Functional Analysis of Sex Roles

Author(s): Mirra Komarovsky

Source: American Sociological Review, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Aug., 1950), pp. 508-516
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2087310
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 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SEX ROLES*
MIRRA KOMAROVSKY
Barnard College,Columbia University

T HE CONCEPT of social roles with explanatorymodels.The orthodoxanalysts

special reference to sex and age roles say with Freud: "Anatomyis her fate."
has been the subjectof increasingso- They see women'sproblemin termsof the
ciologicalinterest.But the problemof sex psychologicaldynamicsarisingout of some
rolesin varioussegmentsof our societyre- biologically determinedsexual character-
quires furthersystematicempiricalstudy. istic, i.e., penis envy or masochism.The
This paper attemptsto outlinewhat is be- individuallifehistoryis thentakenas deter-
lieved to constitutea fruitfultheoretical mining whetherthe developmentof this
orientation forsuchresearchand to illustrate characteristic will follownormalor neurotic
the applicationof this theoreticalapproach patterns.The otherexplanatory modeltakes
in a pilot study,involvingtwentyintensive moreaccountof culturalfactors.But,again,
case historiesof middleclass urbanmarried the rootof the problemis seen in the clash
women,in the summerof I949. The study between the biologicallydeterminedfemi-
was focusedon the"problem"aspectsof sex nine impulses,on the one hand, and the
roles,and whilethe discussionwill be thus social roles,on the other,whichtoday,it is
delimited,the theoreticalapproachit advo- alleged,are peculiarlyat variancewiththe
cates appears equally applicable to other biologically set needsof thefeminine psyche.
aspectsof thisgeneralsubject. In contrastto the psychiatric, the theo-
That thereexists a great deal of strain reticalapproachof thispaperis sociological.
in women'sroles among the urban middle It seeks to interpret social and mentalcon-
classes is generallyrecognizedbut the de- flict and the institutionalmalfunctioning
scriptionand analysis of this phenomenon whichconstitute thesocial problemin ques-
remainto be developed.The merediversity tion, in termsof interrelation of elements
of roles that womenmustplay at differentwithinand betweenrelevantsocial and cul-
ages or in different relationsneed not in turalsystems.It acceptsthegeneralpremise
itselfcreatea problem.Many societiesshow thatour cultureis fullof contradictions and
such diversitywithoutcausingeithersocial inconsistencies with regard to women's roles,
conflictor personaldisorganization. Indeed thatnew social goals have emergedwithout
in any society,age, sex, class, occupation, theparalleldevelopment of social machinery
race, and ethnic backgroundinvolve the for their attainment,that norms persist
individualin a varietyof sociallysanctioned whichare no longerfunctionally appropriate
patterns of interaction vis-a-vis different to the social situations to which theyapply,
categoriesof persons.Why,then,to put the thatthesame social situationsare subjectto
questionmostgenerally,do sex roles today the jurisdictionof conflicting social codes,
presentsuch an arena of social and mental thatbehaviorpatternsusefulat some stage
conflict? becomedysfunctional at another,and so on.
Probably the most influentialand sys- If orientation towardssocial patternsdis-
tematicallydevelopedanswerto this ques- tinguishes ourapproachfromthepsychiatric,
tion today is the one foundin psychiatric otherfeaturesset it apart fromsome of the
literature.This answer centersupon two anthropologicaland other sociologicalap-
proaches.It attemptsmoredeliberately and
*Paper read at the annual meeting of the systematically to place sex roles in their
American Sociological Society held in New York, structural contexts.It is onlywhensex roles
December28-30, I949. The authorwishesto ac-
knowledge her gratitude to Professor Robert K. are seen in theirmanifoldrelationsto kin-
Merton for his valuable help in the preparationof ship,occupational, educationaland otherso-
thispaper. cial systemsto whichtheyare relevant,that
508

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 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SEX ROLES 509

we can attainthreescientific objectives:(i) propositionswhichwere actuallyor poten-

the functionalsignificance of sex roles be- tiallytestableby empiricaltechniques.
comesapparent,(2) culturalcontradictions
can be located, (3) possibilitiesforchange AN APPLICATION OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
can be assessed.Furthermore, thoughto an It is wellknownthatthefamilyofprocrea-
extentsharedby others,it is thecentralcon- tion occupies a dominantposition in our
cern of this orientationto explorethe un- kinshipsystem.This is evidencedin a large
intendedconsequencesof relevantsocialand varietyof ways. Typically,the familyof
culturalsystems, notonlyforpersonality but procreationis residentially segregatedfrom
forothersystems;or,to use theterminologythe familyof orientationof eitherspouse
suggestedby Merton,to explorethe latent which,of course,is not the case in thejoint
functions and dysfunctions ofone systemfor or stemfamilysystems.The tiesto ancestors
another.' whichobtainin a clan societyand thetiesto
The orientationtowardssocial patterns siblingsmaintainedin the consanguinefam-
does not precludethe consideration of psy- ily type are much weaker in our society.
chologicalfactors:personalitytypesas de- Furthermore, all social norms,fromthose
terminantsof acceptance or rejection of expressedin thelegalcode to thoseexpressed
givensocialroles,tensionsin personality pro- in the "advice to the lovelorn"column,re-
duced by diverseroles,techniquesof main- iteratethethemethattheprimaryloyaltyis
tainingan unconventional role, and so on. to one's spouse and childrenas against
Indeed, it may be suggestedthat the con- parentsor siblings.The legal expressionof
siderationof thesepsychological factorscan this themeis foundin our inheritance and
be all the more incisiveand precisewhen supportlaws. If a man dies intestateit is
they are set in the frameworkof social generallytruethathis wifeand childrenget
patterns. all of his property.It is onlyin theabsence
So described,the approachwillbe readily of direct descendantsthat parentsor col-
identifiableas the "functionalanalysis" in lateral relativesshare the inheritancewith
sociologybut a fewfurther observations are his widow.Whilestatutesare fairlycommon
in order.Because this researchis oriented requiringa son to contribute to the support
towards"social problems,"it centersupon of an indigentparent,his responsibility is
precisely those phenomena which have morelimitedthanit is towardhis wifeand
hithertobeen on theperiphery of functional children.These laws are deeplyrootedin the
analysis: phenomenaof maladaptation,of mores.As an example,undergraduates have
strain, of dysfunction.Furthermore,sex been observedby the writerto be shocked
roles are in such fluxtoday that research to learn that these culturalnormsare far
must also deal with phenomenaof change frombeing universaland that among the
and readjustment, so intimatelyrelated to Arapaho,to take one instance,a dead man's
social and psychologicalstrains. A static brotherhas superiorclaim to his property
approachwhichdidnotaddressitselftoprob- even if the widowand his childrenare left
lems of social dynamicswould be patently destitute.2
inadequateforthetask in hand. In fact,the priorityof the marriagerela-
Functionalanalysis has sometimesbeen tionshipover the parental familyin our
criticizedon thescoreof method;morespe- culturehas in recentyearsfoundexpression
because of its failureto subjectits even in certainintellectualfieldsof inquiry.
cifically,
theoreticalformulations to empiricaltests.If As theresultof the diffusion of thepsychia-
the criticismis deserved,it does not appear tricpointof view,close ties to a parentare
to arise fromits intrinsicfeatures.In the under suspicionas the "silver cord" and,
forthcoming application of the approach, conversely, the emancipationfromthe fam-
general formulationswere redefinedinto ily of orientation is viewedas thetouchstone
1 Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social
Structure,Chapter i. Marriage and the Family, p. a6.
2 M. Nimkoff,

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50o AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW

ofemotionalmaturity. Thesepresuppositions points to the primacyof the familyof

oftenfindtheirmost explicitand unques- procreationas the dominantAmericancul-
tionedexpression in textbooks. Thus, forex- turalpattern.
ample, a popular textbook on marriage But althoughthispatternof the primacy
states: "If thereis a bona-fidein-lawprob- of the familyof procreationvis-a-visthe
lem the youngcoupleneed firstof all to be familyof orientationhas been abundantly
certainof theirperspective. The successof recognized,it has not been systematically
theirmarriageshould be put above every- relatedto the wide range of its functional
thingelse,evenabove attachment to parents. and dysfunctional consequences.Fromwith-
Husband and wifemust come first.Other- in thisrangewe may markout theproblem
wise the individualexhibitsimmaturity."3of sociopsychological continuitiesand dis-
Another textbookaffirms:"Close attach- continuitiesin the kinshipstructure.More
ments to membersof the family,whether particularly,we wish to considerto what
parents or siblings,accentuatethe normal extentthe trainingin the parentalfamily
difficultiesinvolvedin achievingtheresponse makesforsubsequentadjustment to thewell-
role expectedin marriage. Again, ". nighexclusiveloyaltyto spouseand children.
thereis a call for a new attitude,a sub- We are raisingtwospecificproblems.Which
ordinating of and to someextentan aloofness particularelementsof role trainingin the
fromthehomeof one's childhood.")5"Do not parentalfamilycan be discernedto haveby-
live with or in the neighborhoodof your productswhich affectlater adjustmentof
relativesand in-laws,and do notallow them themembers in theirownfamiliesofprocrea-
to live withyou."" tion? Whichof the two sexes is enabled to
Some recentresearchessuch as Morgan's7 make the shiftfromthe parentalfamilyto
and Dinkel's8again testifyto the extentto marriagewiththeminimum of psychological
whichthe dominanceof the familyof pro- hazards?
creationis rooted in our mores. Though
DIFFERENTIAL TRAINING OF THE SEXES IN
thesemoresshowsomeethnic,religiousand
THE PARENTAL FAMILY
other variations,9all available evidence
Illuminating materialbearingupon differ-
3M. A. Bowman, Marriage for Moderns,p. 328. ential
'H. Becker and R. Hill, Marriageand the Fami-
training of boysand girlsin theparen-
ly, p. 349.
tal familywas collectedby thewriterin the
5E. R. Groves,Marriage,1933,p. 274. formof 73 biographicaldocuments prepared
"H. Hart, Personalityand the Family, p. i99. by womenundergraduates. The documents
"Psychological" statements of this sort are fre- reveal that despiteincreasingsimilarity in
quently found in family textbooks.Authors often
discharge their obligations to the concept of cul-
the upbringing of the sexes among middle-
tural relativity by an introductorychapter on class families,some sex differences relevant
"Other Family Patterns" and a general statement to our problemstill persist.The girlswho
that the rest of the book deals with our own family had brotherstestified that in variousways
system.This generaldisclaimerof universalitydoes the parentstendedto speed up, mostoften
not preventstudentsfromacceptingthe generaliza-
tions cited throughoutthe text as universal and unwittingly, but also deliberately,the eman-
it certainlydoes not help them to see sociopsycho- cipation of the boy from the family, while
logical processes in relation to the larger social theyretardedit in the case of his sister.
structurein whichtheyoccur. Judgingfromthesedocuments,thereare
7 C. M. Morgan, "The Attitudes and Adjust-
three different mechanismsthroughwhich
ments of Recipientsof Old Age Assistancein Up-
state and Metropolitan New York," Archives of this is achieved. Interesting as theseare in
Psychology,214, Columbia University. themselves, our mainproblemis to consider
8 R. M. Dinkel, "Attitudesof ChildrenToward presentlytheirfurther consequencesforthe
SupportingAged Parents,AmericanSociologicalRe- operationof the kinship system.Among
view, 9 (August, 1944), 370-379.
9 Dinkel's study,for example,revealsthat Catho- logical hazards to family life. The Jews had an
lics adheredmost stronglyto the beliefthat children average score betweenthat of Catholicsand Protes-
should supportparentseven at the cost of psycho- tants.

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 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SEX ROLES 511

thesemechanisms is, firstof all, thepattern thelettersI receive.Aftera telephonecall she

of providingsons withearlierand morefre- expectsme to tellherwhocalledandwhatwas
quent opportunities for independentaction. said. My brother couldsay "a friend"and she
The boysare freerto play away fromhome wouldnotfeelinsulted.
grounds,to returnlater,and to pick their And again:
own activities,moviesand books. They are
My brother is 3 yearsyounger thanI am.
ordinarilyallowed the first independent WhenhegoesoutI5,aftersuppermother callsout:
steps earlierthan theirsisters,such as the "Whereare you going,Jimmy?""Oh, out."
firstwalk to school withoutan adult, the CouldI getawaywiththis?Not on yourlife.
firstunaccompanied movieor baseballgame, I wouldhave to tell in detailwhereto, with
and later in life, the train trip or the job whom,andif I amhalfan hourlatemother sits
awayfromhome. on the edge of the living-roomsofa watching
A studentwrites: thedoor.
It was thought to be a partof mybrother's Statesanotherstudent:
education to be sentawayto school.I was ex-
pectedto go to a local collegeso thatI could I havea brother of 23,anda sisterof 22, and
liveat home.Whenmybrother gothisfirstjob a younger brotherwhois I6. My sisterand I
he got a roomso thathe wouldnot have to had a much more shelteredlifethanmybrothers.
commute toofar.My sister, at 22, turneddown My brothers comeandgo as theyplease.Even
severaloffers of jobs at a highsalaryand took myyounger brotherfeelsthathis current girl
a muchless desirableone only because she friend is hispersonalaffair.No oneknowswho
could live at home. She continuesto be as she is. But the familywantsvoluminous files
muchunderparentalcontrolas she was when on everyboymysisterandI wantto date.It is
in college.Frankly, if anything shouldhappen not easy forus to get thecomplete genealogy
to myparents,I wouldbe at a complete loss of a boy we want to go out with.
whileI knowthatmybrothers couldcarryon
aloneverywell.10 Thirdly,the daughtersof the familyare
held to a more exactingcode of filialand
The secondmechanismthroughwhichthe kinshipobligations.When the grandmother
emancipation of sons is speededup involves needssomebodyto do an errandforher,or
a higherdegreeofprivacyin personalaffairs AuntJanewho doesn'thearwellneedshelp,
allowedtheboys.One girlwrites: thegirlis morelikelyto be calledupon.The
Mymother is veryhurtifI don'tletherread pressureto attend and observe birthdays,
anniversaries, and otherfamilyfestivalsis
"0The relative extentto which sons and daugh-
ters are sent to an out-of-towncollege as against
apparently greaterupon her than upon the
one in the home town is not known,but an indirect boy.
indication that the girls may be somewhat more These patternsof differential trainingof
frequentlykept near the home is to be found in a thesexesin theparentalfamilyare generally
soon-to-be-publishedstudy, conducted by the Co- recognizedto be functionallyorientedto
lumbia UniversityBureau of Applied Social Re-
search, The United States College Graduate, by theirrespective adult roles.The role of the
Patricia Salter West, based on a cross-sectionof provider, on theone hand,and of thehome-
all living American college graduates. The study makeron the other,call for different atti-
revealed that a somewhat higher percentage of tudesand skills.Competitiveness, independ-
women than men attended colleges in the same
state in which the graduatesspent "most of (their)
ence,dominance, aggressiveness,are all traits
pre-collegeyears." feltto be neededby the futurehead of the
family.Althoughthe girl can trainforher
Proportionof Respondentswhose Collegeswere
in the Same State in whichGraduatesSpent
adult role and rehearseit withinthe home,
"Most of Pre-College Years" the boy preparesforhis outsidethe home,
by taking a "paper route"or a summerjob
Men Women
away fromhome.Again,thegreatershelter-
College in Same- State 65% 71%
College in DifferentState 35% 29% ing of the girl may be functionally appro-
Total (4540) (3231) priatein the lightof greaterrisksincurred

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5I2 AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW

byherin thecase ofsexualbehaviorand also quence of this greatersheltering of the girl

in marriagesince,forthewoman,marriageis is to createin her such ties to the familyof
not only a choice of a mate but also of a orientation that she is handicappedin mak-
stationin life. ing the psycho-socialshiftto the familyof
The parentsat timesexplicitlyrecognize procreation whichour culturedemands.Our
this functionalcharacterof theirtraining. problemis not merelyto demonstrate the
One girl,forexample,reportsthatbothher fact of discontinuities in role trainingso
parentsweremoreindulgentto her.Witha perceptivelydiscernedin otherspheresby
littlepleadingshe couldusuallygetwhatshe Benedict and others.These discontinuities
wanted.Her brother, on theotherhand,was mustbe relatedto theirstructural contexts.
expectedto earnmoneyforhis littleluxuries We shall showhow tendenciescreatedwith-
because "boys need that kind of training." in one social structure reactback upon the
In a couple of cases the girlstestifiedthat operationof anotherstructurewithinthe
theirbrotherswere expectedto worktheir same kinshipsystemwithoutthe intention
way throughcollege,while the girls were or,indeed,theawarenessof theparticipants.
supported.A studentwrites: The hypothesisjust set forthrequiresus
My brother is twoyearsyounger thanI am. to examinethe actual mechanismsthrough
Whenwe startedgoingto schoolmy father whichthesepostulatedconsequencesfollow.
wouldalwayssay as he sawus offin themorn- Essentiallyit is assumedthat to the extent
ing,"Now, Buddy,you are the man and you that the woman remainsmore "infantile,"
musttakegoodcareof yoursister."It amused less able to make her own decisions,more
me becauseit was I whoalwayshad to take dependentupon one or bothparentsforini-
careofhim. tiatingor channeling behaviorand attitudes,
Anotherstudentrecollectsthat when her morecloselyattachedto themso as to find
brotherrefusedto helpherwithher"math" it difficult to partfromthemor to facetheir
on the groundthat no one was allowed to disapprovalin case of any conflictbetween
help him, her motherreplied: "Well, she her familyand spouse,or showsany other
is a girl,and it isn'tas importantforher to indicesof lack of emotionalemancipation-
know'math' and to learnhow to get along to thatextentshe may findit moredifficult
withouthelp." than the man to conformto the cultural
More often, however, the proximate normof primaryloyaltyto the familyshe
groundforenforcing the properrolesis ex- establisheslater, the familyof procreation.
pressedin termsof what constitutes manly It is possible,of course,thatthe onlyeffect
or unmanlybehavioror just "the rightthing of the greater shelteringis to create in
to do." The degreeto whichthe recognition womena generalizeddependency whichwill
of functionalimplicationsis explicitis in thenbe transferred to thehusbandand which
itselfan importantproblembearingupon willenableherall themorereadilyto accept
social change. the role of wifein a familywhichstill has
But if the differential upbringingof the many patriarchalfeatures.In contrastto
sexesthusconstitutes fortheir this,we shall explorethehypothesis
a preparation thatthis
adult roles, it also has unintendedconse- dependencyis specific;it is a dependency
quences. This role trainingor, more spe- upon and attachmentto the family of
cifically,the greatershelteringof the girl, orientation.
has, as unintended by-products,furthercon- For the purposesof testing,this hypoth-
sequences for kinshiproles which are not esis may be restatedin twosteps: first,the
perceived.And it is to this that we now allegedgreaterattachment of thegirlto her
addressourselves.We are now preparedto familyof orientation and,second,theresult-
advance a hypothesisthat the greatershel- ingdifficulties formarriage.
teringof the.girlhas what Mertontermsa Turningto familystudiesin the search
"latentdysfunction" forthe womanand for fordata bearingcruciallyupon thishypoth-
marriagein general. More specifically, we esis, we findthe data to be scantyindeed.
suggest that the major unintendedconse- The comparativeabsence of materialssug-

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 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SEX ROLES 5I3

geststhat thehypothesisrequiringthisma- Another confirmingdatum concerning

terialwas not at hand. With regardto the undergraduates is foundin a studyof some
firststep,thegreaterattachmentto and de- I500 studentsat the University of Minne-
pendenceof the womanupon her familyof sota.'4 The author observes: "In two
orientation,the evidence,thoughscanty,is widelyseparatedsurveysof the totalgroup,
consistentand confirming. the frequencyand typeof familyproblems
werefoundto be relatedto severalotherde-
SEX DIFFERENCES IN ATTACHMENT TO AND scriptivefactors: girls, for example,had
DEPENDENCE UPON THE FAMILY family problems more often than boys,
OF ORIENTATION especially such problemsas 'difficulty in
In a recentstudy,Winch" discoversa achievingindependence.'"
contrastbetweenthe sexes with respectto The relativeattachment to parentson the
attachmentand submissiveness to parents. partof oldermenand womenis revealedby
Amongthe435 collegemalesincludedin the Burgessand Cottrell."The authorsstudied
study,age correlatednegativelywith love a sample of 526 couples,the majorityof
forbothparentsand submissiveness to them, whomhad been marriedfromtwo to four
whereas among the 502 college women years.Two tablesrecordtheextentofattach-
neitherof these correlationsis significant. mentto parentsderivedfromthestatements
The author puts forthand is inclinedto made by the respondentsthemselves.Four
supportthe hypothesisthat,at least while degreesof attachmentwere distinguished:
in college,womendo not become emanci- little or none, moderate,a good deal, and
pated fromtheirfamiliesto thesame degree veryclose. The tables show that a slightly
or in thesame manneras mendo. greaterproportion of wivesthanof husbands
Anotherset of data, as yet unpublished, characterized their own attachment to
fromthesamestudy,of 936 collegemenand parentsas "very close." The difference is
womenalso tends to supportour hypothe- greaterin attitudestowardsthe fatherthan
sis.12 It suggeststhatthe collegewomenare towardsthe mother(to whom both sexes
somewhatmore attached to parents,less were,incidentally, moreattached).
likely to make decisionscontraryto the
wishesof the parents,more frequently ex- yourlife been in accordancewiththe wishes
periencehomesickness thanis the case with of yourMother?
the male undergraduates. No sex differences Very much 21% 34%
were found in feelingsthat parents have father?
Do you everfeel"homesick" foryour
attemptedto dominatetheirlives.'3
Veryoftenor
:IR. in CollegeWomen,"
F. Winch,"Courtship frequently I4% 24%
AmericanJournal of Sociology,Nov. I949. foryourmother?
Do youeverfeel"homesick"
"2Thewriterwishesto expressherindebtedness
to Dr. RobertF. Winchfor makingthesetables Veryoftenor
available. frequently I9% 32%

'Amount of Attachmentbetweenyou and your

Father. To whatextentdo you feelthatyourfather
yourlife?
has triedto dominate
Male Female
Very much or
(436) (501)
7%
considerably 7%
close
Extremely IS% 22%
To whatextentdo you feelthatyourmother
Amount of Attachmentbetweenyou and yourlife?
hastriedto dominate
yourMother.
Verymuchor
Extremelyclose 24% 36% considerably 13% I 59%
To whatextenthave theprincipal in
decisions Fam-
" CorneliaD. Williams:"CollegeStudent's
yourlifebeen in accordancewiththe wishes ily Problems,"Journalof HomeEconomics, March
of yourFather? 1950, p. i8o.
Very much 22% 31% " Burgessand Cottrell,PredictingSuccess and
To whatextenthavetheprincipal in Failurein Marriage.
decisions

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514 AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW
Husbands Wives about a thirdof the girlscomparedwitha
(526 cases) (526 cases) fourthof theboysturnoverall theirearnings
to Father
Attachment to theirfamilies.
Veryclose 21% 30%
It would be importantto determine
to Mother
Attachment whethersuch a patternof greatercontribu-
Veryclosely 35% 42%
tionof singledaughtersto familysupportis
Terman's findings are on the wholesimilar. generally true. For if it is, it would have
The figuresare as follows:17 bearing upon a more generalproblem.It
Husbands Wives would representa standardizedpatternof
(734 cases) (72I cases) behaviorwhichis not directlycalled forby
Attachment to Father social norms,but is a by-product of social
Greatest i6.7% 20.I% roles. In other words, it would mean that
Attachment to Mother differential trainingof boys and girls in
Greatest 28.9% 35.I% anticipationof adult sex roles has had, as
an unintended by-product, a closeridentifica-
To sum up, when asked to characterize tion of the girl with her familyand her
theirown attachmentto parents,somewhat greater responsibilityfor familysupport.
more women than men give the response, Tracing this by-productbringsout anew
"Very close." The size of the difference is of institutional patterns
how interrelations
small but the patternis consistent. The sex operateto produceotherramifiedpatterns
difference is greaterwithregardto thefather. whichare belowthethreshold ofrecognition.
These studieswerecitedbecausetheyare So muchforthe firststepof ourhypothe-
almostthe onlyones available. It shouldbe sis: thelesseremancipation of the daughter
noted that theyall dependupon the direct in the middle class kinshipstructurefrom
testimony of respondents. Except when the the familyof orientation. In so faras it is
verballyexpressedattitudeis preciselywhat valid,we mayexpectthatthetransition from
is wanted,all suchstudiesraise thequestion theroleof thedaughterto thatof thespouse
of the relationof the verbal index to the willbe moredifficult forherthanfortheson.
phenomenon it allegedlyrepresents. Failures She mightfindit moredifficult, as was sug-
of memory,of honesty,of self-knowledgegestedearlier,to faceparentaldisapprovalin
oftenstandbetweentheverbalindexand the case of conflictbetweenparentsand spouse
phenomenon studied.The nextdatumbear-
and, in general,to severties to her parents
ing upon our hypothesishas the advantage and to attain the degree of maturityde-
of having been derivedfromthe studyof mandedof a wifein our culture.
behaviorratherthan fromverbal attitudes
alone thoughit wouldhavebeengivenadded WOMAN S LESSER EMANCIPATION FROM HER
meaninghad it also includedthe latter. FAMILY OF ORIENTATION AS A FACTOR
The Women'sBureau (BulletinNo. I38) IN MARITAL DISCORD
made a study of two communities widely
different in employment offeredto women: That marriagedifficulties ariseas a result
Cityof Clevelandand theStateofUtah.The of the attachment of the wifeto her family
reportconcludes: was amplyillustrated in thepilotstudycon-
ductedby thewriter.In somecases theprob-
In familieswithunmarried sonsand daugh-
ters,daughters supplymoreof thefamilysup- lem took the formof a mentalconflictover
portingincomethansons supply,thoughearning the claimsof parentsand husband.For ex-
less than theirbrothersearn (p. I3). In Cleve- ample,one womansaid:
land twice the proportionof boys as of girls WhenI was single,I alwayshelpedmyfam-
contributednothingto the familysupport.With ily.NowI havejust heardthatmyfatherisn't
workingsons and daughters under2 I years, welland shouldhavea week'svacation.If only
16Op. cit.,p. 377, Table 58; and P. 379, Table 60. I had somemoneyof myownI wouldn't hesi-
17 L. M. Terrnan,PsychologicalFactors in Mari- to sendhima check.As it is,even
tatea minute
tal Happiness,p. 2 I 3. if my husbandwouldagreeto give me the

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 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SEX ROLES 5I5

money,have I the rightto ask himto deny pathologies.It was the failureto perceive
himself thenewradioforthesakeofmyfamily? that deviationsfromthe normof symmetry
may themselvesbe inducedby otherwork-
In othercases, the relationof the wifeto
ingsof the kinshipstructure and not merely
herfamilycausedmaritalconflict. The overt
by individualabnormalitythat resultedin
conflictsweresometimes about theexcessive
the observedgap.18Indeed,the illustrations
(in the husband'sview) concernof the wife
used in bookswereinadvertently misleading.
over her youngersiblings.One husbandac-
Whilethetextimplieda symmetrical relation
cusedhis wifeof neglecting theirchildrenin
to the two sets of in-lawsas the norm,the
her preoccupation withthe problemsof her
illustrations of deviancecitedmorefrequent-
adolescentbrother and sisterwhom,he main-
ly a "mother'sboy." Illustrations frequently
tained, she "babied too much." She tele-
come fromclinicalsourceswhichare selec-
phonedthemdaily,waiting,however,forthe
tive. Furthermore, in-law troublewhichis
husbandto leave forworkbecause the tele-
due to the husband'sdependenceupon his
phoneconversations irritatedhim.The rela-
parents,althoughrarer,may be moreacute
tionof thewifeto hermotherwas the focal
and,therefore, moreobvious.'9
pointof marriageconflict in stillothercases.
The psychiatrists, represented by Hamil-
The husbandobjectedto the frequentvisits
ton2"and Dreikurs,21havepassingreferences
of the wife to her mother,the mother-in-
to the problemwhichare contraryto our
law's excessive help with the housework
hypthesis,but with no supportingdata.
("You are shirking yourdutiesas a wife"), Dreikursassertsthat the husband's
family
the wife'sdependenceupon her motherfor is more disturbingin marriage.Hamilton
opinions,the mother-in-law's interference,
considersthatthemale"motherlovevictim"
and so on. is the greaterthreatto marriagebecause
If our hypothesisis valid,we shouldfind
"fathersseldomget a chanceto absorbtheir
thatsuch in-lawproblemsin marriagemore
daughters'emotionsso muchthattheynever
frequently involvethewife'sparentsthanthe
love any otherman."
husband'sparents.
It may be suggestedthat whateverthe
Given this theoreticalexpectationwe ex-
meritsof the case, a certaintheoretical bias
amined the body of relevantopinion and
has predisposedthe psychoanalystto this
data containedin some twentytexts and
position.The psychoanalysts have been ab-
other books on the family.Of those ex-
sorbedin the childhooddramaof emotional
amined,thebulkwerewritten bysociologists,
development. The Oedipuscomplexhas been
a fewby psychiatrists and psychologists. As
moreprominent in theorthodoxtheorythan
far as the sociologistswere concerned,the
the Electra complex.In speculatingabout
fieldis virtuallybarrenof data bearingcru-
the in-lawproblem,the fixationof the son
cially upon our hypothesis.The reason is
upon the motherwould naturallyloom im-
simple-the problemwas neverposed. Sev-
portant.The writershave not exploredthe
eralwriters suggestedthatthemother-in-law
possibilitythattheculturaldefinitions ofsex
constitutes a greaterhazardto marriagethan
rolesmay have differential consequencesfor
the father-in-law but theydo not raise the
theadjustment at issue.
questionof the side fromwhichthe in-law
An indirectbut confirming bit of evidence
problemis morelikelyto arise.
comes from Burgess and Cottrell.22The
This gap revealsvividlythe decisiverole
authorscite a resultforwhichtheyofferno
of theoryin empiricalstudies.Evidentlythe
explanation. They find that "closeness of
sociologistswereconcernedwiththe explicit
and acknowledged culturalnormswhichas- 'See in this connection,R. K. Merton, "Social
sertthestructural symmetry of ourbilateral Structureand Anomie" in Social Theoryand Social
familywithidenticalrelationsto both fami- Structure.
on thepartof thespouses.
lies of orientation See below.
19

G. Hamilton, A Research in Marriage.

1')

Deviationsfromthenormofsymmetry, then, R. Dreikurs,The Challenge of Marriage.

21

tendto be interpreted in termsof individual 22Op. cit.

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5I6 AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW

attachment . . . in theassociationof parents Anotherrefinement suggestsitself.The

and son showa consistent thoughsmallposi- role of in-lawsas sourcesof tensionmay
tiverelationto maritaladjustment." No such varywiththestagesof thefamilycycle.We
consistent patternappearsin theassociation have hithertostressedthe attitudesof the
between parents and daughter,although spouses towardstheirparentsas the source
"no" attachment to thefatherand "little"or of in-lawtrouble.But theparentscontribute
"no" attachmentto the motherappear to theirshare.And hereit is possiblethatdur-
work against a high marital adjustment ingengagement and perhapsevenin thefirst
score.In termsof our hypothesis, it is pos- year of marriageit is the husband'sfamily
sible that more women than men who which creates more troublefor the young
checked"a good deal of attachment" repre- couple. As a rule,the girl's familymay be
sented cases of "over-attachment" with its morefavorably disposedto marriagebecause
inimicalinfluence upon marriagehappiness. a reasonablyearly marriageis more ad-
Termanstudiedthesame relationship. He vantageousto the woman.Furthermore, the
cites23themeanhappinessscoresofhusbands very attachmentof the girl to her family
and wivesaccordingto the degreeofparent- means, as the folklorehas it, that "when
child attachmentand also correlationsof yourson marries,you lose a son,whenyour
happinessscores with parent-childattach- daughtermarries,you gain one," or, "your
ment.In contrastto Burgessand Cottrellhe son is yourson tillhe takeshima wife,your
findsa positivecorrelationbetweenattach- daughter is yourdaughterall herlife."Again,
ment and happiness for both men and thegreatercontrolexercisedoverthechoice
women.He does not state in the textwhat of matesby thegirl'sfamilymaymeanthat
appearsin thefigures, however,thatthecor- theprospective son-in-law is moreacceptable
relationis lower for women.24Again it is thantheprospective daughter-in-law because
possiblethat the favorablefeaturesin good he reflects thefamily'schoice.25 But whereas
relationswith parentsare counterbalanced in theengagement periodthehusband'sfam-
in the case of womenby the too close a tie ily may figuremoreprominently in in-law
whichis sometimeshiddenin the response conflicts, it is assumed,in the lightof this
''veryclose attachment." paper, that as the marriagecontinues,the
If futureresearchis to bearcruciallyupon basic dependenceof the woman upon her
the hypothesisthat the "overattachment" familytendsto make her parentsthe prin-
of the wife to her familyof orientation cipal actorsin thein-lawdrama.
createsmarriageconflict as evidencedby "in- It is hopedthatfutureresearchmayrecog-
law" trouble,it mustbe so designedas to nize the problemand test furtherthe hy-
distentanglevarious contradictory tenden- potheseshereset forth.
cies. It is possible,for example,that such 2" An interestingconfirmation of these a priori
marriageconflictis much more frequent considerations comes from the forthcoming volume
amongwomenwhereasamongmen,though on Engagement and Marriage by E. W. Burgess
rarer,it may be experiencedmoreacutely. and P. Wallin, cited throughthe courtesyof Pro-
Excessivetiesto parentswouldbe evenmore fessorWallin. Two hundredand thirty-sixengaged
dysfunctional forthemale roleof the family couples were asked to check topics the discussion
of which provokes "reticence,tension or emotion"
head than forthehousewife.Our cultureis in themselves.Among the listed topics were "your
less permissivetowardsunusuallyclose son- family"and "your finance(e)'s family."The men's
parentties. Consequently, the "silvercord" families as "sore spots" of the engagementwere
may be moresociallyvisibleand betterre- checked by the women more frequentlythan the
portedeven if (and because?) it is a rare women's families,20.4% of women listinghis and
only II.5% theirown. As for men,they were about
occurrenceas comparedwith the daughter- equally troubled by their own families (I29%0) as
motherties. by their prospectivein-laws (8.4%). The authors
conclude: "Apparently,women feel they are-or
perhapsthey actuallyare-subject to more criticism
23
op. cit., pp. 2 14-5. from the men's familiesthan is the case with the
24
Ibid., Tables 5o and 52. men in relationto the women's families."

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