ELECTRI

CITY

El
ect
ri
cit
ywasdi
scov
eredal
ongt
imeagowhent
heef
fect
sofr
ubbi
ngmat
eri
alst
oget
herwer
e
not
iced.I
fyout
akeashi
rtof
finadar
kroom y
oucanheart
heshi
rtcr
ackl
eandy
oumaysee
somespar
ks.Thi
sexampl
edemonst
rat
est
hei
nter
act
ionofel
ect
ri
cal
char
ges.

ELECTRI
CCHARGE

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofel
ect
ri
cal
char
ge,
posi
ti
veandnegat
ive.Aposi
ti
vechar
gei
spr
oducedon
aPer
spexr
ulerwheni
tisr
ubbedwi
thawool
l
endust
er.Youcanputnegat
ivechar
geont
oa
pl
ast
iccombbycombi
ngi
tthr
oughy
ourhai
r.El
ect
rost
ati
csi
sabr
anchofPhy
sics,
whi
chdeal
s
wi
thst
ati
cel
ect
ri
cchar
gesorchar
gesatr
est
.

Li
kechar
gesr
epel
andunl
i
kechar
gesat
tracteachot
her
,thi
sist
hef
ir
stl
awofel
ect
rost
ati
cs.

ELECTRI
CCURRENT

El
ect
ri
ccur
rent
sconsi
stofmov
ingel
ect
ri
cchar
ges.El
ect
ri
cchar
geswhi
chmov
ear
enegat
ive
char
gedandt
hesear
etheel
ect
rons.Accor
dingt
otheel
ect
rost
ati
cbehav
ior
,mat
eri
alsar
e
di
vi
dedi
ntot
wocat
egor
ies:
conduct
orsandi
nsul
ator
s.Bodi
eswhi
chal
l
owt
hechar
gest
opass
t
hroughar
ecal
l
edconduct
ors.e.
g.met
als,
humanbody
,Ear
thet
c.Bodi
eswhi
chdonotal
l
ow
t
hechar
gest
opasst
hroughar
ecal
l
edi
nsul
ator
s.e.
g.gl
ass,
mica,
eboni
te,
plast
ic.

El
ect
ri
cit
yjustl
i
keel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
ssi
mpl
ythef
lowofel
ect
ronst
hroughaconduct
or.Theuni
t
wi
thwhi
chwemeasur
ether
ateoff
lowofel
ect
ri
cit
y,ort
hesi
zeofanel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
,ist
he
amper
e,(
A).el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
smeasur
edbyani
nst
rumentcal
l
edammet
er.Thet
otal
quant
it
y
ofel
ect
ri
cit
y(orchar
ge)whi
chf
lowspastanygi
venpoi
nti
nonesecondwhenoneamper
eis
f
lowi
ngi
scal
l
edt
hecoul
omb.Thus

Quant
it
yofel
ect
ri
cit
y=cur
rent
×ti
meorQ=I
t

Wher
eQi
sthequant
it
yofel
ect
ri
cit
y,Ii
sthecur
rentandti
sthet
imei
nseconds.

Theuni
tofchar
gei
sthecoul
omboramper
e-second.

Exampl
e

Cal
cul
atet
heamountofcur
renti
f144Cofchar
gef
lowst
hroughapoi
nti
n30mi
nut
es.
Sol
uti
on
Q
I=
t
Q=144C
t
=30mi
n×60=1800sec
144
I
=
1800
=0.
08A

DI
RECTI
ONOFCURRENT

Byconv
ent
ion(
gener
alagr
eement
)thedi
rect
ioncur
renti
stakenast
hatwhi
chi
sposi
ti
ve
char
gemov
es.Thi
sdi
rect
ioni
sopposi
tet
othatofel
ect
ronmov
ement
.Cur
renti
sther
efor
e
t
akent
omov
efr
om posi
ti
vet
onegat
ive.

POTENTI
ALDI
FFERENCE

Forel
ect
ronst
ofl
owf
rom onepoi
ntt
oanot
her
,ener
gyi
srequi
red.Thepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
ence
bet
weent
wopoi
ntsal
l
owst
hef
lowofel
ect
rons.Thepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encebet
weent
wopoi
ntsi
n
aci
rcui
tist
hewor
kdonewhenonecoul
ombofchar
gemov
esf
rom onepoi
ntt
oanot
her
.Iti
s
measur
edi
nvol
ts,
whi
chi
snamedaf
terAl
essandr
aVol
ta.Onev
olti
sequal
toonej
oul
eper
coul
omb.Pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encei
sal
sor
efer
redt
oav
olt
agebecausei
tisexpr
essedi
nvol
ts.The
v
olt
met
eri
sthedev
iceusedt
omeasur
ethepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encebet
weent
wopoi
nts.

ELECTROMOTI
VEFORCE(
emf
)

El
ect
romot
ivef
orceofacel
li
sequal
tot
hepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceatt
het
ermi
nal
ofasour
cei
nan
openci
rcui
t(whent
her
eisnocur
rentf
lowi
ngi
ntheci
rcui
t)
.El
ect
romot
ivef
orcecanal
sobe
def
inedast
het
otal
wor
kdonebyasour
ceofel
ect
ri
cit
yindr
ivi
ngonecoul
ombofel
ect
ri
cit
y
t
hroughaci
rcui
t.Justl
i
kepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
ence,
elect
romot
ivef
orcei
smeasur
edi
nvol
ts(
V).

ELECTRI
CALRESI
STANCE

El
ect
ri
cal
resi
stancei
sdef
inedast
hemeasur
eoft
heopposi
ti
onof
fer
edt
othef
lowofel
ect
ri
c
cur
renti
naconduct
or.El
ect
ri
cal
resi
stancev
ari
esi
ndi
ff
erentmat
eri
als.Goodconduct
orsof
el
ect
ri
cit
yforexampl
ecopperandal
umi
nium wi
l
lof
ferl
essr
esi
stancet
ocur
rentf
lowcompar
ed
t
opoor
erconduct
orsuchascar
bon.Adev
icet
hati
sdel
i
ber
atel
ypl
acedi
naci
rcui
ttopr
ovi
de
somer
esi
stancet
othef
lowofcur
renti
scal
l
edr
esi
stor
.Theyar
etwot
ypesofr
esi
stor
s,f
ixed
r
esi
stor
sandv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s.Thev
alueofaf
ixedr
esi
storcannotbechanged.Av
ari
abl
e
r
esi
storwhi
chi
sal
socal
l
edar
heost
ati
sresi
storwhoser
esi
stancecanbechanged.Most
commonst
andar
dresi
stor
sar
emadef
rom car
bonmet
alal
l
oyssuchasconst
ant
anand
mangani
n.Thel
ongerawi
rei
s,t
hegr
eat
eri
tsr
esi
stance.TheSIuni
tforr
esi
stancei
stheohm
(
Ω).

Anexper
imentdonebyGer
manOhm i
n1827est
abl
i
shedt
hatt
hecur
rentt
hroughaconduct
or
i
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceacr
ossi
tpr
ovi
dedt
het
emper
atur
eremai
ns
const
ant
,thi
siscal
l
edOhm’
sLaw.Ohm’
slawi
mpl
i
est
hatt
her
ati
oofv
olt
aget
ocur
renti
s
const
ant
.Thi
srat
ioi
sther
esi
stance(
R).
V=I
R
Thi
sal
soi
mpl
i
est
hat1Ωequal
to1v
oltperamper
e

1V
1Ω=
1A
Exampl
e
1.Cal
cul
atet
hecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrougha4Ωr
esi
stori
fthepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceof6Vi
s
appl
i
edacr
ossi
t.

Sol
uti
on

V=I
R
V
I=
R
6
=
4
=1.
5A

2.Aconduct
orhasr
esi
stanceof2Ω.I
facur
rentof5Ai
sfl
owi
ngt
hroughi
t,whati
sthe
pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceacr
ossi
tst
ermi
nal
s.

Sol
uti
ons

V=I
R
=2×5
=10V

NB:
Anohmi
cconduct
ori
saconduct
ort
hatobey
stheohm’
slawandanon-
ohmi
cconduct
ori
s
onet
hatdoesobeyt
heohm’
slaw.

ELECTRI
CCI
RCUI
TS
Anel
ect
ri
cci
rcui
tisacl
osedpat
horl
oopt
hroughwhi
chel
ect
ri
cchar
gecancont
inuousl
yfl
ow.
Thedi
agr
am bel
owi
sanex
ampl
eofel
ect
ri
cci
rcui
t.

Theel
ect
ri
cci
rcui
tshowst
hecombi
nat
ionofacel
l
,al
i
ghtbul
b,connect
ingwi
res,
anammet
er,
av
olt
met
er,
aswi
tchandav
ari
abl
eresi
stor
.Thecel
li
sthesour
ceofcur
rent
,whi
l
etheswi
tch
cont
rol
sthef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbybr
eaki
ngt
hef
lowwhenopen.Whent
heswi
tchi
sopenas
shown,
nocur
rentf
lowst
her
efor
ethebul
bcannotl
i
ght
.Whent
heswi
tchi
scl
osedt
hebul
b
l
i
ght
sup.Ther
esi
storcont
rol
stheamountofcur
rentf
lowi
ngi
ntheci
rcui
t.Thev
olt
met
er
measur
est
hev
olt
ageacr
osst
hebul
b.Av
olt
met
eri
sal
way
sconnect
edi
npar
all
el.Theammet
er
measur
est
heamountofcur
rentf
lowi
ngacr
osst
hebul
b.Thef
oll
owi
ngsy
mbol
srepr
esentt
he
component
snecessar
yforanel
ect
ri
cci
rcui
t.
ARRANGEMENTOFRESI
STORS

Resi
stor
scanbear
rangedi
nvar
iousway
sforexampl
e:

1.I
nser
ies

2.I
npar
all
el

3.Combi
ningbot
hser
iesandpar
all
el

Resi
stor
sinSer
ies
Resi
stor
sar
esai
dtobear
rangedi
nser
ieswhent
hecur
rentpassi
ngt
hrought
hem hast
opass
t
hrought
hef
ir
str
esi
storbef
orei
tmov
esont
othenext
.Itpassest
hrougheachr
esi
storoneata
t
ime.I
nthi
scaset
hecur
rentpassi
ngt
hrought
her
esi
storsr
emai
nst
hesame,
butt
hev
olt
age
acr
osseachr
esi
stormaybedi
ff
erent
.

Thesum oft
hev
olt
agesacr
osseachr
esi
stori
sequal
tot
het
otal
vol
tage(
VT)i
ntheci
rcui
t.Thi
s
v
olt
agei
sgi
venby
:

VT =V1+V2+V3
si
nceIi
sconst
ant
,andV=I
R
I
R=I
R1+I
R2+I
R3
I
R=I
(R1+R2+R3)
RT =R1+R2+R3
RTi
sthet
otal
resi
stance.

Resi
stor
sinpar
all
el

Resi
stor
sar
einpar
all
elwhensev
eral
resi
stor
sar
econnect
edbet
weent
hesamepoi
ntsi
na
ci
rcui
t.Thi
smeanst
hatt
hecur
renti
sshar
edamongt
her
esi
stor
ssi
ncei
ttakesmor
ethanone
pat
h.Thepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encehowev
er,
stay
sthesameacr
ossal
lther
esi
stor
s.Thet
otal
cur
rent
(
IT)i
sequal
tot
hesum oft
hecur
rent
spassi
ngt
hroughal
lther
esi
stor
s.

I
T
=I
1
+I
2
+I
3

V
Si
nceVi
sconst
ant
,andI= ,andRv
ari
es
R
V V V V
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
 () (
1V 1V V V
= + +
V RT V R1 R2 R3 )
So;
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3

Exampl
esonr
esi
stor
sinser
iesandpar
all
el

Combi
nat
ionofbot
har
rangement
s(par
all
elandser
ies)

Whent
hear
rangementoft
her
esi
stor
sisacombi
nat
ionofbot
hresi
stor
sinpar
all
eland
r
esi
stor
sinser
ies,
thenst
epsneedt
obet
akent
ocal
cul
atet
het
otal
resi
stance.Theef
fect
ive
r
esi
stancef
oral
lresi
stor
sinpar
all
elshoul
dbedet
ermi
nedusi
ngt
hef
ormul
aforr
esi
stor
sin
par
all
el,
thent
hist
otal
resi
stanceoft
her
esi
stor
sinpar
all
eladdedt
othosei
nser
ies.

Exampl
es

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGRESI
STANCEOFACONDUCTOR

a)Temper
atur
e

Ther
esi
stanceofconduct
ori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
het
emper
atur
e.I
fthe
t
emper
atur
eincr
easest
her
esi
stancei
ncr
easesandv
icev
ersa.

b)Lengt
hofconduct
or

Resi
stancei
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hel
engt
hoft
heconduct
or.Thel
ongert
he
conduct
or,
thegr
eat
ert
her
esi
stancei
tof
fer
sandv
icev
ersa.

c) Cr
oss-
sect
ional
area

Resi
stancei
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hecr
oss-
sect
ional
areaoft
heconduct
or.The
t
hickert
heconduct
or,
thel
esst
her
esi
stancei
tof
fer
s.

d)Ty
peofmat
eri
alsmaki
ngaconduct
or

Resi
stancei
slessi
nsi
l
ver(
whi
chi
sabet
terconduct
or)whi
l
eiti
smor
eincopper
.

THEHEATI
NGEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT

Eacht
imeel
ect
ri
cit
yfl
owst
hroughaconduct
ori
tpr
oducesheat
.El
ect
ri
cli
ght
ing,
wel
dingand
heat
ingut
il
iset
heheat
ingef
fectofanel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
ateatwhi
cht
hisheatener
gyi
s
expendedi
scal
l
edel
ect
ri
cpower
.Int
ransf
ormer
s,gener
ator
sandot
herel
ect
ri
cmachi
nest
he
heatpr
oducedi
sabi
gdi
sadv
ant
agebecausei
tisnotonl
yal
ossofener
gy,
buti
tmaybur
nthe
i
nsul
ati
onofcoi
l
s.

I
naheat
ingdev
ice,
usef
ulheati
spr
oducedi
nal
engt
hofr
esi
stancewi
recal
l
edaheat
ing
el
ement
.Forast
eadycur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughaconduct
orbet
weenwhoseendst
hepot
ent
ial
di
ff
erencei
sVv
olt
s,t
heener
gyl
i
ber
atedi
s

Ener
gy=Vol
tage×Cur
rent
×ti
mei
sseconds
E=VI
tjoul
es
Ener
gydissi
pat
ed
Si
ncepower
,P=
t
ime
VI
t
P=
t
P=VIj
oul
es/
seconds(
wat
ts,
W)

2
Ener
gyi
sal
sogi
venbyE=IRt

Exampl
esonpower

Appl
i
cat
ionoft
heHeat
ingef
fectofanel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

TheLi
ghtbul
b

I
nanel
ect
ri
cli
ghtbul
btheheat
ingef
fecti
susedt
opr
oducel
i
ght
.Thet
hinf
il
amentofwi
re
becomeswhi
tehotwhenanel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hroughi
t.Tungst
enmet
ali
susedf
ort
he
f
il
amentbecausei
thasv
eryhi
ghmel
ti
ngpoi
nt.
Thei
nsi
deoft
hegl
assenv
elopecont
ainsani
ner
tgas,
argon,
atl
owpr
essur
etopr
event
ev
apor
ati
onoft
hef
il
amentwheni
tgr
owswhi
tehot
.Ai
risr
emov
edt
opr
eventt
heoxi
dat
ionand
bur
ningoft
hef
il
ament
.

Ot
herdev
icest
hatuset
heheat
ingef
fectofanel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
ncl
ude,
pressi
ngi
ron,
cookeror
st
ove,
heat
er.

EFFECTSOFELECTRI
CCURRENT

El
ect
ri
ccur
rent
spr
oducet
hreeef
fect
sont
hei
rsur
roundi
ngs.

1.Heat
ingandLi
ght
ing.Thi
sef
fecthasbeenusedi
ndi
ff
erentel
ect
ri
cal
dev
ices.The
cur
rentcausest
hef
il
amentofal
i
ghtbul
btogl
owwhi
tehot
.El
ect
ri
ccur
rent
sar
eusedi
n
ourhomesf
orheat
ing,
cooki
ngandl
i
ght
ing.

2.Chemi
cal
change.Thepassi
ngofanel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hroughasol
uti
oncanpr
oducea
chemi
cal
change.Forexampl
e,acur
rentpassi
ngt
hroughasol
uti
onofcoppersul
phat
e
causescoppert
obedeposi
tedatt
hecat
hode(
negat
ivet
ermi
nal
).

3.Magnet
icef
fect
.Whenacur
rentf
lowsi
tpr
oducesamagnet
icf
iel
d,whi
chcanbe
det
ect
edbyapl
ott
ingcompasspl
acedneart
hewi
re.

THEHEATI
NGEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT

Eacht
imeel
ect
ri
cit
yfl
owst
hroughaconduct
ori
tpr
oducesheat
.El
ect
ri
cli
ght
ing,
wel
dingand
heatut
il
izet
heheat
ingef
fectofanel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
ateatwhi
cht
hisheatener
gyi
s
expendedi
scal
l
edel
ect
ri
cpower
.Int
ransf
ormer
s,gener
ator
sandot
herel
ect
ri
cmachi
nest
he
heatpr
oducedi
sabi
gdi
sadv
ant
agebecausei
tisnotonl
yal
ossofener
gy,
buti
tmaybur
nthe
i
nsul
ati
onoft
hecoi
l
s.

I
naheat
ingdev
ice,
usef
ulheati
spr
oducedi
nal
engt
hofr
esi
stancewi
recal
l
edaheat
ing
el
ement
.Forast
eadycur
rentofanamper
efl
owi
ngt
hroughaconduct
orbet
weenwhoseends
t
hepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encei
sVv
olt
s,t
heener
gyl
i
ber
atedi
s

Ener
gy=v
olt
age×Cur
rent
×Ti
mei
nseconds

E=VI
t

ener
gydissi
pat
ed
Si
ncepower
,P=
t
ime
 VI
t
P=
t

Ther
efor
e,P=VI

2
P=IR

V2
P= .
R

2 V2
Ener
gycanal
sobegi
venby
,E=IRtOR E= t
R

Exampl
e

1.Theheat
ingel
ementofanel
ect
ri
cket
tl
ewi
thar
esi
stanceof38.
4Ωi
sconnect
edacr
ossa
240Vpowersuppl
y.Cal
cul
ate
a)Thecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
heel
ement
,
b)Theamountofheatpr
oducedi
nonemi
nut
e.(
Assumi
ngt
hatt
her
esi
stanceoft
he
el
ementr
emai
nst
hesameast
emper
atur
eincr
eases.
)
2.Anel
ect
ri
cir
oni
srat
edat240V,
1kW.Undernor
mal
wor
kingcondi
ti
ons,
find
a)Ther
esi
stanceoft
heheat
ingel
ementi
nthei
ron,
b)Theamountofcur
rentt
hatwi
l
lfl
owt
hrought
heel
ement
c) Theamountofheatt
hatwi
l
lbepr
oducedi
n5mi
nut
es.

MEASURI
NGELECTRI
CITYCONSUMPTI
ON

Theel
ect
ri
cit
yweusehast
opai
dfor
.Ev
eryhomehasanel
ect
ri
cit
ymet
erwhi
chmeasur
eshow
muchel
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyhasbeenused.Andf
orapr
epai
dmet
er,
itshowst
heamountof
el
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyav
ail
abl
e.Theel
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyi
ssol
dinuni
tsofki
l
owat
thour(
kWh)
,thi
sis
al
soauni
tofener
gy.OnekWhi
stheener
gyusedbya1kW el
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
ancei
nanhour
.

Ener
gyr
eleased=Power
×Ti
me

1kWh=1kW×1hour

=1000W×3600s

=3600000J

Exampl
es
1.Howmuchwoul
dyout
opayt
heut
il
it
iescompanyi
fyouusedt
wo40W l
ampsand120W
t
elev
isi
onf
or5hour
sadayf
oramont
h(30day
s).Assumet
hecostof1kWhofener
gyt
obe
K1.
2.
2.Cal
cul
atet
hecostofusi
nga1000W el
ect
ri
cir
onf
or2hr
sand100W f
or10hr
sift
hecostof
el
ect
ri
cener
gyi
s90nperuni
t.
DANGERSOFELECTRI
CITY

Whencompar
edt
oot
herf
ormsofener
gy,
elect
ri
cal
ener
gyi
sconsi
der
edt
obemor
eef
fi
cient
,
cl
eanerandeasi
ert
ouse.Howev
er,
wehav
etor
emembert
hati
fnothandl
edpr
oper
ly,
all
for
ms
ofener
gycanbedanger
ous.

Ther
ear
etwomaj
ordanger
swhenusi
ngel
ect
ri
cit
y,namel
y,t
her
iskofanel
ect
ri
cshockandf
ir
e.
Thesedanger
scanbecausedby

 t
heuseofwi
reswi
thdamagedi
nsul
ati
on,
 t
heov
erheat
ingofcabl
es
 t
ouchi
ngwetel
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
ances.
DamagedI
nsul
ati
on

Damagedi
nsul
ati
onofawi
repr
otect
susf
rom t
ouchi
ngi
t.Al
i
vewi
reexposedbecauseof
damagedi
nsul
ati
on,
isdanger
ous.Thi
swi
l
lcauseanel
ect
ri
cshocki
ssomeoneacci
dent
all
y
t
ouchesi
t.Fur
ther
mor
e,anydamagedi
nsul
ati
onbet
weent
hel
i
veandneut
ral
wir
esmayr
esul
t
i
nashor
tci
rcui
t.Thecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughwi
l
lthensuddenl
ybecomev
eryl
arge.Thi
scan
pr
oduceenoughheatt
ost
artaf
ir
e.Al
lwi
resshoul
d,t
her
efor
e,bei
nspect
edf
rom t
imet
oti
me
andr
epl
acedi
fdamaged.

Ov
erheat
ingofCabl
es

Wehav
eal
readyseent
hatt
her
esi
stanceofawi
rei
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
toi
tscr
oss-
sect
ional
area.Thi
smeanst
hatat
hinwi
repossessesahi
gherr
esi
stancet
hanat
hickwi
re.

Thi
nnerwi
resmaybecheaper
,butt
hei
rhi
gherr
esi
stancewi
l
lpr
oducemor
eheatandheatup
t
hewi
ref
ast
erwhent
her
eisacur
rentf
low.Thi
swi
l
ldamaget
hewi
rei
nsul
ati
onandcancause
af
ir
e.

Anot
hercommonbutunwi
sepr
act
icei
sconnect
ingt
oomanyel
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
ancesi
ntot
he
samepowerout
let
,thr
ought
heuseofmul
ti
-wayadapt
ors.I
fal
ltheseel
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
anceswer
e
usedatt
hesamet
ime,
thet
otal
cur
rentdr
awnbyt
hem t
hrought
heel
ect
ri
ccabl
efr
om t
he
mai
nssuppl
ymaybesol
arget
hatt
hecabl
ebecomesov
erl
oadedandov
erheat
.Thi
smayr
esul
t
i
naf
ir
e.

DampCondi
ti
ons

Thesev
eri
tyofanel
ect
ri
cshockdependsont
hesi
zeoft
hecur
rentpassi
ngt
hroughourbodi
es.
Ther
eisar
angeofef
fect
sofel
ect
ri
cshock.Theseef
fect
svar
yfr
om onei
ndi
vi
dual
toanot
her
.
Thesi
zeoft
hecur
rent
,whi
chf
lows,
dependsont
hev
olt
ageandt
heel
ect
ri
cal
resi
stanceof
y
ourbody
.Mostoft
her
esi
stanceoft
hehumanbodyl
i
esi
ntheski
n.Dr
yski
nhasar
esi
stance
of100000ohmsormor
e.Buti
ftheski
niswet
,especi
all
ywi
thsweatwhi
chcont
ainssal
tsor
wat
erofgoodconduct
ingabi
l
ity
,ther
esi
stancef
all
sdr
ast
ical
l
yto,
per
haps,
justaf
ewhundr
ed
ohms.

Si
ncewat
er(
notdi
sti
l
ledwat
er)canconductel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
,youshoul
dnev
eroper
atean
el
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
ancewi
thwethands.Swi
tches,
plugs,
socket
s,connect
ingwi
res,
etc.shoul
d
al
way
sbekepti
nadr
ycondi
ti
on.

SAFETYUSEOFELECTRI
CITY

El
ect
ri
cit
yissuppl
i
edt
othehouset
hrought
hemai
nscabl
ewhi
chconsi
stsofal
i
vewi
reanda
neur
alwi
re.Themai
nscabl
eisconnect
edt
oamai
nsf
use,
anel
ect
ri
cit
ymet
erandt
hena
consumeruni
t.

Theconsumeruni
tcont
ainsadoubl
epol
emai
nswi
tchoranear
thl
eakageci
rcui
tbr
eaker
.
Ther
eisaf
useorami
niat
ureci
rcui
tbr
eaker(
MCB)f
oreachl
i
ght
ingci
rcui
tandpowerci
rcui
tin
t
hehouse.I
nhomes,
thr
eet
ypesofwi
resar
eusedandt
heycanbedi
sti
ngui
shedt
hecol
ourof
t
hei
nsul
ati
onar
oundt
hem.Thesewi
resar
e:

1.l
i
vewi
re:
iti
sbr
own(
orr
ed)i
ncol
ourandi
tcar
ri
esal
ter
nat
ingcur
rentf
rom t
hesour
ce
t
othepl
ugorappl
i
ance.
2.Neut
ral
wir
e:i
tisbl
ue(
orbl
ack)i
ncol
ourandi
sal
socal
l
edt
her
etur
nwi
reasi
ts
pur
posei
stor
etur
ncur
rentt
othemai
nscompl
eti
ngt
heci
rcui
t.I
tisusual
l
yatzer
o
pot
ent
ial
.
3.Ear
thwi
re:
iti
sgr
een(
ory
ell
oworacombi
nat
ionofbot
h).I
tisconnect
edt
othegr
ound
atsomepoi
ntpr
ovi
dingasaf
erout
efort
hecur
renti
ncaset
hel
i
vewi
ret
ouchest
he
casi
ngofanappl
i
ance.
Thr
eepi
npl
ug

At
hreepi
npl
ughasal
lthet
hreewi
resandar
eal
lmar
ked.Thesear
eshownbel
ow.
Thet
hreepi
npl
ughasf
uset
hati
sconnect
edt
othel
i
vewi
re.Thi
sty
peofconnect
ionensur
es
t
hatal
lappl
i
ancesar
eear
thedandf
usedsoast
opr
eventpossi
bleel
ect
ri
cal
shocksorev
enf
ir
e.

Fuses

Mostappl
i
ancest
hatconnectt
omai
nssuppl
yhav
eaf
use(
int
hepl
ug)
.Thef
usepr
otect
sbot
h
t
heappl
i
anceandt
heuseroft
heappl
i
ancebyst
oppi
ngt
heappl
i
ancef
rom wor
kingi
fther
eisa
powersur
ge.Thef
usecont
ainsapi
eceofwi
reorat
hinmet
all
i
cst
ri
pthathasal
owmel
ti
ng
poi
nt(
itmel
tseasi
l
y).I
fthecur
rentt
hrought
hef
usei
stoogr
eat
,thewi
remel
tsbef
oret
heot
her
wi
rest
her
ebybr
eaki
ngt
heci
rcui
t,pr
otect
ingt
heot
herwi
resi
nthepr
ocess.Thef
usei
s
connect
edt
othel
i
vewi
rebecauset
hel
i
vewi
rei
stheonet
hatbr
ingsi
nthecur
rentt
her
efor
e
pl
aci
ngt
hef
usei
ntheneut
ral
woul
dent
ail
thatt
hecur
rentwi
l
lst
il
lbesuppl
i
edt
otheappl
i
ance
ev
enwhent
hef
usei
sbr
oken.

Thef
user
ati
ngdependsont
hecur
rentr
equi
redbyt
heappl
i
ance.Acookerf
orexampl
emay
r
equi
rea30Af
usewhi
l
eabul
bmayr
equi
rea5Af
use.Fusesi
npl
ugsar
emadei
nst
andar
d
r
ati
ngs.t
hemostcommonar
e3A,
5Aand13A.Whenaf
usei
srat
ed3Ameanst
hatt
he
maxi
mum amountofcur
rentt
hatf
usewi
l
lal
l
owi
s3Aandany
thi
nggr
eat
ert
hef
usebr
eaks.

Ear
thi
ng

Ar
ingmai
nhasat
hir
dwi
rewhi
chgoest
othet
opsocket
sonal
lpowerpoi
ntsandi
sear
thedby
bei
ngconnect
edei
thert
oamet
alwat
erpi
peent
eri
ngt
hehouseort
oanear
thconnect
ionon
t
hesuppl
ycabl
e.Thi
sthi
rdwi
rei
sasaf
etypr
ecaut
iont
opr
eventel
ect
ri
cshockshoul
dan
appl
i
ancedev
elopaf
aul
t.

Theear
thpi
nonat
hree-
pinpl
ugi
sconnect
edt
othemet
alcaseoft
heappl
i
ancewhi
chi
sthus
j
oinedt
oear
thbyapat
hofal
mostzer
oresi
stance.I
fthen,
forexampl
e,t
heel
ementofan
el
ect
ri
cfi
rebr
eaksorsagsandt
ouchest
hecase,
alar
gecur
rentf
lowst
oear
thand‘
blows’
the
f
use.Ot
her
wiset
hecasewoul
dbecome‘
l
ive’
andany
onet
ouchi
ngi
twoul
drecei
veashock
whi
chmi
ghtbef
atal
,especi
all
yift
heywer
e‘ear
thed’
by,
say
,st
andi
ngi
nadampenv
ironment
,
suchasonaweconcr
etef
loor
.

Doubl
einsul
ati
on
Appl
i
ancessuchasv
acuum cl
eaner
s,hai
rdr
yer
sandf
oodmi
xer
sar
eusual
l
ydoubl
einsul
ated.
Connect
iont
othesuppl
yisbyat
wo-
cor
einsul
atedcabl
e,wi
thnoear
thwi
re,
andt
heappl
i
ance
i
sencl
osedi
nani
nsul
ati
ngpl
ast
iccase.Anymet
alat
tachment
sthatt
heusermi
ghtt
ouchar
efi
t
tedi
ntot
hiscasesot
hatt
heydonotmakeadi
rectconnect
ionwi
tht
hei
nter
nal
elect
ri
cal
par
ts,
suchasamot
or.Ther
eist
hennor
iskofashockshoul
daf
aul
tdev
elop.

ELECTROMAGNETI
CINDUCTI
ON

I
n1831Mi
chael
Far
adaydi
scov
eredt
hatanel
ect
romot
ivef
orcei
sinducedi
naconduct
or
pl
acedi
namagnet
icf
iel
dwhent
heconduct
orcut
sthemagnet
icf
lux.Thi
spr
ocessi
scal
l
ed
el
ect
romagnet
ici
nduct
ion.Thef
oll
owi
ngexper
iment
sar
esi
mil
art
owhathedi
d.

Exper
iment
:todemonst
rat
eel
ect
romagnet
ici
nduct
ion

Makeacoi
lofsev
eral
tur
nsofi
nsul
atedcopperwi
reonacar
dboar
dtubeandconnecti
tsends
t
othet
ermi
nal
sofasensi
ti
vecent
re-
zer
ogal
vanomet
er.

Pusht
henor
thpol
eofabarmagnetr
api
dlyi
ntot
hecoi
l
.Leti
tresti
nsi
det
hecoi
lforawhi
l
e,
t
henqui
ckl
ywi
thdr
awi
t.Youwi
l
lnot
icet
hatt
hepoi
nteroft
hegal
vanomet
eri
sdef
lect
edt
o
onbesi
dewhent
hemagneti
8smov
ingi
n,r
etur
nst
ozer
owhent
hemagneti
sst
ati
onar
y,and
def
lect
stot
heopposi
tesi
dewhent
hemagneti
swi
thdr
awn.Di
agr
am (
a)and(
b)i
l
lust
rat
ethi
s.
Repeatt
heexper
imentbutt
hist
imeusest
heSout
hPol
e.Thedef
lect
ionsar
enowi
nthe
opposi
tedi
rect
iont
otheonesabov
easshownbel
ow.

Theobser
vat
ionsshowedt
hatwhenev
ert
her
ewasr
elat
ivemov
ementbet
weent
hemagnetand
coi
l
,ther
ewasani
nducedcur
rent
.Far
adaycamet
otheconcl
usi
ont
hatcur
rentwasi
nducedi
n
t
heci
rcui
tasar
esul
toft
hewi
rebei
ngcutbymagnet
icf
luxl
i
neswhenei
thert
hemagnetort
he
coi
lmov
ed.Anot
herwayofdescr
ibi
ngt
hisphenomenoni
s:anel
ect
romot
ivef
orcei
sinduced
whenev
ert
her
eisachangi
ngmagnet
icf
luxi
naci
rcui
t.

Cont
inui
nghi
sinv
est
igat
ionswi
thot
hercoi
l
sandmagnet
s,f
aradayf
oundt
hatt
hemagni
tudeof
t
hei
nducedcur
renti
ncr
easeswhen

 Themagneti
smov
edataf
ast
erspeedi
nandoutoft
hecoi
l
;

 Ast
rongermagneti
sused;

 Thenumberoft
urni
nthecoi
li
sincr
eased.

Ther
esul
tsoff
araday
’sexper
imentar
esummedupi
nfar
aday
’sl
awofel
ect
romagnet
ic
i
nduct
ion.
Far
aday
’sl
awofel
ect
romagnet
ici
nduct
ionst
atest
hatt
hemagni
tudeoft
hei
nducede.
m.f
.is
pr
opor
ti
onal
tot
her
ateofchangeoft
hemagnet
icf
luxl
i
nkedwi
tht
heci
rcui
tort
her
ateatwhi
ch
t
hemagnet
icf
luxar
ecut
.

DI
RECTI
ONOFI
NDUCEDE.
m.f
.

Whenapol
eoft
hemagnetappr
oachest
hesol
enoi
dorr
ecedesf
rom i
t,t
hedi
rect
ionoft
he
i
nducedcur
renti
ssucht
hati
tpr
oducesal
i
kepol
eatt
henearf
aceoft
hesol
enoi
donappr
oach,
andanunl
i
kepol
eonwi
thdr
awal
.Thust
hei
nducedpol
eopposest
hemot
ionoft
hemagnet
.
Henr
yLenz,
aRussi
ansci
ent
ist
,for
mul
atedal
awi
n1834whi
chsay
s:t
hei
nducedcur
renti
s
al
way
sinadi
rect
iont
oopposet
hechangepr
oduci
ngi
t.Thi
siscal
l
edLenz’
slawof
el
ect
romagnet
ici
nduct
ion.

I
nducedCur
renti
nast
rai
ghtconduct
or

Thedi
agr
am showshowacur
rentcanbei
nducedi
nast
rai
ghtconduct
or.

Whent
hecopperwi
rei
smov
edupwar
dsordownwar
ds,
theconduct
orcut
sthemagnet
icf
iel
d
andacur
renti
sinduced.

Thedi
rect
ionoft
hei
nducedcur
renti
nthest
rai
ghtconduct
orcaneasi
l
ybededucedbyusi
ng
Fl
emi
ng’
sri
ght
-handr
ule(
ordy
namor
ule)

Hol
dthet
humbandf
ir
stt
wof
inger
satr
ightangl
est
ooneanot
her
.Ift
hef
ir
stf
ingerpoi
ntsi
n
t
hedi
rect
ionoft
hemagnet
icf
iel
dandt
het
humbi
nthedi
rect
ionofmov
ementoft
heconduct
or,
t
hent
hesecondf
ingershowst
hedi
rect
ionoft
hei
nducedcur
rent
.
Si
mpl
eal
ter
nat
ingcur
rentGener
ator

Asi
mpl
eal
ter
nat
ingcur
rentgener
atori
sshownbel
ow.I
tconsi
stsofar
ect
angul
arcoi
lmount
ed
onanaxl
ewhi
chi
sfi
xedbet
weent
hepol
esofaper
manentmagnet
.Whent
hecoi
li
srot
ated,
the
magnet
icf
iel
dthr
oughi
tchanges.Thi
sinducesacur
renti
nthecoi
l
.

Usi
ngf
lemi
ng’
sri
ght
-handr
ule,
wecanseet
hatt
hei
nducedcur
rentf
lowsf
rom At
oBandCt
oD
i
nthecoi
l
.Thi
scur
rentt
henf
lowst
hrought
het
wosl
i
p-r
ings(
XandY)t
oanel
ect
ri
cal
load,
e.g.
al
amp.Thet
wosl
i
p-r
ingseachmakesl
i
dingcont
actwi
thaf
ixedcar
bonbr
ush(
PandQ)
.The
cur
rentf
lowsf
rom Yt
oQandf
rom Pt
oX(
diagr
am A)

Whent
hecoi
lhasr
otat
edt
hrough180°
,thesi
desoft
hecoi
lwi
l
lhav
echangedpl
aces.Nowt
he
cur
rentf
lowsf
rom Bt
oAanDt
oCi
nthecoi
l
,andf
rom Xt
oPandf
rom Qt
oYt
hrought
he
sl
i
dingcont
act(
diagr
am B)
.Ev
eryt
imet
hecoi
ltur
nst
hrough180°
,thecur
rentr
ever
sei
ts
di
rect
iont
hrought
heel
ect
ri
cal
load.Thecur
rentf
ir
stf
lowsonewayi
ntheext
ernal
cir
cui
tand
t
hent
heot
herway
.Thi
siscal
l
edanal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent(
a.c.
)thecur
rentchangesi
tsdi
rect
ion
whent
hecoi
li
sint
hev
ert
ical
posi
ti
on.

VOLTAGEOUTPUTOFANA.
C.GENERATOR

Whent
heout
putofagener
atori
sconnect
edt
oacat
hode-
rayosci
l
loscope,
ther
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weent
heel
ect
romot
ivef
orcegener
atedi
nthecoi
landt
imecanbeseenont
hescr
een.

Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowst
hegr
aphofi
nducedel
ect
romot
ivef
orce(
orv
olt
ageout
put
)agai
nst
t
ime(
orcoi
lposi
ti
on)f
orasi
mpl
eal
ter
nat
ingcur
rentgener
ator
.Whent
hecoi
li
shor
izont
al,
the
r
ateatwhi
cht
hecoi
lcut
sthemagnet
icl
i
nesoff
orcei
sthegr
eat
est
.Hence,
thei
nducede.
m.f
.
i
smaxi
mum.Whent
hecoi
li
sver
ti
cal
,ther
ateatwhi
cht
hecoi
lcut
sthemagnet
icl
i
nesoff
orce
i
sthel
east
.Hence,
thei
nducede.
m.f
.ismi
nimum.
I
fthespeedofr
otat
ionoft
hecoi
li
sdoubl
ed,
bot
hthef
requencyoft
heal
ter
nat
ingcur
rentand
t
her
ateofcut
ti
ngoft
hemagnet
icl
i
nesoff
orcewi
l
lbedoubl
ed.Thi
smeanst
hatt
hemax
imum
out
putv
olt
agei
sal
sodoubl
ed.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethef
act
orst
hatcani
ncr
easet
hei
nducede.
m.f
.
ofagener
aor
:

 I
ncr
easi
ngt
hespeedofr
otat
ionoft
hecoi
l

 I
ncr
easi
ngt
henumberoft
urnsi
nthecoi
l

 Wi
ndi
ngt
hecoi
lonasof
tir
oncor
esoast
oconcent
rat
ethemagnet
icl
i
nesoff
orce
t
hrought
hecoi
l

 Usi
ngst
rongermagnet
s.

THETRANSFORMER

Di
ff
erentel
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
ancesneeddi
ff
erentwor
kingv
olt
ages.Thedoor
bel
lmaywor
kona6V
suppl
ywher
easat
elev
isi
onsetmayneedsev
eral
thousandv
olt
s.Tr
ansf
ormer
sar
eusedt
o
suppl
ythedi
ff
erentv
olt
ager
equi
rement
soft
heappl
i
ancesweusef
rom t
hemai
nssuppl
yof
240V.

PRI
NCI
PLEOFOPERATI
ONOFTRANSFORMERS
Letusi
nvest
igat
ethepr
inci
pleofoper
ati
onofabasi
cir
on-
cor
etr
ansf
ormer
.Di
agr
am A,
a
pr
imar
ycoi
landssecondar
ycoi
lar
ewoundonopposi
tesi
desofani
roncor
e.Thepr
imar
ycoi
l
i
sconnect
edt
oabat
ter
yandaswi
tch,
whi
l
ethesecondar
ycoi
li
sconnect
edt
oasmal
ll
amp.
Whent
heswi
tchi
scl
osed,
thecur
renti
nthepr
imar
ycoi
li
ncr
easesf
rom zer
otoamaxi
mum
v
alue.Thi
spr
oducesani
ncr
easi
ngmagnet
icf
iel
dint
hepr
imar
ycoi
l
.Thi
sincr
easi
ngmagnet
ic
f
iel
dinducesacur
renti
nthesecondar
ycoi
lwhi
chl
i
ght
supt
hel
amp.Oncet
hecur
renti
nthe
pr
imar
ycor
eisst
eady
,nomor
echangesoccurandt
her
eisnoi
nducedcur
rent
.Thel
ampgoes
of
fagai
n.

Whent
heswi
tchi
sopened,
thecur
renti
nthepr
imar
ycoi
ldecr
easest
ozer
o.Thi
scr
eat
esa
decr
easi
ngmagnet
icf
iel
dwhi
chi
nducesacur
renti
ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ioni
nthesecondar
y
coi
landt
hel
ampf
lashesagai
n.

Asanal
ter
nat
ivet
ocont
inui
ngopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngt
heci
rcui
t,wecanuseanal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
suppl
ytot
hepr
imar
ycoi
l(di
agr
am B)
.Theal
ter
nat
ingcur
rentwi
l
lcr
eat
eacont
inui
ngchangi
ng
magnet
icf
iel
dwhi
chwi
l
linduceacur
renti
nthesecondar
ycoi
ll
ight
ingt
hel
ampal
lthet
ime.

At
ransf
ormeri
susedt
ochanget
hev
olt
ageofanal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
.Thi
sisdonebyhav
ing
di
ff
erentnumber
soft
urnsi
nthepr
imar
yandsecondar
ycoi
l
s.

Tr
ansf
ormerEquat
ion

At
ransf
ormert
ransf
orms(
changes)anal
ter
nat
ingv
olt
agef
rom onev
aluet
oanot
herofgr
eat
er
orsmal
l
erv
alue.I
thasapr
imar
ycoi
landasecondar
ycoi
lwoundonacompl
etesof
tir
oncor
e.

Anal
ter
nat
ingv
olt
ageappl
i
edt
othepr
imar
yinducesanal
ter
nat
ingv
olt
agei
nthesecondar
y.
Thev
alueoft
hesecondar
yvol
tagecanbeshown,
forat
ransf
ormeri
nwhi
chal
lthef
iel
dli
nes
cutt
hesecondar
y,t
obegi
venby

Secondar
yvolt
age secondar
ytur
ns
=
pri
maryvol
tage pri
marytur
ns
 Vs Ns
=
Vp Ns

 Ast
ep-
upt
ransf
ormerhasmor
etur
nsont
hesecondar
ythant
hepr
imar
yandVSi
s
gr
eat
ert
hanVP.Forexampl
e,i
fthesecondar
yhast
wiceasmanyt
urnsast
hepr
imar
y,
VSi
saboutt
wiceVP.(
diagr
am a)
.

 Ast
epdownt
ransf
ormert
her
ear
efewert
urnsont
hesecondar
ythant
hepr
imar
yandVS
i
slessVP(
diagr
am b)
.