CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The primary purpose of a literature review is to assist readers in understanding the whole body of

available research on a topic, informing readers on the strengths and weaknesses of studies within

that body (De Los Reyes & Kazdin, 2008). It is defined by its guiding concept or topical focus: an

account of what was previously published on a specific topic. This prevents reliance on one

research study that may not be in accordance with findings from other studies (Dunst, Trivette, &

Cutspec, 2002).

This chapter talks about different literatures related to this research study. This chapter focuses on

information from previous literature related to passive design strategies and energy efficiency in

office buildings. Extensive discussion is done on the strategies that can be adopted to enhance

energy efficiency by evaluating passive design strategies. The sources of literature reviewed

include published and unpublished works.

2.2 Concept of an Office Building

An office is defined as a property that provides conducive environment to the performance of

management and administrative activities, accounting, marketing, information, processing,

consulting, human resources management, financial insurance services, educational and medical

services and other professional services (BOMA Best, 2013).

Offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, but needs some modern

requirements to make the design and erection/construction more efficient. These requirements can

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be both legal (e.g. light levels must be sufficient) or technical (e.g. requirements for computer

networking). Other requirements such as security and flexibility of layout, has led to the creation of

special buildings which are dedicated only or primarily for use as offices. An office building, also

known as an office block or business center is a form of commercial building which contains

spaces mainly designed to be used for offices. (Wikipedia, 2023).

The basic purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment

majorly for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within

the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need

within these areas.

An office building will be divided into sections for different companies or may be dedicated to one

company. In either case, each company will typically have a reception area, one or several meeting

rooms, singular or open-plan offices, as well as toilets.

2.3 Passive Design

Passive design is a systematic approach to building design that depends mainly on the climate and

site conditions of a location utilizing the comfort and health of building users while minimizing

energy use. The major aim of the passive design is to minimize and likely reduce the use of any

active mechanical systems to maintain occupant comfort. Passive design solutions are mostly cost-

effective. Passive design is one of the oldest and most active methods for energy conservation. This

goes literally back to the man in the cave.

According to Shearer, (2010), Cave dwellings in the northern hemisphere frequently had openings

to the south so that the sun could heat the rock inside during the day and then release the heat into

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the cave at night. This postulation has remained the same for quite a number of years, thus it has

been made much more efficient and affective by modern technology and building materials.

Passive design comprises of a wide range of strategies that utilize the flow of energy from natural

climate to building design, construction and management. This principle has also been stagnant,

but it has been made much more effective by modern technology and building materials. Passive

architecture involves a wide range of principles that enhance the flow of energy from natural

environment to building design, construction and management. Passive design doesn’t move the

solar energy; it uses it right where it’s collected, Shearer, (2010). This means that in the first place,

the spot of collection must be placed strategically so that they perform some needed function inside

the building. For example, if a building has a lot of windows that regularly get a lot of sunshine, the

interior will be naturally heated by the sun; this is an example of solar energy being collected and

passively used. The system can be improved by a wide variety of apps, from window positioning to

building orientation in addition to flowers for landscaping. For example, making use of landscape

lights that are powered by the sun is one of the most common examples of passive design. The key

to designing a passive design building is to best take advantage of the local climate Shearer,

(2010). The elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal

insulation, thermal mass, and shading a building designed with passive design can save enormous

amounts of money over the building's life. Solar cooling systems are used for building cooling and

ventilation. The first concern in solar cooling is how to avoid cooling loads. If excessive heating

can be minimized, then the problem of providing sufficient cooling will be half solved. Cooling

loads are due to sunshine through windows or on the outside of walls or roofs, hot air entering the

building or heat conducted from hot outside air to the inside. Natural cooling systems are a passive

cooling system that their mode of cooling buildings natural means.

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Passive design in buildings uses building architecture to minimize the energy consumption of the

building and improves the thermal comfort of the occupants. According to Mikler et al. (2009), the

correlation of the local climate with the shape and the thermal performance of the building is one of

the main considerations of the passive design approaches to reduce the energy use of the building

and to increase the thermal comfort of the occupants. In general, the foundation of passive design

depends on natural sources of energy and reduces the need for mechanical systems for cooling,

heating, and lighting in the building (LHSBC and Guido Wimmers, 2009). To put the passive

design strategies into effect, the criteria of the thermal comfort, the local climate data, and the

building’s thermal performance target should be examined first (Mikler et al., 2009).

The passive design is the design that greatly benefits from the natural climate to preserve the

temperature inside the building. The passive design decreases or finishes the need to use

mechanical heating and cooling, which comprise 40% or more of the total energy consumption at

harsh climates. Passive design has great importance that no one can underestimate because it is a

feasible solution to provide comfort to people living in buildings as it substantially reduces their

energy (electricity/gas) bills. Moreover, it reduces the emissions of greenhouse gases, which add to

the lifetime of a building and our planet (Ahsan, 2009).

The basics of passive design differ depending on the strategies and specific features according to

the location and climate of the region. Choosing the designer, who has 14 experience in passive

design and participation of thermal performance is essential. Suitable and good passive design is

critical to provide thermal comfort to the users, as it decreases the energy costs and preserves our

environment by decreasing the emission of greenhouse gasses (Ahsan, 2009).

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Passive design maximizes the use of natural sources of heating, ventilation and cooling to create

comfortable conditions inside buildings. It harness environmental conditions such as solar

radiation, cool night air(breeze) and air pressure differences to regulate the internal environment.

Passive measures do not make use of electrical or mechanical systems. As opposed to active design

which utilize active building services systems to create comfortable conditions, such as boilers and

chillers, electric lighting, mechanical ventilation, and so on. Buildings will generally include both

active and passive measures. Hybrid systems incorporate both active systems and passive system,

where the active measures to assist passive measures, e.g. heat recovery ventilation, solar thermal

systems, ground source heat pumps etc. Architect (designers) always aim to maximize the

potentials of passive measures before introducing hybrid systems or active systems. This can

reduce capital costs and reduce the energy consumed by the building.

Passive design usually include consideration for:

i. Location.

ii. Landscape.

iii. Orientation.

iv. Massing.

v. Shading.

vi. Material selection.

vii. Thermal mass.

viii. Insulation.

ix. Internal layout.

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 x. The positioning of openings to allow the penetration of solar radiation, visible light and for

ventilation.

2.3.1 Advantages of Passive Design

Tahmina, (2009), provides the following as the advantages of passive design:

i. Cost Savings

ii. Energy Efficiency

iii. Aesthetics

iv. Enhance Comfort.

a. Cost Savings: Passive design is a cheap way to heat a building. According to the Light

House Sustainable Building Centre (2011), it has been proved that passive design and

optimal building envelope performance can help reduce utility bills and the need for

mechanical systems and their associated costs. The United States Department of Energy

(2009) also established that incorporating passive design elements into buildings and homes

can reduce heating bills by as much as 50 percent.

b. Energy Efficiency: Passive design is a clean energy resource that can reduce the demand for

fossil fuels. Passive design principles help a building to reduce its demand for lighting,

heating and cooling.

c. Aesthetics: The New Mexico Solar Energy Association (2009) establishes that one

advantage of passive design is the aesthetic appeal of the architecture itself.

d. Enhances Comfort: The major reason for utilizing passive design in a building is to

immerse the building with natural light. Passive design buildings are more fresh and well

lighten and with more spacious feeling than a conventional structure. The placement of

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 windows in a careful manner on the earth sheltered sides ensures that enough daylight

enters all sides of the building. The interiors of passive design buildings are warmer in

winter, cooler in summer (even during a power failure).

e. Environmentally Friendly: Passive design is renewable energy which does not contribute to

global warming, acid rain or air pollution. Passive design reduces greenhouse gases that

contribute to global warming because it solely relies on the natural climate and solar

energy, a renewable, nonpolluting resource.

2.4 Passive Design Strategies.

According to Agboola 2011, Passive design is about making use of natural energy flows to

maintain thermal comfort. It is about the utilization of appropriate building orientation, building

materials and landscaping. The fabric of the buildings should be properly specified to prevent and

minimize heat gain and properly oriented. Shading should also be provided to minimize solar

radiation.

These techniques and strategies can also be supported by various parameters such as using

technologies (passive and/or active) and customizable controls as well as enhanced by patterns of

biophilic design for improving health and well-being in the built environment. In the design of a

home, the envelop of a building act as a barrier between natural climate and virtual climate to meet

the human comfort level. Some of the major factor, which controls human comfort, is visual,

thermal and acoustical comfort. To attain the desired comfort level, building envelops plays an

important role along with technologies used. These technologies which help us achieve the

comforts are of active nature, passive nature or hybrid nature i.e. combination of both active and

passive. Passive technologies are systems, which rely on natural resources and help us achieve

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comfort levels without relying on artificial energy. Choice of passive design techniques is majorly

dependent on local climate where the project is located. The techniques are sustainable and use

abundantly available natural resources. Integration of such techniques help transform building

envelops into living organic creations to sustain human life within. This section will also illustrate

components of building envelope, which help us integrate passive designing techniques to attain

comfort.

2.4.1 Building Orientation

Buildings should be planned in such a way that benefit is obtained from shaded indoor and outdoor

living areas when the weather is hot and sunny indoor and outdoor areas with wind protection

when the weather is cold. Building block orientation governs the passive technologies

implementation within the design. It also governs the window sizing and locations, which will

affect both lighting space conditioning within a building. Proper orientation can lead to significant

reduction in lighting and space conditioning load if coupled with passive design technologies.

Well-designed buildings should be oriented, and the spaces arranged in such a way, that the

majority of rooms face towards the equator. In this way, the eastern and western sides are exposed

to the low-angle summer sun in the morning and afternoon. The high angle of the sun in the sky in

summer makes it easy to shade windows using only a generous roof overhang or horizontal shade.

The longer north/south sides of the building benefits from the low angle sun in winter. The roof

overhang or shading on the equator side should allow the Sun to shine into the building when its

warmth is required in winter, and provide adequate protection from high-angle Sun in summer

(Aksoy and Inalli 2006). If the majority of windows are designed into the equator-facing wall, sun

penetration into the building will be maximized. Living areas should be sited to gain maximum

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benefit from cooling breezes in hot weather and shelter from undesirable winds in winter. This

does not mean that the orientation of the building should be varied from north towards prevailing

breezes, as it does not have to face directly into the breeze to achieve good cross-ventilation

(Mingfang 2002).

2.4.2 Building Shape (Massing)

Well-designed passive building produces less air pollution and greenhouse gasses, and thus it

contributes to a more sustainable environment. Good passive buildings not only conserve energy,

but also account for hidden environmental benefits. If we are to build a sustainable future for this

planet, architects need easy-to-use design tools to help them visualize the many environmental

consequences of their design decisions (Littler 1982). There are a lot of microcomputer design

tools; however, a user-friendly one that calculates the environmental costs of each architectural

design decision, and then displays an easy-to understand picture of how these costs change from

one design to the next is a new version of SOLAR-5 (Milne 1995). The great advantage of this

user-friendly design tool is that the architect can instantly go back and re-design the building and

can immediately see if the air pollutant emissions, energy consumption, or operating costs, have

been reduced. With this knowledge, architects are in a better position to make informed judgments

about the design and operation of their buildings. The increasing complexity in design and

performance evaluation of buildings has resulted in the need for the use of computational building

performance evaluation and design support tools throughout the process (Hien et al. 2000). It is

hope that the development will become an impetus for building designers to utilize the tools for a

performance evaluation of their design. Site planning is an integral part of passive designing. Each

components placement result in the governing the microclimate generated around the site. Zoning

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and massing help to achieve desired microclimate in different climates. Massing of the building

blocks help achieve thermal and visual comfort levels if designed as per the climatological

requirements. Building blocks channelize or obstruct the wind flow; they also act as shading

devices for surroundings. Building blocks design and geometry can influence the wind flow and

velocity. Massing of blocks can help regulate the summer wind and achieve ventilation, and

obstruct wind flow in winter season. Figure 2.1 explains some examples of massing to channelize

wind flow.

Fig.2.1. Massing of building blocks influence wind pattern (Pedata 2011)

2.4.3 Choice of Materials

In building design, Choice of material depends on the environmental climate around the building.

However, the usage of the materials is been governed by the properties, which can be noted as

three different properties i.e. colour, insulation property and assembly type. Finishes colour of both

the interior and exterior will vary the amount of heat and light absorbed and reflected. The Lighter

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the colour, the greater the reflectivity while the darker the colour the more absorbing the color’s

property. In addition, the insulation property plays an important role in material selection. Heat

exchange is reduced in the space (Interior and exterior spaces) when insulating property is good.

Building components are the major components, which integrate passive design features. Building

materials can be classified as two types—visible and invisible. Visible category includes the

finishes both internal and external while the invisible include the structural and non-structural. The

opening sizes of a building and its location is controlled by the orientation of the building.

2.4.4 Landscaping (Heat Island Effect)

Heat capacity of building is a scientific measure of how much heat various materials can hold. For

a particular building element, heat capacity is calculated by multiplying the density of its material

by its overall thickness, and then by its specific heat. Specific heat is referred to the amount of heat

a material can hold per unit of mass. The greater the specific heat, the more energy is required to

heat up the material. Thermal mass is basically the ability of a material to store heat (Thani et al.

2012). It can be easily incorporated into a building as part of the walls and floor.

According to Shashua-Bar et al. 2009, Thermal mass affects the temperature within a building by:

i. Stabilizing internal temperatures by providing heat source and heat sink surfaces for

radiative, conductive and convective heat exchange processes.

ii. Providing a time-lag in the equalization of external and internal temperatures.

iii. Providing a reduction in extreme temperature swings between outside and inside

Material selection to capitalize on thermal mass is an important design consideration. For instance,

heavyweight internal construction (high thermal mass) such as brick, solid concrete, stone, or earth

can store the Sun’s heat during winter days, releasing the warmth to the rooms in the night after it
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conducts through. Lightweight materials such as plasterboard and wood paneling are relatively low

mass materials and will act as insulators to the thermal mass, reducing its effectiveness.

Lightweight construction responds to temperature changes more rapidly. It is therefore suitable for

rooms that need to heat or cool very quickly (Kleerekoper et al. 2012). For maximum energy

efficiency, thermal mass should be maximized in the equator-facing sides of a building. Any heat

gained through the day can be lost through ventilation at night. In using this technique, the thermal

mass is often referred to as a ‘heat bank’ and acts as a heat distributor, delaying the flow of heat out

of the building by as much as 10–12 h.

Kleerekoper et al. 2012 established that thermal mass design considerations include:

i. Where mass is used for warmth, it should be exposed to incident solar radiation.

ii. Where mass is required for cooling, it is better placed in a shaded zone.

iii. Buildings may be preheated using electric or hot water tubing embedded in the mass

(mostly concrete floors).

iv. Buildings may be pre-cooled using night-purge ventilation (opening the building up to cool

breezes throughout the night), although this requires significant amounts of exposed mass,

and may be necessary only at certain times of the year.

v. Thermal mass is particularly beneficial where there is a big difference between day and

night outdoor temperatures

Both heat capacity and conductivity give rise to what is known as the thermal mass effect. In large

heavyweight materials, it can take a significant amount of energy to heat up their surface. This is

because much of the energy is actually absorbed deeper into the material, being distributed over a

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larger volume. With a lot of energy incident on the surface, this absorption can continue until it

travels through its entire width, emerging on the inside surface as an increase in temperature. This

conduction process can take a significant amount of time, sometimes in the order to 10–12 h with a

thick masonry wall. If the energy incident on the outside surface fluctuates, this can set up ‘waves’

of temperature flowing through the material (Shashua-Bar et al. 2009). Landscaping elements play

critical role in defining microclimate of the site. Elements like amount of hard paving placement of

water bodies, placement of shading trees, orientation and location of building blocks etc. Amount

of hard paving will affect the heat trapped around the building resulting in heat island effect. In

addition, it will increase the run from site thus reducing the dampness around site due to lack of

percolation. Water bodies can as natural coolers for hot and dry climate. Where the moisture from

the water bond can be used to cool the hot wind blowing above and thus used to cool the building

block. Tree and shrub plantation plays an important role in defining wind flow and also help

achieve mutual shading on building and hard paving. They act as sound barrier to obstruct the noise

entering in the site when placed around the site boundary and provide shading when placed near

the building envelop. However, the height of the tree is a restriction about the number of stories,

which can be benefited with this landscaping design feature (Fig.2.2).

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 Fig. 2.2 Passive cooling (Amble Resorts 2009)

2.5 Energy: Forms and Sources

Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms such as

heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential energy, electrical, or other forms. Energy is the

ability to do work. Energy sources could be classified as Renewable and Non-renewable.

We use energy for everything we do, from making a jump to sending astronauts into space. Energy

exists in various forms, including atomic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, nuclear, radiant and

thermal. Although energy can be transferred from one form to another but it cannot be created or

destroyed. Energy can be extracted from a variety of resources that can be categorized as primary

and secondary; commercial and non-commercial; conventional and nonconventional; renewable

and non-renewable and traditional and non-traditional.

Energy is a vital resource that helps in everything we do; it is one of the most important sources of

every country’s development. Energy empowers agricultural, commercial, industrial, domestic and

official activities in both developing and developed countries of the world. To lessen the problem
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of poverty of a country, energy has to be provided to its citizens; this is the fundamental step when

embarking on its growth and development.

Nigeria is fortunate to have huge energy resources. Nigeria sits astride of over 35 billion barrels of

oil, 187 trillion cubic feet of gas, 4 billion metric tons of coal and lignite, as well as huge reserves

of tar sands, hydropower and solar radiation, among others (Adenikinju, 2008, cited in Aminu and

Aminu, 2015).

2.6 Passive Design Elements

Passive design elements are the main strategies, which eliminate or reduce the need for mechanical

and electrical systems in the buildings. They greatly improve the users' convenience in the

building. Following are the important passive design elements and their aspects: The environment

and its thermal effects: Before constructing a building, builders must understand the mechanisms of

heat loss or gain. Environmental conditions have three major categories: air temperature, direction

of wind, and relative humidity. The temperature of the air should be less than the body temperature

because in that case, the body will recover the heat loss to maintain a constant temperature. The

opposite is true for winters when the room temperature should be higher than the body temperature

(Rode, Iversen, Pedersen, & Villumsen, 2005).

Often it is very difficult to maintain the thermal comfort because maintaining thermal comfort is a

difficult process. Therefore, often people feel comfortable when heat increases or decreases at a

slower rate, and the opposite happen when temperatures immediately change because that creates

discomfort.

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The environmental situation can determine the thermal comfort, which depends on the quantity and

speed of wind because it uses the principles of convectional heat exchange. As long as the wind

speed is not too high and the air temperature is not too low, it helps by providing cooling effect

during hot climates (Bilgiç, 2003).

Relative humidity in the air refers to the amount of water in the air and when the air contains a

large amount of water, it is humid. Warm air has a higher potential to collect moisture. Human

body controls body temperature through sweating because sweat creates evaporation to cool down

the body (Sushitckii, 2012).

2.7 Energy Efficiency

Mohsen (2011) mentioned that buildings are accountable for 40% of energy consumption and 36%

of CO2 emissions. Enhancing the energy performance of buildings is a cost effective way of

fighting against climate change and improving energy security while at the same time creating job

opportunities especially in the building industry.

Community research and development center CREDC (2009) assert that Energy efficiency has

become an important aspect of sustainable development, the use of energy efficiency will lead to

the saving of personal income; people will not have to spend so much money paying for energy. It

will help to reduce the building of more power stations, thus the money for building power stations

will then be spent on other sectors of the economy. In Nigeria, the inadequate supply of energy

made it necessary for energy to be portioned/rationed, but with good energy management at the

residential, public and private sector, there will be no need to ration electricity supply. CREDC

further assert that the energy been produced in Nigeria are from the combustion of fossil fuel such

as oil and gas. For every kilowatt of electricity, we consume; there is an equivalent emission of
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greenhouse gases (GHGs). Energy efficiency can help reduce the dependency on petroleum and

also emission of greenhouse gases and reduce. The negative environmental impacts associated with

the generation of energy will also be reduced if we use energy efficiently.

Many persons can be hired during intervention programs to change the behavior of people to use

energy efficiently but then there are other methods ranging from retrofitting or employing energy

efficient appliances to designing an energy efficient building to relate to the environment. In so

doing there will be little or no use of energy. Companies involved in the manufacturing electrical

appliances will experience competition among themselves; those who manufacture the most

efficient appliances capture the patronage of consumers.

2.7.1 Benefits of Energy Efficiency

The benefits of energy efficiency, a 2012 study on the energy efficiency strategy, points out the

benefits of energy efficiency as follows:

i. Economic growth: Energy efficiency measures when fixed often require local work force,

and the venture has the possibility of enhancing employment and economic growth. There

are long term growth benefits, for example, it lowers domestic energy bills, this can lead to

higher disposable incomes that can be spent elsewhere in the economy, while businesses

can see a reduction in running costs and so an increase in productivity.

ii. Innovation of energy efficient technology: this offers a longer term investment in energy

efficiency technology which can lead to a virtuous circle as innovation leads to cost

reductions which can make it cheaper and easier to invest in energy efficiency in the future.

Developing our innovative capacity in technology, materials or business models for energy

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 efficiency opens up the potential for increasingly significant export opportunities for

Nigeria as the global effort to combat climate change ramps up.

iii. Increased productivity: Economic studies show that improved energy efficiency can

encourage productivity, increases growth and reduces inflation. This provides additional

jobs due to the cumulative impact of higher growth.

iv. Savings for domestic and business consumers: this is central to delivering a fair deal for the

consumer. Most buildings are already benefitting from improvements in energy efficiency

such as heating efficiency and insulation, if there had not been energy efficiency measures,

energy use would be almost double the current level. Energy efficiency will continue to

have a role in driving long term reductions in a building’s energy bills’. Increase in general

well-being: good health can be improved through increased energy efficiency, e.g. a higher

disposable income; due to lower energy bills can permit increased expenses on other needs.

The health benefits from properly installed energy efficiency measures can be significant.

v. Emission reductions: In order to fight against greenhouse gas emission which has been the

targets over the coming decades in the most cost effective way, we need energy efficiency

to improve significantly across all sectors because energy efficiency tends to be a cost-

effective option.

vi. A sustainable and secure energy system: when energy consumption is reduced there is

improvement in energy security. There can also be specific benefits to the energy system of

decreasing demand as it reduces the long-term need for investment in additional

infrastructure that would have otherwise been required. This has the potential to reduce the

overall cost of energy generation framework in the future.

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2.8 Energy Efficient Buildings

United Nations (1991) defines energy efficient buildings as buildings that have minimum levels of

energy inputs. Well-designed power efficient buildings provide the best human comfort condition

while reducing energy costs. According to the Development and Land Use Policy Manual for

Australia (DLUPM) (2000), the aim of energy-efficient buildings is to boost occupant comfort and

reduce energy consumption (electricity, natural gas, etc.) for heating, cooling and lighting.

Chowdhury (2006) assert that increased energy efficiency in buildings can provide financial

benefits through reduced electricity bills and have a role in reducing total societal energy use.

Energy efficient buildings are designed in a way that ensures that energy is used at a reduced cost,

and in a sustainable and conserved manner. Energy efficient building is a panacea to attaining a

“sustainable city or eco-city”. Eco-cities are designed to achieve maximum comfort by occupants

with emphasis on reduced energy inputs, water and food, waste output of heat, and reduced air,

noise and water pollution (Devuyst, 2011., Eco-city, 2011.). Energy efficient building is relatively

unknown in Nigeria due to certain factors which include: ignorance/illiteracy, poverty, lack of

awareness and/or poor Government policies toward achieving such concepts in buildings.

i. Ignorance/illiteracy: Most developing countries are known for high illiteracy rate.

According to the report of the Minister of State for Education in Nigeria, adult illiterates

rose from 25 million in 1997 to 35 million in 2013 (Vanguard, 2014). Specifically adult

literacy rate is about 56.9% of the total population (National Bureau of Statistics, 2010.

Murtala et. al., 2013). This makes the focus of most citizens on buildings to be more on

quick gains without consideration on sustainability of the environment and climate. Also

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 with such high degree of illiteracy, majority of the citizens need to be educated on the need

for energy efficiency in buildings to enable them understand the merits.

ii. Poverty: Nigeria has a population of 2,176,947 based on 2006 census (National Population

Commission, 2006, National Bureau of Statistics, 2010). The poverty rate in Nigeria is still

alarming. In Nigeria, an estimated 54 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line

(43 per cent urban, 64 percent rural), and 90 per cent of the poorest people live in the north

(Nigeria Country Programme document, 2014-2017, Unicef). Poverty is a strong limiting

factor to energy efficient buildings as money is needed to procure the materials and human

resource needed to execute such buildings.

iii. Lack of awareness: Most Nigerians are not aware that buildings can influence our

environment and climate. They are more concerned with the aesthetic values and volume of

modern technological gadgets in buildings without knowledge of the negative implications

of such devices. In some rural areas, seasonal variations and weather changes which are

possibly due to climate change are rather attributed to primitive religious beliefs. Thus the

need for awareness on the influence of energy efficient buildings on the environment to be

created in the minds of the citizenry cannot be overstressed.

iv. Lack of Government policies: Lack of Government policies on achieving energy efficient

buildings for sustainable environment and development are another contributing factor. The

Government (Federal. State and Local) are yet to come up with strong policy that will

ensure that buildings are regulated to ensure that energy efficiency is achieved. Currently,

the Nigerian government has set a target to increase electricity generation by 40,000MW of

power by the year 2020 (Nnaji, 2012) and subsequently, many gas-powered stations have

been commissioned to increase generation and many more are expected to be

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 commissioned to meet up with energy demand. These are non-renewable energy source and

will result in the emission of GHGs, leading to global warming to consequently increase

climate change. Increased urbanization in most States especially in the housing.

2.8.1 Sustainable and Energy Efficiency Strategies for Retrofitting of Buildings

Whole building design guide WBDG (2012), wrote on the essential sustainable and energy

efficient strategies for the retrofitting of existing buildings, they are:

i. Re-commission all energy and water systems to verify if they are functioning at optimum

performance; then renovate energy and water systems to minimize consumption.

ii. Work-out a plan to enhance the recycling and re-use of demolition remains and waste from

construction to minimize the waste sent to landfills.

iii. Assess occupancy patterns, and then apply daylight, HVAC and lighting sensors where

suitable. Integrate energy into the project suitable for the tasks and functions of the spaces.

iv. Find out if natural ventilation and fresh air intake are possible substitutes to lessen heating

and cooling loads.

v. Look into renewable options that can counter balance the purchase of fossil fuel-based

energy.

vi. Consider solar shading devices for windows and doors, as well as those that generate

electricity by photovoltaic (PV) devices.

vii. Change existing windows with windows suitable for climate and exposure.

viii. Examine the benefits of distributed generation if the building is in a campus cluster or can

share the on-site energy produced with neighboring buildings.

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 ix. Some specific site can improve the energy performance of the building including reducing

the heat island effect.

x. Decide if a cool roof or green roofs are cost-effective ways to lessen heat island effect and

storm water runoff.

xi. Employ Energy Star and/or a green building rating system for existing buildings like LEED

for Existing Buildings: Operations and Maintenance (LEED EBOM) or Green Globes for

Existing Buildings to gage the building's level of performance.

xii. Update systems appropriately to maintain a balance between the need for energy and water

savings with the character of the original building fabric especially for historic buildings.

xiii. Use the chance given by the building renovation to integrate sustainable practices and

switch to green cleaning products and methods.

xiv. In order to make sure that a newly renovated building continues to function as designed,

measure the performance of the building frequently.

xv. If not already metered, plan on installing meters for electric, gas, water and other utilities.

Smart meters and sub meters are preferable to monitor real-time usage, control demand and

increase tenant accountability (cost control).

2.8.2 Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency

According to a research by Eneye Ege Seriki, 2015, Thermal comfort is a subjective sensation. It is

that state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. Alternatively, it is that

state of mind that does not express dissatisfaction with the thermal environment (Ogunsote, 991). It

is equivalent to conditions in which human beings can sleep soundly and work comfortably and

when there is a minimum demand on the thermo-regulatory mechanisms of the body. The

43
American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), (2009)

defines thermal comfort as the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding

environment. Factors such as temperature, ventilation, humidity and radiant energy affect thermal

comfort, and for humans the comfort zone is within a very narrow range of conditions. Exterior

climate conditions alter the acceptable interior conditions. Energy efficiency is achieved when

occupant comfort is maintained through limited reliance on mechanical space conditioning.

The following parameters are factors that enhance energy efficiency and promote thermal comfort

of occupants in a building:

i. Window size

ii. Window orientation

iii. Shading device

a) Window Size

Size of window openings are important design elements for admitting daylight, air flow, providing

cross-ventilation and thermal comfort. Gut and Ackerknecht (1993) recommend that windows

should be large and fully openable, with inlets of a similar size on opposite walls for proper cross-

ventilation in hot-humid climates.

b) Window Orientation

Gut and Ackerknecht (1993) note that “openings in hot and humid regions should be placed

according to the prevailing breeze so that air can flow through the internal space thereby enhancing

thermal comfort”. Ahmed (1987) in her study on the effects of climate on the design and location

of windows for buildings in Bangladesh states that windows should be avoided on western walls as

44
it is almost impossible to shade it in all seasons. Liping (2007) also emphasize on avoiding east or

west facing rooms for the purpose of thermal comfort and energy use.

c) Shading Devices

Shading is the first line of defense to reduce the ingress of solar gain, and it can also reduce the

effective temperature experienced by an occupant by up to 8oC (Nick and Koen, 2005). Windows

can be shaded with overhangs to prevent direct solar radiation from penetrating the building and

this is illustrated in Fig. 2.3. Watson and Labs (1983) categorized shading devices into three

categories namely solar transmittance of glazing materials, interior shading and exterior window

shades. Solar transmittance is defined as the heat admitting or rejecting characteristic of the glazing

materials. Watson and Labs (1983) and Gut and Ackerknecht (1993) advice against heat absorbing,

heat reflecting and tinted glazing. According to Watson and Labs (1983) heat absorbing clear and

tinted glazing reduces solar 8 transmission by absorbing heat within the material itself. They state

that the absorbed heat can be uncomfortable to occupants because it adds heat to the interior by

conduction and thermal radiation.

45
 Fig. 2.3: Window overhangs (Source: Passive design toolkit, 2009)

2.9 Passive Cooling Strategies

Passive design strategy is popular all over the world since ancient times in order to create and

improve the internal environment of the building. With the passage of time, many technologies

developed, which created comfortable and safe internal environments. The use of passive design

reduces heating and cooling costs, and uses solar heat to make interior spaces comfortable. Cooling

and ventilation are big problems in hot and humid climates as they remove moisture from the

enclosed spaces. Some elements should be considered while cooling spaces through the use of solar

shading: proper guidance, use of the appropriate shading, the use of colors and materials

appropriate for the climate, use of plants for cooling effect, the strategy to selectively allow the day

light to enter the building, and the use of insulators(Reardon, Clarke,2013). Passive cooling is a

type of building design strategy to reduce the use of mechanical cooling of the building, and to

provide appropriate internal comfort. Passive cooling is one of the least costly options both in

financial and environmental terms as the direction of movement of the sun and climatic factors

used for passive cooling of the building. The cooling requirements should be different and

distinctive according to the climate and the location of the buildings (Valladares - Rendón & Lo,

2014). Feeling comfortable in all the climates requires some form of cooling during certain times

of the year, and many ways could be applied to the design or the building can be modified in order

to achieve comfort inside the building. Hence, the designer should make an early decision on how

to design the building, whether he/she can use passive cooling in the building or needs mechanical

cooling or both (mixed). Implementation strategy for passive cooling in the building is as follows:

Passive cooling of the building strategies is an important strategy used in the passive design,

46
because it prevents the building from high temperatures by blocking solar gains. Moreover,

removing the internal heat gains (by using the cooler external air to ventilate the interior of the

building, and store the excess heat in the thermal mass of the building) (Reardon, Clarke, 2013).

Usually passive cooling takes place along with the passive ventilation strategy to assure passive

cooling in the building, increasing airflow and continue passive ventilation in the building during

specific periods. Natural ventilation/overnight cooling removes the accumulated heat. The building

cover reduces heat through a number of ways such as buffer zones because they limit the

radioactive heat gains and avoid the storage of heat gain during the day, use of light colors because

they reflect the heat, shading windows, walls, and ceilings to protect them from direct solar

radiation. For substantial heat loss, natural cooling sources should be used including cool air (if

available), air movement, direction of the wind, evaporation, reflection of radiation, and ground

coupling (Sameti, & Kasaeian, 2015). Passive cooling sources are as more versatile and complex

than passive heating, which comes from a single source (solar radiation). The sources of cooling

come with the innovative design of the building cover, air movement, evaporation, heat mass along

the ground, and lifestyle choices in most of the climatic zones. Sometimes we need to add

mechanical cooling in hot and wet weather or in the extreme weather conditions, which leads to

rise in temperature during days and nights (Reardon, Clarke, 2013). To achieve thermal comfort

through cooling applications and to let the cold breeze come inside the buildings, a designer must

design the building cover to reduce heat gain during the day, and increase heat loss at night. The

following guidelines should consider:

i. Floor plan design and shape of the building to respond to the local climate and location

ii. Carefully identify sites of thermal mass to store cold

47
 iii. Choose the right windows and glass for the climate

iv. Proper positioning of windows and openings for ventilation of the building to promote the

cross-air movement

v. Shading windows and walls exposed to the sun and ceilings

vi. Using the spaces of the roof, living areas and buffer zones to reduce the heat gain.

2.10 Passive Design Strategies for Enhancing Energy Efficiency

Passive design strategies have proven to be extremely effective and can greatly contribute in

decreasing the cooling load of buildings. Tahmina (2009) assert that there are principles classified

into planning aspects and building envelope that help to guide the passive design process in order

to achieve energy efficiency in a design. These are:

i. Planning Aspects: (a) Building form (b) Building orientation (c) Spatial organization (d)

Landscape

ii. Building Envelope: (a) Building material (b) Natural ventilation (c) Day-lighting

2.10.1 Planning Aspects

i. Building form

Givoni (1998) states that building form largely depends on whether the building is planned to be

air-conditioned or if it is intended to rely on natural ventilation. He recommends a compact shape

for the building dwelled by people who use air conditioners and open forms for naturally ventilated

buildings. Gut and Ackerknecht (1993) have suggested forms with large surfaces rather than

compact buildings as large surfaces favour ventilation and heat emission at night-time. The

building forms should thus be open, outward oriented and not compact. Effect of building forms on

48
energy efficiency is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. Compactness of the building minimizes the surface area

of the building envelope, resulting in a reduction of the heat gain through the envelope.

Fig. 2.4: Effect of building form on energy efficiency. (Source: Passive design toolkit, 2009)

ii. Building orientation

Building orientation is the position of the building on site taking into consideration the sunrise and

sunset. Proper building orientation plays an important role in reducing cooling loads in tropical hot-

humid climates where there is a high level of radiation from the sun. This can be achieved by

reducing exposure of buildings to the sun. East and west facing walls receive the highest intensities

of radiation, especially during hot periods. These walls should thus normally be kept as small as

possible and contain as few and small openings as possible. The application of orientation in

enhancing energy efficiency is illustrated in Fig.2.3. In general, north and south facing is the best

preferred orientation.

49
 Fig. 2.5: Building orientation. (Source: Passive design toolkit, 2009)

iii. Landscape

Landscaping is an effective means of protecting the building from unwanted solar gains and

redirecting wind flow to enter the house for natural ventilation. Plants prevent most solar radiation

from striking surfaces made of concrete, bricks and asphalt. Modification of the surrounding

climate and irradiance reduction achieved by plants is an efficient means of lowering energy usage

for space cooling and it has been shown that about 25-80% savings on air conditioning can be

achieved with proper landscaping (Nyuk and Yu, 2009). Raeissi and Taheri (1999) acknowledge

the beneficial effects of trees. They state that planting of trees can result in energy saving,

reduction of noise and pollution, modification of temperatures and relative humidity and

psychological benefits on humans. Their study on proper tree planting for energy saving concludes

that the cooling loads of a house can be reduced by 10%- 40% by appropriate tree planting. They

also note that trees can act complementary to window overhangs, as they are better for blocking

low morning and afternoon sun which is illustrated in Plate I

50
 Plate I: Good use of climbers and trees to reduce penetration of heat into the building, Rockhurst

University, Kansas City, U.S.A. (Source: Ogunsote, PrucnalOgunsote, Adegbie, 2005).

2.10.2 Building Envelope

a. Building materials

The selection of materials for construction is very vital in Nigeria for achieving optimum comfort.

The thermal properties of materials which affect the rate of heat transfer in and around the building

and consequently affect the thermal condition and comfort of the occupants include the following:-

i. Thermal Conductivity: This is the ability of materials to conduct heat. (b) Thermal

Stability: The ability of materials to retain its basic physical and mechanical properties and

inner structure when heated.

ii. Thermal Resistance: This is the ability of material to resist heat flow.

iii. Heat Capacity: This is the ability of material to absorb heat when its temperature is raised.

51
 iv. Surface Coefficient: This determines the rate of heat exchange between the surface and the

surrounding air.

v. Surface Characteristics: This determines reflectivity, absorptive and emissive of a material,

for example, colour, texture, etc.

Thermal mass is the ability of a material to absorb, hold and gradually release heat. A lot of heat

energy is required to change the temperature of high density materials like concrete, bricks and

tiles. They are therefore said to have high thermal mass. Lightweight materials such as timber has

low thermal mass. Appropriate use of thermal mass throughout a building can make a big

difference to comfort and cooling bills (Chris, 2008). This is illustrated in Fig. 2.4 using insulated

brick cavity walls. For instance, Sustainable Energy Authority, Victoria, Australia assert that the

use of construction materials with high thermal mass such as insulated brick cavity walls can

reduce total heating and cooling energy requirements by up to 25-30% compared to a home built

with a low thermal mass. Buildings in the tropics using high thermal mass materials should be well

shaded to avoid heat gain and insulated internally to reduce heat transfer.

52
 Fig. 2.6: Insulated brick cavity walls absorb heat thereby cooling the interior (Source:
www.smarthousingmanual.com, 2002).

Passive design can be achieved and energy efficiency can be enhanced through the use of

appropriate construction materials. For instance, the use of solar reflective glass in buildings helps

to reflect heat because the glass has been treated with metallic coating in order to reflect heat rather

than absorbing it. This type of glass is used in environmentally friendly construction with the goal

of reducing heat gain and loss, making structures much cheaper to heat and cool over the course of

the year and enhancing energy efficiency. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.5

Fig. 2.7: Use of solar reflective glass to enhance the cooling of the building interior (Source:
www.smarthousingmanual.com, 2002).

b. Natural ventilation

Ventilation is the movement of fresh air to replace hot air. According to Watson and Labs (1983)

ventilation has three useful functions in the building sector. It is used to:

i. Satisfy the fresh air needs of the occupants

ii. Increase the rate of evaporative and sensible heat loss from the body
53
iii. Cool the building interior by an exchange of warm indoor air by cooler outdoor air.

Givoni (1998) also points out that cross-ventilation can be used to enable faster cooling and better

ventilation. He stresses that building layout which provides good potential for cross-ventilation is

more appropriate for developing countries in hot-humid regions where the vast majority of people

cannot afford to buy air conditioners. He recommends a spread out building with openable

windows to facilitate cross-ventilation. Watson & Labs (1983) explain that “natural ventilation can

be generated by the following two forces:

(a) Temperature difference between the outdoors and the indoors

(b) Wind flow against the building

i. Temperature Difference between the Outdoors and the Indoors.

When a mass of air inside the room is heated, it expands and becomes less dense and rises. If

openings are provided at different heights on the building’s envelope, the indoor pressure is higher

at the upper opening and lower at the lower opening. This pressure differences generate an inward

flow at the lower opening and an outward flow at the upper one. When thermal forces discharge air

from a building, the action is termed as stack effect.

ii. Wind Flow against the Building.

As wind blows against a building, the air in front of the building is compressed and creates a

pressure zone. The air next to the leeward wall and above the roof expands and the pressure is

reduced, creating a suction zone. These pressure differences between any two points on the

building‟s envelope determine the possibility for ventilation when openings are provided at these

points (driving force) and if air can flow inside the building through openings with the higher

54
pressure to openings exposed to a zone with lower pressure. Cross- ventilation is defined as the

situation in which outdoor air can flow in through inlet openings, located in the pressure zone, and

flow out via outlet openings located in the suction sections of the building. Other common natural

ventilation and thus cooling techniques is the use of courtyards. A study of courtyards by Ali

(2007) in Dhaka uses “two typologies of six storied residential apartments, namely, the courtyard

type and the non-courtyard type for comparison of thermal data. The results of this comparative

analysis reveal that the buildings with courtyards are much more comfortable and thus desirable for

the dwellers of Dhaka, which also has a tropical hot-humid climate like Ilorin.

c. Daylighting

Day-lighting reduces the need for electric lighting and contributes to bright and productive indoor

environments. The selection, size and placement of windows will determine the level of natural

day-lighting in a room or building. Things to consider are the path of the sun and seasonal

variations, optimal amount of day-light, glare control and the resultant heat gains and losses

associated with the choice of windows and frames. Krarti (2005) conducted a simplified analysis

method to evaluate the potential of day-lighting to save energy associated with electric lighting use

in commercial buildings. Performance of daylighting are investigated for several combinations of

building geometry, window opening size, and glazing type for four geographical locations in the

United States. Their simulation results indicate that day lighting saves up to 31% of the total annual

energy use from the artificial lighting system. Another method of capturing day-lighting into the

building interior is through the use of sunlight tubes. Sunlight tubes utilize the state of the art

design and technology to capture sunlight from the rooftop or exterior walls, redirect it down a

55
highly reflective shaft and then diffuse an abundance of pure day-light throughout the interior

space. The use of sunlight tubes is illustrated from Fig. 2.8 to Fig. 2.10

Fig. 2.8: Details of a sunlight tube (Source: www.solatubes.com, 2014).

56
 Fig. 2.9: Sunlight tube captures day-lighting from the exterior walls of a building (Source:
www.solatubes.com, 2014).

Fig. 2.10: Sunlight tube captures day-lighting from the roof top of a building

(Source: www.solatubes.com, 2014).

The use of atrium using ethylene tetra-fluoro-ethylene (ETFE) as material for covering the atrium

is another method of capturing day-lighting into the building interior. Ethylene tetrafluoro-ethylene

is a polymer, a transparent plastic related to teflon. This material is replacing glass and plastic in

57
some of the most innovative buildings being designed and constructed today. When compared to

glass, it’s 1% the weight, transmits more light, is a better insulator, and costs less to install.

Ethylene tetra-fluoro-ethylene is also resilient (able to bear 400 times its own weight, with an

estimated 50 year life-span), and recyclable.

2.11 Types of Literature Reviews.

It is crucial to remember that while writing a literature review, this third layer of knowledge is

frequently regarded as "true" despite if it frequently only has a tenuous connection to primary

studies and secondary literature reviews. (Kennedy, 2007)

Given this, there are several techniques to writing literature reviews based on the sort of analysis

supporting your study, even though they are intended to provide an overview and synthesis of

relevant sources you have examined. These are descriptions of many categories of literature

reviews: (Rhoades, 2011)

i. Argumentative Review

This method selectively explores the literature to prove or disprove a claim, a fundamental

presumption, or a philosophical conundrum that has already been established in the literature. The

goal is to create a body of writing that promotes an opposing viewpoint. Argumentative approaches

to literature analysis can be a valid and significant type of discourse given the value-laden nature of

some social scientific studies [for example, educational reform; immigration control]. However,

keep in mind that when they are used to make summary statements similar to those found in

systematic reviews, they might potentially pose issues with bias.

ii. Integrative Review

58
It is thought of as a type of research that evaluates, analyzes, and integrates representative literature

on a subject in order to produce fresh frameworks and viewpoints. The research that addresses

similar or related hypotheses are all included in the body of literature. In terms of clarity, rigor, and

replication, a well-done integrative review satisfies the same standards as primary research.

iii. Historical Review

Few things exist without reference to earlier events in history. Historical reviews are centered on

assessing research over time, frequently beginning with the first time a topic, idea, theory, or

phenomenon appeared in the literature and then following the topic's development within a

discipline's scholarly output. The goal is to contextualize research in order to demonstrate

knowledge of contemporary developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

iv. Methodological Review

The method of analysis used in a review is often more important than the speaker's actual words

(content). This method allows researchers to draw from a wide variety of knowledge ranging from

the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and

epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data

collection, and data analysis techniques. It also provides a framework of understanding at different

levels (i.e., those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis

techniques).

v. Systematic Review

This form includes an overview of available data relevant to a precisely worded research question,

which utilizes pre-established and standardized techniques to locate and evaluate pertinent research

59
as well as to gather, present, and analyze data from the studies that are part of the review. Usually,

it focuses on a fairly narrow empirical inquiry, which is frequently phrased in cause-and-effect

form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

vi. Theoretical Review

This form's goal is to specifically investigate the body of thought that has accumulated in relation

to a problem, idea, theory, or phenomenon. The theoretical literature review aids in identifying

what theories already exist, their connections, the depth to which they have been explored, and the

creation of new testable hypotheses. This style is frequently employed to demonstrate the absence

of suitable theories or to make clear that new or developing research issues cannot be adequately

explained by existing theories. The theoretical concept, a complete theory, or a framework may be

the subject of the analytical unit.

(Source: Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-

147)

2. 12 Sources of Literature Review

(Kennedy, 2007), Literature review can be in published or unpublished form. The following are

sources of

literature review;

i. Primary Sources

60
Direct, uninterpreted records of the subject of a research project. Primary sources are what you

perform your research work on. So, a primary source can be almost anything, depending on the

subject and purpose of your research.

A few examples of what can count as primary sources would be:

• Lab Reports - Records of the results of experiments

• Field Notes, Measurements, etc. - Records of observations of the natural world (electrons,

elephants, earthquakes, etc.).

• Conference Proceedings - Scientists and researchers getting together and presenting their

latest ideas and findings

• Articles of Original Research – Published in peer-reviewed journals

• Dissertations

• Patents

• Internet - Websites that publish the author's findings or research; e.g., your professor's home

page listing research results. Note: use extreme caution when using the Internet as a primary

source … remember, anyone with a computer can put up a website.

ii. Secondary Sources

Books, articles, and other writings by scientists and researchers reporting their work to others. They

may be reporting the results of their own primary research or critiquing the work of others. So,

these sources are usually the focus of a literature review: this is where you go to find out in detail

what has been and is being done in a field, and therefore to see how your work can contribute to the

field.

61
 iii. Tertiary Sources

These include encyclopedias, indexes, textbooks, and other reference sources. In general, there are

two types of tertiary (reference) sources:

• Summaries / Introductions - Encyclopedias, dictionaries, textbooks, yearbooks, and other

sources that provide an introduction or summary “state of the art” of the research in the

subject areas covered. They are an efficient means to quickly build a general framework for

understanding a field.

• Databases/Indexes - Provide lists of primary and secondary sources of more extensive

information. They are an excellent way of finding books, articles, conference proceedings

and other publications in which scientists report the results of their research.

2.13 Criteria for Selecting Good Literature Review

The following requirements must be met by a good literature review:

i. determining what has already been written on a topic;

ii. identifying previous approaches to the topic;

iii. identifying central issues in the field;

iv. integrating what previous researchers have found; and

v. identifying significant issues unresolved.

2.14 Papers Selected for Review in this Study

In view of that, eight (8) papers were reviewed namely;

1. Review on Design Strategies of Energy Saving Office Building with Evaporative Cooling
in Tropical Region by Rizvanda Ryan Savero, et.al. (2020).

62
2. Energy Efficiency Design Strategies in Office Buildings: A Literature Review by Erebor E.
M, et.al. (2021).
3. Passive Design Strategies for Energy Efficient Buildings in the Arabian Desert by Nedhal
Al-Tamimi, (2021).
4. The Impacts of Energy Efficiency Design Parameters on Office Buildings Energy
Consumption in Different Climate Zones in China by Liqiang Hou, et.al. (2017).
5. Passive Design Strategies for Energy Efficient Housing in Nigeria by Maryam Abbakyari,
et.al. (2017).
6. Passive Architectural Design Strategies for Reducing Cooling Load Within ICT Facilities in
Tropical Hot and Dry Climate by Ngutor Elijah, Akaainjo, et.al. (2018).
7. Harnessing Passive Cooling Strategies to Enhance Thermal Comfort in the design of
Proposed School of Environmental Studies Abdu Gusau Polytechnic, Zamfara State,
Nigeria. By Ibrahim Yusuf Chafe, (2017).
8. Enhancing Energy Efficiency Through Passive Design Principles in Hot-Humid Climate,
North Cyprus by Ahmad Tijjani Mainasara, et.al. (2019).
9. Passive design strategies for residential buildings in a hot dry climate in Nigeria by O. K.
Akande (2010).
10. Sensitivity Analysis of Passive Design Strategies for Residential Buildings in Cold Semi-
Arid Climates by Waqas Ahmed Mahar et.al. (2020).
11. The Application of Passive Design Strategies as Sustainable Operation and Maintenance in
a Model Conference Centres (A Case Study of Aminu Kano Centre for Democratic
Research and Training (Akcdr&T)) by Alfa Namadi Sharif, et.al. (2021).
12. A framework Approach to the Design of Energy Efficient Residential Buildings in Nigeria
by Dr Ekele Thompson Ochedi (2021).
13. Passive Cooling Strategies in Greening Existing Residential Building in Hot Dry Climate:
Case Study in Bahrain by May Al-Saffar (2015).
14. Performance of passive design strategies in hot and humid regions. Case study: Tangerang,
Indonesia Yanmeng Chen et.al, (2020).
15. Building Envelope Retrofitting Strategies for Energy-Efficient Office Buildings in Saudi
Arabia by Nedhal Al-Tamimi (2022).

63
 Table 2.1 Review on Design Strategies of Energy Saving Office Building with Evaporative
Cooling in Tropical Region by Rizvanda Ryan Savero, et.al. (2020)

Author And Year of Publication Rizvanda Ryan Savero, et.al. (2020)

Research Questions a) What are the factors of building heat control and the criteria
required in designing energy-saving office building?
b) How to apply evaporative cooling techniques to design the
energy saving office building?
Objectives a) Assess design Strategies that enhances energy Saving Office
Building with evaporative cooling in Tropical Region.
b) Identify the theories and design of energy-saving office
buildings that apply evaporative cooling concepts to inhibit solar
heat and improve natural cooling
Method Of Data Collection Qualitative
Theories; a) The theory of building passive design;
Theoretical Framework b) The theory of passive cooling related to the evaporative cooling
technique;
c) The theory of shape and geometry of energy-saving buildings;
d) The precedent about energy-saving office building;
e) The evaporative concept; and
f) The shape and geometric for the energy-saving office building.
Application; a) Inductive
Techniques Of Analysis b) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) This paper describes and shows the comparison between three
and Differences) office building theories in terms of energy efficiency.

Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and The theories from the preceding paper were conceptualized in
Weaknesses) this paper as components of distinct viewpoints.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) Building orientation, core placement, shading components, cross
ventilation, and natural lighting are the main building heat
control factors that have an impact on heat gain.
Gaps Identified a) The lack of evaporative cooling in office building designs,

64
 particularly in tropical regions, makes this research intriguing.

2.15 Methods used.

The method used is literature searching from books, journals, precedents, and other relevant

sources. The literature includes the following:

• The Theory of Building Passive Design;

• The Theory of Passive Cooling Related to The Evaporative Cooling Technique;

• The Theory of Shape and Geometry of Energy-Saving Buildings;

• The Precedent about Energy-Saving Office Building;

• The Evaporative Concept; And

• The shape and geometric for the energy-saving office building.

From the literature searching, the contents of the theories that are most often appear and are used as

energy-saving strategies in office buildings are analyzed. Then it would be clarified by the

precedent that applies the theory. The relationship between theory and precedent would validate the

accuracy of the office building energy-saving strategy in the tropical climate.

Table 2.2 Energy Efficiency Design Strategies in Office Buildings: A Literature Review by
Erebor E. M, et. al. (2021).

Author And Year of Publication Erebor E. M, et. al. (2021)

Research Questions a) What are the energy efficiency design strategies integrated in
office buildings?
b) What categories of energy efficiency design strategies are used in
office buildings;
c) How do you establish the most implemented energy efficiency
design strategy in office buildings?

65
Objectives a) Identify the energy efficiency design strategies integrated in
office buildings;
b) Identify the categories of energy efficiency design strategies used
in office buildings; and
c) Establish the most implemented energy efficiency design strategy
in office buildings.
Method Of Data Collection Qualitative
Theories; a) Energy Efficiency Design Strategies at the Pre-building phase
Theoretical Framework (DSPb);
b) Energy Efficiency Design Strategies at the Building phase
(DSBp) and
c) Energy Efficiency Design Strategies at the Post-building phase
(DSPBp).
Application;
Techniques Of Analysis a) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) This paper relied on a review of 36 articles published between
and Differences) 2007 and 2019 to identify and categorize energy efficiency
design, planning and construction applicable to office buildings
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) The data were randomly selected and analyzed by thematic
Weaknesses) textual analysis.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) Office building energy efficiency design solutions now in use can
be divided into three main areas, namely design strategies used
before construction, during construction, and after construction.
Gaps Identified Consequently, similar studies can be conducted using a wider literature
search approach which may lead to the discovery of new themes. Also,
related studies can be conducted to investigate other building types such
as residential, commercial, industrial or sporting facilities.

66
 2.16 Summary

The growing concerns over the adverse effects of buildings on the environment and the need to

achieve users’ thermal, visual, acoustic, spatial and indoor environmental air quality comfort have

given rise to the demand for energy efficient buildings. This paper relied on a review of 36 articles

published between 2007 and 2019 to identify and categorise energy efficiency design, planning and

construction applicable to office buildings Categories of Energy Efficiency Design Strategies in

Office Buildings Evidence from Nwofe, P.A. (2014), suggested that there are several

categorizations of energy efficiency design strategies and techniques. Therefore, in an attempt to

categorize the 29 energy efficiency design strategies identified, a review of an existing

classification was conducted. [30] further revealed that energy efficiency design strategies have

been categorised based on building envelope, lightings, energy recovery ventilation, advanced

control systems, ground source heat pump systems, efficient refrigerant systems, radiant systems,

plug loads and fault detection and diagnostics. To map these strategies with the different phases of

building project namely, design and planning, construction and post construction phases, the 29

energy efficient design strategies identified, were categorized into three groups as follows:

• Design Strategies at the Pre-building phase (DSPb);

• Design Strategies at the Building phase (DSBp) and

• Design Strategies at the Post-building phase (DSPBp).

Table 2.3 Passive Design Strategies for Energy Efficient Buildings in the Arabian Desert by
Nedhal Al-Tamimi, (2021).

Author And Year of Publication Nedhal Al-Tamimi, (2021).

Research Questions a) What are the passive design strategies for energy efficient buildings
in the Arabian Desert?

67
 b) What are the passive design features that affects the energy
efficiency of residential buildings in hot arid climates through the
extensive modifications of building envelopes?
c) How can different modifications of building envelopes affect the
energy consumption of the residential buildings under common
scenarios?
Objectives a) To identify the passive design strategies for energy efficient
buildings in the Arabian Desert?
b) To assess passive design features through the extensive
modifications of building envelopes to affect the energy efficiency
of residential buildings in hot arid climates;
c) To investigate how different modifications of building envelopes
could affect the energy consumption of the residential buildings
under common scenarios.
Method Of Data Collection a) Qualitative
b) Quantitative
Theories; a) Climatic Condition of Sharurah
Theoretical Framework b) Building Simulation Tool “DesignBuilder”
c) Influence of Thermal Insulation in Energy Conservation
d) Influence of Glazed Window in Energy Conservation
e) Influence of Shading Devices in Energy Conservation
f) Influence of Green Roof Materials in Energy Conservation
g) Influence of Combination Strategy in Energy Conservation
Application;
Techniques Of Analysis a) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) This paper describes an investigation of the effect of four passive
and Differences) design strategies, namely, insulation, glazing type, shading devices,
and green roof, on the annual energy consumption on a typical
residential building being developed and constructed recently in
Saudi Arabia.
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) The scope of this work is limited to the evaluation of the influence
Weaknesses) of building envelope modification on energy consumption of

68

Critical Issues/ Research Outcome
Gaps Identified
Table 2.4: The Impacts of Energy Efficiency Design Parameters on Office Buildings Energy
Consumption in Different Climate Zones in China by Liqiang Hou, et. al (2017)
Author And Year of Publication
Research Questions
Objectives
Method Of Data Collection
Theories;
Theoretical Framework
Application;
Techniques Of Analysis
Integration With Other Works
(Similarities and Differences)
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and
residential buildings in the hot arid climate of Sharurah City, KSA.
a) The simulation results show that thermal insulation can
significantly reduce annual energy consumption by as high as
23.6%, followed by green roofs. In contrast, shading devices and
glazing system types were fewer superiors.
b) The results also indicate that the effective combination of certain
strategies can reduce total energy consumption by 35.4% relative to
the base case (BC) of this research.
a) Gaps in energy efficiency of existing buildings have been raised as
common issue around the globe.
Liqiang Hou, et.al. (2017).
a) What are the thermal and energy performance of office buildings?
b) What the major energy saving strategies in different climate zones in
China with energy Plus
a) Investigate the thermal and energy performance of office buildings
b) Identify major energy saving strategies in different climate zones
in China with energy Plus. The results are analyzed in heating
loads, cooling loads and load components
a) Qualitative
b) Quantitative
a) Building energy simulation
a) Inductive
b) Deductive
a) To authors’ knowledge, little research work has been made on the
performance of office buildings combined load analysis and energy
consumption sensitivity analysis.
a) The results are analyzed in heating loads, cooling loads and load
69
Weaknesses) components.
b) The paper’s works and findings have significant implications for
building energy efficiency.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) Generic buildings based on architectural designs and energy-saving
codes are developed for five cities (Harbin, Beijing, Wuhan,
Kunming and Guangzhou). Simulations of the generic building
models developed with Energy Plus are conducted. The results are
analysed and compared in heating loads, cooling loads and annual
load components. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis is conducted to
obtain the key design parameters in five cities.
Gaps Identified a) No related analysis on the coexistence of various passive strategies

2.17 Building energy simulation.

In order to compare energy performance of buildings, a representative city within each climate

zone is selected. These are Harbin (serve cold), Beijing (cold), Wuhan (hot summer and cold

winter), Kunming (mild), and Guangzhou (hot summer and warm winter). Building energy

simulation is conducted using the simulation soft EnergyPlus, EnergyPlus. Engineering Reference

Handbook, (2016). Two major inputs are developed for each of the five cities-hourly weather

databases and generic office building designs. The Chinese standard weather data (CSWD) weather

files of hourly weather data are employed for simulation. A generic office building is developed to

serve as a baseline for energy consumption analysis. The building model and the typical floor plan

are illustrated in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7. The generic office building is a 37.8 m × 35.7 m, 20

story building. North axis angle is zero. The height of each story is 3.8 m, and the window to wall

ratio of each orientation is 0.4. The total gross floor area is 26989.20 m2, and the air-conditioned

building area is 24343.20 m2. The offices, which are at the perimeter, are air-conditioned space.

70
 The staircase, the center of building, is unconditioned space. The summary of key building

envelope design parameters of five cities is shown in Table 1.

Generic building envelope is designed based on the prevailing architecture practices and local

design codes, Chinese National Standard, (2015). Obviously, each city has rather different

envelope design to suit the local climate. The summary of internal loads density and design

condition is shown in Table 2. The operation of lighting and equipment is 11 hours one day, and 5

days one week. For comparative loads, the same internal loads and indoor design condition are

assumed in five cities. The HVAC Template: Zone: Ideal Loads Air System model is employed for

load calculations.

Fig. 2.6: The building model Fig.2.7: The typical floor plan

Table 2.7 Passive Design Strategies for Energy Efficient Housing in Nigeria by Maryam
Abbakyari, et.al (2017)

Author And Year of Publication Maryam Abbakyari, et.al. (2017).

Research Questions a) What are the various passive design strategies to improve the

71
 energy efficiency of a typical mass housing type in Nigeria?

Objectives a) Assess various passive design strategies to improve the energy

efficiency of a typical mass housing type in Nigeria.

Method Of Data Collection a) Qualitative

b) Quantitative

Theories; a) Energy efficient buildings

Theoretical Framework b) Building Simulation

Application; a) Deductive

Techniques Of Analysis

Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) To authors’ knowledge, little research work has been made on the

and Differences) performance of office buildings combined load analysis and

energy consumption sensitivity analysis.

Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) This research reveals that heat avoidance is the first and most

Weaknesses) important passive strategy for energy efficient buildings. These

were best achieved by picking the ‘lowest hanging fruit’ i.e.,

beginning with the simple and free strategies before reaching the

costly ones.

Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) The first stage was optimising the building fabric which involved

proposing a sustainable alternative to the conventional masonry

material. Next was the application of passive strategies aimed at

achieving lower energy load for cooling.

Gaps Identified a) No related analysis on the effect on commercial buildings.

72
2.18 Findings: Passive design approach

Passive design is design that works with the environment to exclude unwanted heat or cold and

take advantage of sun and breezes (Cairns Regional Council, 2011). One of the main passive

design principles for buildings in tropical climates is avoiding heat gain through proper orientation,

shading of walls and windows, insulation, use of thermal mass, use of heat and light reflective

surfaces. To achieve the aim of this study, the solar fruit tree approach would be applied in

selecting the free to low-cost strategies. The elements to be investigated starting from the lowest

hanging fruit are orientation, colour and window to wall ratio, and shading. Shading, although is

not free would be included due to its high benefits in heat avoidance. These benefits could

potentially be offset by the energy that would be saved.

2.18.2 Orientation

Orientation refers to the way a building is placed on site to take advantage of climatic features such

as sun and cooling breezes (McGee,2013). East and west facing walls receive the highest amounts

of radiation, especially during hot periods. Therefore, the best orientation in the tropics is

rectangular with long axis running east-west in order to minimise solar heat gain through the long

façade (Abimaje and Akingbohungbe 2013; Gut,1993).

2.18.3 Colour

Use of light colours on the exterior surfaces of the building fabric helps to lower heat buildup

(Cairns Regional Council, 2014). Studies have shown that the total air-conditioning in many

buildings can be reduced by 20% just by increasing the solar reflectivity of the roof and walls from

a typical medium-dark value of 30% to a light-coloured value of 90%. Solar reflectivity, which is

also known by the term “albedo”, is a number that indicates how much of the solar radiation is

73
reflected from a surface. An albedo of 0 indicates that no sunlight is reflected while an albedo of 1

indicates that all sunlight is reflected. The colour white has the highest solar reflectivity with an

albedo of about 0.9 (90% is reflected) if it is fresh, clean, and glossy (Lechner, 2014).

2.18.4 Window size and location

Glazed windows and doors have very important functions in letting in natural light and fresh air.

However, in the tropics, they are the main sources of undesirable heat gain reaching up to 87%

(McGee,2013). The ideal design would have only south and north windows and no east or west

windows. When that is not possible, the number of east and west windows should be minimized

and the number of north and south windows maximized. Making windows on the east and west

facades smaller than those on the north and south facades is another free strategy to save energy for

cooling (Lechner, 2014).

2.18.5 Shading

Shading is one of the most important strategies especially in the tropics where the solar angle is

overhead throughout the year. (Stouter,2008). Shading buildings and outdoor spaces helps to

moderate temperatures, improves comfort conditions and saves energy. External shading devices

are the most effective barrier against the sun by preventing up to 90% of heat gain (Lechner, 2014;

McGee,2013). Most shading devices consist of either vertical fins, horizontal overhangs or both

combined. The overhangs have many variations and are the best choice to use for the south façade

particularly in the tropics where solar heat gain is not desired. The eaves should be at least 800mm

wide and located far above windows to ensure they adequately shade windows and walls from

direct solar radiation (Cairns Regional Council, 2014).

74
 Table 2.8: Passive Architectural Design Strategies for Reducing Cooling Load Within ICT
Facilities in Tropical Hot and Dry Climate by Ngutor Elijah, Akaainjo, et.al, (2018)

Author And Year of Publication Ngutor Elijah, Akaainjo, et.al, (2018)

Research Questions b) What are the selected passive design strategies in reducing
cooling load?
c) How can reduction in energy consumption by using the selected
passive design strategies?
Objectives a) To evaluate selected passive design strategies in reducing
cooling load.
b) To evaluate the reduction in energy consumption by using the
selected passive design strategies
Method Of Data Collection a) Qualitative
b) Quantitative
Theories; a) Passive Design strategies for Energy reduction
Theoretical Framework
Application; a) Deductive
Techniques Of Analysis
Integration With Other Works (Similarities
and Differences) ----------------------------------------------------
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) Results showed that a significant reduction of cooling load was
Weaknesses) achieved due to the application of the following passive design
strategies: Double skinned façade (47.2%), shading devices
(26.5%), light colour coating (11.5%) and double glazing (15%)
respectively.
b) The study also recommends that architects should integrate
passive design strategies as an integral part of design and
architectural expression in reducing the cooling load in hot and
dry tropical climate.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) Findings from the study shows that reduction in cooling
demand are achieved due to the minimizing of external heat
gain because of the integration of the passive design strategies.
Finally, the study recommends that materials for wall and roofs

75
 within the tropical hot and dry should have low solar absorption
rate.
Gaps Identified No gaps identified.

2.19 Passive Design strategies for Energy reduction

Four passive strategies were applied to the base line model to serve as the independent variables as

discussed below

a) Double Façade

Terri- Meyer (2003), described double skin façade as a pair of glass skin seperated by an air

corridor which also incoporate the passive design strategies of natural ventilation, day lightening

and solar heat gain. Double façade was designed and introduced on the east-west orientation of the

base line model as shown in the Figure 2.8, when simulated it was able to reduce 53% in the first

case and 48.9% in the second case.

Fig. 2.8: Double skinned facade introduced on base line model (Source: Authors, 2017)

76
There are various classifications of double skinned façade. Terri- Meyer (2003), described three

basic system types: Buffer System, Extract Air System and Twin Face System. The twin face

system was adopted for this study due to its flexibility in allowing for natural ventilation and its

ability to moderate temperature dissipations within the façade.

b) Building Orientation

Orientation refers to the placing of a building relative to seasonal variations in the sun’s path as

well as predominant wind patterns. A good orientation can enhance energy efficiency of a building,

by making it comfortable for the occupants while running at a cheaper cost in term of energy

consumption. The orientation of the building for energy efficiency depend to a large extent on

predominant climatic condition of the location. For example, in the tropics, the weather condition is

very hot with very high solar intensity, which makes the orientation of buildings most suitable in

directions where the larger part of the building faces the North-south orientation. This is to prevent

or reduce the rate of building absorbing sun rays, which help reduce the cooling load of the

building (Chris, Max&Dick, 2013). This study however laid more emphasis on the east-west

orientation as shown in the Figure 2.9. In order to reduce the effect of solar radiation on this axis

the use of horizontal and vertical shading with double skinned façade were introduced on the base

line model which yielded effective result, reducing 53.8% of cooling load.

77
 Fig. 2.9: Base line model placed in the east-west orientation (Source: Authors, 2017).

c) Shading Strategies

Shading is an important strategy for reducing solar heat gain especially through external openings

on the building envelope. It is a known fact that most of the solar heat gain comes from the

radiation through external openings on the building envelope. Hence, shading of the building

envelope and the openings on it from solar radiation using well designed shading strategies and

devices be of paramount importance in the tropical climate. According to Singhal et al. (2013),

when designing shading devices for windows, the required horizontal shadow angles (HSA) and

vertical shadow angles (VSA) need to be established. These angles are important to determine the

depth of a shading device over a window and are dependent on both the orientation of the window

plane and the sun path as shown in Figure 3.

Horizontal and vertical shading devices were designed with depth of 0.9m and 1.2m respectively,

and introduced on the base case model; a significant reduction of energy about 26.5% was

recorded. Light colour coating Studies have shown that excessive amount of heat can be

transmitted from the exterior walls to the interior due to the exposure of the exterior wall to

excessive solar radiation (Hui, Hongwei, & Athanasios, 2010). This however, leads to increase
78
 cooling load. This study employed the use of cooler (light)colors with low Solar absorption rate on

the external wall of the base case model, the result shows a reduction in energy. Double glazing

Glass is known to transmit some amount of heat when exposed to solar radiation. When solar

radiation strikes the glass surface, some amount of heat is absorbed, some is reflected. The portion

absorbed by the glass is reliant on the depth and the absorption coefficient of the glass. The

radiation absorbed is converted to heat on the interior thereby increasing the temperature of the

glass. However, when glass panel is double it further reduces the absorption of the solar radiation

on the inside. The glass used to double glaze the windows and double skinned façade has a solar

heat transmission of 0.75% with a Solar Heat Gain Coefficient of 0.75 (SHGC=0.75), which is

interpreted as good and effective in reducing the amount of heat gain.

Table 2.9 Harnessing Passive Cooling Strategies to Enhance Thermal Comfort in the design
of Proposed School of Environmental Studies Abdu Gusau Polytechnic, Zamfara State,
Nigeria by Ibrahim Yusuf Chafe, (2017).

Author And Year of Publication Ibrahim Yusuf Chafe, (2017).

Research Questions a) What are the appropriate passive cooling strategies which enhance
thermal comfort that are suitable in the hot dry climate of Mafara?
b) What is the possible improvement in indoor temperature and
comfort that can be achieved by applying passive cooling
strategies?
c) How can passive cooling be improved through design processes
that will provide thermal comfort in the design of school of
environmental studies in Mafara?
Objectives a) Identify various passive cooling strategies that enhance thermal
comfort suitable in hot dry climate of Talata Mafara.
b) Assess the use of computer simulation software to find out the
improvements that can be achieved by modifying building
components and design elements that enhance thermal comfort for

79
 the geographical conditions of Talata Mafara.
c) To design a proposed school of environmental studies building that
will provide a suitable environment for users’ comfort
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) Environmental factors
Theoretical Framework b) Physical factors
c) Bioclimatic Charts
d) Thermal Comfort Scales
Application; a) Inductive
Techniques Of Analysis b) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) There were several researches about overall passive cooling
and Differences) strategies for buildings and there are various researches about
simulations focusing on various particular passive cooling.
However, there is a lack of such studies in terms of Mafara climate
and built environment. The research will help to get better
understanding about the interactive relationship between the
buildings envelop shape and the surrounding environment.
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) This research focused on evaluating the effect of each strategy on
Weaknesses) specific factor of thermal comfort. It highlighted the theoretical
framework necessary to achieve environmentally-friendly indoor
environment.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) The research seeks to study the passive cooling strategies that suit
the hot dry climate of Talata Mafara and also to find out the effect
of each strategy applied in the design of School of Environmental
Studies AbduGusau Polytechnic, Zamfara State Nigeria.
Gaps Identified No gaps identified.

80
 Table 2.10 Enhancing Energy Efficiency Through Passive Design Principles in Hot-Humid
Climate, North Cyprus by Ahmad Tijjani Mainasara, et.al. (2019).

Author And Year of Publication Ahmad Tijjani Mainasara, et.al. (2019).

Research Questions a) what passive design principles can be employed to enhance
energy efficiency hot-humid climate?
b) What is the possible percentage of energy savings achieved by
adopting passive design principles?
c) What are the passive design principles and the architectural
design requirements applicable in university dormitory design??
Objectives a) Study the concept of passive design principles that can enhance
energy efficiency,
b) Identify the passive design principles applicable to hot-humid
climate that can enhance energy savings,
c) Identify the passive design principles and the architectural design
requirements applicable in university dormitory design
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
Theories; a) The Concept of Energy Efficiency
Theoretical Framework b) Energy Efficient Buildings
c) Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency
d) Passive Design
e) Passive Design Principles for Enhancing Energy Efficiency
f) Climate
Application; a. Deductive
Techniques Of Analysis
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) There were several researches about overall passive cooling
and Differences) strategies for buildings and there are various researches about
simulations focusing on various particular passive cooling.
However, there is a lack of such studies in terms of Mafara
climate and built environment. The research will help to get better
understanding about the interactive relationship between the
buildings envelop shape and the surrounding environment.
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) This research explores passive design principles in enhancing

81
Weaknesses) energy efficiency in a hot-humid climate of North Cyprus. This
will be achieved by carrying out an evaluative case study
research.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) The research results obtained shows that more passive design
principles such as: use of atrium, use of cavity walls and use of
soft landscape need to be employed and properly maximized in
design of university dormitory
Gaps Identified No gaps identified.

2.20 Energy Efficient Buildings

United Nations (1991) defines energy efficient buildings as buildings that have minimum levels of

energy inputs. Well-designed power efficient buildings provide the best human comfort condition

while reducing energy costs. According to the Development and Land Use Policy Manual for

Australia (DLUPM) (2000), the aim of energy-efficient buildings is to boost occupant comfort and

reduce energy consumption (electricity, natural gas, etc.) for heating, cooling and lighting.

Chowdhury (2006) assert that increased energy efficiency in buildings can provide financial

benefits through reduced electricity bills and have a role in reducing total societal energy use.

Table 2.11 Passive design strategies for residential buildings in a hot dry climate in Nigeria
by O. K. Akande (2010).

Author And Year of Publication O. K. Akande (2010).

Research Questions a) What are the Passive design strategies for residential buildings
in a hot dry climate in Nigeria?
b) What are the passive design strategies that can be adopted in
this climatic region to minimize the use of energy for cooling,
improve occupant’s comfort and enhance low energy
architecture?
c) How to reduce overdependence on electricity demand and

82
 energy use in residential buildings?
Objectives a) Identify Passive design strategies for residential buildings in a
hot dry climate in Nigeria
b) Identifies passive design strategies that can be adopted in this
climatic region to minimize the use of energy for cooling,
improve occupant’s comfort and enhance low energy
architecture.
c) Access overdependence on electricity demand and energy use in
residential buildings.
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) The need and benefits of passive design approach in residential
Theoretical Framework buildings
b) Passive design strategies for hot dry climates
c) Application of design elements for natural cooling in residential
buildings
Application; a) Deductive
Techniques Of Analysis
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) A study of residential buildings in Bauchi state, Nigeria shows
and Differences) that most occupants of the buildings have persistent and
growing problems with the indoor environment due to high
indoor temperature. Most buildings are characterized by poor
design in relation to the climate, which requires a great deal of
energy for cooling during climatic extremes.
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) The paper concludes that this will limit the energy demand for
Weaknesses) cooling and will also result in an adapted architecture to the
climatic environment, which will encourage innovation design
solutions for building professionals in a hot-dry climate.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) The result of the study shows that adopting certain passive
design strategies through appropriate selection of building
materials, proper building orientation, adequate natural
ventilation and application of some design elements can provide

83
 natural cooling and reduce the energy used for cooling in the
buildings.
Gaps Identified No gaps identified.

2.21 Findings; The need and benefits of passive design approach in residential buildings

The global trend in the design and construction of buildings is that of using passive and low –

energy strategies to achieve environmental quality especially in hot-dry climate. The hot-dry

climate poses environmental challenges of high temperature and this extreme temperature has to be

catered for at the design stage to avoid absolute dependence on active energy systems for indoor

comfort. In Nigeria, where power supply is epileptic and erratic, most residential buildings depend

on energy excessively to attain indoor comfort particularly in buildings that are not passively

design. When considering economy of use and unavailability of power supply and even the

resultant effect in the green house emission it is better to avoid dependence on active energy

system for indoor comfort. Likewise, since mechanical indoor comfort provision accounts for a

sizeable percentage of energy use in most buildings, definite approach must be adopted to minimise

or eliminate the use of active energy. Low-energy building can be achieved through deliberate

choice of passive design approach that suit a particular climate for indoor comfort provision and to

accomplish this passive design strategies are needed. Passive design is a low energy-intensive

method of keeping a building cool by relying on architectural design. Heat avoidance techniques,

natural lighting and natural cooling methods are incorporated in the structure to minimise energy

consumption while improving the indoor comfort level. The benefits of passive design are obvious;

considerable peak load reduction for the utility company, improved comfort, lower utility bills and

little additional cost to the builder.

84
2.21.1 Enclosed courtyard between buildings

Another common natural ventilation and thus cooling technique is the use of atria and courtyards.

Courtyards can reduce the cooling energy needs of residential buildings in a very significant way

especially if carefully designed.

2.21.2 Introduction of fountain between buildings for evaporative cooling

Evaporative cooling lowers indoor air temperature by evaporating water. It is effective in hot-dry

climate where the atmospheric humidity is low. In evaporative cooling, the sensible heat of air is

used to evaporate water, thereby cooling the air, which in turn cools the living space of the

building. Increase in contact between water and air increases rate of evaporation. The presence of a

water body such as a pond, lake, sea etc. near the building or a fountain in a courtyard can provide

a cooling effect. This process is called adiabatic with no heat being gained or lost (fig. 2.10).

Fig. 2.10: Evaporative cooling through the application of a fountain between buildings.

Table 2.12 Sensitivity Analysis of Passive Design Strategies for Residential Buildings in Cold
Semi-Arid Climates by Waqas Ahmed Mahar et.al (2020).

85
Author And Year of Publication Waqas Ahmed Mahar et.al (2020).
Research Questions a) What are the most influential design variables for indoor thermal
comfort by sensitivity analysis of passive and bioclimatic design
strategies?
b) What is the importance of passive design principles and strategies
for indoor thermal comfort?
c) What are the informed design decision support for the architects
and designers regarding influential design variables in the context
of Quetta for the improvement of thermal comfort in houses?
Objectives a) To identify the most influential design variables for indoor
thermal comfort by sensitivity analysis of passive and bioclimatic
design strategies.
b) To assess the importance of passive design principles and
strategies for indoor thermal comfort.
c) To analyze informed design decision support for the architects
and designers regarding influential design variables in the context
of Quetta for the improvement of thermal comfort in houses.
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) Model Setting
Theoretical Framework b) Sensitivity Analysis
Application; a) Inductive
Techniques Of Analysis b) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) There were several researches about overall passive cooling
and Differences) strategies for buildings and there are various researches about
simulations focusing on various particular passive cooling.
However, there is a lack of such studies in terms of Mafara
climate and built environment. The research will help to get better
understanding about the interactive relationship between the
buildings envelop shape and the surrounding environment.
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) In this study, a global sensitivity analysis of the impact of passive
Weaknesses) design parameters on adaptive comfort in cold semi-arid climates

86
 was conducted.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) The results confirm that by using passive design principles such
as thermal control, passive solar heating, solar control, and
passive cooling, comfort can be improved without adding
mechanical solutions
Gaps Identified a) There is a need for research at the national and local level to
manufacture advanced, energy efficient building construction
materials at low cost.
b) It is recommended to explore the existing building materials and
to identify the suitable materials to achieve indoor thermal
comfort

2.22 Summary

Buildings are significant drivers of greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption. Improving

the thermal comfort of occupants in free-running buildings and avoiding active and fossil fuel-

based systems is the main challenge in many cities worldwide. However, the impacts of passive

design measures on thermal comfort in cold semi-arid regions are seldom studied. With the rapid

urbanization and the widespread use of personalised heating and cooling systems, there is a need to

inform building designers and city authorities about passive design measures that can achieve

nearly optimal conditions. Therefore, in this study, a global sensitivity analysis of the impact of

passive design parameters on adaptive comfort in cold semi-arid climates was conducted. A

representative residential building was simulated and calibrated in Quetta, Pakistan, to identify key

design parameters for optimal thermal comfort. The results list and rank a set of passive design

recommendations that can be used widely in similar climates. The results show that among the

investigated 21 design variables, the insulation type of roof is the most influential design variable.

Overall, the sensitivity analysis yielded new quantitative and qualitative knowledge about the
87
 passive design of buildings with personalized heating systems, but the used sensitivity analysis has

some limitations. Finally, this study provides evidence-based and informed design

recommendations that can serve architects and homeowners to integrate passive design measures at

the earliest conceptual design phases in cold semi-arid climates.

Table 2.13 The Application of Passive Design Strategies as Sustainable Operation and
Maintenance in a Model Conference Centres (A Case Study Of Aminu Kano Centre for
Democratic Research And Training (Akcdr&T)) by Alfa Namadi Sharif et.al. (2021).

Author And Year of Publication Alfa Namadi Sharif et.al. (2021).

Research Questions a) How to study the building in order to evaluate the use of passive
elements that relates to passive lighting and cooling which are the
main source of energy consumption such as building envelop,
natural lighting, natural ventilation, Site and external spaces,
building form, building orientation, wall/window shading and
existing of energy source on conference centre building
Objectives a) To evaluate the use of passive elements that relates to passive
lighting and cooling which are the main source of energy
consumption such as building envelop, natural lighting, natural
ventilation, Site and external spaces, building form, building
orientation, wall/window shading and existing of energy source on
conference center building.
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative.
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) Hot-dry climate
Theoretical Framework b) Impact of passive design.
c) Challenges of integrating local climatic condition on Conference
Centre design.
d) Conference Centre
e) Historical Development of Conference Centre
Application; a) Deductive

88
Techniques Of Analysis b) Inductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) There are many design approaches aimed at improving building
and Differences) climatic design, such as, environmental design, climate responsive
design, energy efficient design, passive solar design, passive and
low energy architecture etc. All these design approaches aim to
integrate building with climate as well as improve the occupant’s
thermal comfort and thermal performance of the buildings without
using excessive energy. [The results of this research helped to
highlight the bioclimatic response of the case study building].
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) This research sought to reduce uncomfortable conditions created
Weaknesses) by extremes of heat and dryness in order to achieve well balanced
indoor and outdoor climate, through the application of passive
design strategies in Conference Centre located in hot dry climate
of Kano Nigeria.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) This study revealed that the effect of passive design strategies was
almost the same for all building in hot dry climate as investigated.
This is because most conference building, orientation and design
as well as building envelope considered less passive design
strategies or had been constructed with concrete block except in
rear case where mud blocks were used.
Gaps Identified No gaps identified.

2.23 Impact of passive design

The importance of passive design cannot be overstated. Paying attention to the principles of good

passive design suitable for your climate effectively results in thermal comfort, low heating and

cooling that reduced greenhouse gas emission for the life span of any building more especially

public building like conference centre. Good passive design ensures that the interior remain

thermally comfortable with the climate where they are built (McGee, 2013). Passive design utilizes

natural sources of heating and cooling, such as the sun and cooling breezes. It is achieved by
89
appropriately orientating the building on its site and carefully designing the building envelope

(roof, walls, windows and floors of home).

The following are passive deign dependent variables:

• Planning aspect

• Building envelope

1. Planning aspects

Analysis of the building site should be made to determine the following:

a) Site Analysis

Analysis of the building site should be made to determine suitability in respect to certain factors

such as topography to check if it can be used for a building type; accessibility to check routes to get

to site whether via roads or waterways; usability if the site could be buildable.

b) Building Form

Gut and Ackerknecht (1993) have suggested forms with large surfaces rather than compact

buildings as large surfaces favour ventilation and heat emission at night-time. The building forms

should thus be open, outward oriented and built on slits. Givoni, (1998) states that building form

largely depends on whether the building is planned to be air-conditioned or if it is intended to rely

on natural ventilation.

c) Building Orientation

Properly oriented buildings take advantage of solar radiation and prevailing wind. According to

Gut and Ackerknecht (1993), the longer axis of the building should lie along east-west direction for

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minimum solar heat gain by the building envelope. Openings should be avoided on the west and if

they cannot be avoided, they should be adequately shaded by using verandas and tall trees.

d) Landscaping

Raeissi and Taheri, (1999) acknowledged the beneficial effects of trees. They stated that planting

of trees can result in energy saving, reduction of noise and pollution, modification of temperatures

and relative humidity and psychological benefits on humans. They also noted that trees can act

complementary to window overhangs, as they are better for blocking low morning and afternoon

sun, while overhangs are better barriers for high noon sunshine. Simpson and Macpherson (1996)

have shown that tree shades can reduce annual energy for cooling by 10% -50%.

2. Building Envelope

a) External wall

As the main goal in building design of tropical climates is reduction of direct heat gain by radiation

through openings and reduction of internal surface temperature, the building should be designed

with protected openings and walls (Gut and Ackerknecht, 1993). The walls can be protected by

designing the roof so that it extends far beyond the line of walls and has broad overhanging eaves.

Gut and Ackerknecht, (1993) argue that the outer surface of the external wall should be reflective

and light coloured. Wong and Li (2007) from their study concluded that the use of thicker

construction on east and west external walls can reduce the solar radiation heat gain and hence, the

cooling load can be reduced by 7%-10 % when the thickness of external wall is doubled (229 mm

concrete hollow block instead of 114 mm concrete hollow block).

b) Thermal insulation

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According to Bolatturk, (2008), thermal insulation is one of the most effective energy conservation

measures for cooling and heating in buildings because it reduces heat transfer to and from the

buildings. However, this view portrayed by Bolatturk, (2008) seems to conflict with those of Gut

and Ackerknecht, (1993) and Yang and Hwang, (1993). Yang and Hwang (1993) have added that

in warm and humid regions, condensation might occur and this would demean the thermal

performance of the building envelope and cause mildew problems. Moreover, Gut and

Ackerknecht, (1993) also note that thermal insulation has a dual nature. It reduces daytime excess

heat entering a building, but averts the building from cooling down at night. According to them,

this dual nature makes insulation unsuitable for buildings with natural climate control.

c) Building material

Gut and Ackerknecht, (1993) recommend using the following building materials in tropical

climates:

i. Burnt clay bricks can be used in tropical climates because they have good thermal

resistance and good regulating property against humidity.

ii. Timber has good thermal resistance and is a good regulator of humidity.

iii. Matting of bamboo, grass and leaves are good because they are not airtight and allow

proper ventilation.

Though timber was once used as a vernacular building material, it is no longer used because of the

costs involved in seasoning timber. Bamboo, grass and leaves are temporary building materials and

are not used in urban settings.

d) Roof

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The roof is an important element of design when it comes to conserving energy because this part of

the building receives most of the solar radiation and its shading is not easy. conclude that the heat

entering into the building structure through the roof is the major cause for discomfort in case of

non-air-conditioned building or the major load for the air-conditioned building (Vijaykumar et al.

2007; Alvarado and Martinez, 2008) However, Gut and Ackerknecht, (1993) argue that this is true

for single storied buildings and the top floor of multi-storied buildings.

e) Windows

Openings are important design elements for admitting daylight, air flow, providing cross

ventilation and views. Liping et al. (2007) claim that ventilation and indoor air quality can be

improved by increasing the window to wall ratios (WWR), but it would also increase solar heat

gain.

f) Size

Openings sizes are relevant in regulating movement of light, heat, cold, airflow into the building.

g) Shading device

Watson and Labs, (1983) categorized shading devices into three categories namely solar

transmittance of glazing materials, interior shading and exterior window shades. Solar

transmittance is defined as the heat admitting or rejecting characteristic of the glazing materials.

Watson and Labs (1983) and Gut and Ackerknecht, (1993) advice against heat absorbing, heat

reflecting and tinted glazing. According to Watson and Labs, (1983) heat absorbing clear and tinted

glazing reduces solar transmission by absorbing heat within the material itself. They state that the

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 absorbed heat can be uncomfortable to occupants because it adds heat to the interior by conduction

and thermal radiation.

h) Natural ventilation

Ventilation is the movement of air. According to Watson & Labs (1983), ventilation has three

useful functions in the building sector. It is used to:

a. Satisfy the fresh air needs of the occupants

b. Increase the rate of evaporative and sensible heat loss from the body

c. Cool the building interior by an exchange of warm indoor air by cooler outdoor air.

Table 2.14 A framework Approach to the Design of Energy Efficient Residential Buildings in
Nigeria by Dr. Ekele Thompson Ochedi (2021).

Author And Year of Publication Dr. Ekele Thompson Ochedi (2021).

Research Questions a) What are the concepts of energy efficient residential buildings and
its application on the study area?
b) What is the energy performance of existing residential buildings
taking into account socio-cultural aspects and to produce the
proposed framework?
Objectives a) Investigate the concept of energy efficient residential buildings and
its application on the study area.
b) Evaluate the energy performance of existing residential buildings
taking into account socio-cultural aspects and to produce the
proposed framework.
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) Rationale for the development of the framework
Theoretical Framework b) Building design and energy demand
c) Challenges with the design of buildings

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Application;
Techniques Of Analysis
Integration With Other Works
(Similarities and Differences)
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and
Weaknesses)
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome
Gaps Identified
d) Housing Deficits
e) Interview with architects and householders
f) Measurement and observational survey
g) Case studies
h) Simulation
i) Simulation of selected buildings
a) Inductive
b) Deductive
a) This paper shared theories with the previous paper on intelligent
design of buildings, especially the building envelope, can
considerably improve energy efficiency and help to realize heating
and cooling targets
a) This study evolved to produce a systematic and context-based
framework for designing energy efficient residential buildings in
Nigeria focusing on improving indoor thermal comfort, reducing
energy demand and consumption of buildings.
a) Energy efficient appliances, sustainable urban and building design
have been suggested as measures to reduce energy demand and
consumption Pacione, M., (2009), Tombazis, (2001). There is an
urgent need to adopt these measures in Nigeria, especially in the
design of buildings in order to reduce high-energy demand and
consumption.
No gaps identified.

2.24 Rationale for the development of the framework

2.24.1 Building design and energy demand

A significant aspect of the call for sustainable buildings is a call on building designers to devise

ways of designing buildings that have little or no adverse effect on the natural environment and

people's wellbeing. Cowan et al. [11] argued that optimisation of building design is key to

achieving the UK’s commitment to lowering GHG emissions up to 80% by 2050. Excellent

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building design can leverage on the benefits of natural systems towards significant decrease in

energy consumption of buildings. Prudent building design using appropriate passive and active

technologies can greatly reduce energy demand, consumption and the contribution of greenhouse

gas (GHG) emissions by the building sector. Correct design of the building envelope can

considerably improve energy efficiency and help to realise heating and cooling targets [12]. A

study by Al-Tamini [13] showed that the extent to which non-renewable energy resources are

required for building services is determined by building design. Okba [14], who argued that proper

design of the building envelope could lower the total cooling load on buildings thereby reducing

overdependence on air conditioning, corroborated this view. Other studies have shown that careful

design of the building facades can decrease energy demand of buildings [15-17]. In line with this

argument is the opinion of Latha et al. [18] that proper building design using the building envelope

is key to reducing the heating and cooling load in buildings. The design of buildings can have both

positive and negative impacts. Poor building design can contribute greatly to the increase of the

buildings’ energy consumption. Sustainable architecture presents suitable design solutions to

reduce the negative impacts of buildings on the environment without compromising building users’

comfort [19]. Akande [20] argued that many residential buildings in some climatic regions were

not suitable for users due to poor design, which do not consider the local climate. To reduce energy

demand and consumption in buildings, designers must design buildings that satisfy the three pillars

of sustainable development of environmental protection, social equity and economic viability. The

ultimate goal of sustainable development is for humanity and nature to coexist harmoniously and

designers have the capacity to contribute to its realization through sustainable design practices and

knowledge sharing [21]. The relevance of building design on thermal comfort, energy

consumption, people's wellbeing and CO2 emissions, amongst other things is the major factor that
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forms the basis for the development of this framework. The framework is intended to guide

designers in achieving the benefits of the adoption of energy efficient building strategies.

2.24.2 Challenges with the design of buildings

Buildings in Nigeria are characterized by post-modern building elements influenced by the influx

of foreign materials, especially from China [22]. Akande [20] argued that many residential

buildings in some climatic regions in Nigeria were not suitable for users due to poor design, which

do not consider the local climate. Examples include lack of proper ventilation in functional spaces

and lack of shading devices on external windows. External shading, for instance, has been

recognized as an important means of enhancing building energy efficiency in hot-humid climates

[23]. Hence, there is an urgent need to encourage the design of buildings that are responsive to the

local microclimate. Energy efficiency in buildings is a new concept in Nigeria and Lokoja in

particular. To confirm this, the first Building Energy Efficiency Guide (BEEG) for Nigerian was

released in 2016, while the Nigerian Building Energy Efficiency Code (BEEC) was first launched

in August 2017. Therefore, little or no efforts have been put in place to make design of buildings

energy efficient in the Nigerian building sector. GIZ [24] revealed that the techniques for designing

energy efficient buildings are beyond the skills and expertise of majority of architects in Nigeria.

The incorporation of energy efficient measures into subsequent housing intervention will no doubt

improve people’s wellbeing and the human environment. A framework for the design of energy

efficient residential buildings in Nigeria is expected to significantly reduce the challenges with

climate and decrease energy consumption of buildings.

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 2.24.3 Housing Deficits

Nigeria faces an acute shortage of housing stock with up to 16 million of housing deficits. There is

a plan by “The transformation Agenda of the Government of Nigeria” to reduce this deficit by

building a million houses annually [22]. There is a strong link between an increase in population,

growth in building construction and energy consumption. Construction of buildings is growing fast

in Africa due to increase in annual population growth rate. For example, Nigeria with its population

projected at over 140 million over a decade ago has an annual population growth rate of 3.7% for

urban dwellers and rapid urbanization is at 50% for the major cities [25]. Previous housing units in

Nigeria have been built with little or no sustainable measures taken into consideration. This

research is intended to guide and create awareness in Nigeria on the need to incorporate energy

efficient sustainable approaches to the design and construction of subsequent intervention in

housing provision. This is necessary to reduce future retrofit of residential buildings which might

be built in the future without energy efficiency design measures. To prevent further impact of

buildings on the environment, the goal to overcome housing deficits must involve sustainable

approaches. A framework for the design of energy efficient residential buildings in Nigeria is

expected to significantly reduce thermal discomfort challenges and downsize energy consumption

by buildings.

Table 2.15 Passive Cooling Strategies in Greening Existing Residential Building in Hot Dry
Climate: Case Study in Bahrain by May Al-Saffar (2015).

Author And Year of Publication Bahrain by May Al-Saffar (2015).

Research Questions a) What are the several passive-cooling technologies and design
features that can be adopted to reduce building heat gain without
the need of excess energy consumption?
b) How to evaluate building perform using IES energy simulation

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 software?
Objectives a) Identify several passive-cooling technologies and design features
that can be adopted to reduce building heat gain without the need
of excess energy consumption.
b) To evaluate the performance of the building through IES energy
simulation software.
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) Climatic Condition Affecting the Internal Thermal Comfort
Theoretical Framework b) Factors Impacting Thermal Performance and Cooling in Buildings
c) Design Parameters: Strongly Affected and Controlled by the
Climate and Architect.
Application; b) Inductive
Techniques Of Analysis c) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities
and Differences) -----------------------------------------------
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) The study used a typical existing social housing unit in Bahrain.
Weaknesses) The case study has been validated by comparing the energy
records given by Electricity and Water Authorities in Bahrain and
a simulation model created in IES software that is the main
simulation tool used in this study
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) This paper shows that upgrading the building envelop can reduce
the energy dramatically up to 21.6% via using the external
insulation system, insulated roof and double-glazing. The study
used a typical existing social housing unit in Bahrain.
Gaps Identified a) It can be argued that the results of this study are not limited to
Bahrain but can be applied in any location that has similar local
and climatic condition gaps identified.

2.25 Factors Impacting Thermal Performance and Cooling in Buildings

Generally, achieving thermal comfort in hot arid climate particularly in the summer should use the

three-tier design approach namely: the first level is heat avoidance, second level is passive cooling
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and the third level is mechanical cooling. The first level is to minimize the heat gain via several

strategies such as shading and daylight, orientation, color, vegetation, insulation and control of

internal heat sources. The second level is to lower the temperature via several strategies such as

cooling with ventilation, radiant cooling and evaporative cooling. While, the third tier is mandatory

when the above two tiers are not sufficient to maintain thermal comfort mechanical cooling which

is the case of residential units in Bahrain and all the other buildings.

Furthermore, it has been noted that design with climate is one of the most important criteria to be

considered with sense of place, Derya, Oktay (2002). Therefore, this section will discuss two types

of factors that affect the design and thermal comfort. The first factor is climatic conditions and the

second factor is design parameters that are strongly affected and controlled by the climate and

architect.

2.25.1 Climatic Condition Affecting the Internal Thermal Comfort

Generally, the local climatic conditions have a significant impact on the indoor environment

quality. Architects and builders have no control to override this factor but yet they can reduce their

impacts by incorporating some special design treatment that acts smartly with the outdoor

environment. The climate conditions are presented by numbers of elements such as outdoor air

temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction and solar radiation. Based on the

Directorate of Meteorology of Bahrain, the annual average temperature was 26.5 °C and monthly

average maximum temperature was 41 °C on August and monthly average minimum temperature

was 14.4 °C on January.

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 2.25.2 Design Parameters: Strongly Affected and Controlled by the Climate and Architect

With reference to the first tier namely “heat avoidance”, orientation, shading and day lighting,

color and building design and building envelope. Accordingly, other passive cooling strategies can

be maintained to serve the second tier such as different ventilation moods and solar gains control.

Table 2.16 Performance of passive design strategies in hot and humid regions. Case study:
Tangerang, Indonesia Yanmeng Chen et.al, (2020).

Author And Year of Publication Yanmeng Chen et.al, (2020).

Research Questions a) How is the performance of passive design strategies in hot and
humid regions assessed?
Objectives a) Access the performance of passive design strategies in hot and
humid regions.
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) Reducing excessive daylight by operable louvers
Theoretical Framework b) Reducing indoor temperature by operable louvers
c) Reducing indoor temperature by vertical operable vents
Application; b) Inductive
Techniques Of Analysis c) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) This paper shared and explained theories with the previous papers
and Differences) reviewed on the measurements of both solar shading and the
indoor temperature by solar shading and natural ventilation.
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) In this paper, three passive design strategies to reduce cooling
Weaknesses) energy and attain a good daylight environment in an office in
Tangerang, Indonesia, will be evaluated using both measurement
and simulation methods. Improving thermal insulation, natural
ventilation, and solar shading are the strategies studied in this
paper.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) The measurement result shows that the excessive daylight can be
reduced by solar shading and the indoor temperature can be
reduced by both solar shading and natural ventilation. The result of
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 the simulation also validates the effects of shading and natural
ventilation on lowering the indoor temperature and reducing the
cooling load
Gaps Identified No gaps identified.

2.26 Findings

The building sector is one of the largest energy consumers worldwide. Especially in the hot humid

Southeast Asian region, this sector consumes about 30% of primary energy demand. This is mainly

dominated by air conditioning systems to provide space cooling and dehumidifying. In this paper,

three passive design strategies to reduce cooling energy and attain a good daylight environment in

an office in Tangerang, Indonesia, will be evaluated using both measurement and simulation

methods. Improving thermal insulation, natural ventilation, and solar shading are the strategies

studied in this paper. The measurement result shows that the excessive daylight can be reduced by

solar shading and the indoor temperature can be reduced by both solar shading and natural

ventilation. The result of the simulation also validates the effects of shading and natural ventilation

on lowering the indoor temperature and reducing the cooling load. Besides, it is proved that the

difference in the building’s airtightness can cause an obvious difference in the effect of natural

ventilation. There will be a large potential to adopt passive design even in hot and humid regions if

the strategies are applied appropriately and good performance of the building, including high

airtightness and proper thermal insulation, is guaranteed.

Table 2.17 Building Envelope Retrofitting Strategies for Energy-Efficient Office Buildings in
Saudi Arabia by Nedhal Al-Tamimi (2022).

Author And Year of Publication Nedhal Al-Tamimi (2022).

Research Questions a) How can energy consumption be improved through retrofitting
the building envelope?

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 b) How can the effects of different retrofitting strategies of the
building envelope in terms of changing the type of window’s
glass, adding thermal insulation layers, and applying egg-crate
shading devices be investigated?
Objectives a) Evaluate the improvement in energy consumption through
retrofitting the building envelope.
b) Investigate the effects of different retrofitting strategies of the
building envelope in terms of changing the type of window’s
glass, adding thermal insulation layers, and applying egg-crate
shading devices.
Method Of Data Collection a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
Theories; a) Site’s Climate
Theoretical Framework b) Building Characteristics
c) Building Modelling and Calibration
d) Energy Efficiency Measures
e) Analysis of the Current Energy Performance
f) Suggested Scenarios for Energy-Efficient Design
Application; a) Inductive
Techniques Of Analysis b) Deductive
Integration With Other Works (Similarities a) The study used site observations as well as collecting the
and Differences) monthly energy consumption through the utility bills to
investigate the real energy performance of the BC. In addition,
simulations are undertaken for the original models, and for the
models modified with each potential strategy individually to
analyze various passive design strategies such as thermal
insulation, type of glazing and shading device, and finally for
combinations of varied retrofitting strategies.
Critique Of the Paper (Strengths and a) Local studies regarding energy-efficient buildings are mainly
Weaknesses) focused on the effects produced by each passive design strategy
around the base case, especially in the residential sector. This
study focuses on the impact of the implementation of selected

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 passive measures in reducing electricity consumption in an
existing office building located in Najran city, KSA. Literature
studies reported that applying passive design strategies for a
building envelope leads to a substantial effect on energy use for
heating and cooling spaces. Thermal insulation, shading
devices, and improve glazing proprieties, of the building
envelope, are considered among the most effective and viable
passive measures.
Critical Issues/ Research Outcome a) The results reported that applying a combination of those
strategies reduced total energy consumption by 26.81%
compared with the current base case.
Gaps Identified No gaps identified.

2.27 Site’s Climate

The building is located in Najran city, southwest of the KSA. According to the Saudi

meteorological authority [26], Najran has a semi-desert climate and receives a minimum of 0 mm

and an average of 7 mm rainfall in June and April, respectively. The maximum air temperature of

43 ◦C was recorded in July.

2.27.1 Building Characteristics

The Agricultural Development Fund building (ADF) in Al Fahad district at Najran city has been

chosen as a case study based on the following criteria:

• Easy access to the site, as it is located almost in the heart of the city.

• The ability to obtain all necessary plans and information about the building.

• The distinctive and modern design of the building, as our project serves as a modern building.

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• Full support from top management of the building and their willingness to provide any assistance.

• This building is built in eight cities with the same design, although the climate is different in each

city.

2.27.2 Energy Efficiency Measures

Various retrofitting measures have been developed for the building envelope to evaluate the impact

of selected passive design strategies on reducing energy demand. These measures are grouped into

two categories: The first is the base case scenario, which represents the building’s actual

performance status. This case will act as a benchmark against which all other scenarios will be

compared to. While the second category is the passive measures that include four sets of

simulations as follows:

a) improve the performance of glazed windows by reducing the thermal conductivity

coefficient according to the requirements of the Saudi energy code,

b) enhance the thermal insulation of the roof and external walls,

c) reduce the heat gain from solar radiation by using egg-crate shading devices,

d) combination strategy.

2.27.3 Suggested Scenarios for Energy-Efficient Design

It was previously indicated that the Saudi Building Code (SBC) in the energy requirements chapter

of nonresidential buildings (SBC602-CR) should be considered. Therefore, the question is to what

extent may the application of the requirements of the SBC602- CR contribute to reducing the

consumption of electrical energy in existing governmental buildings. The suggested passive design

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solutions are limited to enhancing the thermal insulation efficiency in the building envelope

elements (roof, walls, and windows).

• First option: is to improve the thermal properties of glazed windows.

• Second option: is to enhance the thermal performance of the roof layers.

• Third option: is to enhance the thermal performance of external wall layers.

• Fourth option: is to apply solar shading devices.

• Fifth option: is to apply the optimum solution of each option as a combination strategy.

2.28 Inference from Literature Review.

Numerous researches had been looked into as regards passive design and energy efficiency. It can

be concluded from the literatures reviewed above that passive design principles such as landscape

design, building form, natural ventilation, day-lighting, building orientation and building envelope

are extremely effective in decreasing cooling loads of building thereby enhancing energy

efficiency. Hence, it is very important to make the above-mentioned passive design principles as

variables of study thereby helping in achieving the aim of the research.

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