Psychology

Syllabus

Syllabus outline
Syllabus component Teaching hours

SL HL

Core 90 120
Biological approach to understanding behaviour
Cognitive approach to understanding behaviour
Sociocultural approach to understanding behaviour

Approaches to researching behaviour 20 60

Options 20 40
Abnormal psychology
Developmental psychology
Health psychology
Psychology of human relationships

Internal assessment 20 20
Experimental study

Total teaching hours 150 240

The recommended teaching time is 240 hours to complete HL courses and 150 hours to complete SL
courses as stated in the document General regulations: Diploma Programme (article 8.2)

Syllabus content
The syllabus as provided in this subject guide is not intended to be in teaching order. Instead it provides
detail of what must be covered by the end of the course. A school should develop a scheme of work that
best works for its students. For example, the scheme of work could be developed to match available
resources, to take into account student prior learning and experience, or in conjunction with other local
requirements. However the course is planned, adequate time must be provided for examination revision.
Time must also be given for students to reflect on their learning experience and their growth as learners.

Key terms found in the syllabus are included in the “Appendices” of this guide.

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Syllabus content: Core
The approaches to understanding behaviour are laid out in topics (shown in bold). Each topic has a
content heading (shown in bold) and specific concepts/terms (shown in italics) to study (please see tables
1, 2, and 3 for examples). Italicized material under the content headings indicates the minimum content
expected to meet the syllabus requirements, and teachers are free to supplement additional material
explicitly connected to that content heading (table 2). Content shown under the content headings that
is not in italics is suggested content and will not be used in the formulation of assessment questions;
however, students may include this content in their responses. When students are instructed to study
one or more items from an optional list, assessment questions will be general in nature (such as, not
formulated using the named options). For example, within the topic cultural origins of behaviour
and cognition, the content lists a selection of cultural dimensions, but assessment questions will use
command terms up to assessment objective 3 (AO3), be of a general nature, and not be specific to the
terms in the bulleted list (table 3).

Table 1: Illustration of the assessment level for topic and content headings (shown in bold) that will be
assessed using a command term up to AO3 level. Specific content for study (shown in italics) under the
content heading will be assessed using a command term up to AO2 level.

Topic Content

Topic heading (up to AO3) Bold (up to AO3)

Italics (up to AO2)

Table 1

Table 2: Illustration of specific topic and content headings (shown in bold) that will be assessed up to
AO3. The example also shows specific italicized content (rational thinking [controlled] and intuitive thinking
[automatic]) that will be assessed up to AO2. Suggested content (not italicized), will not be used in the
formation of assessment questions, but students may use it in their responses.

Topic Content

Cognitive processing (up to AO3) Thinking and decision-making: Study one

Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content (shown in italics)
under the content headings.
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
model in thinking and decision-making (up to
AO3).
Thinking involves using information and doing
something with it, for example, making a decision.
Modern research into thinking and decision-
making often refers to rational and intuitive
thinking. Examples of thinking and decision-
making could be, but are not limited to, framing,
heuristics, loss aversion, and appraisal. Models in
thinking and decision-making include, but are not
limited to:
• theory of reasoned action and theory of
planned behaviour
• adaptive decision-maker framework

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 Topic Content

• system models of thinking.

Study all of the following (up to AO2).

• Rational thinking (controlled)—goal-orientated
and requires intentional effort and time,
analyses/controls for biases
• Intuitive thinking (automatic)—automatic,
quick thinking; requires limited effort and is
influenced by biases

Table 2

Table 3: Illustration of specific topic and content headings (shown in bold) that will be assessed up to
AO3. In this example students are required to study one cultural dimension from the list, and assessment
questions will be general in nature (such as, not formulated using the examples from the list).

Topic Content

Cultural origins of behaviour and cognition (up Cultural dimensions: Study one cultural
to AO3) dimension (up to AO3).
Any AO3 question can be formulated using Cultural dimensions refer to the values of
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold). members of a society living within a culture.
Specific content under the content headings Study one of the following.
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3 • Individualism/collectivism
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using • Uncertainty avoidance
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content (shown in italics) • Power/distance
under the content headings. • Masculinity/femininity
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings • Long term/short term
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
• Time orientation
• Indulgence/restraint

Table 3

The approaches to understanding behaviour are compulsory for SL and HL students (except for the HL
extension, which is for HL students only). The core is assessed in paper 1 of the external assessment, but it
also forms the foundation for teaching and learning in the options.

The approaches to researching behaviour are for both SL and HL students, with a focus on research
methods used to study behaviour. They are organized to reflect the considerations made when reading
or preparing a piece of research. Only HL students are formally assessed on the approaches to researching
behaviour in paper 3.

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Short-answer questions in paper 1 section A only use the command terms: “describe”, “outline” (AO1)
and “explain” (AO2) and are formulated using topic headings, content headings (shown in bold) and/
or specific content under the content headings (shown in italics). Extended response questions in paper 1
section B are assessed using command terms at AO3 level and are formulated using topic and/or content
headings (shown in bold). Specific content under the content headings (shown in italics) is not used to
formulate AO3 questions. Questions on ethical considerations and research methods are formulated using
the topic headings and questions can be set using command terms at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level. Any
material connected by the word “and” may be connected on examination questions by “and/or".

Biological approach to understanding behaviour

The biological approach to understanding behaviour is largely an investigation into correlations. Do areas
of the brain correlate with behaviour? When changes take place in the brain do changes take place in
behaviour or is the reverse the case? Could an individual’s behaviour be predicted from their genes? Is
human behaviour subject to natural selection?

The relationship between biology and behaviour is a complex one of mutual causality. The technology
available to investigate this relationship is becoming ever more sophisticated, while the ethics of this line
of inquiry are increasingly an area for public debate.

The biological approach to behaviour looks at:

• the relationship between the brain and behaviour (SL and HL)
• hormones and pheromones and their effects on behaviour (SL and HL)
• the relationship between genetics and behaviour (SL and HL)
• the role of animal research in understanding human behavior (HL only).

Relevant to all the topics are:

• the contribution of research methods used in the biological approach to understanding human
behaviour
• ethical considerations in the investigation of the biological approach to understanding human
behaviour.

Topic Content

The relationship between the brain and
behaviour
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Techniques used to study the brain in relation
to behaviour: Study one technique used to
understand the brain and behaviour.
The choice of techniques used to correlate
the brain with behaviour is based on a variety
of factors including opportunity, available
technology and cost. There are strengths and
limitations to the different techniques used
to study the effects of the brain on behaviour;
however, the contribution of different techniques
has helped to understand behaviour. Examples of
techniques include fMRI, MRI, EEG, CAT, and PET.
Localization of function: Study one example of
localization of function.

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Topic
Topic
Hormones and pheromones and their effects
on behaviour
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Topic
The relationship between genetics and
behaviour
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Content
Localization of function is the theory that certain
parts of the brain correspond to certain functions
and reflects the idea that behaviour, emotion, and/
or thoughts originate in specific regions of the
brain.
Neuroplasticity: Study one example of
neuroplasticity.
The development of neural networks through
repetition and neural pruning is both genetic
and subject to environmental influences. Neural
networks can change developmentally, over time
or after injury.
Study all of the following.
• Neural network
• Neural pruning
Neurotransmitters and their effects on
behaviour: Study one neurotransmitter and its
effect on behaviour.
Neurotransmitters mediate the events at the
synapse and are affected by agonists that amplify
their effects and antagonists that reduce their
effects. Neurons working together can produce
a large variety of effects, resulting in a complex
repertoire of behaviours. As a result, any claim of
cause and effect should be treated with caution.
Study all of the following.
• Neuron
• Synapse (how these relate to excitatory and
inhibitory neurotransmitters)
• Agonist
• Antagonist
Content
Hormones and their effects on behaviour:
Study one hormone and its effect on behaviour.
Hormones are chemicals released by specific
glands in the body to regulate medium- and long-
term changes in the body. Some hormones, like
adrenaline, also act as a neurotransmitter and
can produce instantaneous effects on mood and
attention.
Pheromones and their effects on behaviour:
Study one pheromone and its effect on
behaviour.
Arguments for and against the influence of
pheromones on human behaviour.
Content
Genes and their effects on behaviour: Study
one gene and its link to behaviour.
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 Topic
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Topic
HL extension: The role of animal research in
understanding human behaviour
Questions are formulated (at AO3 level) from the
topic and/or content headings.
Cognitive approach to understanding behaviour
The cognitive approach to understanding behaviour looks at:
• cognitive processing (SL and HL)
• reliability of cognitive processes (SL and HL)
• emotion and cognition (SL and HL)
• cognitive processing in a technological (digital/modern) world (HL only).
Relevant to all the topics are:
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Content
Genes are made of DNA providing the blueprint
for the structure and function of the human body,
including behaviour.
Genetic similarity: Study genetic similarity
(twins, siblings, parents, adopted children) for
one behaviour.
Genetic similarity is referred to as relatedness.
The greater the genetic similarities between two
individuals or a group of individuals the higher the
degree of relatedness.
Study the following.
• Twin and kinship studies
Evolutionary explanation for behaviour: Study
one example of an evolutionary explanation for
behaviour.
Examples include survival of the fittest and natural
selection.
Genes are constantly being switched on and off by
signals from inside and outside the body. Internal
signals include the presence of hormones or other
chemicals, or indeed other genes. Hormones are
frequently produced as a result of environmental
events and work by altering gene expression.
There are countless environmental events that
also affect gene expression. The signal activates
special proteins that can promote or block the
expression of a gene.
Sometimes genes are permanently switched off
through methylation of the DNA molecule as part
of the developmental process. This effect on genes
is sometimes referred to as epigenetics as there
is no alteration in the actual structure of the DNA.
Mutations occur when there is an actual alteration
of the DNA.
Content
For all three topics in the biological approach, and
with reference to research studies, HL students
should study the following.
• The value of animal models in research to
provide insight into human behaviour
• Ethical considerations in animal research
• the contribution of research methods used in the cognitive approach to understanding human
behaviour
• ethical considerations in the investigation of the cognitive approach to understanding human
behaviour.

The cognitive approach to behaviour views human beings as processors of information much in the
same way as a computer processes information. The cognitive approach to behaviour focuses on areas of
research such as schema processing, memory processing, and thinking, and how cognition may influence
behaviour. Researchers are also interested in the extent to which cognitive processes are reliable, for
example, in relation to thinking and memory. How cognitive processes may be affected in the modern
digitalized world is an emerging field within the cognitive approach to behaviour.

Cognitive processes are often influenced in complex ways by emotions. The influence of emotions on
cognitive processes is studied not only by cognitive psychologists, but is developing as an area of interest
for cognitive neuroscientists as well as social psychologists.

Research methods in the cognitive approach to understanding of behaviour rely on experiments and
brain imaging technologies as well as qualitative approaches to understanding everyday memory and
thinking, making the cognitive approach an example of the holistic approach to understanding human
behaviour.

Topic Content

Cognitive processing Models of memory: Study two memory models.

Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Memory models provide a framework for an
understanding of conceptualization of human
memory processes over time. Examples relevant
to the study of memory models include explicit/
implicit memory, sensory memory, short-
term memory, long-term memory, central
executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, and
visuospatial sketchpad.
Study all of the following.
• Multi-store memory model
• Working memory model

Schema theory: Study one example of schema

theory.
Cognitive schemas are seen as mental
representations that organize our knowledge,
beliefs, and expectations. Examples relevant to
studying schema processing include but are not
limited to: top-down/bottom-up processing;
pattern recognition—the matching of a current
input to information in memory; effort after
meaning—the attempt to match unfamiliar ideas
into a familiar framework; stereotyping—a fixed
mental representation of a group of individuals.
Study the following.
• Cognitive schema

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Topic
Topic
Reliability of cognitive processes
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
27
Content
Thinking and decision-making: Study one
model in thinking and decision-making.
Thinking involves using information and doing
something with it, for example, making a decision.
Modern research into thinking and decision-
making often refers to rational and intuitive
thinking. Examples of thinking and decision-
making could be but are not limited to framing,
heuristics, loss aversion, and appraisal. Models in
thinking and decision-making include, but are not
limited to:
• theory of reasoned action and theory of
planned behaviour
• adaptive decision-maker framework
• system models of thinking.
Study all of the following.
• Rational thinking (controlled)—goal-orientated
and requires intentional effort and time,
analyses/controls for biases
• Intuitive thinking (automatic)—automatic,
quick thinking; requires limited effort and is
influenced by biases
Content
Reconstructive memory: Study one example of
reconstructive memory.
Human memory is not an exact copy of events, but
rather a reconstruction that may be altered over
time, through discussions with others or input
from the media. Research shows that memory
may be changed during storage, processing and
retrieval, due to schema processing. Relevant
examples related to studying the nature of
reconstructive memory could be but are not
limited to:
• confabulation—a memory based on a
fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted
memory often believed to be true in spite of
contradictory evidence
• schema processing—memory processing based
on prior knowledge in the form of schemas that
could result in distortion
• false memories—recalling an event that never
happened and believing it to be true.
Biases in thinking and decision-making: Study
one bias in thinking and decision-making.
Topic
Topic
Emotion and cognition
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Content
Humans rely on intuitive thinking and take
cognitive shortcuts resulting in a number of well-
researched biases.
Relevant examples related to studying factors
involved in biased thinking and decision-
making include but are not limited to rational
versus intuitive thinking, heuristics, algorithms,
anchoring, framing and representativeness, as well
as the cognitive biases:
• confirmation bias—the tendency to seek out
information to confirm what you already believe
• cognitive dissonance—a so-called motivational
bias that focuses on personal motivation for
selection and interpretation of information so
that your cognitions are consistent with your
decisions and/or behaviour
• optimism bias—the tendency to think that
nothing bad will ever happen to you
• selective attention—the tendency to focus on
a limited number of stimuli when several are
occurring at the same time
• illusory correlations—the tendency to
incorrectly identify correlations where there
are none, as for example in “implicit personality
theories”.
Examples of biases include, but are not limited to:
• heuristics
• anchoring
• representativeness
• availability
• cognitive biases
• confirmation bias
• optimism bias
• selective attention
• illusory correlations.
Content
The influence of emotion on cognitive
processes: Study one example of the effect of
emotion on a cognitive process.
Psychological and neuroscientific research
has revealed that emotion and cognition are
intertwined. Memories of emotional events
sometimes have a persistence and vividness
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 Topic
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Content
that other memories seem to lack, but there is
evidence that even highly emotional memories
may fade over time.
Examples related to studying emotion and
memory processes could be but are not limited to:
• flashbulb memories
• theory of the emotional brain
• the amygdala’s influence on memory encoding
• appraisal
• state-dependent memory.

Topic Content

HL extension: Cognitive processing in a
technological (digital/modern) world
Questions are formulated (at AO3 level) from the
topic and/or content headings.
For all three topics in the cognitive approach, and
with reference to research studies, HL students
should study the following.
• The influence (positive and negative) of
technologies (digital/modern) on cognitive
processes.
• Methods used to study the interaction between
technologies and cognitive processes.

Sociocultural approach to understanding behaviour

The sociocultural approach to behaviour looks at:

• the individual and the group (SL and HL)

• cultural origins of behaviour and cognition (SL and HL)
• cultural influences on individual behaviour (SL and HL)
• the influence of globalization on individual behaviour (HL only).

Relevant to all the topics are:

• the contribution of research methods used in the sociocultural approach to understanding human
behaviour
• ethical considerations in the investigation of the sociocultural approach to understanding human
behaviour.

The sociocultural approach to behaviour investigates the role of social and cultural influences in shaping
thinking and human behaviour. An increasing body of culturally informed research has made cross-
cultural psychology as well as cultural psychology a contemporary topic of debate among psychologists
working in the field. Theories, concepts and research studies provide the background for a more nuanced
understanding of the variety and complexity of human behaviour. This is important in the modern
globalized world where issues related to migration and integration are on the rise.

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Key figures in the field of modern social psychology have often favoured experimental methods to
understand how social context influences behaviours, identities, attitudes and cognitions, however,
by studying acculturation in terms of intergroup relations, we can start to understand that the same
processes may be seen in the interaction between cultural groups. Social and cultural psychologists
are now also using qualitative research methods in order to get a better understanding of intergroup
relations as well as the process of acculturation.
Topic
The individual and the group
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Topic
Cultural origins of behaviour and cognition
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Content
Social identity theory: Study social identity
theory.
Social identity theory refers to the way someone
thinks about themselves and evaluates themselves
in relation to groups.
Social identity theory posits that a person’s sense
of who they are is based on their membership of
social groups.
Study the following.
• Social groups
Social cognitive theory: Study social cognitive
theory.
Social cognitive theory suggests behaviour is
modelled by other members of a group and
acquired through observation or imitation based
on consequences of a behaviour. Examples of
social cognitive theory include:
• self-efficacy
• reciprocal determinism
• socialization
• social/cultural learning.
Formation of stereotypes and their effects
on behaviour: Study one example of the
development and effect of stereotypes.
A stereotype is a generalized and rather fixed way
of thinking about a group of people. Examples
of stereotypes influencing behaviour could be
prejudice and discrimination. The theory of
stereotype threat indicates that internalized
stereotypes could influence an individual’s self-
perception and behaviour in negative ways.
Content
Culture and its influence on behaviour and
cognition: Study one example of culture and its
influence on behaviour and cognition.
Cultures are made up of a set of attitudes,
behaviours, and symbols shared by a large group
of people, and usually communicated from
one generation to the next. Cultural groups are
characterized by different norms and conventions.
Study the following.
• Cultural groups
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 Topic
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Topic
Cultural influences on individual behaviour
Any AO3 question can be formulated using
topic and/or content headings (shown in bold).
Specific content under the content headings
(shown in italics) will not be used to formulate AO3
questions.
Any AO1/AO2 questions can be formulated using
topic headings, content headings (shown in
bold) and/or specific content under the content
headings (shown in italics).
Questions on ethical considerations or research
methods are formulated using the topic headings
(shown in bold) at AO1, AO2, and AO3 level.
Topic
HL extension: The influence of globalization on
individual behaviour
Questions are formulated (at AO3 level) from the
topic and/or content headings.
Approaches to researching behaviour
The study of psychology is evidence based and has evolved through a variety of different research
approaches, both qualitative and quantitative. As students are exposed to research it is important that
they understand the advantages and limitations of different approaches in order to critically evaluate the
31
Content
Cultural dimensions: Study one cultural
dimension.
Cultural dimensions refer to the values of
members of a society living within a culture.
Study one of the following.
• Individualism/collectivism
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Power/distance
• Masculinity/femininity
• Long term/short term
• Time orientation
• Indulgence/restraint
Content
Enculturation: Study one effect enculturation
has on human cognition and behaviour.
Enculturation is the process by which people learn
the necessary and appropriate skills and norms in
the context of their culture.
Study the following.
• Norms
Acculturation: Study one effect acculturation
has on human cognition and behaviour.
Acculturation is the process by which people
change as a result of contact with other cultures
in order to assimilate with a new culture. Relevant
examples when studying enculturation and
acculturation include universalism/relativism and
etic/emic perspectives.
Study the following.
• Assimilation/assimilate
Content
For all three topics in the sociocultural approach,
and with reference to research studies, HL
students should study the following.
• The effect of the interaction of local and global
influences on behaviour.
• Research methods used to study the influence
of globalization on behaviour.
contribution of research studies to the understanding of human behaviour. Asking questions, challenging
assumptions and critically assessing the methods used by researchers are integral skills in the study of
psychology. These skills are assessed by criterion D (critical thinking) for essay responses in paper 1 section
B and paper 2, and they apply to both SL and HL students.

An understanding of approaches to research is also important for the internal assessment task in order to
design, conduct, analyse, draw conclusions and evaluate an experiment. This applies to both SL and HL
students.

Only HL students will be directly assessed on their understanding of approaches to research in paper 3.

Research methods
Essentially there are two broad categories of research—experimental and non-experimental—that use
qualitative and quantitative approaches. There is no hierarchy to the approaches. The method chosen will
depend on the aims and objectives of an investigation. No method is perfect in itself and all methods have
their individual strengths and limitations. A researcher will choose the method or methods that are most
suitable for a specific research study.

Approaches to research in psychology may be reductionist or holistic. As behaviour is often the result
of complex social, cultural, cognitive as well as biological interactions, a combination of approaches to
researching behaviour is not only inevitable, but desirable.

Research methods

Qualitative Quantitative

Case study Experiments

Naturalistic observation Field experiments
Interviews Quasi-experiments
• unstructured Natural experiments
Correlational research
• semi-structured Surveys
• focus-groups

The following are elements of researching behaviour and will be dependent on the research method
chosen.

Research designs

Matched pair Randomly assign one of a pair to either the control or the experimental group.
design Researchers may match individuals on specific characteristics, such as ethnicity or
age. Twin studies are an example of a matched pair design.

Independent Uses two separate groups of participants. For example, one group of participants
samples/ is assigned to the control group while the other group is assigned to the
independent experimental or treatment condition.
measures design

Repeated Exposes participants to each condition making up the Independent Variable.

measures design

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Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement that is testable and falsifiable based on the results of an experiment
or observation. The null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement that the treatment has no effect while
the alternative hypothesis (H1) is a statement that the treatment has an effect on the Dependent
Variable. One of the hypotheses is rejected and the other accepted depending on the outcome of the
investigation.

Variables

Dependent Variable—the measurement generated by the manipulation of the Independent Variable.

Independent Variable—the factor that the experimenter manipulates.

Sampling technique

This involves selecting participants for a study. Examples of sampling techniques include:
• random sampling
• convenience/opportunity sampling
• volunteer sampling
• purposive sampling
• snowball sampling.

Standardization/control

This refers to eliminating or controlling any factor that could affect the results of the study, apart from
the Independent Variable. When and how this is carried out will depend on the method chosen to
generate the information needed.

Ethical considerations

These are paramount in any investigation of any kind in psychology. Please see the "Ethical guidelines"
chapter of this guide and the teacher support material for more information on ethical considerations in
psychology.

Analysing data

The ways researchers analyse data through data presentation, inductive content analysis or statistics.

Evaluating research

Evaluation of research data for:

• reliability
• validity (internal/external)
• credibility
• bias.

Bias

Bias refers to factors that may affect the results of the study. These include:
• researcher bias

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Bias

• participant bias
• sampling bias.

Drawing conclusions

There are several ways to draw conclusions about the research. These include:
• correlation and causation
• replication
• generalization for quantitative research
• transferability for qualitative research
• triangulation.

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Syllabus content: Options
There are four options covering areas of applied psychology:

• abnormal psychology
• developmental psychology
• health psychology
• psychology of human relationships.

SL students study one option, while HL students study two.

Whereas the core provides a general overview, the options allow students to study a specialized area of
psychology to apply their learning. What is learned in the core forms the foundation for the learning in the
options. The options provide the opportunity to integrate learning in an applied context. In addition, the
options provide the opportunity to explore the different approaches taken in research and highlight the
ethical considerations and sensitivities pertinent to a specific line of inquiry.

The options are assessed in paper 2, which contains three essay questions per option. SL students choose
one essay from one option, while HL students choose two essays from two different options. Examination
questions for paper 2 use AO3-level command terms and are formulated using the topic heading and/
or content headings (shown in bold). Questions linked to research, ethical considerations, or the
approaches to understanding behaviour will be linked to the topic heading. Any material connected by
the word “and” may be connected on examination questions by “and/or".

The essay titles for paper 2 only use command terms that correspond to AO3. These are as laid out in the
following table.

Contrast Give an account of the differences between two (or more) items or situations,
referring to both (all) of them throughout.

Discuss Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments,
factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and
supported by appropriate evidence.

Evaluate Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.

To what extent Consider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept. Opinions and
conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence
and sound argument.

Each option is divided into three topics. For each option, there will be three essay titles to choose from,
one for each topic in the option.

Abnormal psychology
Abnormal psychology focuses on the diagnosis, explanation, and treatment of abnormal behaviour. The
three topics for this option are:

• factors influencing diagnosis

• etiology of abnormal psychology

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• treatment of disorders.

Each of these topics should draw on what has been learned in the biological, cognitive and sociocultural
approaches to behaviour where appropriate. In addition, students should have the opportunity to explore
the different approaches taken in research and should be made aware of the ethical considerations and
the sensitivity required in a discussion of this subject. There is no clear definition of what constitutes
normal behaviour and, by the same token, what constitutes abnormal behaviour. Concepts of normal and
abnormal change over time and are influenced by such factors as clinical biases, social norms, gender,
culture and socio-economic status. An appreciation of this is fundamental to this option. It is an important
consideration in diagnosis and in decisions on the treatment of disorders as well as when considering the
factors that cause abnormal behaviour.

In discussing the topics students may look at several disorders or focus on a single disorder. Both are
acceptable approaches to the content and have the same potential to score well in assessment. The
disorders chosen to explain and develop the topics should come from the following categories:

• anxiety disorders
• depressive disorders
• obsessive compulsive disorder
• trauma and stress related disorders
• eating disorders.

Assessment Topic Content

Any AO3 question can be
formulated using topic and/or
content headings (shown in
bold); concepts and phrases may
be used in the formulation of
assessment questions.
Factors influencing diagnosis
Normality versus abnormality
Classification systems
The role of clinical biases
diagnosis
Validity and reliability of
diagnosis

Etiology of abnormal Explanations for disorder(s)

psychology Prevalence rates and
disorder(s)

Treatment of disorder(s) Biological treatment

Psychological treatment
The role of culture in
treatment
Assessing the effectiveness of
treatment(s)

Applicable to all three topics

• The integration of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches to understanding behaviour
• Research methods used to understand behaviour
• Ethical considerations

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Developmental psychology
Developmental psychology is the study of how and why people’s behaviour and thinking changes over
time. The three topics in this option are:

• influences on cognitive and social development

• developing an identity
• developing as a learner.

Knowledge about the influence of biological, social and cultural factors in the development of an
individual is helpful not only for families, but also in childcare and education to create opportunities for
children and young people all over the world, so each of these topics should draw on what has been
learned in the biological, cognitive and sociocultural approaches to behaviour where appropriate. In
addition, students should have the opportunity to explore the different approaches taken in research and
should be made aware of the ethical considerations and the sensitivity required in a discussion of this
subject.

Developmental psychology focuses on how development can be supported or undermined. It is

important to gain an understanding of the extent to which early experience may influence later
development and if there are critical periods in development. Ideas centred around resilience are of
relevance in this option and may help explain why some people are more affected by their experiences
than others.

Assessment Topic Content

Any AO3 question can be
formulated using topic and/
or specific content headings
(shown in bold); concepts and
phrases may be used in the
formulation of assessment
questions.
Influences on cognitive and
social development
Developing an identity
Role of peers and play
Childhood trauma and
resilience*
Poverty/socio-economic status
Attachment
Gender identity and social
roles*
Development of empathy and
theory of mind

Developing as a learner Cognitive development

Brain development

Applicable to all three topics

• The integration of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches to understanding behaviour
• Research methods used to understand behaviour
• Ethical considerations

*Although these may be taught together, assessment questions may be formulated by separating these
parings. For example, a question could be set on childhood trauma, or resilience, or on childhood trauma
and resilience; on gender identity, or social roles, or on gender identity and social roles.

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Health psychology
Many health issues are the result of lifestyle, either imposed on individuals or chosen by individuals,
and often despite well-publicised risks. An understanding of health psychology is important in the
development of prevention strategies and fosters a more positive perception of healthy choices. The three
topics in this option are:

• determinants of health
• health problems
• promoting health.

Each of these topics should use the learning from the biological, cognitive and sociocultural approaches
to behaviour where appropriate. In addition, students should have the opportunity to explore the
different approaches taken in the research and should be made aware of the ethical considerations and
the sensitivity required in a discussion of this subject.

It is important for health psychologists to take into account differences in attitudes towards health-related
behaviour as well as variations in the incidence of health problems when trying to help individuals or
consider ways to promote health. In addition, factors such as lifestyle and social context may influence
health and illness, making one of the goals of health psychology to promote an understanding of
behaviour that leads to a healthier lifestyle.

In discussing the issues students may look at several health-related phenomena or focus on a single
health issue. Both are acceptable approaches to the content and have the same potential to score well in
assessment. The topics being studied in this option should come from one or more of the following.

• stress
• addiction
• obesity
• chronic pain
• sexual health

Assessment Topic Content

Any AO3 question can be Determinants of health Biopsychosocial model of

formulated using topic and/
or specific content headings
(shown in bold); concepts and
phrases may be used in the
formulation of assessment
questions.
health and well-being
Dispositional factors and
health beliefs*
Risk and protective factors
Health problems Explanations of health
problem(s)
Prevalence rates of health
problem(s)

Promoting health Health promotion

Effectiveness of health
promotion programme(s)

Applicable to all three topics

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 Assessment Topic Content

• The integration of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches to understanding behaviour

• Research methods used to understand behaviour
• Ethical considerations

*Although these may be taught together, assessment questions may be formulated by separating these
parings. For example, a question could be set on dispositional factors, or health beliefs, or dispositional
factors and health beliefs.

Psychology of human relationships

Humans are social animals dependent on others for their well-being. This social psychology option
focuses on human relationships between individuals in personal relationships or in groups. The three
topics in this option are:

• personal relationships
• group dynamics
• social responsibility.

Each of these topics should use the learning from the biological, cognitive and sociocultural approaches
to behaviour where appropriate. In addition, students should have the opportunity to explore the
different approaches taken in the research and should be made aware of the ethical considerations and
the sensitivity required in a discussion of this subject.

Studying human relationships has its challenges and it is tempting to oversimplify complex social and
psychological issues. One approach to the study of human relationships concentrates on the role of
hormones and genetics. However, this gives a limited understanding of how relationships develop.
Cognitive theorists have also contributed to the understanding of relationships by applying schema
theory, while social psychologists have focused on beliefs, social identity theory and the role of culture.
However, key goals of social psychologists are to understand the complexities of relationships, improve
interpersonal relationships, promote social responsibility and reduce violence. As such, in the research
on human relationships, credibility and trustworthiness of a study as well as ethical considerations are
important throughout.

Assessment Topic Content

Any AO3 question can be Personal relationships Formation of personal

formulated using topic and/
or specific content headings
(shown in bold); concepts and
phrases may be used in the
formulation of assessment
questions.
relationships
Role of communication
Explanations for why
relationships change or end
Group dynamics Co-operation and competition
Prejudice and discrimination
Origins of conflict and conflict
resolution

Social responsibility By-standerism

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Assessment Topic Content
Prosocial behaviour
Promoting prosocial
behaviour

Applicable to all three topics

• The integration of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches to understanding behaviour
• Research methods used to understand behaviour
• Ethical considerations

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