MAP READING

INTRODUCTION:
Map is a graphical representation of the earth's surface drawn to scale, as seen from above. It uses colors, symbols, and labels to
represent features found on the ground. The ideal representation would be realized if every feature of the area being mapped could be shown in
true shape. Obviously this is impossible, and an attempt to plot each feature true to scale would result in a product impossible to read even with
the aid of a magnifying glass.
Purpose. A map provides information on the existence, the location of, and the distance between ground features, such as populated
places and routes of travel and communication. It also indicates variations in terrain, heights of natural features, and the extent of vegetation
cover. With our military forces dispersed throughout the world, it is necessary to rely on maps to provide information to our combat elements and
to resolve logistical operations far from our shores. Soldiers and materials must be transported, stored, and placed into operation at the proper
time and place. Much of this planning must be done by using maps. Therefore, any operation requires a supply of maps; however, the finest
maps available are worthless unless the map user knows how to read them.
Categories:
1. Scale. Because a map is a graphical representation of a portion of the earth's surface, it is important to know what
mathematical scale has been used. You must know this to determine ground distances between objects or locations on the map, the size of the
area covered, and how the scale may affect the amount of detail being shown. The mathematical scale of a map is the ratio or fraction between
the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the surface of the earth. Scale is reported as a representative fraction with the map
distance as the numerator and the ground distance as the denominator.
Small.
 Those maps with scales of 1:600,000 or smaller are used for general planning and for strategic studies
 The standard small-scale map is 1:1,000,000.
 This map covers a very large land area at the expense of detail
Medium.
 Those maps with scales larger than 1:600,000 but smaller than 1:75,000 are used for operational planning
 They contain a moderate amount of detail, but terrain analysis is best done with the large-scale
 The standard medium-scale map is 1:250,000.
Large.
 Those maps with scales of 1:75,000 and larger are used for tactical, administrative, and logistical planning
 These are the maps that you as a soldier or junior leader are most likely to encounter
 The standard large-scale map is 1:50,000;

2. Types:
a. Planemetric Map. This is a map that presents only the horizontal positions for the features represented. It is
distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief, normally represented by contour lines. Sometimes, it is called a line map.
b. Topographic Map. This is a map that portrays terrain features in a measurable way (usually through use of contour
lines), as well as the horizontal positions of the features represented. The vertical positions, or relief, are normally represented by contour lines
on military topographic maps. On maps showing relief, the elevations and `contours are measured from a specific vertical datum plane, usually
mean sea level.

c. Photomap. This is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid lines, marginal data, place names, route
numbers, important elevations, boundaries, and approximate scale and direction have been added.
d. Joint Operations Graphics . These maps are based on the format of standard 1:250,000 medium-scale military
topographic maps, but they contain additional information needed in joint air-ground operations. Along the north and east edges of the graphic,
detail is extended beyond the standard map sheet to provide overlap with adjacent sheets. These maps are produced both in ground and air
formats. Each version is identified in the lower margin as either Joint Operations Graphic (Air) or Joint Operations Graphic (Ground). The
topographic information is identical on both, but the ground version shows elevations and contour in meters and the air version shows them in
feet. Layer (elevation) tinting and relief shading are added as an aid to interpolating relief. Both versions emphasize air landing facilities (shown
in purple), but the air version has additional symbols to identify aids and obstructions to air navigation.
e. Photomosaic. This is an assembly of aerial photographs that is commonly called a mosaic in topographic usage.
Mosaics are useful when time does not permit the compilation of a more accurate map. The accuracy of a mosaic depends on the method
employed in its preparation and may vary from simply a good pictorial effect of the ground to that of a planemetric map.
f. Terrain Model. This is a scale model of the terrain showing features, and in large-scale models showing industrial
and cultural shapes. It provides a means for visualizing the terrain for planning or indoctrination purposes and for briefing on assault landings.
g. Military City Map. This is a topographic map (usually at 1:12,550 scale, sometimes up to 1:5,000), showing the
details of a city. It delineates streets and shows street names, important buildings, and other elements of the urban landscape important to
navigation and military operations in urban terrain. The scale of a military city map depends on the importance and size of the city, density of
detail, and available intelligence information.
 h. Special Maps. These are maps for special purposes, such as traffic, communications, and assault maps. They are
usually in the form of an overprint in the scales smaller than 1:100,000 but larger than 1:1,000,000. A special purpose map is one that has been
designed or modified to give information not to create confusion.
MARGINAL INFORMATION
A map could be compared to any piece of equipment, in that before it is placed into operation the user must read the instructions. It is
important that you, as a soldier, know how to read these instructions. The most logical place to begin is the marginal information and symbols,
where useful information telling about the map is located and explained. All maps are not the same, so it becomes necessary every time a
different map is used to examine the marginal information carefully.

1. Sheet Name. The sheet name is found in bold print at the center of the top and in the lower left area of the map margin. A
map is generally named for the settlement contained within the area covered by the sheet, or for the largest natural feature located within the
area at the time the map was drawn.

2. Sheet Number. The sheet number is found in bold print in both the upper right and lower left areas of the margin, and in the
center box of the adjoining sheets diagram, which is found in the lower right margin. It is used as a reference number to link specific maps to
overlays, operations orders, and plans. For maps at 1:100,000 scale and larger, sheet numbers are based on an arbitrary system that makes
possible the ready orientation of maps at scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000

3. Series Name. The map series name is found in the same bold print as the sheet number in the upper left corner of the
margin. In the new series, the name given to the series is generally that of a major political subdivision. A map series usually includes a group of
similar maps at the same scale and on the same sheet lines or format designed to cover a particular geographic area. It may also be a group of
maps that serve a common purpose, such as the military city maps.

4. Scale. The scale is found both in the upper left margin after the series name, and in the center of the lower margin. The
scale note is a representative fraction that gives the ratio of a map distance to the corresponding distance on the earth's surface. For example,
the scale note 1:50,000 indicates that one unit of measure on the map equals 50,000 units of the same measure on the ground.

5. Series Number. The series number is found in both the upper right margin and the lower left margin. It is a sequence
reference expressed either as a four-digit numeral (1501) or as a letter, followed by a three- or four-digit numeral (S711, S701, etc). In the
regional grouping of allied mapping projects, our map series was designated “S”.

6. Edition Number. The edition number is found in bold print in the upper right area of the top margin and the lower left area of
the bottom margin. Editions are numbered consecutively; therefore, if you have more than one edition, the highest numbered sheet is the most
recent. Military maps are now published by the ISAFP, but older editions of maps may have been produced by the US Army Map Service, or
AFP Mapping Center (AFPMAC). The credit line, telling who produced the map, is just above the legend. The map information date is found
immediately below the word "LEGEND" in the lower left margin of the map. This date is important when determining how accurately the map
data might be expected to match what you will encounter on the ground.

7. Index to Boundaries. The index to boundaries diagram appears in the lower or right margin of all sheets. This diagram,
which is a miniature of the map, shows the boundaries that occur within the map area, such as provincial and city boundaries.

8. Adjoining Sheets Diagram. Maps at all standard scales contain a diagram that illustrates the adjoining sheets. On maps at
1:100,000 and larger scales and at 1:1,000,000 scale, the diagram is called the index to adjoining sheets. It consists of as many rectangles
representing adjoining sheets as are necessary to surround the rectangle that represents the sheet under consideration. The diagram usually
contains nine rectangles, but the number may vary depending on the locations of the adjoining sheets. All represented sheets are identified by
their sheet numbers. Sheets of an adjoining series, whether published or planned, that are at the same scale are represented by dashed lines.
The series number of the adjoining series is indicated along the appropriate side of the division line between the series.

9. Elevation Guide. This is normally found in the lower right margin. It is a miniature characterization of the terrain shown. The
terrain is represented by bands of elevation, spot elevations, and major drainage features. The elevation guide provides the map reader with a
means of rapid recognition of major landforms. The guide is developed exclusively for a particular map. It may not fit with the guide of adjoining
map whose elevation guide is developed independently on the basis of each map’s terrain characteristics.

10. Declination Diagram. This is located in the lower margin of large-scale maps and indicates the angular relationships of true
north, grid north, and magnetic north. On maps at 1:250,000 scales, this information is expressed as a note in the lower margin. In recent edition
maps, there is a note indicating the conversion of azimuths from grid to magnetic and from magnetic to grid next to the declination diagram.
Ideally, diagram can be used within 5 years from date imprinted therein. The diagram should not be used beyond 10 years; updated diagram
should be obtained from our topographic unit.

11. Bar Scales. These are located in the center of the lower margin. They are rulers used to convert map distance to ground
distance. Maps have three or more bar scales, each in a different unit of measure. Care should be exercised when using the scales, especially
in the selection of the unit of measure that is needed.
 12. Contour Interval Note. This note is found in the center of the lower margin normally below the bar scales. It states the
vertical distance between adjacent contour lines of the map. When supplementary contours are used, the interval is indicated. In recent edition
maps, the contour interval is given in meters instead of feet.

13. Spheroid Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. Spheroids (ellipsoids) have specific parameters that
define the X Y Z axis of the earth. The spheroid is an integral part of the datum.

14. Grid Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It gives information pertaining to the grid system used and
the interval between grid lines, and it identifies the UTM grid zone number.

15. Projection Note. The projection system is the framework of the map. For military maps, this framework is of the conformal
type; that is, small areas of the surface of the earth retain their true shapes on the projection; measured angles closely approximate true values;
and the scale factor is the same in all directions from a point. The projection note is located in the center of the lower margin.

16. Vertical Datum Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. The vertical datum or vertical-control datum is
defined as any level surface (for example, mean sea level) taken as a surface of reference from which to determine elevations. Map readers
should habitually check the vertical datum note on maps, particularly if the map is used for low level aircraft navigation, naval gunfire support, or
missile target acquisition.

17. Horizontal Datum Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. The horizontal datum or horizontal-control
datum is defined as a geodetic reference point (of which five quantities are known: latitude, longitude, azimuth of a line from this point, and two
constants, which are the parameters of reference ellipsoid). These are the basis for horizontal-control surveys. The horizontal-control datum
may extend over a continent or be limited to a small local area. Map readers should habitually check the horizontal datum note on every map or
chart, especially adjacent map sheets. This is to ensure the products are based on the same horizontal datum. If products are based on different
horizontal-control data, coordinate transformations to a common datum must be performed. UTM coordinates from the same point computed on
different data may differ as much as 900 meters.

18. Control Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the special agencies involved in the control
of the technical aspects of all the information that is disseminated on the map.

19. Preparation Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the agency responsible for preparing the
map.

20. Printing Note. This note is also located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the agency responsible for printing the
map and the date the map was printed. The printing data should not be used to determine when the map information was obtained.

21. Grid Reference Box. This box is normally located in the center of the lower margin. It contains instructions for composing a
grid reference.

22. Unit imprint and Symbol. The unit imprints and symbol is on the left side of the lower margin. It identifies the agency that
prepared and printed the map with its respective symbol. This information is important to the map user in evaluating the reliability of the map.

23. Legend. The legend is located in the lower left margin. It illustrates and identifies the topographic symbols used to depict
some of the more prominent features on the map. The symbols are not always the same on every map. Always refer to the legend to avoid
errors when reading a map. Symbols of all features presented on a map should appear in the legend or they should be labeled, in position. Or a
note referring thereto, should be seen on the margin of the map.

Topographical map

STANDARD COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

a. Black. Indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads, surveyed spot elevations, and all labels.
 b. Red-Brown. The colors red and brown are combined to identify cultural features, all relief features, non-surveyed spot
elevations, and elevation, such as contour lines on red light readable maps.
c. Blue. Identifies hydrographic or water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and drainage. Features that constitute
obstacles are included in this group.
d. Green. Identifies vegetation features with military significance such as woods, orchards, and vineyards. They are features
that will affect troop movement.
e. Brown. Identifies all relief features and elevation, such as contours on older edition maps, and cultivated land on red-light
readable maps.
f. Red. Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and boundaries on older maps. Usually combined
with brown, and screen is used to vary tonal shades.
g. Purple. Indicates new information superimposed on an existing map. Sometimes, maps with this color are referred to as
Magenta Map.
h. Other. Occasionally other colors may be used to show special information. These are indicated in the marginal information
as a rule.

GRID COORDINATES.
Division of the earth’s surface into 6-degree by 8-degree quadrangles, and covered these with 100,000 meter squares. The military grid
reference of a point consist of the numbers and letters indicating in which of these areas the point lies, plus the coordinates locating the point to
the desired position within the 100,000-meter square. The next step is to tie in the coordinates of the point with the larger areas.

GRID LINES. Division of the 100,000-meter square; the lines are spaced at 10,000 or 1,000 meter intervals. Each of these lines is
labeled both ends of the map with its false easting or false northing value, showing its relation to the origin of the zone.
GRID SQUARES. The North-south and the east-west grid lines intersect at 90* forming grid squares. Normally the size of one of these
grid squares on large-scale maps is 1,000 meters (1 kilometer)
GRID COORDINATES SCALE. The primary tool for plotting grid coordinates is the grid coordinates scale. The grid coordinates scale
divides the grid square more accurately than can be done by estimation and the result are more consistent. When used correctly, it provides less
chance of errors.
SCALE AND DISTANCE.
A map is scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth’s surface. The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on
the map to the distance on the ground or vice versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth’s surface, is an important
factor in planning and executing military missions.
Representative Fraction- The numerical scale of a map indicates the relationship of distance measured on a map and the
corresponding distance.
Example:
The map scale is 1:50,000
RF = 1/50,000
GRAPHIC (BAR) SCALES. A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map and is used to convert distances on the map to actual ground
distances. The graphic scale is divided into two parts. To the right of the zero, the scale is marked in full units to measure and is called the primary
scale. To the left of the zero, the scale is divided into tenths and is called the extension scale. Most map have three or more graphic scales, each
using a different unit of measurement. When using the graphic scale, be sure to use the correct scale for the unit of measure desired.

Graphic (bar) scale

DIRECTION.
 Military personnel need a way of expressing direction that is accurate, is adaptable to any part of the world, and has a common unit of
measurement. Directions are express as units of angular measurement.
1. Degree. The most common unit of measurement is the degree ( O) with its subdivision of minutes (‘) and seconds (“).
1 degree – 60 minutes 1 minute – 60 seconds
2. Mil. Another unit of measurement, the mil (abbreviated m), is mainly used in artillery, tank, and mortar gunnery. The mil
express the size of an angle formed when a circle is divided into 6,400 angles with the vertex of the angles at the center of the circle. A
relationship can be established between degrees and mils. A circle equals 6,400 mils divided by 360 degrees or 17.78 mils. To convert degrees to
mils, multiply degrees by 17.78.

3. Grad. The grad is a metric unit of measurement found on some foreign maps. There are 400 grads in a circle (90 degree right
angle equals 100 grad). The grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes (centigrade) and the minute into 100 centesimal seconds (milligrads).

BASE LINES.
In order to measure something, there must be a starting point or zero measurement.
To express direction as a unit of angular measure, there must be starting point or zero measure and a point of reference. These two points
designates the base or reference line. There are three base lines – true north, magnetic north, and commonly used are magnetic and grid.

a. True North. A line from any point on the North Pole. All lines of longitude are true north it is usually represented by a
star.
b. Magnetic North. The direction to the north indicated by the north seeking needle of a Magnetic North is usually
symbolized by a arrow head
c. Grid North. The north that is established on the grid lines by the map. The grid north may be a GN or the letter y

Three types of North

AZIMUTH.
An azimuth is defined as the horizontal angle measured from a north base line. This north base line it could be true north or grid north.
The azimuth is the most common direction. When using an azimuth, the point from which it originates is the center of an imaginary circle and it is
divided into 360 degrees.
a. Back azimuth.
b. Magnetic azimuth. The magnetic azimuth is determined by using magnetic instruments, such as lensatic and M-2
compasses.
c. Field expedient methods. Several field expedient method to determine direction.
GRID AZIMUTH.
When an azimuth is plotted on a map between two points. A (starting point) and point B (ending point), the points are joined together by
a straight line. A protractor is used to measure the angle between grid north and the drawn line, and this measured azimuth is the grid azimuth
PROTRACTOR.
There are several types of protractors – full circle, half circle, square and rectangular. All of them are divide the circle into units of
angular measures, and each has scale around the outer edge and an index mark. The index mark is the center of the protractor circle from which
all direction are measured
DECLINATION DIAGRAM
1 Declination – is the angular difference between true north and either magnetic or grid north. There are two declinations, a
magnetic declination and a grid declination.
2 Diagram – shows the angular relationship, represented by prongs, among these three north. The angles between the prongs,
however, are seldom plotted exactly to scale. The relative position of the direction is obtained from the diagram, but the numerical value should
not be measured from it.
 3. Location. A declination diagram is a part of the marginal information under the lower margin on larger maps. On the medium
scale maps, the declination information is shown by a note in the map margins.
4. The grid magnetic angle. The G-M angle value is the angular size that exists between grid north and magnetic north and the
year it was prepared. It is an arc indicated by a dashed line, which connects the grid north and magnetic north prongs. This value is expressed to
the nearest ½ degree, with mil equivalent shown to the nearest 10 mils. The G – M angle is important to the map reader/land navigator because it
will affect the accuracy of navigation skills in the field.
5. Grid Convergence. An arc indicated by a dashed line connects the prongs for true north and Grid north. The value of the angle
for the center of the sheet is given to the nearest full minute with its equivalent to the nearest mil. These data are shown in the form of a grid-
convergence note.
6. Conversion. There is an angular difference between the grid north and the magnetic north that is caused by the attraction of
the earth magnetic field (Northern Canada) on all compasses. Since the location of these magnetic field does not correspond exactly with the grid-
north lines on the maps, a conversion from magnetic to grid or vice versa.

WAYS OF LOCATING POINTS

1. Intersection
Intersection is the location of an unknown point by successively occupying at least two (preferably three) known positions on
the ground and then map sighting on the unknown locations. It is used to locate distant or inaccessible points or objects, such as enemy targets,
danger areas, and so forth. There are two methods of intersection

a. Map and compass method.

1) Orient the map using the compass
2) Locate and mark using the compass
3) Determine the magnetic azimuth to the unknown position using the compass.
4) Convert the magnetic azimuth to grid azimuth.
5) Draw a line on the map from your position on this grid azimuth.
6) Move to a second known point and repeat steps 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5.
7) The location of the unknown position is where the lines cross on the map. Determine eight digit-digit grid
coordinates to the desired accuracy.

b. Straightedge Method. (When compass is not available).

1) Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method
2) Locate and mark your position on the map.
3) Lay a straightedge on the map with one end at user’s position (A) as a pivot point; rotate the straightedge
until the unknown point is sighted along the edge.
4) Draw a line along a straightedge.
5) Repeat the above steps at position (B) and check for accuracy.
6) The intersection of the lines on the map is the location of the unknown point (C). Determine the grid
coordinates to the desired accuracy.

2. RESECTION
 Resection is the method of locating one’s position on a map by determining the grid azimuth to at least two well-defined
locations that can be pinpointed on the map. For greater accuracy, the desired method of resection would be to use three well-defined locations

a. Map and Compass Method

1) Orient the map using the compass.
2) Identify two or three distant location on the ground and mark them on the map.
3) Measure the magnetic azimuth to the known position from your location using a compass.
4) Convert the magnetic azimuth to a grid azimuth.
5) Convert the grid azimuth to a back azimuth. Using a protractor scale the back azimuth on the map from the
known position and a third position if desired.
6) The intersection of the lines is your location. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

b. Straightedge method
1) Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method
2) Locate at least two known distant location or prominent features on the ground and mark them on the map
3) Lay a straightedge on the map using a known position as a pivot point. Rotate the straightedge until the known
position on the map is aligned with the known position on the ground.
4) Draw a line along a straightedge away from the known position on the ground toward your position.
5) Repeat 3 and 4 using a second known position.
6) The intersection of the lines on the map is your location. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired
accuracy.
3. MODIFIED RESECTION
Modified resection is the method of locating one’s position on the map when the person is located on a linear feature on the
ground, such as road, canal, stream, etc. The steps are as follows.
a. Orient the map using a compass or by terrain association
b. Find a distant point that can be identified on the ground and on the map.
c. Determine the magnetic azimuth from your location to the distant known point.
d. Convert the magnetic azimuth to a grid azimuth.
e. Convert the grid azimuth to a back azimuth. Using protractor, scale the back azimuth on the map from the
position back toward your unknown position.
f. The location of the user is where the line crosses the linear features. Determine the grid coordinates to the
desired accuracy.
4. POLAR PLOT
A method of locating or plotting an unknown position from a known point by giving a direction and a distant along that direction
line is called a polar plot or polar coordinates. Three elements must be present when using polar coordinates.
a. Present known location on the map.
b. Azimuth (grid or magnetic)
c. Distance (normally in yards or meters).

LAND NAVIGATION
Land or ground navigation is the movement between two points where an individual, using terrain features to guide upon, knows his
map and ground location throughout the movement. Ground navigation demands a thorough knowledge of terrain features as they appear on
the map and on the ground. Since terrain features are used as reference points throughout the movement, the use of the compass becomes
minimal. In the military, the type of a compass that is issued and commonly used is called the LENSATIC COMPASS. This useful item finds the
north and the azimuths for us. In other words, lensatic compass is our direction finder, and it has everything to help us find our way.
 Briefly, we shall discuss how a compass works. The compass can tell us the azimuth in degrees toward a given object, or it can tell us
the direction of an object whose azimuth is known. To find a given magnetic azimuth, hold the compass level and turn the compass and yourself
until the correct magnetic azimuth is under the stationary index line. If you are going to travel along this azimuth, look up at the skyline and pick
out some prominent terrain features on this line that you can use to guide on while moving. As much as possible, take the back azimuth, which
is the reverse of the forward azimuth.

In order to be assured of the accuracy of the lensatic compass, observed the two general rules as follows:

1. Keep away from metal objects and high-tension wire. Lines of force in the earth magnetic field control the north arrow of the
compass. Since these force lines are disturbed locally by small amount of iron and electric fields, these things will produce error in the compass,
and the effect will be greater as the mass of the object or strength of the increases.

2. Keep the compass closed when not in use. The compass is a delicate instrument and can be damaged easily. It should
always be properly closed and returned to its carrying case when not actually use.

THE COMPASS

The Magnetic Compass is the most commonly used and simplest instrument for measuring direction and angles in the field. Two
varieties of magnetic compass are standard for military use today, the lensatic compass

CARE AND USE OF COMPASS:

1. Handle the compass with care. The dial is set at a delicate balance and a shock could damage.
2. Close and return the compass to its special container when not in use. In this way, it is not only protected from possible
damage, but is readily available for use when needed.
3. When the compass is used in the dark, an initial azimuth should be set, it possible, while light is still available. With this,
initial azimuth set, any other azimuth can be established using this as a base.
4. Compass reading should never be taken near visible masses of iron or electrical circuits. The following is the table of
approximate safe distances to insure proper functioning of the compass.

a. High tension power lines - 55 meters

b. Field Gun, truck or tank - 18 meters
c. Telegraph and telephone wires or barbwire - 10 meters
d.. Machine Gun - 1 meter
e.. Helmet or Rifle - 2 meters

PARTS OF LENSATIC COMPASS

1. Luminous Dot 10. Eye Piece

2. Cover 11. Holding Ring
3. Front Sight (Hair Line) 12. 90 Degrees Dot
4. Dial 13. 13. 180 Degrees Dot
5. Stationary Index 14. 270 Degrees Dot
6. Movable Brass Rim 15. Movable Crystal
7. Scale 16. Rim Holder
8. Rear Sight 17. Long Luminous Line
9. Lens 18. 45 Degrees Luminous Line
ELEVATION AND RELIEF

A knowledge of map symbols, grids, scale and distance gives enough information to identify two point, locate them, measure between
them and determine how long it would take to travel between them. But what happens if there should be a 300-foot cliff between the two points?
The map user must also become proficient in recognizing the various landforms and irregularities of the earth’s surface and be able to
determine the elevation and differences in height of all terrain features.

1. Datum Place – this is a reference from which vertical measurement are taken. The datum plane for most maps is mean or
average sea level.
2. Elevation – this is defined as the height (vertical distance) of an object above or below a datum plane.
3. Relief – is the representation of the shape and height of landform and the characterization of the earth surface.

The elevation of points and the relief of an area affect the movement and deployment of units by limiting the route along which they
may travel their speed of movement and the ease of difficulty of attacking or defending an area. Also affected are observation, fields of fire,
cover and concealment and the selection of key terrain features.

CONTOUR LINE

There are several ways of indicating elevation and relief on the maps. The most common way is by contour lines. A contour line is a
line representing an imaginary line on the ground along which all points are at the same elevation. Contour lines indicate a vertical distance
above or below a datum plane starting at sea level. The vertical distance between adjacent contour lines is known as the contour interval and
the amount of the contour interval is given in the marginal information. On most maps the contour lines are printed in brown. Starting at zero
elevation, every fifth contour line is drawn in heavier line. These are known as index contours and some place along each index contour the line
broken and its elevation is given. The contour lines falling between the index contours are called intermediate contours. They are drawn in a
finer line than the index contour and usually do not have their elevation given.

HOW TO DETERMINE THE ELEVATION USING THE CONTOUR LINES

1. Finding the contour interval from the marginal information and noting both the amount and the unit of measure.
2. Finding the numbered contour line or given elevation nearest the point which the elevation is being sought.
3. Determining the direction of the slope from the numbered contour line to the desired point.
4. Counting the number of contour lines that must be crossed to go from numbered line to the desired point and noting the
direction up or down. The number of lines crossed multiplied by the contour interval is the distance above or below the starting value.

a. If the desired point is contour line, its elevation is that of the contour.
b. To estimate the elevation of the top of an unmarked hill, add half the contour interval to the elevation of the highest
contour line around the

THE SPACING OF THE

CONTOUR LINES
INDICATES THE NATURE OF THE SLOPE

1. Contour lines evenly spaced and wide apart indicate a uniform, gentle slope.

2. Contour lines evenly spaced and closed together indicate a uniform, steep slope. The closer the contour lines to each other,
the steeper the slope.

3. Contour line closely spaced at the top and widely spaced at the bottom indicates a concave slope. Considering relief only an
observer at the top of a concave slope can observe the entire slope and the terrain at the bottom. Conversely, a unit attacking up such slope
would no cover and concealment from observers or weapons at or hear the top, also the farther top the slope the more difficult is to climb.
 4. Contour lines widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the bottom indicate a convex slope. An observer at the top of a
convex slope has no observation of most of the slope or of the terrain at the bottom. Conversely, a unit attacking up such slope has a greater
degree of cover and concealment than on a concave slope, also the farther up the slope the easier is the climb.

MAJOR RELIEF FORMATION

1. Hill – a point or small area of high ground. When you are located on a hilltop, the ground slopes down in all direction.

2. Valley – a stream course which has at least a limited extent of reasonably level ground bordered on the sides by higher
ground. Contours indicating a valley are Unshaped and tend to parallel a major stress before crossing.

3. Ridge – a line on high grounds, with normally minor variation along it. The ridge is not simply a line of hills, all point of the
ridge crest are appreciably higher than the ground on both sides of the ridges.

4. Spur – a usually short, continuously sloping line of higher ground normally jutting out from the side of a ridge. A spur is often
formed by two roughly parallel streams cutting draws down the side of ridge.

5. Saddle – a dip or low point along the crest of a ridge. A saddle is not necessarily the lower ground between two hilltops, it
may be simply a dip or break along and otherwise level ridge crest.

6. Depression – a low point or sinkhole, surrounded on all sides by higher grounds.

7. Cuts and Fills – man made features by which the bed of a road or a railroad is graded or leveled off by cutting through high
areas and filling in low areas along the right-of-way.

8. Cliff – a vertical of near vertical slope. When a slope is so steep that it cannot be shown at the contour interval without the
contour coalescing, it is shown by a ticked “carrying” contour or contours. The ticks always point towards lower ground.
 HILL
CONCAVE SLOPE

RIDGE CONVEX SLOPE

DEPRESSION
OVERHANGING CLIFF

VALLEY SADDLE

FILL
FINGERS