SOIL COMPACTION

Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which

requires mechanical energy. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured
in terms of its dry unit weight.
Compaction
• increases the strength characteristics of soils.
• increase the bearing capacity
• increases the stability of slopes of embankments.

• decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures

• decreases liquefaction potential
• decreases soil permeability

Factor Affecting Soil Compaction:

• Soil Type
• Water Content (wc)
• Compaction Effort Required (Energy)
Soil Compaction in the Lab

Standard Proctor Test

Modified Proctor Test
Conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume
of 1/30 ft3 (0.00094 m3), as in the case of the standard Proctor test.

However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that has a

weight of 10 lb (4.54 kg mass).

The drop of the hammer is 18 in. (457.2 mm). The number of hammer blows
for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test.

The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated
as 56,000 ft-lb/lb3 (2687.5 kN-m/m3).
Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results
in an increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in
the maximum dry unit weight is accompanied by a decrease in the
optimum moisture content.
Soil Compaction in the Field
Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

When the compaction work is progressing in the field, knowing whether the
specified unit weight has been achieved is useful. The standard procedures for
determining the field unit weight of compaction include

1. Sand cone method

2. Rubber balloon method

3. Nuclear method
Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone
attached at its top (Figure 5.19). The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand.
The combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the sand filling the jar is
determined (W1). In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where
the soil has been compacted. If the weight of the moist soil excavated from
the hole (W2) is determined and the moisture content of the excavated soil
is known, the dry unit weight of soil can be calculated
Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM Designation D-2167)
Nuclear Method
Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry
unit weight of soil. The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from
the ground surface. The instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit
volume and the weight of water present in a unit volume of soil. The dry
unit weight of compacted soil can be determined by subtracting the
weight of water from the moist unit weight of soil. Figure 5.22 shows a
photograph of a nuclear density meter.
 Hydraulic Conductivity

Soils have interconnected voids through which water can flow from points
of high energy to points of low energy. The study of the flow of water
through porous soil media is important in soil mechanics. It is necessary for
estimating the quantity of underground seepage under various hydraulic
conditions, for investigating problems involving the pumping of water for
underground construction, and for making stability analyses of earth dams
and earth-retaining structures that are subject to seepage forces. The
discharge velocity of water, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit
time through a unit gross cross-sectional area of the soil (at right angles to
the direction of flow) is a function of hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic
gradient. The hydraulic conductivity is an important parameter for a soil in
the study of seepage. In this chapter, we will discuss the procedures for
determining hydraulic conductivity of soils in the laboratory and in the field.
 Bernoulli’s Equation

From fluid mechanics we know that, according to Bernoulli’s equation, the total
head, h, at a point in water under motion can be given by the sum of the
pressure, velocity, and elevation heads, or
If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water through a porous soil
medium, the term containing the velocity head can be neglected
because the seepage velocity is small. Then the total head at any point
can be adequately represented by
The total head loss, ∆h, can be expressed in a non-dimensional form as
 Darcy’s Law
In 1856, Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy published a simple empirical equation for the
discharge velocity of water through saturated soils. This equation was based
primarily on Darcy’s observations about the flow of water through clean sands and
is given as
q = the quantity of water flowing through the soil in unit time

vs = seepage velocity
Av = area of void in the cross section of the specimen
 Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity, symbolically represented as K, is a property of porous

materials, soils and rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid can move
through the pore space, or fractures network in cm/s or m/s in SI units.

The absolute permeability K is expressed in units of L2 (that is, cm2, m2, and so
forth).
 Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity
of soil: the constant head test and the falling head test. The constant head test is
used primarily for coarse-grained soils. For fine-grained soils, however, the flow
rates through the soil are too small and, therefore, falling head tests are
preferred.

Constant Head Test

Q = the total volume of water collected

A = area of cross section of the soil specimen
t = duration of water collection
L = length of the specimen
Falling Head Test

q = the rate of flow of the water through the

specimen at any time t.
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen

Rearranging Eq.

Integrating
Example 1

Example 2
Example 3

Example 4
 Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivity

Granular Soil
Cohesive Soil

Example
Example

Example
 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

kH1, kH2, kH3, . . . kHn are the hydraulic conductivity of the individual layers
in the horizontal direction
kH(eq) is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction,
where kV1, kV2, kV3, . . . , kVn are the hydraulic conductivities of
the individual layers in the vertical direction
kV(eq) is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity.
 Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells
In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of
flow can be determined by performing pumping tests from wells.

q, r1, r2, h1, and h2 are known

from field measurements
hydraulic conductivity in
the direction of flow
Example

Example
 Seepage
Seepage may be defined as the infiltration downward and lateral movement of water into soil
or substrata from a source of supply such as reservoir or irrigation canal. Such water may
reappear, depending upon the topographic contours and water table rise due to seepage.

In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one direction only, and it is
not uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the flow. In such cases, the
groundwater flow is generally calculated by the use of graphs referred to as flow
nets. The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace’s equation of continuity,
Laplace’s Equation of Continuity
 where kx and kz are the hydraulic conductivities in
the vertical and horizontal directions, respectively.

If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic

conductivity—that is, kx = kz
 Flow Nets
A flow net is a graphical representation of two-dimensional steady-state groundwater flow
through aquifers.

Flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to them downstream
side in the permeable soil medium

Equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is the
same
Flow Nets
The following methods are available for the determination of flow nets:
1. Graphical solution by sketching
2. Mathematical or analytical methods
3. Numerical analysis
4. Models
5. Analogy methods
All the methods are based on Laplace’s continuity equation.
To construct a flow net, the flow and equipotential lines are drawn (see the
figure below which is an example of a completed flow net) in such a way that
1. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles.
2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares
Drawing a flow net takes several trials. While constructing the flow net,
keep the boundary conditions in mind. For the flow net shown in Fig, the
following four boundary conditions apply:
 Flow Nets in Isotropic Soil
FORMULA

where

q = the total rate of flow through all the channels per

unit length
Nf = number of flow channels in a flow net
ND = number of potential drops
H = head difference between the upstream and
downstream sides
Nf / ND = shape factor

For Isotropic Soil – equal values of permeability in all

directions
k = kx = kz
EXAMPLE
A flow net for flow around a single row of sheet piles in a permeable soil layer is shown in Figure
We are given that kx = kz = k = 0.005 cm/s.

a. How high (above the ground surface) will the water rise if piezometers are placed at points a,
b, c, and d?

b. What is the rate of seepage through flow channel II per unit length (perpendicular to the section
shown)?
EXAMPLE

Seepage takes place around a retaining wall shown in Figure. The hydraulic conductivity of the
sand is 0.0015 cm/s. The retaining wall is 50 m long. Determine the quantity of seepage across the
entire wall per day.
 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil
FORMULA

where

q = the total rate of flow through all the channels per

unit length
Nf = number of flow channels in a flow net
ND = number of potential drops
H = head difference between the upstream and
downstream sides
Nf / ND = shape factor

For Anisotropic Soil – unequal values of permeability

in different direction
kx ≠ kz k = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧
Procedure in constructing flow net

Step 1. Adopt a vertical scale (that is, z axis) for drawing the cross section.

Step 2. Adopt a horizontal scale (that is, x axis) such that

𝑘𝑧
horizontal scale = (vertical scale)
𝑘𝑥
Step 3. With scales adopted as in steps 1 and 2, plot the vertical section
through the permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.

Step 4. Draw the flow net for the permeable layer on the section obtained
from step 3, with flow lines intersecting equipotential lines at right angles
and the elements as approximate squares.
TRANSFORMED SECTION

TRUE SECTION
Example

A dam section is shown in Figure. The hydraulic conductivity of the permeable

layer in the vertical and horizontal directions are 0.02 mm/s and 0.04 mm/s,
respectively. Draw a flow net and calculate the seepage loss of the dam in
m3/day/m.