Whati

sat
ransi
stor
?
Atr
ansist
orisami niat
ure 
semiconduct
or 
thatr
egulat
esorcont
rolscurr
entor 
volt
age 
fl
owi
nadditi
onampli
fyi
ngandgener
ati
ngtheseel
ect
ri
cal
signal
sandact
ingasaswi
tch/
gat
e
f
orthem.Typical
l
y, t
ransi
stor
sconsistoft
hreelay
ers,ort
ermi
nals,ofasemiconduct
ormat
eri
al,
eachofwhi
chcancarryacur
rent
.

Whyt
ransi
stor
sar
eimpor
tant
I
nsmallquanti
ti
es,tr
ansistor
sareusedt
ocreat
esi
mpleel
ectr
onicswit
ches.Theyar
ethebasi
cel
ement
sini
ntegr
atedci
rcui
ts(
ICs)
,whi
chconsi
stofal
argenumberoft
ransi
stor
s
i
nter
connect
edwi t
hcircuit
ryandbakedi
ntoasi
ngl
esi
l
icon 
microchi
p.

Inlargenumbers,t
ransi
storsar
eusedtocreate 
micr
oprocessors 
wher
emill
i
onsoftr
ansistor
sareembeddedint
oasingl
eIC.Theyal
sodr
ivecomputermemorychi
psandmemor
y
storagedevi
cesforMP3pl ayer
s,smar
tphones,camerasandelect
roni
cgames.Tr
ansi
storsaredeepl
yembeddedinnear
lyal
lICs,
whi
charepartofever
yel
ect
roni
cdevi
ce.

Transi
storsarealsousedforlow-f
requency
,high-
powerappl
icat
ions,suchaspower-
suppl
yinvert
erst
hatconv
ertal
ter
nat
ingcur
renti
ntodi
rectcur
rent
.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,t
ransi
stor
sar
e
usedinhigh-f
requencyappli
cati
ons,suchastheosci
ll
atorci
rcui
tsusedt ogener
ater
adi
osignals.

Tr
ansi
stor
sexpl
ained
Asemiconductor
,whi
chconductsel
ect
ri
cit
yina"semi-
enthusiast
ic"way
,fal
l
ssomewherebet
weenar eal
conduct
orl
ikecopperandaninsulat
orsuchast
hepl
ast
icwr
appedar
ound
wi
res)
.Althoughmosttr
ansi
stor
saremadef r
om si
li
con(Si)
,theycanbemadefrom ot
hermater
ial
ssuchasgermani
um andgall
ium ar
senide(GaAs)
.

Sili
con,achemicalelementoftenf oundi
nsand, isn'
tnormal l
yaconductorofelectr
ici
ty.Achemicalpr
ocesscall
ed 
dopi
ng 
--inwhi chimpuri
ti
esareintr
oducedi
ntoasemiconductor
tomodul at
eelectr
ical,opti
calandst r
uct
uralpropert
ies--enablessil
i
contogainf r
ee el
ectr
ons 
thatcarr
yelect
ri
ccurr
ent
.Thesi l
iconcanbecl assi
fi
edasann-ty
pesemiconductor--
electr
onsfl
owoutofi t--orap-ty
pesemi conductor--el
ectronsflowint
oit.Ei
therway ,
thesemiconduct
orenablest
hetr
ansistortofunct
ionasaswi tchorampl
ifi
er.

At
ransi
stor
'st
hree-
lay
erst
ruct
urecont
ainsoneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngl
ayer
s:

 ann-
typesemi
conduct
orl
ayerbet
weent
wop-
typel
ayer
sinaposi
ti
ve-
negat
ive-
posi
ti
ve(
PNP)conf
igur
ati
on;
or

 ap-
typel
ayerbet
weent
won-
typel
ayer
sinanegat
ive-
posi
ti
ve-
negat
ive(
NPN)conf
igur
ati
on

Regardl
essofitsconfi
gur
ati
on,t
heinnersemi
conductorl
ayeract
sasthecontr
olelect
rode.Asmal
lchangei
nthecur
rentorv
olt
ageatt
hisl
ayerpr
oducesal
arge,
rapi
dchangei
n
thecurr
entpassingthr
oughtheent
ir
ecomponent,enabli
ngthetr
ansi
stort
ofunct
ion.

Howt
ransi
stor
swor
k
At
ransi
storcanactasaswi
tchorgat
eforel
ect
roni
csi
gnal
s,openi
ngandcl
osi
nganel
ect
roni
cgat
emanyt
imespersecond.I
tensur
est
heci
rcui
tisoni
fthecur
renti
sfl
owi
ngand
swi
tchedof
fifi
tisn'
t.Tr
ansi
stor
sar
eusedi
ncompl
exswi
tchi
ngci
rcui
ts.

Par
tsofat
ransi
stor
At
ransi
stori
sli
keasetoft
wodi
odeswi
tht
hei
r 
cat
hodes 
or 
anodes 
ti
edt
oget
her
.Ithast
hreet
ermi
nal
sthatcar
ryel
ect
ri
cal
cur
rentandhel
pmakeaconnect
iont
oext
ernal
cir
cui
ts:

 t
heemi
tt
er,
alsoknownast
het
ransi
stor
'snegat
ivel
ead,

 t
hebase,
whi
chi
sthet
ermi
nal
thatact
ivat
est
het
ransi
stor
,and

 t
hecol
l
ect
or,
whi
chi
sthet
ransi
stor
'sposi
ti
vel
ead.

Let
'sconsi
deranNPNt
ransi
stort
ounder
standt
heset
ermi
nal
s.I
nthi
sconf
igur
ati
on,
thep-
typesi
l
icon(
base)i
ssandwi
chedbet
weent
wosl
absofn-
typesi
l
icon(
theemi
tt
erand
col
lect
or)
.

Theemit
ter-
-indicatedbythelet
terE--i
smoder
atel
ysi
zedandheav
il
ydopedasi
tspr
imar
yfunct
ioni
stosuppl
ynumer
ousmaj
ori
tycar
ri
erst
osuppor
tthef
lowofel
ect
ri
cit
y.I
t'
s
cal
l
edtheemittersinceitemit
select
rons.

Thebase-
-indi
cat
edbyt
hel
ett
erB-
-ist
hecent
ert
ermi
nal
bet
weent
heemi
tt
erandt
hecol
l
ect
or.I
tist
hinandl
i
ght
lydoped.I
tsmai
npur
posei
stopasst
hecar
ri
ersf
rom t
heemi
tt
er
tot
hecoll
ector
.

Thecol
l
ect
or-
-indi
cat
edbyt
hel
ett
erC-
-col
l
ect
scar
ri
erssentbyt
heemi
tt
erv
iat
hebase.I
t'
smoder
atel
ydopedandl
argert
hanbot
htheemi
tt
erandbase.

Theemitt
er,baseandcol
lect
orhavethesamef unct
ionsi
naPNPcir
cui
t.Theonlydif
fer
encei
nthisty
peoftr
ansi
storisthatt
hen-t
y pebasei
ssandwichedbetweent
hep-
type
emit
terandcoll
ector
,whi
chinfl
uencesthedi
recti
onofthear
rowont
heemi t
ter
.Thisarr
owisalwayspar
toft
heemi t
ter-
basejunct
ion.Thear
rowpointsoutf
oranNPNcir
cuit
,and
poi
ntsinforaPNPcircui
t.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofTr
ansi
stor
Anyt
wo-
por
tnet
wor
kwhi
chi
sanal
ogoust
otr
ansi
storconf
igur
ati
onci
rcui
tscanbeanal
yzedusi
ngt
hreet
ypesofchar
act
eri
sti
ccur
ves.Theyar
e

 I
nputChar
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Thecur
vedescr
ibest
hechangesi
nthev
aluesofi
nputcur
rentwi
thr
espectt
othev
aluesofi
nputv
olt
agekeepi
ngt
heout
putv
olt
ageconst
ant
.

 Out
putChar
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Thecur
vei
sobt
ainedbypl
ott
ingt
heout
putcur
rentagai
nstout
putv
olt
agekeepi
ngt
hei
nputcur
rentconst
ant
.

 Cur
rentTr
ansf
erChar
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Thi
schar
act
eri
sti
ccur
vedescr
ibest
hev
ari
ati
onofout
putcur
renti
naccor
dancewi
tht
hei
nputcur
rent
,keepi
ngt
heout
putv
olt
ageconst
ant
.
Conf
igur
ati
onOfTr
ansi
stor
Anyt
ransi
storci
rcui
tcanbedesi
gnedusi
ngt
hreet
ypesofconf
igur
ati
on.Thr
eeconf
igur
ati
onsoft
het
ransi
storar
ebasedont
heconnect
ionoft
het
ransi
stort
ermi
nal
.Thet
hree 
typesoft
ransi
stor
 ci
rcui
tconf
igur
ati
onsar
e:

 CommonEmi
tt
erTr
ansi
stor

 CommonBaseTr
ansi
stor

 CommonCol
l
ect
orTr
ansi
stor
(emi
tt
erf
oll
ower
).
Eachoft
heset
hreeci
rcui
tconf
igur
ati
onshasi
tsownchar
act
eri
sti
cscur
ve.Basedont
her
equi
rementt
het
ypewi
l
lbechosenf
ort
heci
rcui
t.

CommonEmi
tt
er(
CE)Conf
igur
ati
onofTr
ansi
stor
Theconf
igur
ati
oni
nwhi
cht
heemi
tt
eri
sconnect
edbet
weent
hecol
l
ect
orandbasei
sknownasacommonemi
tt
erconf
igur
ati
on.

CommonEmi
tt
er(
CE)Conf
igur
ati
onofTr
ansi
stor
Thet
ransi
storchar
act
eri
sti
cunderCommonEmi
tt
erconf
igur
ati
oni
sasf
oll
ows:

Transi
stor Def
ini
ti
on For
mul
a/Expr
essi
on Char
act
eri
sti
cCur
ve
Charact
eri
sti
cs
I
nput The Ri
n=ΔVBEΔI
B|VCE=Const
ant
Char
act
eri
sti
cs vari
ationof
emitter
current(I
B)

withBase-
Emit t
er
vol
tage( VBE)
,
keeping
Coll
ect or
Emit t
er
vol
tage( VCE)
constant.
Output The Rout
=ΔVCEΔI
C|I
B=Const
ant
Charact
eri
sti
cs vari
ationof
coll
ector
curr
ent (I
C)

with
Coll
ect or-
Emitter
vol
tage( VCE)
,
keepingt he
base
curr
ent (I
B)

constant .
Current The α=ΔI
CΔI
B|VCB=Const
ant
Transfer vari
ationof
Character
ist
ics coll
ector
current(I
C)

withthe
base
current(I
B),
keeping
Coll
ect or-
Emit t
er
vol
tage( VCE)
constant .
The
result
ing
currentgain
hasav al
ue
greater
than1.

CommonBase(
CB)Conf
igur
ati
onofTr
ansi
stor
I
nCBConf
igur
ati
on,
thebaset
ermi
nal
oft
het
ransi
storwi
l
lbeconnect
edcommonbet
weent
heout
putandt
hei
nputt
ermi
nal
s.
Thet
ransi
storchar
act
eri
sti
cunderCommonBaseconf
igur
ati
oni
sasf
oll
ows:

Transi
stor Def
ini
ti
on For
mul
a/Expr
essi
on Char
act
eri
sti
cCur
ve
Charact
eri
sti
cs
I
nput The RI
N=ΔVBEΔI
E|VCB=Const
ant
Char
act
eri
sti
cs vari
ationof
emitter
current(I
E)

withBase-
Emit t
er
vol
tage( VBE)
,
keeping
Coll
ect or
Base
vol
tage( VCB)
constant .
Output The ROUT=ΔVCBΔI
B|I
E=Const
ant
Charact
eri
sti
cs vari
ationof
coll
ector
curr
ent (I
C)

with
Coll
ect or-
Base
vol
tage( VCB)
,
keepingt he
emitt
er
curr
ent (I
E)

constant .
Current The α=ΔI
CΔI
B|VCB=Const
ant
Transfer vari
ationof
Character
ist
ics coll
ector
current(I
C)

withthe
emitter
current(I
E),
keeping
Coll
ect or
Base
vol
tage( VCB)
constant .
The
result
ing
currentgain
hasav al
ue
l
esst han1.

CommonCol
l
ect
or(
CC)Conf
igur
ati
onofTr
ansi
stor
I
nCEConf
igur
ati
on,
theCol
l
ect
ort
ermi
nal
oft
het
ransi
storwi
l
lbeconnect
edcommonbet
weent
heout
putandt
hei
nputt
ermi
nal
s.
Thet
ransi
storchar
act
eri
sti
cunderCommonCol
lect
orconf
igur
ati
oni
sasf
oll
ows:

Transi
stor Def
ini
ti
on Char
act
eri
sti
cCur
ve
Charact
eri
sti
cs
I
nput The
Char
act
eri
sti
cs vari
ationof
emitt
er
curr
ent (I
B)

with
Coll
ect or-
Base
vol
tage( VCB)
,
keeping
Coll
ect or
Base
vol
tage( VCB)
constant .
Output The
Charact
eri
sti
cs vari
ationof
emitt
er
curr
ent (I
E)

with
Coll
ect or-
Emitter
vol
tage( VCE)
,
keepingt he
base
curr
ent (I
B)

constant .
Current The
Transfer vari
ationof
Character
ist
ics Emit t
er
current(I
E)

withthe
base
current(I
B),
keeping
Coll
ect or-
Emit t
er
vol
tage( VCE)
constant .