List all the energy resources that you know.
Examples of energy resources include wood for
heating and cooking.
Kirk Sorensen worked for NASA to come up with
a reliable source of energy for a Moon base. None
of the energy resources that are used on Earth
were suitable. But then he found a book about
liquid fluoride thorium reactors (or'lifters,), an
environmentally friendly and safe version of nuclear
power. They were being developed by the USA
so that aircraft carrying nuclear bombs would only
have to land to change crews and take on supplies.
But the experiment was abandoned in 1956
because missiles could more easily send nuclear
bombs over great distances.
Nuclear power stations need water but a lifter
would not, making it suitable for the Moon.
Figure 7.1: Pellets of thorium.
124 >
Which of these energy resources are renewable?
Can any of these resources be traced back to
sun lig ht?
But Sorenson thought, 'why not have them here
on Earth?' There are huge reserves of thorium
fuel available, they produce tiny amounts of
radioactive waste, an accidental meltdown would
be impossible, and it would be extremely difficult
to make a nuclear bomb using a lifter.
Discussion questions
1 Explain why energy resources used on Earth
would not be suitable for the Moon.
2 Would you be in favour of nuclear power
based on a lifter? Explain your answer.

7.1 The energy we use
Here on Earth, we rely on the Sun for most of the energy
rle use. The Sun is a fairly ayerage star, 150 million
tilometres away. The heat and light we receive from it
take about eight minutes to travel through empty space
!o get here. Plants absorb this energy in the process of
ghotosynthesis, and animals are kept warm by it.
The Earth is at a convenient distance from the Sun for
Iuing organisms. The Sun's rays are strong enough, but
Dot too strong. The Earth's average temperature is about
!5 "C, which is suitable for life. If the Earth were closer
lo the Sun, it might be intolerably hot like Venus, where
fre average surface temperature is over 400'C. Further
oui, things are colder. Saturn is roughly ten times as
fu from the Sun, so the Sun in the sky looks one-tenth
d the diameter that we see it, and its radiation has
only one-hundredth of the intensity. Saturn's surface
hperature is about -180'C.
liltxr of the energy we use comes from the Sun, but only
aemall amount is used directly from the Sun. On a cold
hsrnny morning, you might sit in the sunshine to
mm your body. Your house might be designed to collect
mmth from the Sun's rayq perhaps by having larger
nhdows on the sunny side. However, most of the energy
rcose comes only indirectly from the Sun. It must be
flnsferred in a more useful form, such as electricity.
&[rE 7.2 shows the different fuels that contribute to the
mld's energy supplies. This chart reflects patterns of
mcrgr consumption in 2018. Many people today live in
rhilrru'ialised countries and consume large amounts
rffig,iparticularly from fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas).
lhoph living in less-developed countries consume far
ftucnergy - mostly they use biomass fuels, particularly
mod- A thousand years ago, the chart would have
h*d very different. Fossil fuel consumption was much
ftrimportant then. Most people relied on burning wood
hrrypty their energy requirements. We will now look at
tr - groups of fuels in turn, in addition to other energy
ffices Energy resources are not the same as the stores
l5 transfers of energy you studied in Chapter 6.
Ihmrrr, we first need to categorise (group together)
frlqgr resources to make it easier to compare them. So,
milill look at how most of them can be used to generate
*olri:ity and whether or not they are renewable.
7 Energy nesorrroli
other
hydro (7%)
oil(34%)
natural
gas (24"/")
coal (27"/o)
Figure 7.22 World energy use, by fuel. This chart shows
people! energy consumption of different fuels across the
world in 2018. Around 85% of all energy comes from fossil fuels,
Renewables and non-renewables
Figure 7.2 shows that most of the energy supplies we
use are fossil fuels - coal, oil and gas. Oil and natural
gas are expected to run out this century but reserves of
coal should last another 200 years. They are described as
non-renewables. Once used, they are gone forever.
Other sources of energy, such as wind, solar and biofuel,
are described as renewables. This is because, when we
use them, they will soon be replaced. The wind will blow
of again, the Sun will shine again. After harvesting a biofuel
crop, we can grow another crop.
Ideally, our energy supply should be based on
renewables. Then we would not have to worry about
supplies running out. As we will see, non-renewable
resorlrces also cause significant environmental problems.
Burning fossil fuels causes global warming while nuclear
power produces dangerous radioactive waste.
non-renewables: an energy resource that is gone
forever once it has been used
renewables: an energy resource that will be
?eplenished (replaced) naturally when used
12s>
 However, as this technology becomes cheaper, it is finding
more and more uses. It is useful in remote locations.
For example, for running a refrigerator that stores
Create a presentation on an energy resource
medicines in central Africa, or for powering roadside
Research a particular energy resource and present emergency phones in desert regions such as the Australian
your work to the class. Work in groups of two outback. Solar cells have also been used extensively for
or three. powering spacecraft. Ideally, a solar cell is connected to a
rechargeable battery which stores the energy collected, so
Your two to three minute presentation should that it can be available during the hours of darkness.
answer these questions:
o What is the origin of the energy resource?
o ls the energy resource renewable or
solar panel: used to collect energy that is
non-renewable?
transferred by light from the Sun
. lf the resource is used to generate electricity,
what energy transfers happen and how it solar cell/photocell/photovoltaic cell: an
is done? electrical device that transfers the energy of
sunlight directly to electricity, by producing a
r What are the advantages and disadvantages voltage when light falls on it
of using this energy resource compared
with others?
The presentation should make use of audio-visual
technology (such as presentation software), or you
could produce a documentary.
The presentation will be graded by the rest of the
class on its scientific content and the quality of its
delivery 0n other words, how well it is presented).
You should also prepare a handout consisting of
one side of 44 that summarises the points made in
your presentation.

Figure 7.3: An array of solar cells inside the Vansad National

Energy direct from the Sun Park, lndia.

In hot, sunny countrieq solar panels are used to collect

energy transferred by light from the Sun. The Sun's rays
fall on alarge solar panel, on the roof ofa house, for
example. This absorbs the energy of the rayq and water
inside the panel heats up. This provides hot water for,
washing. It can also be pumped round the house, through
radiatorq to provide a cheap form of central heating.
We can also generate electricity directly from sunlight
(Figure 7.3). The Sun's rays shine on alarge array of
solar cells (also known as a photocells or photovoltaic
cells). The solar cells absorb the energy of the rays, and
electricity is produced.
' Wind is renewable and does not contribute to global
While solar power (from solar panels and photocells) is
renewable and does not contribute to global warming, it
is unreliable because the intensity of sunlight varies (and
drops to zero at night) and alarge area of solar panels is
required to capture the energy.
Wind power
Wind and waves are also caused by the effects of the Sun.
The Sun heats some parts of the atmosphere more than
others. Heated air expands and starts to move around -
this is a convection current (see Chapter l l). This is the
origin of winds. There are many technologies for extracting
energy from the wind. Windmills have been used for a long
time for grinding and pumping, and modein wind turbines
can generate electricity (see Figure 7.4).
warming. However, it is unreliable because the speed
of the wind can vary and on calm days no power is
produced. Wind turbines need a minimum wind speed
of about 5 m/s and are switched offwhen wind speeds
exceed 25mls to prevent them being damaged.

126>

to, L'r,: :s a dilute energy resource. It would take a 'wind
,r--: -'i several hundred wind turbines (spread over
*::- square kilometres) to produce the same energy as
^r'.
,, ",:.;.i. lossil fuel power station. Wind turbines are also
i r : , rild many people think they spoil the appearance
:.rJes \\'here theY are located.
squr-e 7.4: These giant turbines are part of a wind farm
- - :-g in China. They produce as much electricity as
-.r: ---sized coal-fired power station'
*tdave power
:!', trf the energy of winds is transferred to the sea
'rrr,f,
r"., r,, .", es are formed by friction between wind and
u;:u,e:. Like wind, wave power is renewable and does not
;lm:ibute to global warming. However, it is unreliable
lrfl:l l-\e the height of waves can vary and, when there
urt :",r waves, no power is produced. It is also difficult
r,,r :;:,ltert the up-and-down motion of waves into the
[ni:i::ng motion required for a turbine in the wave
ilrr!', converters, which float on the water. The cost is
fllg: because these machines corrode in the saltwater and
:rm :e di!ffloged in storms
Cuestions
' Erplain why wind power can be traced back
:r sunlight.
I l\hat is the difference between a solar panel and
, solar cell?
3 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
r..lar power.
7 Energy naxrurott
Hydroelectric power
One of the smallest contributions to the chart in Figure 7'2
is hydroelectric power. For centuries, people have used the
kinetic energy of moving water to turn water wheels, which
then drive machinery. For example, they are used to grind
corn and other crops, pump water and weave textiles. Today
we have hydroelectric power stations (see Figure 7.5)'
Water stored behind a dam is released to turn turbines,
which make generators spin. This is a very safe, clean and
reliable way of producing electricity, but it is not without its
problems. A new reservoir floods land that might otherwise
have been used for hunting or farming. People may be
made homeless, and wildlife habitats destroyed.
Hydroelectric power stations have a very short start up
time (the time between switching on a power station and
energy being delivered). This makes them very useful for
storing energy until there is a sudden surge (increase) in
demand. The demand for electricity varies during the
day: it is highest during the daytime (when most people
are awake) and lowest during the night. Power stations
that use fossil fuels and nuclear fuels take a long time
to start up and stop so, once started, they are allowed
to continue running. It would take too long to stop
a them when demand is low and then start them again
for the next rise in demand. This means that sometimes
(usually at night) too much electricity is supplied and
battery technology is not currently good enough to store
large amounts of energy. In some hydroelectric power
stations (called pumped storage systems), the turbines
can be reversed so that water can be pumped back up a
mountain to the reservoir so that energy can be stored as
gravitational potential energy. This water can be allowed
to fall back down the mountain to produce electricity
when demand rises.
Figure 7.5: The giant ltaip0 dam on the Paran5 River in
South America generates electricity for Brazil and Paraguay'
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 CAMBRIDGE lcCSEr"M PHyS|CS: COURSEBOOK

Biomass fuels
For many people in the world, wood is the most important
fuel. It wanns their homes and provides the heat necessary
for cooking their food. Wood is made by trees and shrubs.
It stores energy that the plant has captured from sunlight
in the process of photosynthesis. When we burn wood, we
are releasing energy that came from the Sun in the recent
past, perhaps ten or a hundred years ago.
Wood is just one example of a biofuel. Others include
animal dung (Figure 7.6) and.biogas, generated by rotting
vegetable matter.
oxygen from the air. In this process, the carbon becomes
carbon dioxide. The hydrogen becomes dihydrogen
monoxide, which we usually call water. Energy is released.
We can write this as an equation:
hydrocarbon * oxygen -- carbon dioxide * water
+ energy
Hence, we can think of a fossil fuel as a store of chemical
energy. Where has this energy come from?
Fossil fuels (Figure 7.7) are the remains of organisms
(plants and animals) that lived in the past. Many of the
Earth's coal reserves, for example, formed from trees
that lived in the Carboniferous era, between 286 and
360 million years ago. (Carboniferous means coal-
producing.) These trees captured energy from the Sun
by photosynthesis. They grew and eventually they died.
Their trunks fell into swampy ground, but they did not
rot completely, because there was insufficient oxygen.

biofuel: material, recently living, used as a fuel

fossilfuels: material, formed from long-dead
material, used as a fuel

Figure 7.6: A Maasai blowing into elephant dung to make

fire in a village in West Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.

Biomass fuels account for roughly l\oh of global energy

consumption but, because no-one keeps track of all
the wood consumed as fuel, it is a rough estimate. This
means that it is rarely included in global figures and does
not appear in Figure 7.2. About two-thirds of biomass
fuel is used in developing countries for cooking and
heating. The 25% of people in the developed (industrial)
nations consume about six times as much energy as the
other 75oh of people living in the developing world.
Biomass has the advantage that it is renewable and does
not contribute to global warming. It is reliable because it
can be burned when needed. However, burning biofuels,
particularly indoors, can lead to respiratory and other
health problems. Figure 7.7t Coal is a fossil fuel. A fossil is any living material
that has been preserved for a long time. Usually, its chemical
composition changes during the process. Coal sometimes
Fossil fuels shows evidence of the plant material from which it formed.
Oil, coal and gas are all examples of fossil fuels. These Sometimes you can see fossilised creatures that lived in
are usually hydrocarbons (compounds of hydrogen and the swamps of the Carboniferous era. These creatures died
carbon). When they are burned, they combine with along with the trees that eventually became coal.
 7 Energy resourcen

cnrN built up on top of these ancient trees, the

miii&ierial
millions of years
illmilsijrilt on them increased. Eventually,
ffil' onunpression turned them into underground reserves
rti' o:rri Figure 7 .7). Today, when we burn coal, the light
,i

&ui me:ee and the warmth that we feel have their origins
m tthr merg-v from the Sun trapped by trees hundreds of
mmii,'r,n;. of years ago.
'ltrXlifl rlm,tl gas are usually found together. They are formed
6 i from the remains of tiny
r;l..nilar way to coal, but
,dtmmmp-lilie creatures called microplankton that lived .

M ilhg rTeans. The oilfields of the Arabian Gulf, North

4udiincu ard the Gulf of Mexico, which contain half
ill tlre n-orld's known oil reserves, all formed in the Figure 7.8: Belleville nuclear power station in France.
.tmnumous era,75 to 120 million years ago.

tu:mung tossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the

ummrcsphere. This enhances (increases) the greenhouse
fu and is the cause of recent global warming. Coal
mmruuui-s more carbon dioxide than oil and natural
Eui Eurning coal and oil usually also produces sulfur
thirn;uie u'hich leads to acid rain and damage to
u[roirls;.ems and buildings.
Questions
,* llhat form of energy is stored in fossil fuels
-trd biofuels?
s \i,bat is the difference between biofuels and fossil fuels?
& Describe how fossil fuels are formed.
,il*uclear fuels
thurcicar power was developed in the second half of the
J[th century. It is a very demanding technology, which
nuq'ruirres very strict controls, because of the serious
tln'rrrrr,l&ge that can be caused by an accident.
lfilbe fuel for a nuclear power station (Figure 7.8) is
uuriu"il"r uranium, sometimes plutonium. These are
rnhnir,active materials. Inside a nuclear reactor, the
,rilrhi{"ractive decay of these materials is speeded up so that
'M eaergy they store is released much more quickly. This
il[ [hrB process of nuclear fission.
ru. r:arium is a nuclear fuel. It is a very concentrated store
rri merg.v in the form of nuclear energy. A typical nuclear
Irrrrmsr station will receive about one truckload of new
'iLulcl. ach week. Coal is a less concentrated energy store.
nuclear fission: the process by which energy is
released from nuclear fuels by the splitting of a
large heavy nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei
In some countries that have few other resources for
generating electricity, nuclear power provides a lot of
energy. In France, for example, nuclear power stations
generate three-quarters of the country's electricity.
Excess production is exported to neighbouring countries,
including Spain, Switzerland and the UK.
Nuclear fuel is a relatively cheap, concentrated energy
resource. However, nuclear power has proved to be
expensive because of the initial cost of building the
power stations, and the costs of disposing of the
radioactive spent fuel and decommissioning the stations
at the end of their working lives. Also, accidents like
those at Chernobyl in 1986 and Fukushima in 20ll can
cause radioactive material to be spread over a wide area.
Geothermal energy
The interior of the Earth is hot. This would be a useful
source of energy, if we could get at it. People do make use
of this geotherrnal energy where hot rocks are found at a
shallow depth below the Earth's surface. These rocks are hot
because of the presence of radioactive substances inside the
Earth. To make use of this energy, water is pumped down
into the rocks, where it boils. High-pressure steam returns to
the surface, where it can be used to generate electricity.

l, m:rilar coal-flred power station is likely to need a

rrttu;le trainload of coal every hour. A wind farm capable geothermal energy: energy stored in hot rocks
rtl ernerating electricity at the same rate would cover a underground
rurge area of ground - perhaps 20 square kilometres.

12e>
 ) CAMBRIDGE lcCSErM pHyStCS: COURSEBOOK

Suitable hot underground rocks are usually found

in places
where there are active volcanoes. Iceland, fo..^u-pli,
hu, Using energy resources to
several geothermal power stations. These also
supply hot
water to heat nearby homes and buildings. While
energy
generate electricity
from geothermal resources has no obvio-us disadvantales,
Many of the energy resources in this chapter produce
there are few places on Earth where it is available.
electricity so that it can be transferred to where it is
needed. The thermal energy produced when fossil fuels
Tidal energy are burned (Figure 7.9) or when nuclear fission takes
place is used to heat water in a boiler to form steam.
A tidal power station is similar to a hydroelectric power
The steam turns the blades of a turbine, transferring
station: electrical power is generated by moving water.
A barrage (dam) is built across a riverLstuary (where a thermal energy into kinetic energy. The turbine is linked
river meets the sea) creating a reservoir. As the tide goes by an axle to a generafor where a voltage is induced in
in and out, water passes thiough turbines in the dam.
conducting wires when they move in a magnetic field.
You will learn more about generators in Chapter 21.
Tidal power has the advantage of being renewable. AIso,
tides are predictable making it a fairly ieliable energy The details of how thermal energy is produced in power
resource. Horvever, by flooding estuarieq a tidal poiu". stations that use fuel will vary but they will all have a
sft]91can destroy wetlands, in important habitat for boiler, turbine and generator. Those energy resources that
wildlife, particularly migrating birds that use it to feed do not use a fuel will not need a boiler, buithey will still
and rest before the next leg ofltheirjourney. The use a turbine linked to a generator to produce electricity.
barrage
can also block shipping routes Moving air (wind) and moving water (hydroelectricity,
wave and tidal) can turn a turbine directly.

Questions
List the advantages and disadvantages of
nuclear power. boiler: device where thermal energy is transferred
8 What energy is available from moving water? to water to turn it into steam
9 In what way is a hydroelectric power station like turbine: a device that is made to turn by moving air,
a cell (or battery) and how can it be adapted steam or water; often used to generate eleAricity
to
act like a rechargeable cell? generator: a device which generates electricity
using electromagnetic induction

coal supply
generator transmission lines

coal supply

boiler
transformer
water supply condenser

Figure 7'9: A schematic of coal-fired power station.

The details of how thermal energy is produced in power
fuel will vary buttheywirr ail have a boirer, turbine r''JrvuuL stations that use
and generator.
 7 Energy resources

Comparing energy resources Environmental impact

He us fossil fuels a lot because they represent The use of fossil fuels leads to climate change.
lummlxutrated sources of energy. A modern gas-fired A hydroelectric dam may flood useful farmland.
station might Every energy source has some effect on the environment.
lmnwsr occupy the space of a football
guru,und and supply a town of 100 000 people. To replace
rm mrth a wind farm might require 50 or more wind Ouestions
spread over an area of several square kilometres.
ttlturu'bnnes
10 Which of the following energy resources is renewable?
Tfuc qind is a much more dilute source of energy.
A oil C biofuels
Tlhm illustrates some of the ideas that we use when comparing
uififfimtnt energy resources. Each has
its advantages and
B nuclear D coal
dlm*hsamgss. We need to think about the following factors. 11 Which of the following energy resources is not
renewable?
ffi,enewability A hydroelectric power C tidal
,fu q,e have seen,
there are limited reserves of fossil fuels.
Tlha same applies to uranium nuclear fuel. However,
B wind D nuclear
ilfum are plentiful reserves of alternative nuclear fuels
1$&o lhorium. All other energy resources are renewable,
all those that can be traced back to iadiation
lihmllrulin_q
Sanghera lsland
the Sun. The most important advantage of
lffimam

mmmable resources is that, once installed, they do not N

oomrribute to global warming. l_
Cost l/
ffirt *ould separate initial costs from running costs. A
sruilur ell is expensive to buy but there are no costs for
ffifuEn$ - sunlight is free! While nuclear fuel is cheap, the

ou,rms of decommissioning nuclear power plants are high.

&railability
mm"orme uses nuclear power to produce about 75% of its
uhmri,city because it has few alternative energy resources.
Key
hliinrrrar has plenty of rainfall and mountains so generates
frnm 95% of its electricity from hydroelectric power. f forest
0i;rp*irnnd uses geothermal energy, which is quite localised. .; stream
Q hot springs
ffi,eiiability o spot heights
& lim energy supply constantly available? The wind is " tracks
wind power is unreliable. Wars and trade
mnur,rble. so
,dmpures can interrupt fuel supplies.
Figure 7.10: Map of Sanghera lsland.

Scale
tr fu,$sil fuel power station can be compact and still supply
n, hrgr population. It would take several square metres
,uf sirclar cells to supply a small household. Alternatively,
1po6rle sometimes talk about how concentrated or dilute
i@.@ergy resource is. When talking about fuels, they are
dumusparing how much energy is stored in a certain mass of
M fuel. Particularly when comparing wind turbines with
,oilfoer energy resources, people will talk about the land
mra required to generate the same amount of energy.
Part'l
Sanghera lsland (Figure 7.10) is a remote fictitious
island. lt has no fossil fuels. lt is hot with jungle
vegetation, though it can sometimes be cold
at night. High rainfall and mountainous terrain
leads to fast-flowing streams. You are one of 25
members of a scientific expedition planning to
study the island for three years. At the same time

131 )
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM PHyS|CS: COURSEBOOK
as minimising your impact (ecological footprint)
on the island, you are the expert given the job of
providing all the energy the team will need.
Answer the-.following questions to develop a plan
that you will present to the team.
1 Describe two ways of providing hot water and
heat for the buildings (living accommodation
and laboratory).
2 Describe two possible ways of supplying heat
for cooking food.
3 fow would you supply the electricity needed
for lighting, PCs and machinery?
4 There will be a refrigerator for life-saving
medicines, as well as chemicals, that ne-ed to be
stored at a constant temperature. How would
you ensure a constant supply of electricity?
5 Which natural resource on the island should
be conserved?
6 On a copy of the map, mark where you plan
to locate buildings and the energy Earvesters
(devices that coliect energy fr."the
environment), showing how you would get the
energy from the harvesters to the buildiigs, if
necessary. Explain your reasons for choosing
these particular sites.
7 Would your answers be different if the team
had a limited budget? Explain your answer.
8 Describe what other information you
might need before you can maksa
recommendation to the team.
Paft2
ln a group of four, design your own island and
a brief or set of questions for another qroup to
decide howthey will provide the required energy.
Be prepared to answer questions and have your
own solution in mind.
ls there an effective method for rnemorising the
different gnergy resources? For example, ciuld
you put them into categories? How will you learn
their advantages and disadvantages?
Planning meeting
Work in group of three. Each group will be randomly
?
allocated a 'power station'that uses a different energy
resource (such as a wind farm). You will be given the
role of either advocating (supporting) or opposing
planning permission for youi allocated pow'er station
to be built close to your community.
You will need to identify the general advantages
or disadvantages of your power station before
identifoing the specific advantages or disadvantages
of locating it close to your community.
Each group will present their case as a spoken
presentation, with a whiteboard and pens the
only resources permitted
. Y9, will be given a short time to agree, as a
class, the criteria for judging each case. For
example, you might decide to dismiss a case
if the science is incorrect.
. You will then be allocated your power station.
Unless it is given as a homework task (when
you could spend time doing more detailed
research), spend about five minutes in your
groups preparing your case.
r
Those advocating and opposing each power
station will be called to the front of the'class
and each given a maximum of one minute to
put their case to the rest of the class. The class
will have a maximum of 30 seconds to question
each case. While listening to each case, note
down the advantages and disadvantages of
each power station in a table so that you have
a summary. Ouestions from the class and
answers from your teacher should identify
any errors.
r While you are in the audience, you will score
each presentation out of 10 according to the
criteria agreed. Subtract your vote for the
opposition from your vote for the advocates to
get an overall score. Two examples are given in
Table-7.1 . A negative score suggests opposition
but, if all proposals are negative, you might be
torced to choose the least-worst option.
Table 7.1: Example score sheet.

Dd you find Activity 7.3 helpful in summarising
the advantages and disadvantages of the
dlfferent energy resources? ls there a better
rlmethod for learning this material?
7.2 Energy from the Sun
ilusc of the energy we use can be lraced back to
r&arion from the Sun. To summarise:
t Fossil fuels are stores of energy that came from the
Sun millions of years ago.
.' Radiation (light and heat) from the Sun can be
absorbed by solar panels to provide hot water.
Sunlight can also be absorbed by arrays of solar
.rlls (photocells) to generate electricity. In some
crruntries, you may see these on the roofs of houses.
r'
The wind is caused when air is heated by the Sun.
\[arm air rises; cool air flows in to replace it. This
moving air can be used to generate electricity using
nind turbines.
. l lost hydroelectric power comes ultimately from
:he Sun. The Sun's rays cause water to evaporate
:rom the oceans and land surface. This water
-.Epour in the atmosphere eventually forms clouds
at high altitudes. Rain falls on high ground, and
caD then be trapped behind a dam. This is part of
:he water cycle. Without energy from the Sun, there
nould be no water cycle and no hydroelectric power.
ffiurNer.er. we make use of a small amount of energy
fi$ cr-'res not come from the Sun as radiation. Here are
tihm eramples:
I The Moon and the Sun both contribute to the
.*r-rans'tides. Their gravitational pull causes the
*:rel of the ocean's surface to rise and fall everv
t*elve-and-a-bit hours. At high tide, water can be
trapped behind a dam. Laler, at lower tides, it can be
:eleased to drive turbines and generators. Because
th.is depends on gravity, and not the Sun's heat and
tght. we can rely on tidal power even at night and
*hen the Sun is hidden by the clouds.
\uclear power makes use of nuclear fuels - mostly
uranium - mined from underground. Uranium is a
shg*ltly radioactive element, which has been in the
ground ever since the Earth formed, together with
lh.e rest of the Solar System, 4.5 billion years ago.
7 Energy resources
water cycle: water evaporates from the surface
of the Earth, rises into the atmosphere, cools,
condenses, and falls as rain
nuclear fusion: the process by which energy is
released when two small light nucleijoin together
to form a new heavier nucleus
Geothermal energy also depends on the presence of
radioactive substances inside the Earth. These have
been there since the Earth formed; they have been
continuously releasing their store of energy ever
since.
The source of the Sun's energy
The Sun releases vast amounts of energy, but it is not
burning fuel in the same way as we have seen for fossil
fuels. It is not a chemical reaction. The Sun consists
largely of hydrogen, but there is no oxygen to burn this
gas. Instead, energy is released in the Sun by the process
of nuclear fusion. In nuclear fusion, four energetic
hydrogen atoms collide and fuse fioin together) to form
an atom of helium.
Nuclear fusion requires very high temperatures and
pressures. The temperature inside the Sun is close to l5
million degrees. The pressure is also very high, so that
hydrogen atoms are forced very close together, allowing
them to fuse. At this temperature all the atoms are
ionised. All the electrons have been removed from all the
atoms, creating plasma of positive nuclei and negative
electrons. Atomic nuclei all have a positive charge and
like charges repel so a temperature of about 100 million
degrees (and high pressure) is required to overcome this
electrostatic repulsion and get the nuclei close enough
to fuse. The mass of the final nucleus is slightly less than
the combined mass of the initial nuclei and the difference
in mass is turned into energy according to Einstein's
famous equation: E = mc2.The energy, E, released is big
because the mass, rz, is multiplied by the speed of light, a
squared (which is a big number).
Nuclear fusion reastors -
artificial Suns on Earth?
Scientists have been trying to recreate the same process
artificially here on Earth since the 1950s as it offers
a clean source of almost unlimited energy. It will not
produce greenhouse gases or nuclear waste.
133)
 CAMBRIDGE lcCSErM PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
It is essential to hold the hot plasma in place for long
enough lor lusion to take place. In the Sun, the star's
enormoLts gravitational field prevents the plasma
esciiping. ln the 1950s, Soviet physrcists came up with the
idea of a tokamak (Irigure 7.1 1) to contain the plasma.
Figure 7.11: China s new tokamak under construction
in Chengdu.
This i: a contitiner .haped like a torus (or doughnut)
n itf i a conrplicated arrangement of magnets to stop the
plasma touchin_s tlre walls. If the pltrsma were to rouch
the container u'alls, it would cool (and fusion wor.tld
stop)and the container walls woLrld be damaged. This is
u1'rr lirsion is a very challenging engineering problem.
FLrsion reactors on Earth will tuse deuteriutn and
tritium (two isotopes of hydrogen) to produce helir-rm
and a neutron. Only charged particles (that are movir-rg)
can e.xperience a magnetic lorce and be confined by a
magnetic fieid. Neutrons are neutral (have zero charge)
so cannot be confined by the magnetic Iield and so they
hit the walls of the tokamak. These collisions procluce
thermal etlergy. Heat exchangers in the walls conduct the
lhennal energy to heat up water to make steam to turn a
t irrbi nc arrd ploducc clcctliciry.
134 )
So tar. no lusion reactor has produced more energy than
needs to be pr-rt in to keep tl-re plasma hot. In 1997 Joint
European Torus claimc'c'l the r.vorld record lor getting
out 6- ol- thL' ilrput energ."-. It is hoped that reactors
u ill cet r)Lrl lL-rt tintes more energy than is put in. The
intenratrt'rnal Thernronuclear Experimental Reactor
(ITER ) protcct lFigure 7 .12) is being built at Cadarache
in Fr'.rnce. This is an international collaboration that
inr,.lve s scientists lrom countries that represent half the
u r.rrld's PoPulation.
Figure 7.12: Employees in late 2018 building the tokamak
inside the ITER (lnternational Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactod construction site in France.
Q,uestions
12 What is plasma?
13 Compare how plasma is confined in a star with how
we will achieve the same effect here on E,arth.
14 I)iscuss the advantages and disadvantages of
nuclear fusion"
15 What is the differerrce betu,een nuclear fusion and
nuclear lission?

*re future of energy
resources
-:e'e is a huge variety of potential projects in this
-cortant area of physics. We need energy but
:::: ng it by burning fossil fuels contributes to global
r,:'.ring. Whatever topic you choose, you need
:: 3ose a question like the one describing thorium
-:: iors at the start of the chapter. Your answer
:,-:-id be clear; concise and coherent. Write it in
. r -- oWr-r words and limit yourself to 1000 words.
- se rformative diagrams where you can. Whatever
-:dium you choose to convey your answer; try to
":=c'r an audience beyond your own classroom.
3' ;.,ou could promote (for example, to your friends
:-: family on social media) good work that you have
: s,:overed during your research. You could:
. lnvestigate ways to reduce demand for energy.
ln cold countries this might include efforts
to improve building insulation while, in hot
countries, it might be worth thinking about the
development of wind towers to reduce demand
Energy resources
for air conditioning. Or you could focus on the
development of more efficient transport (such
as electric vehicles).
lnvestigate ways to increase the supply of
energy. This could focus on one of the energy
resources you have already met in this chapter,
or you might investigate one that is under
development (for example, one based on algae)
lnvestigate the challenges facing development
of the lifters you met at the start of the chapter.
You should look at the process and make a
comparison with nuclear power based on the
uranium cycle.
lnvestigate fracking. You should explain the
process itself and offer a balanced assessment
of the advantages and disadvantages.
lnvestigate developments in energy storage,
including improved battery technology, which
might include the environmental impact of
lithium mining.
 Solar panels are used to collect energy from the Sun.

Solar cells (also known as photocells) generate electricity using energy from the Sun.

Oil, coal and natural gas are all examples of fossil fuels.
coal forms from trees, and oil and natural gas form from microplankton.
Non-renewable energy resources will run out. This includes fossil fuels and nuclear fuel but not biofuel.

Renewable energy resources are replenished (replaced) after they have been used.

Biofuels are renewable, reliable, cheap to set up and use, but are diffuse.

Geothermal energy is harvested (collected) where hot rock is close to the Earth's surface.
Wind power, wave power and solar power are renewable but unreliable and dilute energy resources. Running
costs are low but they are expensive to set up.
Hydroelectric power, tidal power and geothermal power are renewable, reliable and concentrated energy
resources but suitable locations are limited, and they are expensive to set up.
Nuclear power stations use nuclear fuel, which produces thermal energy by nuclear flssion when heavy nuclei
break apart.
The Sun is the origin of all our energy resources except geothermal, nuclear and tidal.

The source of the Sun's energy is nuclear fusion, when hydrogen fuses (joins) together to form helium.

We are trying to develop nuclear fusion reactors.

,,,

136 )
 7 Energy resources

r Here is a list of energy resources available to the wodd. Sorne

of these are
renewable and some are non-renewable. ,

!'/aVe pOWer
-ydroelectricity
geothermal
coa I

ruclear energy
oil
solar energy
natural gas
tidal energy
wind energy

Copy the table. In the first blank column. put a tick by any three resources
that are non-renewable.
ln the second blank column, put a tick by any three resources that are
renewable. 14]
This question is aborit hydroelectric powef,stations. watel is:stored
behind
a dam. water released from the dam ffows downhill and
spins arturbine. .
The spinning tur,bine causes a generator to turn, which produces
electricitlz,
a write down the two energy transf€rs that oscur in a hydroeloctric power
station- , .
I1l
b l-:i t;te{r} how electricity from a hydroeleetric power station
relies on *xplxir:; set out
purPoses or
c The dernand'fur elec6icity is not constant- Explain how a
hydroelectric reasons; make
the relationships
between things
Frotal:5I evident; provide
A coal-fired pow€r station and,a wind turbine both produce electrical: ,
why and/or how and
power. The power station'produces 2500 MW and the,wind support with relevant
turbine
produces 2.0MW. evidence
a :\[]l(. one advantage of using wind turbines instead of a
coal_fired stat*: express in
power station to produce electricity.
ITl clear terms
b coal-fued power stations still account for one third of the world,s
energy
consumption. Explain why'wind turbines have not repraced them.
121

flotal: 3l
8 An energy company is proposing a new power station but has to decide
power statiot and a geothermal power station.
Stwegn a solar
Explain how the location'and the climate might affect the decision.
t4I

.37>
 Appreciate that electricity is a convenient way of moving
energy to where it is used.
Recall all the energy resources; fossil fuels, biofuels,
nuclear, geothermal, solar, hydroelectric, tidal, wind
and wave.
Describe how each energy resource can produce
electricity or other useful forms of energy.
Give advantages and disadvantages of each energy
resource in terms of renewability, cost, reliability,
availability, scale and environmental impact.
Understand that the Sun is the origin of all our energy
resources except geothermal, nuclear and tidal.

Understand that nuclear fusion is the source of the

Sun's energy.

Understand that there has been a lot of research into

developing a nuclear fusion reactor.

138 )