reach peak
power also improved (i.e shorter time) in both RT (⫺11.0 ⫾
3.8%) and RT-HD (⫺20.3 ⫾ 2.7%), and these changes were
also significantly larger in RT-HD compared with RT (P ⬍
0.05) (Fig. 1B). The increases in knee extension peak power
and time to reach peak power were correlated to each other
(P ⬍ 0.001, R ⫽ 0.86). In CON, maximal muscle strength,
knee extension peak power, and time to reach peak power
remained unchanged throughout the study period (Fig. 1).
B #
400 0.50
*
* 0.45
350 *
Time to peak power (s)
0.40
300 *
0.35
250
0.30
200 0.25
0.20
150
0.15
100
0.10
50 0.05
0 0.00
CON RT RT-HD CON RT RT-HD
 Aging, Explosive Strength, Resistance Training, and Diet • Edholm P et al. 193

A B C
16 6 9

14 * * 8

Single-leg-stance (s)

Timed-up-and-go (s)
5
7
5 Sit-to-stand (s)

12

10
* * 4 6
5
8 3
4
6
2 3
4 2
1
2 1
0 0 0
CON RT RT-HD CON RT RT-HD CON RT RT-HD
Fig. 2. Physical function PRE (open bars) and POST (closed bars) 24 wk of resistance training. Five-repetition sit-to-stand test (5-STS; A), single-leg-stance (SLS;
B), and timed-up-and-go (TUG; C). *P ⬍ 0.05, significant difference vs. PRE; n ⫽ 52.

Isometric Muscle Characteristics performance in TUG (R ⫽ 0.33, P ⬍ 0.05) and 5-STS

(R ⫽ 0.40, P ⬍ 0.05) but not SLS. By the end of the 24-wk
At baseline, there were no significant group differences in intervention, both RT and RT-HD significantly improved
maximal isometric knee extension strength or rate of force
their performance in 5-STS (i.e., shorter time) (⫺24.3 ⫾ 3.5
development (isoRFD) and maximal isometric strength was
and ⫺24.4 ⫾ 2.8%, respectively) and SLS (⫹66.7 ⫾ 24.7
correlated to leg-press 1RM (P ⬍ 0.05, R ⫽ 0.29). By the end
and ⫹50.8 ⫾ 28.8%, respectively) (Fig. 2). The performance
of the 24-wk intervention, maximal isometric strength signif-
icantly increased and the force-time curve during maximal in TUG, 5-STS, and SLS remained unchanged throughout the
isometric knee extension was steeper, resulting in significant study period in CON.
increases in isoRFD in both RT (⫹13.3 ⫾ 4.6%) and RT-HD There were no significant group differences in sjMAX or
(⫹15.7 ⫾ 6.6%). The magnitude of changes in maximal sjRFD at baseline (Fig. 3). sjMAX was significantly corre-
isometric force and isoRFD was not significantly different lated with both maximal dynamic strength (R ⫽ 0.28, P ⬍
between RT and RT-HD. There were no associations between 0.05 for leg-press 1RM) and knee extension peak power
increases in isometric strength and dynamic strength parame- (R ⫽ 0.39, P ⬍ 0.01). There were no associations between
ters. All isometric strength parameters remained unchanged sjMAX and isometric muscle strength. By the end of the
in CON. intervention, sjMAX and sjRFD increased in both RT
(⫹35.7 ⫾ 6.9 and ⫹105.4 ⫾ 22.4%, respectively) and
Physical Function RT-HD (⫹58.5 ⫾ 8.4 and ⫹185.4 ⫾ 32.9%, respectively).
At baseline there were no group differences in 5-STS, SLS Interestingly, the increases sjMAX and sjRFD were signifi-
and TUG performance (Fig. 2). Interestingly, knee extension cantly larger in RT-HD compared with RT (P ⬍ 0.05) (Fig. 3).
peak power at baseline was significantly associated with the The improvements in sjMAX were correlated to increases in

A B C
# #
Squat jump concentric peak force

16 90
Rate of force development

80 2000
14 * * Concentric phase
1800
12 * 70
60
* 1600
(N∙s-1∙kg-1)

10 1400
(N∙kg-1)

Force (N)

50 1200
8
40 1000
6 800
30
4 600
20
400
2 10 200
0 0 0
CON RT RT-HD CON RT RT-HD 0 0.5 1 1.5

Time (s)
Fig. 3. Maximal ground reaction force (A) and rate of force development (RFD; B) during the concentric phase of squat jump test in CON, RT, and RT-HD.
Open bars: PRE; closed bars: POST. *P ⬍ 0.05, significant difference vs. PRE. #P ⬍ 0.05, significant difference in amplitude of changes between RT and
RT-HD. Data are means ⫾ SE; n ⫽ 52. In C, a representative force-time curve during maximal squat jump showing changes (PRE: solid line; POST: dotted line)
in maximal ground reaction force and RFD in 1 subject.

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194 Aging, Explosive Strength, Resistance Training, and Diet • Edholm P et al.
knee extension peak power (R ⫽ 0.55, P ⬍ 0.001). Finally, SJ
performance remained unchanged throughout the intervention
in CON. A representative force-time curve during a SJ exercise
is shown in Fig. 3C.
Whole body lean mass
At baseline, there were no significant group differences in
whole body lean mass (CON 39.8 ⫾ 1.1 kg, RT 39.0 ⫾ 0.7 kg,
and RT-HD 38.5 ⫾ 0.8 kg). Whole body lean mass was cor-
related to both maximal dynamic leg strength (R ⫽ 0.36, P ⬍
0.01 for leg-press 1RM) and knee extension peak power
(R ⫽ 0.57, P ⬍ 0.001). There were no associations between
whole body lean mass and maximal isometric leg strength. By
the end of the 24-wk intervention, whole body lean mass
increased in RT-HD with 1.5 ⫾ 0.5% (P ⬍ 0.05) and no
significant changes were observed in neither RT nor CON.
Increases in whole body lean mass were significantly corre-
lated to increases in knee extension peak power (R ⫽ 0.41, P ⬍
0.01) and sjMAX (R ⫽ 0.32, P ⬍ 0.05).
DISCUSSION
The present randomized controlled trial investigated the
combined effects of resistance training and a healthy diet rich
in n-3 PUFA on the ability to rapidly generate muscle force in
healthy elderly women. The main salient finding was that
modifications in diet enhance resistance training-induced gains
in dynamic explosive force capacity in healthy elderly women.
It has previously been shown that the age-related decrease in
lower limb dynamic explosive capacity is greater than the
decline of maximal muscle strength (2, 17, 22, 35). Age-related
alterations in the explosive capacity have been linked to a
reduced ability to perform normal daily activities such as stair
climbing and chair raising as well as an increased prevalence
for fall injuries (2, 32, 35). Here we show that resistance
training alone increases maximal dynamic muscle strength as
well as two indicators of the dynamic explosive force capacity
(peak power and time to peak power), which is in line with data
from earlier studies performed in elderly women (6, 19, 23).
More importantly, our data indicate that combining a healthy
diet rich in n-3 PUFA with resistance training can optimize the
effects of resistance training alone with respect to indicators of
muscle power. We have previously reported that increases in
circulating n-3 docosahexaenoic acid and decreases in the level
of the proinflammatory precursor arachidonic acid occurred in
participants from the RT-HD group (41). Interestingly, an
increased rate of torque development and muscle EMG activity
have been reported in elderly following resistance training
combined with n-3 PUFA-rich fish oil supplementation (34).
Additionally, it has been shown that n-3 PUFA can inhibit
protein degradation (44), enhance muscle protein synthesis (26,
38), and reduce the normal decline in muscle mass and func-
tion in older adults (39). The exact cellular mechanisms
through which n-3 PUFAs promote gains in muscle mass and
muscle function in humans are still largely unclear. It is
suggested that n-3 PUFAs might stimulate protein synthesis in
older through activation of the Akt/mTOR pathway (38, 47). It
has also been suggested that n-3 PUFA-induced improvements
in muscle mass and function might be mediated via small but
coordinated changes in muscle transcriptome (mitochondrial
function, organization of extracellular matrix, and muscle pro-
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teolysis) (47). Altogether, these data support a beneficial action
of n-3 PUFA on the neuromuscular function in elderly.
Although resistance training consisted in dynamic exercises,
we sought to determine the impact of the intervention also on
isometric explosive force characteristics (i.e., rate of force
development) in elderly women. Our findings revealed signif-
icant resistance training-induced improvements in maximal
rate of force development during isometric contractions. How-
ever, there were no further improvements due to the dietary
changes. Noteworthy, increases in dynamic explosive capacity
during knee extension were not associated to increases in the
rate of force development during isometric knee extension.
Hence, the healthy diet plus resistance training had an additive
effect on the explosive strength produced dynamically but not
isometrically. However, from a practical point of view and
compared with isometric strength, explosive strength produced
dynamically is particularly suitable during usual daily activities
performed by elderly (16). It is important to note that twitch
interpolation was not conducted in the present study to assess
whether involved muscle groups were fully activated during
maximal isometric voluntary efforts. However, previous stud-
ies have shown complete muscle activation in older in general
and in healthy elderly in particular (4, 31, 43).
In the present study, we have also assessed the physical
function of elderly, which reflects the ability to perform daily
activities. Here we show that both peak force and rate of force
development during the take of phase of squat jump exercises
significantly improved following resistance training alone and
were further enhanced in resistance training plus healthy diet.
The squat jump is a functional test that requires rapid increases
in muscle force in the lower limbs under weight-bearing
multijoint conditions. Thus, compared with the knee extension
exercise, a squat jump evaluates the dynamic explosive force
capacity during a complex and coordinated motor task and
provides important information about the physical performance
of the elderly (5). Hence, the benefits of combined resistance
training and healthy diet on explosive strength produced dy-
namically were evidenced during both isolated lower limb
movements (knee extension exercise) and functional weight-
bearing multijoint exercises (squat jump exercise) in elderly
women. In addition to squat jump performance, common
standardized tests of physical function such as five sit-to-stand,
single-leg-stance balance, and timed-up-and-go were assessed.
These tests have previously been shown to be important pre-
dictors for falls and independent living in elderly (15, 33, 40).
Here we show that resistance training in a population of
healthy elderly women can improve the five-sit-to-stand and
single-leg-stance performances but not the timed-up-and-go.
Improved physical performance in elderly women participating
in this study was not expected considering the high level of
functional performance at baseline as compared with norma-
tive values for age and sex-matched populations (15, 33, 40)
and the fact that all participants in the present study were
healthy and physically active, meeting current recommenda-
tions of accumulating 30 min or more of moderate to vigorous
physical activity per day on 5 or more days/week (41). Indeed,
participants in our study had higher total lean mass and
maximal muscle strength compared with physically inactive
and frail elderly women (3, 48). However, despite a high
baseline physical fitness level, resistance training-induced
gains in maximal muscle strength and physical function ob-
 Aging, Explosive Strength, Resistance Training, and Diet • Edholm P et al.
served in our population were within the range of data previ-
ously reported in frail and physically inactive elderly (3, 8, 42).
Taken together, resistance training may impact the physical
function of elderly including those fulfilling recommendations
for normal daily physical activity.
Our study revealed that despite large increases in both
maximal and explosive muscle performances, resistance train-
ing alone was not accompanied by significant changes in whole
body lean mass in healthy elderly women. Similar findings
have previously been reported in elderly women (25, 46).
Moreover, it has been shown that resistance training resulted in
significant improvements in lean mass in elderly men but not
women (20). The so-called “anabolic resistance” has been put
forward as a putative mechanism behind blunted hypertrophic
response in resistance trained older subjects (14). Interestingly,
our data revealed significant changes in whole body lean mass
in response to resistance training combined to healthy diet,
which confirms our previous finding that leg lean mass is
significantly enhanced in response to resistance training and
healthy diet (41). We also report a weak but significant asso-
ciation between whole body lean mass and dynamic explosive
strength. This suggests that gains in dynamic explosive muscle
performance are partly explained by changes in muscle mass
and that neural factors contribute to changes in muscle perfor-
mance. This is supported by previous studies showing signif-
icant increases in leg muscle electromyographic activity in
response to resistance exercise in elderly (16, 19). Noteworthy,
whole body lean mass of elderly women in the control group
decreased by 0.4% (nonsignificant) within a period of 6 mo.
This decline is in line with the annual rate of loss of muscle
mass in elderly women over the age of 65 yr (7). Therefore, an
increase in whole body lean mass (⫹1.5%) observed in re-
sponse to 24 wk of resistance training and a healthy diet is of
clinical relevance as this corresponds to approximately twice
the annual rate of loss of muscle mass in elderly (7). Impor-
tantly, the present work did not address the effect of diet alone
on muscle function. This precludes inference on the potential
effects of healthy diet alone on explosive muscle performance.
Given that findings from several previous studies suggest that
diet alone may not trigger myotrophic effects in elderly (11, 27,
45) and that participants included in the present study were
healthy elderly women who adhered to general guidelines
regarding recommended physical activity, we hypothesized
that any changes in muscle function in this healthy group of
older women would require exposure of skeletal muscle to
heavy loads during resistance training. Nevertheless, recent
data showing that 24 wk of n-3 PUFA-rich fish oil supplemen-
tation may improve muscle mass and strength (39, 47) suggest
that manipulation of diet alone might promote beneficial ef-
fects on muscle function in elderly. These findings warrant
future work focusing on the effects of different dietary strate-
gies on muscle function in the elderly who adhere to general
guidelines regarding recommended physical activity.
In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that a healthy
diet rich in n-3 PUFA enhances resistance training-induced
gains in dynamic explosive capacity during isolated lower limb
movements and multijoint exercises in elderly women. Our
findings support the use of strategies based on both resistance
training and dietary changes for preventing age-related decline
in explosive force capacity in healthy active elderly women.
J Appl Physiol • doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00924.2016 • www.jappl.org
Downloaded from journals.physiology.org/journal/jappl (181.222.111.253) on August 2, 2021.
195
GRANTS
The study was supported by Swedish National Centre for Research in
Sports Grants P2012-102, P2014-117, and P2015-120.
DISCLOSURES
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the authors.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
F.K. conceived and designed research; P.E., E.S., and F.K. performed experi-
ments; P.E., E.S., and F.K. analyzed data; P.E. and F.K. interpreted results of
experiments; P.E. and F.K. prepared figures; P.E. and F.K. drafted manuscript;
P.E., E.S., and F.K. edited and revised manuscript; P.E., E.S., and F.K.
approved final version of manuscript.
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