GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND CONCERNS

I. HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENT

This chapter will focus attention on three other serious environmental issues that
affect the biosphere. These issues are: (a) deforestation; (b) global warming; and (c)
ozone depletion n the stratosphere.
The impact of human on the environment merits special attention not merely because
we are humans but also because our impact on the rest of the biosphere is so extensive.
There are many environmental concerns exists today, too extensive for us to discuss in a
single chapter. The rapid growth of human population underlies and exacerbates all
environmental problems. The increasing population is placing an unsustainable stress on
the environment as humans consume increasing quantities of food and water, use more
energy and raw materials, and produce enormous of wastes and pollution. Because of
this scenario, the topic on human population is discussed separately in Chapter 9.
Another critical environmental issue which is the declining biological diversity is
discussed in chapter 10.
Wherever we go, we have seen that humans have altered the environment and shaped
it to meet their needs. In only a few generations we have transformed the face of the
Earth, placed a great strain on Earth’s resources and resilience, and profoundly affected
other species.

A. DEFORESTATION
The most serious problem facing the world’s forest is deforestation, which is the
temporary or permanent clearing of forests for agriculture or other uses. The World
Commission on Forest and Sustainable development, formed after the Earth Summit in
1992 released its final report in 1999, in which it concludes that 15 million hectares of
forest are destroyed each year. The destruction of forest by human includes setting fires
to clear land, and expanding agriculture, construction of roads in forests, and harvesting
or cutting down of trees.
A denuded forest no longer makes a valuable contribution to the environment or to
the people who depend on forest. Deforestation increases soil erosion and decrease soil
fertility. Soil erosion on step deforested slopes, causes mud flows that endangered human
lives and property. Deforestation contributes to loss of biological diversity. Many tropical
species have limited ranges within a forest, and they become vulnerable to habitat
deforestation or modification. Migratory birds and butterflies also affected by tropical
deforestation.
By trapping and absorbing precipitation, forests on hillsides and mountains help
protect adjacent lowlands from flush floods. When trees are cut down, the watershed
cannot absorb and hold water, and the total amount of the surface runoff flowing into
rivers and streams increase. This again cause soil erosion and put lowland areas to risk of
flooding.
Continued deforestation may increase global temperature by releasing carbon
originally stored in trees into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, which enables that air to
retain heat. The carbon in the forest is release immediately if the trees are burned or more
slowly when unburned parts decay. If trees are harvested and logs are removed roughly
one half of the forest carbon remains as dead materials in the form of branches, twigs,
roots and leaves that decompose, releasing carbon dioxide. When an old growth forest is
harvested, researchers estimate that it takes 200 years for replacement forest to
accumulate the amount of carbo n that was stored in the original forest.
i. UNCONTROLLED EXPLOITATION
During the past 1000 years, deciduous forests in the temperate areas mainly
seared for housing and agriculture purposes Today, deforestation’ in the tropics are
moving fast and covering a larger area. The remaining undisturbed tropical rainforests in
the Amazon and Congo River basins of South America and Africa are being cleared and
burned at a rate unprecedented in human history. Tropical rainforests are also being
destroyed rapidly in Southern Asia, Indonesia, Central America, and the Philippines.

The food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations released its
recent assessment of deforestation in 117 tropical countries in 1999. The FAO estimated
an average annual forest loss of 0.7% per year, and in some areas such as continental
Southeast Asia, estimated forest loss is as high as 1.6% per year. This rate of
deforestation represents an annual loss of 12.6 million hectares. And if not given prompt
and urgent solutions, tropical forest will be inadequately stock before the end of the
twenty second century.
Studies have shown that there is strong statistical correlation between population
growth and deforestation. The bigger the population they will be needing more food and
they will clear the forest to expand agricultural production. However, deforestation in the
tropics is a complex problem that it cannot be attributed to population pressures alone.
The primary causes of deforestation vary from one place to another, and a variety of
economic, social, and governmental factors interact to cause deforestation. Economic
conditions sometimes encourage deforestation. A rancher who converts forest to
pastureland can maintain a larger herd of cattle for producing milk and other by-products.

In the tropics, the immediate causes of deforestation in tropical rainforests are: (a)
subsistence agriculture; (b) logging; and (c) conversion to Other Economic Uses.

a. SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE
In subsistence agriculture, a family produces enough food to feed itself and this
accounts for about 60% of tropical deforestation. In developing countries where tropical
rainforests are located, majority of people do not own the land that they live and work on.
Most subsistence farmers have no place to go except into the forest which they clear to
grow crops for food. Land reform in Brazil, Mexico, Madagascar, the Philippines,
Thailand, and many ‘other countries would make the land owned by a few available to
everyone, thereby easing the pressure of subsistence farmers on tropical forests.
Most often, subsistence farmers follow loggers’ logging roads until they find a
suitable location. They cut down the remaining trees and allow them to dry, then they
burn the area and subsequently plant crops. This is known as slash-and-burn agriculture.
Yields from the first crop are quite high because the nutrients that were in the trees are
now available in the soil. After which productivity declines rapidly and subsequent crops
become poorer. In a few years’ time, the farmers will move to a new place in the forest
and repeat the process. The slash-and-burn agriculture done in small scale, with Periods
of 20 to 100 years between cycles is sustainable. The forest regrows rapidly after years of
farming. But when millions of people try to obtain a living in this way, the land is not
allowed to lie uncultivated long enough to recover.
b. LOGGING
About 20% of tropical deforestation is the result of commercial logging and vast
tracts of tropical rain forests particularly in Southeast Asia are harvested for export. Most
tropical countries allow commercial logging to proceed much faster than is ‘sustainable
because it provides them with the much-needed revenues. In the final analysis, tropical
deforestation does not contribute to economic development; rather, it reduces or destroys
the value of an important natural resource.

Commercial logging or extraction of timber in Southeast Asia has been shown to

be destructive. A study of the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) based
in Yokohama; Japan concluded that a very small percentage (less than 1%) of the natural
forests in the region are managed on a sustainable basis. In all cases, over harvesting has
been the usual practice. The growth figures rarely support the rate of harvesting, and the
cutting cycles of 25-40 years are believed to be in the short side. Logging is carried out
with maximum speed, and rarely skidding tracks are pre-planned and controlled, very
little maintenance is carried out, directional felling are seldom employed, and little
silvicultural tending is done to improve commercial regeneration. Besides damage to
vegetation, the poor construction of roads, low maintenance, and the use of heavy
machinery results in excessive erosion. The overall conclusion is that in the long term,
there will be less, and less commercially valuable timber left behind. While total
destruction of forests is not likely in every country, many of the logged forests would be
poorly stocked and natural regeneration would be scarce.

c. CONVERSION TO OTHER ECONOMIC USES

Large tract of easily accessible natural forests has been converted to other forms
of land use such as mining, pastureland, urban development, hydroelectric dams, and
others. Approximately 12% of tropical rainforest destruction is carried out to provide
open rangelands or pastureland for cattle. Cattle ranching is particularly important on
Central America. Much of the beef raised in these ranches which foreign companies often
own is exported to fast-food restaurant chains in North America and Europe. After the
forest are cleared, cattle graze on the land for about 20 years, after which time the soil
fertility is depleted. When this occurs, shrubby plants or scrub savanna take over the area.
In some countries, government sponsored settlement programs, whereby people are
relocated. This has been done in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam. The program or
scheme is a means to raise the economic standard of the settlers. Under the scheme, in
excess of 10 million hectares of natural forest were converted in the region to oil palm
and other tree crops for the settlers to work on.

ii. DEFORESTATION IN TROPICAL REGION

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations,
tropical deforestation in the 1980’s occurred at a rate of 0.9% a year with Asia’s rate highest
at 1.2% and Sub-Saharan Africa the lowest at 0.8%. FAO Survey in 1980, estimate of annual
deforestation in the tropics was 11.4 million ha. Studies have shown that deforestation was
much higher in countries such as Brazil, Costa Rica, India, Burma, Philippines, and Vietnam
while forest clearing sharply increased in Cameroon, Indonesia, and Thailand (World
Development Report 1992).
Between 1980 and 1990, tropical forest areas have shrunk on an average 15.4 million ha
(0.8%) annually. At the end of 1990, tropical forests were estimated to cover 1,756 million
ha, with 52% (918 million ha) in South America and the Caribbean, 30% (528 million ha) in
Africa, and 18% (311 million ha) in the Asia/Pacific Region. The Asia/Pacific Region, with
less remaining forest than other regions in the tropics have the highest average annual
deforestation rate (1.26), followed by South America and the Caribbean-(0.8%) and Africa
(0.7%). Over the past decade, the greatest loss of forest area in the topics has occurred in
easily accessible lowland forests with 6.1 million ha (1%) of moist deciduous forest and 4.6
million ha (0.6%) of rainforest disappearing yearly World Resources (1994-95).

Figure 62. Deforestation in Tropical Forest

The loss of forests has severe ecological and economic implications on watershed
protection, global climate change, loss of coastal protection, fishing grounds, lack of water
supply, biodiversity loss, and other damage of the environment (Figure 62).
The loss of forests has adversely affected the lives of people. Women and children
in Africa and Asia have to walk farther distance to gather fuelwood for cooking food.
Deforestation in particular adds or contribute substantial quantities of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. It has been estimated that annual emissions from deforestation and land-use
changes are in the range of 6 billion tons. According to the IPCC, deforestation is responsible
for 17% of global greenhouse emission which is more than all the word's transport combined.
Reducing deforestation and forest degradation provide us the largest, fastest and cheapest
cuts in greenhouse emissions. On a total forest area of 4 billion ha, the world lost 13 million
ha of forest, not counting replanting per year between 2000 and 2010 down from around 16
million ha in the 1990-2000 period according to FAO. Despite the slowing pace of
deforestation, the forest area lost over the past decade was equivalent to the land area of
Costa Rica.

iii. DEFORESTATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is now one of the most severely deforested countries in the tropics and
most of the deforestation has taken place within the last forty years. The estimated forest
cover in the Philippines in 1900 was 21 million ha or 70% of the total land area. After 20
years, the forest cover was reduced to 18 million ha. In 1950, forest cover was reduced to
15million ha, and in 1963 FAO published data put forest cover at 12 million ha or 40% of the
total land area. This period is considered the start of the logging boom. Logging concession
areas increased om 4.5 million ha to 11.6 million ha, covering more than one-third of the
country. Timber companies owned by the traditional elite and some other privileged people
cornered the logging contracts.
In the early 1970's, forest cover was 10.2 million ha or 34% of the total land area In 1977
to 1980, deforestation reached an all-time high of over 300,000 ha a year. By the end of 1970
s, the following islands were either almost completely deforested or had less than 5% forest
cover: Polilio, Babuyan, Burias, Tablas, Batanes islands, Lubang,Marinduque, Ticao,
Guimaras, Masbate, Siquijor, Cebu, Bohol, Samal, Siargao, Tawi-tawi, Jolo and Camiguin.
The Philippines forest was rapidly disappearing.
 In 1987, the Swedish Space Corporation study placed the country's forest cover at 6.9
million ha or 23.7% of the total land area. Despite stricter government control, regional
logging bans failed to slow down the annual deforestation rate. This was a Period of open
access and much illegal logging was abetted by some local officials.
As presented in Chapter 12, the. Latest available forest cover data was that of 2003,
which is 7.168 million ha or 24.27% of the country's total land area. So that from 1900 to
2003, forest cover was significantly reduced from 21 million ha to 7.168 million ha or about
13.84 million ha and it constitute 46.13% of the total land area. The situation is quite
alarming and critical to all living things that “EVERY HUMAN BEING IN OUR
COUNTRY SHOULD PUT THEIR ACTS TOGETHER TO BRING BACK OUR LOST
FOREST” to ensure a clean and habitable environment for future generations.

B. GLOBAL WARMING
The determination and evaluation of Earth's average temperature is based on daily
measurements taken at several thousand land-based meteorological stations around the world,
and also on data from weather balloons, orbiting satellites, transoceanic ships, and hundreds of
sea-surface buoys with temperature sensors. The earth's average surface temperature increased
0.6 °C during the 20 centuries, and the 1990s was the warmest decade of the century (Figure 63).
The early 2000s continued the warming of the atmosphere.

Figure 63. Mean Global Temperature, 1960 to 2002

Source: Surface Air Temperature Analysis, Goddard Institute for Space Studies,
NASA

The increase in global temperature is evidenced by some documented studies that the
spring in the Northern Hemisphere now. Comes about 6 days earlier than it did in 199, and
autumn is delayed by 5 days. (Spring is determine when buds of specific plants fun color and
fall). Since 1949, the United States has. experienced an increased frequency of extreme heat
stress events, humid days during summer months. It also showed in medical records that heat-
related deaths among elderly and other vulnerable people increase during these events. The sea
level has risen slight (0.1 to 0.2m during the 20th Century), the mountain glaciers in non-polar
regions have retreated, and extreme weather conditions such as severe rainstorms have occurred.
In the tropical region, strong typhoons, heat wave and other weather disturbance have occurred
more frequently.

Global warming has a significant effect on climate. A Swedish physical chemist, Svante
Arrhenius (1859-1927) who explained the dissociation of electrolytes in solution and
received the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, predicted the effects of atmospheric Co2 on the
climate. n 1908, he suggested that human activities could affect global climate by exhibiting an
enhanced greenhouse effect.

Scientists around the world have studied global warming for the past 50 years. As results
of these studies has accumulated, those most qualified and capable to address the issue have
reached a consensus that the 21. century will experience significant climate change and that
human activities will be responsible for much of this change and development.
In response to this growing scientific consensus, governments around the world
organized the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). With the
cooperation and inputs from thousands of climate experts, the IPCC agreed and provides the
most definitive scientific statement about global warming. The 2001 IPCC Third Assessment
Report concluded that human-produced air pollutants continue to change the atmosphere,
causing most of the warming observed in the past 50 years. Scientists can identify the human
influence on climate change despite questions about OW much of the recent warming stems from
natural variations. The IPCC report projects a 1.4 to 5.8 °C increase in global temperature by the
year 2100, although the warming w probably not occur, uniformly from region to region. Thus,
Earth may become warmer during the 21s century than it has been for several thousands of years
ago.
Climate experts agree with the IPCC's assessment that global warming has begun and
will continue throughout the 21" century. However, scientist is uncertain over how fast the
warming will proceed, how intense or serve it will be, and where it will be more felt. As a result
of these uncertainties, people including policymakers, are confused about what we should start to
do. As at any given time the reminder is clear that human-induced global warming has the
potential and capability to disrupt Earth’s climate for a long period of time.
i. Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases cause global warming. Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), surface
ozone (O3) nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), are accumulating in the
atmosphere as a result of human activities (Table 21)

Table 21. Increase in Selected Atmospheric Greenhouse Gases

 *ppm = parts per million
+ppb = parts per billion
ppt = parts per trillion
S = derived from in situ sampling at Mauna Loa Hawaii. All other data from Mace head,
Ireland monitoring site.
Sources: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Environmental Science Division,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

The concentration of atmospheric CO2 has increased from about 288 parts per million
(ppm) before the industrial Revolution started, to 373 ppm in 2002. The burning of carbon-
containing fossil fuels, such as coil, oil, and natural gas accounts for about 75% of human-made
carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. Land conversion, such as when forests are logged or
burned also releases carbon dioxide. (The burning itself releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere, and because trees remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of
photosynthesis, the removal of trees through logging prevents this process). The levels of the
other trace. Gases associated global warming also rising.
Studies made by Dr. Hideo Harasawa showed that from 1980 to 1990, carbon dioxide
was the biggest volume of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere as shown by the
following figures: carbon dioxide, 55%; chlorofluorocarbon, 17%; methane, 15%; nitrous oxide,
6%; and others, 7%.

Source: 1991 World Resources Institute

Note: Date for Germany include both the former federal Republic of Germany and the
former German Democratic Republic
 Global warming occurs because the above-mentioned gases absorb Infrared radiation,
that is, heat in the atmosphere. This absorption shows the natural heat flow into space, warming
the lower atmosphere. Some of the head from the lower atmosphere is transferred to the ocean
and raises its temperature. This retention of heat in the atmosphere in a natural phenomenon that
has made our planet Earth habitable for the millions of species. However, as human activities
increase the atmospheric concentration of these gases, the atmosphere and the ocean continue to
warm, and the overall global temperature rises.
Because carbon dioxide and other gases trap the sun’s radiation somewhat like glass does
in a greenhouse, the natural trapping of the heat in the atmosphere is called the greenhouse
effects, and the gases that absorb infrared radiation are known as Greenhouse gases. The
additional warming produced when increased levels of gases absorb additional infrared radiation
is called the enhanced greenhouse effects.

(Figure 64). Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

Source: Solomon, E. P. al.Biology. 7th ed.2006

Although current rates of fossil fuel combustion and deforestation are high, causing the
carbon dioxide the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere to increase, scientists think the
warming trend is slower than the increasing level of carbon dioxide might indicate. The reason is
that water requires more heat to raise its temperature than gases in the atmosphere to because the
specific heat of water is higher than gases. As a result, the ocean takes longer time to warm than
the atmosphere to absorb heat. Climate scientists think that warming will be more pronounced in
the second half of the 21st century than in the first half.
 ii. PROBABLE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
The probable effects of global warming include the following: (a) changes in sea level; (b)
changes in precipitation patterns; (c) effects on organisms and human; (d.) effects on agriculture.
These effects and changes will persist for centuries because many greenhouse gases remain in
the atmosphere for hundreds of years. In the process, even after greenhouse gas concentrations
have stabilized, scientists think the Earth's mean surface temperature will continue to rise,
because the ocean adjusts to climate change on a delayed time scale.

a. Global Average Sea Level Will Rise.

A few degrees increase in the overall temperature of the Earth could cause a major melting of
glaciers and the polar ice caps. During Antarctic summer of 2002, most Or the Larsen B ice shelf
broke off the Antarctic Peninsula. This loss of ice coincided in a decades-long trend of
atmospheric warming in the Antarctic. A study from 1970s o 1990s showed that the area of ice-
covered ocean in the Arctic has also retreated. There is a rapid rate of ting of glaciers in the
world.
Aside from the rise of sea level causes by the retreat of glaciers and melting of thermal
expansion of the warm polar ice, the sea level will probably rise because of the t water. Water
expands when subjected to elevated temperature. During the 20 %Sea level rose between 0.1 and
0.2 meter, mostly due to thermal expansion of Ocean century water.
The IPCC estimates that. sea level will rise an additional 0.5 meter by 2100. This scenario
will food low-lying coastal areas in the world and will cause concern for about two thirds of the
world population that lives within 150m of the coastline.

b. Precipitation Pattern will Change.

Global computer simulations of weather changes as global. warming occurs indicate that
precipitation patterns will change and causing some areas in midlatitude continental interiors to
have more frequent droughts. At the same time intense precipitation (heavier snowstorms and
rainstorms) may flood other areas. Changes in precipitation patterns could affect the availability
and quality of fresh water in many places. The Sahel region in Africa will further experience the
problem of water supply a climate. Changes.
Scientists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration developed computer
model that examines how global warming may affect hurricanes. When the model was run with a
sea surface temperature 2.2 °C warmer than today, more intense hurricanes resulted. Changes in
storm frequency and intensity are expected because the atmosphere warms, more water
evaporates, which in tum release more energy into the atmosphere. This energy will generate
stronger storms (typhoons or cyclones) and other weather disturbances.

c. Effect of Human Health

Scientists hypothesize that the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the resultant
frequent and severe heat waves during summer months will increase the number of heat-related
illnesses and deaths.
Global warming may also affect human health directly. Mosquitoes and other disease carries
could expand their range into the newly warm area and spread malaria, dengue fever, yellow
fever, and viral encephalitis. About 50 to 80 million additional cases of malaria could occur
annually in tropical, sub-topical, and temperate areas. According to the World Health
Organization, during 1998, the warmer years on record, the incidence of malaria and cholera
surged in developing countries. The developed countries are less vulnerable to such disease
outbreaks because they have better shelter or housing facilities, adequate medical care programs,
pest control, and public health regulations in waste disposal, water treatment, and control on air
pollution.
As climate temperatures rises, it will likely put as much as 65% of the world's pollution at
risk of infection. Scientists at the Harvard Medical School have liked recent U.S outbreaks of
dengue ("breakbone") fever, malaria, hantavirus, and other diseases to climate temperature
change.

d. Effect on Organisms
Biologists are studying some of the effect of global warming on organisms. Researchers
determined that population of zooplankton in the California current have declined 80% since
1951, apparently because the current has warmed slightly. The decline in zooplankton has
affected the entire ecosystem's food web, and the populations of seabirds and plankton-eating
fishes have also declined. In all studies of the effects of global warming on organisms in nature,
researchers are unsure of the relative contributions of human production of greenhouse gases and
of the natural fluctuations in the climate. Despite this uncertainty, the observed are real.
As temperature has risen in Antarctic waters during the past two decades, a similar decline in
shrimp-like krill has reduced Adelie penguin population. Because of the reduction in population
of krill, the penguins have not enough food.
Each species reacts to changes in temperature differently. In response to global warming,
some species will become extinct particularly those with narrow temperature requirements and
those living in fragile ecosystems. Other species may survive in greatly reduced numbers and
ranges. The ecosystems considered most vulnerable to species loss in the short term are polar
seas, coral reefs and atolls, prairie wetlands, coastal wetlands, tundra, taiga, tropical forests, and
mountains, particularly alpine tundra.
Global warming will have a severe impact on plants, which cannot migrate as quickly as
animals when environmental conditions changes. During the past climate warming, such as
during the glacial retreat the took place some 12,000 years ago, tree species are thought to have
dispersed from 4 to 200 m every century. The movement of plants to a new area are influenced
or affected by soil characteristics, availability of water, competition with other plant species, and
habitat fragmentation.

e. Effect on Agriculture
Global warming may affect agricultural productivity, which is already being challenged to
provide enough food for the growing human population without damaging the environment.
Results from several studies show that the rise of sea level will inundate river deltas which are
considered as the best agricultural lands in the world. Examples of these river deltas are the Nile
River in Egypt, Africa, the Mississippi River, in USA, and the Yangtze River in China. The
Amazon River in South America, the second longest river in the world is markedly along the
mountain forest ranges of the Amazon had less agricultural lands.
With global warming, certain agricultural pests and disease-causing organisms will
proliferate. It will also increase the frequency and duration of drought and in other areas floods
may damage agricultural crops. Current global - warming models forecast that global agricultural
productivity will vary. Productivity may increase in some areas some decline in other areas. The
models suggest that Canada and Russia will increase their agricultural productivity. Countries in
Central America and Southeast Asia may be greatly affected by the increase of global
temperature.
 f. Effect on Fisheries
The ocean absorbs as much as one-third of the carbon dioxide generated by human. The
acidification of sea water can limit the production of limestone by corals, considered the
"rainforests of the sea" is feared. Likewise, coral "bleaching" also occurs when sea water
temperature reaches 34C.
The fisheries including aquaculture are important sector of the Philippine economy. It
contributes 4% to gross domestic product (GDP) and directly provide employment to over 1
million Filipinos. In 2006, aquaculture, which is the farming of aquatic plants and animals
accounted by 47.5% of the country's total fisheries production while municipal fisheries (inland
and coastal fishing) contributed 28% and commercial fisheries (deep-sea fishing) contributed
24.5%.

Figure 65. Coastal and Inland Fishing

The occurrences of the El Niño caused by warming of the surface water in the Central and
Eastern Pacific area are related to the mean global temperature change. El Niño of 1997 to 1998
seriously affected Philippine fisheries due to drought and rise in temperature. The economic
losses of fisheries were estimated to be over 6 billion for aquaculture and 1 billion for marine
fisheries.
With climate change, two extreme climatic conditions, namely, drought and strong typhoons
are expected to affect Philippine fisheries with more damage to aquaculture than to inland and
marine fisheries. In times of drought, freshwater fishponds dependent on irrigation and
underground water supply are most vulnerable. High temperatures will cause heat stress on
cultured fish, slow down their growth and cause mortality due to disease. High surface water
temperature of lakes and reservoirs will also affect fish in cages. The growth of cultured species
in brackish-water ponds is adversely affected by the high saline and temperature conditions
during dry spells brought about by the low water levels in the ponds.
 iii. WAYS TO DEAL WITH GLOBAL WARMING
Although at present there are still some gaps in the knowledge of global warming, but the
actual experience and understanding of the changing global climate and its actual impact on
human and other species gives and encourages people to develop certain strategies to deal with
this problem. The amount and intensity of warming of the atmosphere depend on how much
greenhouse gas we generate and emit or add to the existing atmosphere. Several studies assume
we will stabilize atmospheric carbon dioxide at S50ppm, which is roughly twice the
concentration of the atmospheric carbon dioxide that existed in the preindustrial world and about
50% higher than the carbon dioxide currently present in the atmosphere. The world community
recognizes and agree that it is a must to stabilize carbon dioxide emissions. At least 174 nations,
including the United States, signed the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
developed and agreed at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. Its ultimate goal was to stabilize
greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere at levels low enough to prevent dangerous
human influences on the climate. However, the details on how to accomplish that goal was left
for future conferences.
The Framework Convention on Climate Change was reviewed in Berlin at the April 1995
Conference of Parties to the Convention. The aims of the conference were to review the progress
in the battle against global warming and negotiate a new protocol to the original Convention. In
the event, the Berlin Conference, in a unanimously adopted mandate, merely confirmed that the
existing efforts to cut down greenhouse gas emissions were not adequate, that the convention's
targets needed strengthening and that a group of countries would be formed to agree new targets
by 1997.
At the 1996 UN Climate Change Convention held in Geneva, Switzerland, highly developed
countries agreed to establish legally binding timetables to cut emissions of greenhouse gases.
Representatives from 160 countries met in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997, to develop the
Kyoto Protocol. At of 2003, 119 countries had ratified the treaty. The United States signed it in
1998, but in 2001, the administration of President George W. Bush withdrew the United States
from the Commitment. The Kyoto Protocol will go into force when enough countries to
represent 55% of 1990 global emissions of greenhouse gases have ratified it. As of October
2003, 119 countries, enough to represent 44% of 1990 emissions, had ratified the treaty. It is
noteworthy that Australia, Russia, and the United States have not ratified the treaty, whereas
Canada, the European union, and Japan have. Russia has indicated it may ratify the Kyoto
Protocol, which would bring the treaty into force without U.S. participation.

Some Initiatives to Slow Down Global Warming

1. Cut fossil fuel use.
Car makers could dramatically increase the fuel economy of their cars and trucks Most electric
utilities still use coal to produce electricity, spewing millions of tons of carbon dioxide and other
pollutants into the atmosphere every year. Pat of the problem could be solved by converting
these plants to burn clear naturals.

2. Improve energy efficiency.

Motor vehicles, home appliances and power plants could be made more efficient by installing the
best current state of the art technology. Energy efficiency is the cleanest, safest, most economical
way to curb global warming. We would do more to save energy in our homes and office
buildings. More
energy efficient lighting, heating and air conditioning could keep millions of tons of carbon
dioxide out of our atmosphere each year.
3. Reduce deforestation and plant more trees.
Because global vegetation and soils contain about three times as much carbon as the planet's
atmosphere, terrestrial ecosystem offer an opportunity to absorb and store a significant amount of
carbon from the atmosphere. By planting trees, preserving forests, and changing cultivation
practices to increase soil carbon, for example, it is possible to increase the size of carbon sinks.

C. DCELINING STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

A significant consequence of photosynthesis occurred in the upper atmosphere,
where molecular oxygen reacted to form ozone.

Figure. 66 How Ozone Forms

Ozone (03) forms in the upper atmosphere when ultraviolet radiation from the sun breaks
the double bonds of oxygen molecules. A layer of ozone eventually blanketed the Earth
preventing much of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation from penetrating to the Earth surface. The
upper portion of the ozone layer is in the upper atmosphere while the lower portion of the ozone
layer is in the lower atmosphere.
The ozone that is human-made pollutant in the lower atmosphere but a naturally
produced is an essential part of the atmosphere. The stratosphere, which encircles the Earth some
10 to 45 km above the surface, contains a layer of ozone that shields the surface from the
ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

(a) Ozone present at normal levels (b) Ozone present at reduce levels.
Figure 67. Ultraviolet Radiation and the Ozone Layer
Source: Solomon E. P et al.Biology 7th ed.2006
 In letter (a) The ozone present is at normal levels. The stratosphere ozone absorbs 99% of
the incoming ultraviolet radiation, effectively shielding the Earth’s surface. In (b) When
stratosphere ozone is reduced, more high-energy ultraviolet radiation penetrates the atmosphere
to the surface, where it harms organisms.

Formation of Ozone Layer

The ozone layer is formed by the ultraviolet (UV) light that strikes the ozone molecule
O3. This is how it happens.
UV +03 › O + O2
O3+ infrared radiation
(ozone) (heat)

If ozone disappeared from the stratosphere, our planet would become unlivable for most
forms of life. Ozone in the lower atmosphere is converted back to oxygen in a few days and so it
does not replenish the ozone depleted in the stratosphere.
A slight thinning in the ozone layer over the Antarctica forms naturally for a few months
each year. In 1985, however, scientists observed a greater thinning than usual. This increased
thinning, which begins each September, is commonly referred to as the “ozone hole” (Figure 68).

Figure 68. Ozone Thinning

Source: Solomon, E.P. et al. Biology. 7th ed. 2006

The ozone levels decrease as much as 67% each year. During the 1990s the ozone-
thinned area continued to grow, and in 2000 it had reached the record size of 28.3 million km2,
larger than the North America continent. In addition, world-wide levels of stratospheric ozone
have been falling for several decades. According to the National Center for Atmospheric
Research, since the 1970s ozone levels over Europe and North

America have dropped almost 10%.

 i. CHEMICALS THAT DESTROY STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
The primary chemicals responsible for ozone loss in the stratosphere are a group of chlorine
compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Chlorofluorocarbons have been used as
propellants in aerosol cans, coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators, foam blowing agents
for insulation and packaging, and solvents and cleaners for the electronic industry. Additional
compounds that also attack ozone include halons (found in many fire extinguishers); methyl
bromide (a pesticide); methyl chloroform (an industrial solvent); and carbon tetrachloride (used
in industrial processes, including the manufacture of pesticides and dyes).

After release into the lower troposphere, CFCs and similar compounds slowly drift up to the
stratosphere, where ultraviolet radiation breaks them down, releasing chlorine. Similarly, the
breakdown of halons and methyl bromide releases bromine. The thinning in the ozone layer that
was discovered over Antarctica occurs annually between September and November. At this time,
two important conditions occur: Sunlight returns to the polar region, and the circumpolar vortex,
a mass of cold air that circulates around the southern polar region and isolates it from the warmer
air in the rest of the planet, is well developed. The cold air causes polar stratospheric clouds to
form; these clouds contain ice crystals to which chlorine and bromide adhere, making them
available to destroy ozone. The sunlight promotes the chemical reaction in which chlorine or
bromine breaks ozone molecules apart, converting them into oxygen molecules. The chemical
reaction in which ozone is destroyed does not alter the chlorine or bromine, and thus a single
chlorine or bromine atom breaks down many thousands of ozone molecules. The chlorine and
bromine remain in the stratosphere for many years. When the circumpolar vortex breaks up, the
ozone-depleted air spreads northward, diluting ozone levels in the stratosphere over South
America, New Zealand and Australia.

ii. EFFECT OF OZONE DEPLETION ON ORGANISM

In a depleted ozone layer, more ultraviolet radiation reaches the Earth’s surface. Excessive
exposure UV radiation is linked to human health problems, such as cataracts, skin cancer, and a
weakened immune system. The lens of the eye contains transparent proteins that are replaced at a
very slow rate. Exposure to excessive UV radiation damages the proteins, and over time, the
damage accumulates so that the lens becomes cloudy, forming a cataract. Cataracts can be
surgically treated, however, millions of people in developing countries cannot afford to pay for
the operation and therefore remain partially or totally blind. Scientists are concerned that
increased levels of UV radiation may disrupt ecosystems. For example, the productivity of
Antarctic phytoplankton that are the base of the Antarctic food web has declined from exposure
to UVB, (UVB is one of the three types of UV radiation). Research shows that surface UV
radiation inhibits photosynthesis in these phytoplankton. Biologists have documented direct
damage to natural populations of Antarctic fish.
There is also a concern that high levels of UV radiation may damage crops and forests, but
the effects of UVB radiation on plants are very complex and have not been adequately studied.
Plants interact with a large number of other species in both natural ecosystems and agricultural
ecosystems and the effects of UV radiation may increase wheat yields by inhibiting fungi that
cause disease in wheat.
The first and now well documented case of adverse impacts of ozone on forest tree
populations occurred in the San Bernardino Mountains of South California where ponderosa pine
was put under competitive disadvantages because of its ozone (03) sensitivity compared to O3
tolerant species as a fir species. This was also one of the first cases of documented long-distance
transport of air pollutants as the impacts were occurring hundreds of kilometers from the source
of pollutants (Los Angeles). The negative impacts of O3, on other ponderosa pine populations in
California have also now been described. In addition, a similar pattern of O3 impacts on pine
populations has been reported on the hillsides and mountains surrounding Mexico City. Evidence
on the impact of O3 on the lacebark pine species was also observed on some highly prized
historical regions of Beijing, China.

iii. APPROACH TO PREVENT OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

An international cooperation can prevent significant depletion of the ozone layer. In 1987,
representatives from different countries met in Montreal, Canada to sign the Montreal Protocol,
an agreement that originally stipulated a 50% reduction of CFC production by 1998. Since then,
more than 150 countries have signed this agreement. After scientists reported that decreases in
atmospheric ozone occurred over the heavily populated mid latitudes of the Northern
Hemisphere in all seasons, the Montreal Protocol was modified to include stricter measures to
limit CFC production. Industrial companies that manufacture CFC’s quickly developed
substitutes. Production of CFC’s, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform production was
completely phased out in the United States and other highly developed countries in 1996, except
for relatively small amount exported to developing countries. Subsequently, developing countries
will phase out CFC use by 2005. Methyl bromide will be phase out in highly developed
countries, which are responsible for 80% of the global use of that chemical by 2005.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) will be phased out in 2030.
Satellite measurements taken in 1997 provided the first evidence that the levels of ozone-
depleting chemicals were starting to decline in the stratosphere. However, two chemicals (CFC-
12 and halon-1211) may have increased and therefore still threaten ozone recovery. Although
highly developed countries no longer manufacture CFC-12, it continues to leak into the
atmosphere from old refrigerators and vehicle air conditioners discarded in those countries. Also
developing countries such as China, India, Korea, and Mexico continue to produce CFC-12 and
halon-1211. An international fund known as the Montreal Multilateral Fund is available to
developing countries during their transition from ozone depleting chemicals to safer alternatives.
CFCs are extremely stable, and those being used today probably will continue to deplete
stratospheric ozone for at least 50 years. Assuming that countries continue to adhere to the
Montreal Protocol, however, scientists expect human-exacerbated ozone thinning will gradually
decline over time.

iv. RESEARCH PROGRAM TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE

The United States Forest Service has prepared a 10-yer research initiative designed to study
the effect of climates change on forest the program entitled “Forest Health Productivity in a
changing Atmospheric Environment” was developed by team of scientists will cover all aspects
of the impact of changing atmospheric conditions, including the “greenhouse effect” and the
changing levels of air pollution. On the topic of air pollution, the program will represent a
continuation of current research on forest responses to pollution which has been a component of
the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, conducted in cooperation with the
Environmental Protection Agency.
The major issues addressed by the new research program include:
1. What processes in forest ecosystem are sensitive to physical and chemical changes in the
atmosphere?
2. How will future physical and chemical climate changes influence the structure, function,
and productivity of forests and related ecosystems?
3. What are the implications of forest management, and how must forest management
activities be altered to maintain forest health and productivity.
 As a result of pursuing the issues, Forest Service Researchers hope to be able to answer
question about the impact of changing climate from the greenhouse effect that are of critical
importance to human and other living organisms. Example of these queries are:

1. What changes in species distribution and forest composition are likely to occur?
2. What effect will climate change have on growth and yield, and on the future timber
supply?
3. What happen to habitat, and the carrying capacity of different types of forests for game
and non-game, and manage animas and fishes?
4. What impact will climate change have on the quantity and quality of future water
supplies from forests?
5. How will recreation opportunities change?
6. What effects can be anticipated in terms of forest fire frequency and behavior, insect and
disease attacks, and other forest threats?

In addition to investigating the potential effects of changing climate ion the forest itself,
the research program will seek answers about the reverse effects that will be of significant
interest to policy makers concerned with finding ways to stem the greenhouse effect and
minimize global warming damage. Studies on the effect of forest changes the atmosphere,
ranging all the way from the forests ability to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide through
photosynthesis to the problem of added global pollution and heat resulting from forest fires.
In connection with the above research initiatives and considering the continued survival
of human and continued existence of all life support system on Earth, it is urgently
manifested that governments of all nations prioritize and focus their research programs on the
environment to STOP the GREENHOUSE EFFECT and STABILIZEE ATMOSPHERIC
TEMPERATURE and SAY GOODBYE to GLOBAL WARMING.

II. Acid Precipitation

Where do acids come from?
Acids come from nitric oxide (NO) and sulfur dioxide (SO%) released primarily from
electric power plants and motor vehicles. It also come from SO2 + water vapor + 0zone
resulting to sulfuric acid (HS0). Acid also comes from NO + sunlight +0% forming nitrogen
dioxide (NO) + various atmospheric gases and finally resulting to formation of nitric acid
(HNO;) "acid rain".

The pH Scale and Acid Rain

Acid rain is measured using a scale called "pH". The lower the substances Pat the more
acidic it is. Pure water has a pH of 7.0. Normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide
dissolves into it, so it has a pH of about 5.5. In year 2000, the most acidic rain in the US has a
pH of about 4.3.
 Effects of Acid Deposition
A. Acidification of Lakes and Streams
Acid rain causes a cascade of effects that harms or kill individual fish, reduce fish
population, eliminate fish species from a water body, and decrease biodiversity. As acid rain
flows through soils in a watershed, aluminum levels increase. Both low pH and increase
aluminum levels are directly toxic to fish. In addition, low pH and increased aluminum levels
causes chronic stress that may not kill individual fish but leads to lower body weight and small
size and makes fish less able to compete for food and habitat. Generally, the young of most
species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. At pH5, most fish eggs
cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some fish die. Some acid lakes have no fish.
B. Contribute to Damage of Trees
Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken by damaging
their leave, limiting the nutrients available to them, or exposing them to toxic substances slowly
released from the soil. Oftenly, injury or death of trees is a result of these effects of acid rain in
combination with one or more additional threats. Acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful
minerals in the soil and then washes them away before trees and other plants can use them to
grow. At the-same time acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees and
plants, such as aluminum into the soil.
Forests in high mountain regions often are exposed to greater amounts of acid than other
forests because they tend to be surrounded by acidic clouds and fog that are more acidic that
rainfall. Scientists believe that when trees are frequently bathed in this acid fog, essential
nutrients in their leaves and needles are stripped away. This loss of nutrients in their foliage
makes trees more susceptible to damage by environmental factors, particularly cold winter
weather.

C. Acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including
irreparable buildings, statues and sculptures that are part of nation's cultural heritage.

III. Controlling Acid Deposition

Generation of electricity requires the burning of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and oil.
Acid deposition is caused by two pollutants that are released into the atmosphere, or emitted
when these fuels are burned; these pollutants are sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx). Coal accounts for most of the SO2 and NOx emissions in the U.S. Sulfur is present in
coal as an impurity, and it reacts with air when coal is burned to form SO2. In contrast, NOx is
formed when any fossil fuel is burned.

Options for reducing S0, and NOx emissions.

1. Use coal containing less sulfur, washing the coal, and using devices called scrubbers to
chemically remove tie SO2 from the gases leaving the smokestack
2. Power plants can switch fuels. For example, burning natural gas creates less SO2 than
burning coal.

3. Catalytic converters reduce NOx emissions from cars. These devices have been required
for over twenty years in the U.S. and it is important to keep them working properly.
Use alternative energy sources.
There are other sources of electricity besides fossil fuels. They include hydropower, wind
power, geothermal energy, and solar energy. There are also alternative energy sources available
to power automotive engines, including natural gas-powered vehicles, battery-powered cars, fuel
cells, and combinations of alternative and gasoline powered vehicles.

Take action as Individuals.

Human beings can contribute directly by conserving energy, since energy production
causes the largest portion of acid deposition problem. For example, you can do the following:
1. Turn off lights, computers, and other appliances when not using them.
2. Use energy efficient appliances; lighting, air conditioners, heaters, refrigerators, washing
machines, etc.
3. Keep your thermostat at 20 °C in winter season and 22.2 C in summer season.
4. Carpool, use public transportation, or better yet, walk or use bicycle whenever possible.

Global Scope of Acid Damage

Brazil - Rain in Sao Paulo state has average pH of less than 4.5.
Canada - Damage to sugar maple trees; 300 lakes in Ontario have pH of
China - Near Chongging, acid rain has damaged rice crops; in less than 5.0. Guiyang, rainfall
has an average pH of 4.0.
Greece - Acid pollution in Athens threatens the Parthenon and other.
India - Industrial pollution is damaging buildings in Bombay and the Taj Mahal, in Agra,
Uttar Pradesh.
Japan - In Tokyo acid air is a suspected health risk.
Poland - Acid has eroded and weakened railroad tracks.
Sweden - 20.000 lakes are acidified, and 4,000 no longer support fish.
Switzerland - In central Alpine region, nearly half of conifers are dead or damaged.
South Africa - Acid is suspected cause of damage to buildings and vegetation.
Southern Norway - Eighty percent of the lakes are either biologically dead or endangered.
West Germany - Acid precipitation has damaged more than one half the forests.
United Kingdom - Acid precipitation has damaged 67% of the forests.
United States - Extensive damaged to conifer forests and the Apalachian mountains; 10% of
the lakes in Adirondack mountains have pH below 5.0.

IV. Red Tide

Red tide is a phenomenon caused by dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellates are small organisms that
float near the surface of the ocean. These microscopic organisms have chlorophyl and have red
and yellow pigments. When the population of dinoflagellates increase tremendously, they turn
the water red. The species of dinoflagellates that cause red tide produce nerve toxins. There are
about 2000 species of dinoflagellates and 30 of these are poisonous. In the Philippines, the kind
of dinoflagellates that cause red tide is called Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum.
 There are reports in many papers that the increase in population of dinoflagellates is due to
excessive nutrients that reach the surface of water. Several forms of wastes (Domestic and
industrial wastes) are being dumped or drained in lakes, rivers and seas, reaching the oceans.
These wastes contain nitrate and phosphates which are nutrients for dinoflagellates.
Red tide does not kill the shellfish except when the dinoflagellates become excessive.
Excessive dinoflagellates consume plenty of oxygen thereby depriving other organisms of
oxygen. The shellfish are the one mostly affected by red tide. This is so because they feed by
means of filter feeding. Filter feeding involves the straining of water for smaller and microscopic
organisms.

What are the effects of red tide? The effects of red tide poisoning is known as paralytic shellfish
poisoning. The symptoms of this disease include:
1. Numbness of face, lips, and tongue
2. Dizziness and vomiting
3. Severe headache
4. Paralysis or inability to move hands and feet without a piercing pain
5. Weakness and increase heartbeat
6. Difficulty in speaking, swallowing, and breathing

These symptoms are felt 30 minutes after eating contaminated shellfish. A person is likely to
survive red tide poisoning if he or she overcomes the first 24 hours at the time the contaminated
shellfish is eaten.
To avoid red tide poisoning, avoid eating shellfish if there is warning about red tide. You
may eat fish, crabs, shrimps, and squid but make sure these are fresh. Remove the internal organs
particularly the intestines and gills of fish and squids. Remove the eggs of crabs and wash them
very well before cooking and eating. Do not use vinegar when cooking. Acids increase the toxic
effect of red tide.

V. Biodiversity Loss
The widespread loss of biodiversity is great concern for every human. There is a strong
impulse to improve wildlife habitat by re-introduction of woody perennials into agricultural land
in Europe. Reports have shown that the presence or absence of a roe deer, robin, and song thrush
were highly corelated with forest fragmentation, each Species exhibiting a favorite spatial
distribution of forest patches. One advantage claimed by agroforestry is that it can bring into
farmland some benefits associated with woodland. In the United Kingdom, Burgess (1999) has
demonstrated that the development of silvopastoral agroforestry can increase the diversity of
invertebrates and maybe birds in grassland systems, and that agriculture can increase the
diversity arthropods, small mammals and possibly birds in arable agriculture. Nevertheless, it
must be kept in mind that an increase in diversity may also increase the number of organisms
formerly designated as pests, such as insects, small or large mammals which often feed on trees
or create various kinds of damage.

Trees are generally, considered as important features of the landscape. Most people consider
rural landscapes to be timeless, and resistance to change is often very great. Forest management
can arouse public apathy, and in areas of great natural beauty can lead to criticism. Conversely,
depending on how land-use management is caried out, there are many opportunities for
enhancing the landscape value of the woodlands. Sustainable management should therefore take
into account the visual impact on landscape.
 It is often thought that trees have a positive effect on the global carbon balance, by means of
carbon sequestration. However, this is largely disputed as carbon balance must be considered
over a long term. Carbon fixation within timber is only temporary, as in furniture or housing
lumber has a half-life estimated as 80-100 years, and paper products have a half-life of 1-6 years.
Tree plantations do indeed fix carbon according to their growth rates. Usually, the land is
replanted to trees which fix carbon rapidly in the first years of growth but when the tree is cut or
harvested a large amount returns to the atmosphere by decomposition of leaves, litter, branches,
roots, or processing residues, and only the amount effectively used as wood products is fixed for
a certain time. Firewood, paper, posts, and small packages do not fix carbon for very long period.
Carbon fixation within soils is considered more important than the living biomass, with small
amounts in cultivated crop fields, larger amounts in natural grasslands, and relatively large
amounts under woodlands, which however lose most of the carbon when they are clear-cut.
Researchers consider that there is no difference in carbon storage between land-uses.
Nevertheless, substituting wood for fossil fuels can greatly reduce the consumption of carbon
producing fuels. This is probably the best manner of reducing carbon emission to the
atmosphere, but wood is not the only source of bioenergy, energy-rich annual crops can also
contribute positively to carbon balance.

VI. Hydrological Imbalance

When Europeans settled in Australia, there has been widespread clearing of native
vegetation. Large areas that are previously, forested were converted to traditional European
agricultural cropping and grazing systems. These shallow rooted cropping and pasture systems
generally do not use as much water as the deep-rooted native vegetation, resulting in significant
increases in recharge to the groundwater system. This has resulted in a rise in the water-table of
more than 1 meter per year in some dryland agricultural areas. This is in part because the patterns
of seasonal water use of the introduced agricultural systems are considerably different from the
native vegetation. The problem is most pronounced during the winter months when rainfall is
greatest, and atm0spheric demand is low, evapotranspiration rates are low. While this factor
applies equally to native vegetation and agricultural crops and pastures, deep-rooted native
vegetation is able to exploit the stored soil moisture. Shallow rooted cropping systems cannot
fully exploit this stored soil moisture, resulting in increased rates of deep drainage and
groundwater recharge. The introduction of trees into the landscape has been identified as one of
the keyways to address this hydrological imbalance.

VII. EI Niño
The term El Niño was first heard in 1892 by a scientist named Camilo Carillo from fishermen
in Port Paita of Peru who kept on talking about the Corrientes del Niño or Current of the (Christ)
Child". Evidently, the fisherfolk were referring to the warm water that occurred around
Christmas, the date celebrated worldwide as the birth of Jesus, causing a sharp increase in fish
catch. But this event was only for a short period because fish population declined sharply.

At present, the El Niño is defined as "a spectacular oceanographic/meteorological

phenomenon that develops in the Pacific", mostly off Peru. This is associated with extreme
climatic variability. It is characterized by weather disturbances or unexpected climatic changes
such as absence of rains during rainy season, or the occurrence of typhoons during the dry
season. This global climatic abnormality can cause extreme prolonged dry season/drought or
excessive rainfall in short periods that can cause widespread flooding indifferent areas.
Under normal conditions, the prevailing easterly trade winds (winds that blow toward the
equator from either side of it) that drive the ocean circulation blow from east to west, creating a
thicker and warmer mixed layer in the Central and Western Pacific, while a thinner and colder
mixed layer occurs in the Eastern Pacific. This also brings about a cold upswelling off South
America. Under normal easterly trade wind conditions, sea level tuns higher by about 40cm in
the Western Pacific. Fluctuations in winds stress likewise affect the sea level, which rises when
the trade winds blow stronger than normal. Correspondingly, when the trade winds slacken, the
sea level falls, and unusual things start to happen.
Suddenly, the drag on the ocean surface diminishes. Warm water runs back toward the east
and aborts the upswelling of cold water off Peru, giving birth to an El Niño.

Characteristics of EI Niño
According to the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA), the Bl Niño will be known by the following. characteristics:
1. It occurs in the Pacific basin every 2-9 years
2. It usually starts during the Northern winter (December to February).
3. Once established, it lasts until the first half of the ensuing year, although at times,
it is longer (as El Niño in 1939-1941 and 1989-1992).
4. It exhibits phase-locking to annual cycles, meaning El Niño and rainfall
fluctuations associated with it tend to recur at the same time of the year, and
5. It usually has a biennial cycle with El Niño events often preceded or followed by La Niña
La Niña refers to the cold phase during which the equatorial central eastern pacific sea
surface temperatures are generally below normal. La Niña (which means the girl) is also
sometimes referred to El Viejo (the old man). The El Niño La Niña pendulum- like swings from
one extreme to the other are called the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). This phenomenon
is a disturbance of great magnitude affecting both atmosphere and ocean.

How Does the ENSO Affect Climate?

The episodes of this merging of air and ocean water patterns evolve with remarkable degree
of consistency. However, their effects vary from episode to episode. ENSO is global in nature. It
leads to somewhat simultaneous appearance of pronounced climate anomalies around the world.
There are three types of anomalies that can be associated with ENSO episodes:
These are rainfall fluctuation, wind, and temperature fluctuations. In rainfall fluctuation, the
distinct effect of ENSO is the tendency for rainfall anomalies (is the presence of drought in some
places and heavy rainfall in other places) to appear in many areas around the globe at the same
time and its large-scale nature means that large areas suffer from the same rainfall at the same
time. There is also a large interannual variability in areas affected by it. he drought and wet
periods tend to last about 12 months or more and are phase- Locked to the annual cycle. If an
extensive drought is established by the middle of the year, it is unlikely to break until at least
early the following year.
In temperature fluctuation, some' researchers have reported increased temperatures
throughout Southeast Asia during El Nino events relative to La Niña episodes with phase locking
to annual cycle being evident in these temperature anomalies.
In wind fluctuation, there are clear variations in wind between El Niño and non- El Niño
events, especially close to the equator Northeast monsoon over the Philippines tends to be
weaker during an El Niño, whereas the southwest monsoon over Indonesia and Malaysia tends to
be stronger during an ENSO episode.
 The Philippine Situation
The Philippines has experienced four El Niño episode: 1948-1959, 1961-1973,
1974-1988, and 1989-1996. Two of these episodes were rated as extreme El Niño related.
droughts: between-1982-1988 and 1991-1992. The former cost the country some US$400
million in casualties while the latter cost Php 4.1 billion in damages and extensive power
interruptions. The country was not prepared then, resulting in a month-long flood in
Central and Southern Luzon in 1972 that caused Php 15 billion in damages.
Again n 1997-1998, the Philippines experienced one of the worst El Niño. This is.
described as "spectacular by climatologists. It was also described as surprising for it.
came rather too soon after the last one which occurred in 1992.

The Effects of El Niño

A. On Crops
In some highly vulnerable provinces, it may not be able, to plant at all and harvesting will be
pushed into the typhoon and flooding months. There will be significant decrease in grain output.
Irrigated lands that can grow dry season cops may find less water toward the end of the growing
period. This could affect grain formation and reduce yield. The El Niño could bring about
drought- included pests, locusts among them, and diseases.
The solution is to build water- impounding structures, irrigation systems, such as shallow
tube well and dry irrigation.

B. On Forests
Temperatures above 45°C could kill seedlings, or cause desiccation of tissues of big trees
thus stunting their growth and rendering them vulnerable to pests. Forest fires. could have long-
term effects on the diversity of the ecosystem. There should be better forest. management.
Drought-resistant species should be. included in reforestation. There should be soil and water
conservation measures in the. uplands. Water-impounding dams should be. Built in inhabited
areas, Check dams in gullied areas will minimize soil erosion and help recharge ground water.
Ground water Sources should be protected; rainwater collection should be encouraged; and most
of all, there is no substitute for conservation.

C. On Livestock
Farm animals' nutrition and general well-being could be affected as there could be a low
supply of high-energy feeds brought about by high cost, low production, poor pasture and low
water supply. Livestock and poultry in enclosed pens could suffer from beat stress and external
parasites, poor disposal and ticks.
Nonconventional energy feeds such' as wheat, barley and cassava plus feed additives could
be used as well as anti-stress vitamins. One could resort to sillage making and use of tree leaves
as feeds. To ease heat stress, dig tunnels in pens to provide ventilation. Fire breaks should be
made to avoid pasture fires.

D. On Fisheries
Surface seawater will get warmer by 34°C, thus affecting surface dwellers such as tuna,
sardines and round scad which will go to cooler waters. Also, fishponds production will be
affected because no rainfall will increase the salinity of brackish water where bangus (milkfish)
fry thrive. Save on freshwater by not draining ponds during fish harvest. Reduce fishpond
operation to minimize loss. Increase fish production in areas that are not hit by the drought.
E. For Households
Conserve water in kitchen, toilet or bathroom. For those who cannot let the day pass without
taking a bath, it is time to do your share in conserving water. Recycle water used in bathing and
washing plates for cleaning the house or watering the plants. Refrain from using hose in watering
plants and washing cars. Inspect water pipes for leaks.
VIII. La Niña
La Niña is the other extreme condition of the ENSO cycle where sea surface temperatures is
below normal temperatures in the tropical pacific. This phase is characterized by warm winters
in Southeastern United States, colder than normal winters from the Great Lakes to the Pacific
Northwest, and unstable winters in the Northeast and Middle Atlantic states. La Niña may occur
after some but not in all El Niño years.

Impact of La Niña in Global Climate

In the tropics, global variations in La Nita tend to be opposite those of El Niño El Niño
brought dry spell or drought in the tropics, La Niña bring too much moisture that many areas will
be flooded. At higher latitudes, the impact of both episodes is clearly seen and experienced in
wintertime.
During the 1997-1998 EI Niño period, the Barth's rotation has slowed down and the first time
that an El Niño has made the days longer. La Niña, which is the opposite phenomenon, affects
also the rotation of the Earth and estimated to speed up, but only "About three quarters as much"
as El Niño slowed it down. Dr. Jean Dickey (1998) of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory said that while the average person would
probably not be affected by a small shift in the Earth's rotation, "it plays a very important role in
interplanetary navigation" and global warming.
In the Philippines, the areas that will be affected by La Niña are Central Luzon, other
provinces in Northern Luzon and Eastern Visayas. La Niña will cause damage to the agricultural
sector as it brings flashfloods that may trigger soil erosion and make the soil more unfit for
planting at the same time silting riverbeds and low-lying areas which aggravates flooding. It will
also cause damage to roads and bridges when heavy flooding occurs likewise causing landsides.
Floods will also damage lives, crops, livestock and properties.
In urban areas, clogging of drainage system and canals will also cause flooding in streets and
other low areas causing heavy traffic, making life difficult and miserable for Commuters and
everybody living in the area.

Things to Do to Mitigate the Impact of La Niña

Communities in rural areas engaged in farming can adopt soil and water conservation
measures such as bench terracing in hillslope farming, adopt some agroforestry systems and
avoid cutting of trees to mitigate the impact of La Niña Planting of trees and other greeneries
help to hold off water in these areas.
In urban areas, drainage canals should be properly cleaned and declogged of debris before
the onset of heavy rains and typhoons. This activity can best be done by the community
themselves with the help of the local government units, non-government organizations and other
civic organizations. Government officials can advise farmers to close down irrigation dams in
their areas during heavy rains to prevent the water from overflowing to their croplands,
everybody should prepare in advance enough food and water supply, medicine, fuel, and other
required items such as portable radio handy for weather advisory and information during extreme
events.
Table 23. Listed are the El Niño and La Niña events for 1900 to 1998.
EI Nino La Niña
(Year) (Year)
1900- 1901 1903 1904
1902-1903 1906- 1907
1905-1906 1908 1909
1911 1912. 1916-1917
1914- 1915 1920- 1921
1918-1919 1924-1925
19.3-1924 1928- 1929
1925- 1926 1931 1932
1930- 1931 1938- 1939
1932-1933 1942- 1943
1939 1940 1949- 1950
1940-1941 1954- 1955
1941 1942 1964- 1965
1946-1947 1970- 1971
1951- 1952 1973- 1974
1953- 1954 1988- 1989
1957- 1958 1995-1996
1963-1964 1998
1965- 1966
1969-1970
1972-1973
1975-1976
1976- 1977
1977-1978
1982 1983
1986-1987
1991- 1992,
1992-1993,
1994 1995,
1997-1998