RESEARCH

1. Discuss the elements/parts of a thesis. (20 pts.)

Usually a thesis or dissertation consists of two main parts. The first part is the preliminaries, and the
other is the body of the thesis.

The preliminaries of a research paper are (1) Title page, (2) Approval sheet, (3) Acknowledgement, (4)
Table of Contents, (5) List of Tables, (6) List of Figures, and (7) Abstract.

Title Page. The title page is the first page of a research paper, thesis and dissertation, but page number is
not indicated. The title page presents the title; kind of research work, research paper, thesis or
dissertation; the faculty to be submitted; name of the school; the submission statement; the degree
granted; full name of the researcher; month and year in which the degree is to be granted. The title
should be brief, descriptive, and comprehensive and it appears in the title page is typewritten in all
capital letters in an inverted pyramid style.

Approval sheet. The approval sheet immediately follows the title page. It generally contains a statement
of acceptance of the research report. The approval sheet should contain the signatures of the following:
the research adviser, members of the panel, and dean of the college.

Acknowledgement. This is another preliminary section of a research paper in which the researcher
express his gratitude to the different persons who assisted, facilitated, oriented, and guided him to make
his research work a reality. The researcher should recognize and appreciate the assistance, guidance, and
selfless effort and wise counsel of his adviser and reader.

Table of Contents: The table of contents lists the preliminary parts, th e chapter title along with the
subdivisions of the body of the report, and the supplementary materials in the appendix. The preliminary
parts are listed first, after these are the chapters.

List of Tables. The list of table should follow the table of contents. Tables should be
listed separately from the chapter and section headings. All captions should appear exactly the same in
the listing.

List of Figures: Titles of pictures, graphs, charts and other illustrative materials are all included in the
List of Figures. Figures appearing in the appendix should be included in the List of Figures.

Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the research.generally, it gives a concise summary of the
problem, the research methodology used, the findings and conclusions. The abstract allows readers to
survey the contents of the research report quickly. The abstract includes: 1. A brief description of the
background and purpose of the study; 2. A statement of the theoretical and conceptual framework and
hypothesis(es); 3. A specification of the subjects or samples (ethnic group, age, sex, number), the
research design, the instruments, and the data-gathering procedure; 4. The main results and conclusions.
The abstract must be completed in one-paragraph form, single-spaced, and in 120 words or less. The
following writing guidelines should be used for abstracts: 1. Do not repeat the title of the thesis in first
few lines of the abstract to statements of what was done and the results found; 2. State whatever has to
be said in as few words as possible; don't be redundant.

Usually, the body of the thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter 1 deals on the problem and its
background; chapter 2, review of related literature; chapter 3, methodology of the study; chapter 4
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data; and chapter 5, summary, conclusions, and
recommendations.

Chapter 1. The Problem and Its Background

Introduction: The text ordinarily begins with an introduction. This is a brief statement
of the origin of the problem. It is an account describing the circumstances which suggested the research.
Systematic and orderly presentation of background information related to the problem, unresolved issues
and social concerns may be included.

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Significance of the Study: This part should state the importance of the problem investigated, its poll in
current /contemporary development and the significance of the results. It should include a statement on
the potential contribution of the research to and policy implications for and other possible used. It should
present an orderly identification or probable uses of research and should state specific ways on how the
findings can be used.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework: In this part the researcher should formulate a tentative

theoretical scheme for the research problem. The theoretical framework outlines the research theory to
be verified in the study. And in the theoretical framework the researcher needs to have a clear
presentation of the theory which explains why the study exists. The conceptual framework specifies the
key variables of the study and shows their interrelationships. An appropriate development of conceptual
frame with reference to the problems of the study is needed. This is usually represented in a diagram.

Statement of the Problem: problems include major and specific concerns. In this part the research
should have a clear identification of the problem statement. Succinct, unambiguous statement of specific
problems related to the major problem. While working on this part, the researcher should note: the
problem should be stated precisely, accurately, and clearly; the major problem can be sated either in the
declarative or interrogative form; the specific problems are stated either in interrogative form or in the
form of objectiveness; the problem may be defined in terms of data that can be obtained.

Hypothesis of the Study: Hypotheses are tentative statements about the given population. They serve as
tentative answers to one or more research problems, and are subjected to statistical test. A clear-cut
statement of hypotheses/ assumptions would be very important. The hypotheses are stated in testable
form/ the level of significance usually at p<.01 or p<.05 level is set before testing. Both the research and
null hypotheses(Ho) are stated. Qualitative research may not test hypotheses.

Definition of Terms: Clear definitions should be stated for all important variables, especially if these
are to be measured by means of specific instruments or a combination of devices. Use of operational
definitions of key variables. This section does not appear in qualitative research.

Scope and Delimitation: This section would be sufficient delimitation of the problem area in terms of
content, time, place and subjects of the investigation. Limits of the study need to be properly defined.
The scope is expected to indicate a reasonable area of study which is large enough to be significant but
narrow to permit careful treatment. The scope of the problem should be stated specifically.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature and Studies.

The purpose of this chapter is to tell what research has or has not been done on the problem, it explains
or clarifies the theoretical rationale of the problem. It provides general picture of the research topic. The
literature and studies related to the problem should be systematically presented. And there should be
adequate presentations with reference to problem, research design, and significant findings. The review
clarifies the interrelationship of the literature reviewed. Points out weaknesses and strengths of each
study. Only research literature which are related in purpose, method, or findings to the current study
should be included in the review.

Chapter 3: Methodology of the Study

Method and Techniques: In this section the researcher has to present a concise description of the
research method and justification for its choice. Followed by that should be a sufficient description of
operational or field procedures followed in the collection of data (when, where, and how data are to be
obtained).

Population and Sample of the Study: This section describes the population and sample profiles,
sample size and sampling procedure. When working on this section, use appropriate sampling design
and sample size.

Instruments of the Study: This section should be appropriate choice and description of the instruments.
Detailed procedures on how the instrument was constructed should be stated. A description of the data-
gathering tools and their development: adoption, construction, validation and administration of

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instruments is included. Instruments include test, questionnaires, interview guidelines. Adequate
information pertaining to validity and reliability of the instrument is needed.

Data Processing and Statistical Treatment: The procedures followed in conducting the study should
be explained in complete detail. Techniques, devices, and procedures followed are explained in this part.
The researcher should give especial attention to the appropriateness of statistical treatment and data
processing.

Chapter 4: Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

This chapter summarizes and presents the results of data analysis. The results are presented in a straight-
forward and unbiased way. The presentation are geared to the research hypotheses, if any. In this chapter
the researcher is required to (1) briefly introduce the topic; (2) present the data; (3) analyze and interpret
the results. Presentation of the results should follow the order and sequence of the problems raised in
chapter 1. The researcher is required to scholarly analyze and interpret the results by providing scientific
and unbiased insights concerning the results of the study. It is also suggested to integrate the contents of
chapter 2 in the analysis & interpretation of the results.

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

This last chapter of the report contains an overview of the research. In theses and dissertations, it gives a
brief restatement of the problem, the procedures, and findings. It is not supposed to contain any new
information. Rather it briefly recapitulates the entire content of the paper. The summary should also
include the research design, the population and sample and the statistical techniques used. The summary
of findings or results of the study is presented in the order of the problems raised in chapter 1. The
conclusions are based on the findings of the study. The recommendations are based on the derived
conclusions. The purpose of chapter 5 is to summarize the entire research project. It would include
discussions on what the research is all about, the problem and the hypothesis and a brief summary.
Broad generalizations not adequately supported by data are to be avoided. Conclusions should be drawn
only from the populaiton and circumstances for which the evidence has been collected. Opinionated
satements and suggestions not supported by evidence should be avoided. Practical implications that can
be drawn from the study are to be included.

Bibliography
When doing research and writing a report, it is always necessary to name the source(S) of your
information. This list of sources is called bibliography. A bibliography should be listed alphabetically.
The second line of an entry should be indented for five spaces(one standard tab). Skip a line after each
entry. The aim of writing a bibliography is to show where you obtained information and acknowledge
your sources and to allow your readers to find this information if they need to. In writing a bibliography
the following information should be included: author(surname first, followed by first name of initials);
title of publication (underlined, or using italics); publishing company; place of publication (usually a
town or city); and year of publication. If it is a bibliography of the book, these information should be
arranged in the following way:

Author's last name, first name. Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher, copyright year. For
example:
Fogle, Bruce. Training Your Dog. New York: DK Publishing, 2001.

If your source of information is coming from an Internet, the information should be arranged like:
Author's last name, first name. "Title of item." [Online] Available
http://address/filename, date of document or download.

For example:
DiStefano, Vince. "Guidelines for Better Writing." [Online] Available
http://www.usa.net/~vinced/home/better-writing.html, October 5,2002.

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2. Discuss the research process. (20 pts.)

The following are the steps of doing a research:

Step 1: Analysis of Socio-Educational Issues/Problems, thus to identify and

develop a good topic.
Before starting a study, a basic assumption is needed to start a study. Then state your topic as a question.
For example, if you are interested in the influence of teacher's behavior on students' academic
performance, you might pose the question, " Does teacher's behavior influences students' academic
performance?". From the question you posed to yourself, identify the main concepts or key words in
your question. A good topic should meet the following criteria: interest; workable; theoretical
value( potential contribution of the study to the state of the art); practical value (who are the individuals
or organizations that can take benefit from the research and how); and critical mass(how the topic be
interesting and important to other people).

Step 2: Identifying developing research questions, problems, hypothesis.

In this step the basic essential is research conceptualization and development, which refers to "how" to
develop the idea for the research project. This involves: Formulating good research problem and
formulating a good testable hypothesis. In step 1 a topic is already identified, then the next thing need to
be done is to develop a research problem. Since research is a time-consuming, detail-oriented process in
which there are often tasks that generally not emotionally fulfilling or intellectually stimulating but still
need to be performed, in developing a research problem the researcher needs to ask himself/herself the
following questions: is it interesting to you ? Is it feasible? What's the potentialities of the study in
contribution to add new knowledge? And what's the practical use of the study? After the research has an
idea about what is his research problem, he/she needs to formulate a research title. The research title
must be qualitative and it is a comprehensive interpretation of your basic assumption, which should be
formed before starting the research. And a good title should be long enough to be descriptive, and short
enough to be caught in, usually within 14 content words. While making a tile please keep in mind that
you should make it more understandable, then the major problem can be gotten easily. What after the
research title are the developing of major problem and specific problems. When formulating, at least one
research problem is needed. The researcher must be able to distinguish the major problem and specific
problems. The major problem is a broad sense, it is the main topic of your research, and it can be stated
in both statement form and question form. After the major problem is identified, chop it into 3-4 specific
problems, which can also be stated in statement and question form.
Key points in formulating research problems are: specific; measurable( quantified and permits
measurement- all variables cab be measured). To judge whether a research problem is measurable, the
research can ask a question as "Is there any questionnaire or available test to quantify his/her research
problem?"; And conjecture（it is a assumption; correlation between the main variables). In the process
of formulating research problems, the researcher still need to know the difference between research
problem and research questions. Research problem is the problem meets all the three key points
mentioned above. Research question some times called developmental questions. It serves to a
developmental purpose in a study. Specific problems can be both research problem and research
questions. Research question has only one variable being talked about, however the research problems
involves more than one variables and has to meet the foregoing criteria. (example see the notebook)

Step 3: Reviewing related literature.

Importance of review of related literature are: it serves as a source of research problems which can be
deduced from existing studies; it ensures that important variables relevant to the study are not
overlooked; it establishes the need/significance/justification in conducting the present study; it provides
a historical background perspective about the study; it serves as a basis for the development of the
theoretical conceptual framework; it avoids the necessary duplication of selecting a research which had
been done before; it helps to give more focus, direction and clarity to the study; and it helps to
familiarizes the reader with previous studies done related to the present topic.

Step 4: Developing theoretical &conceptual framework

What is the theoretical framework? 1. The theoretical framework outlines the theory that one wishes to
espouse to verify in his/her study. If there is a theory that can be used, then use it as your theoretical
framework and verify whether it is true or not. If there is no available theory, postulate one. In another
word, make your own assumption. 2. The theoretical framework is the basic theory which explains why
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the study exists. That is to say your theoretical framework must explain why your study exist, why you
use it. 3.the theoretical framework is the basic structure upon which concepts are built. 4. The
Theoretical Framework is the research study’s frame of reference that provides the very foundation for
which the study is being conducted. What is the conceptual framework? 1. A conceptual framework is
the set of terms and relationships within which the problem is formulated. 2. The Conceptual
Framework relates or translates the basic theory / postulate into more specific concepts. 3. The
Conceptual Framework is usually depicted by a diagram or schematic framework called paradigm. The
paradigm is the operational framework of the research study which illustrates the interrelationships
among variables. (for more information, see question 2).

Step 5: Formulation of hypothesis.

A research hypothesis almost equals to a statement of prediction, and it is the statement created by a
researcher when he/she speculate upon the outcome of his/her research. In the aforementioned part
research problems and questions has been formulated in a research. But they are too broad as statement
and are not testable by any reasonable scientific means. They are merely tentative question arising from
literature reviews and intuition, thus they are unscientific. The research hypothesis is a paring down of
the problem into something testable. In formulating hypothesis only make hypothesis for research
problem. Hypothesis must includes a research hypothesis which is the basic premise. It is what the
research bears in mind and it predicts the relationships between the variables. Apart from that, a null
hypothesis must be also included, it usually states that there is no difference, no relationship and no
effect among the variables.

Step 6: Develop the research design

There are mainly two kinds of research design one is qualitative research, another is quantitative
research. In quantitative research your aim is to determine the relationship between one thing (an
independent variable) and another(a dependent variable) in a population. Whereas, qualitative research
is all about exploring issues, understanding phenomena and answering question. During this stage the
research has to decide a research that suitable for his/her research. After that the population and sample
of the study also needed to be decided.

Step 7: Prepare/Validate the instrument and Data collection

Instrument is a description of the data-gathering tools and their development. It includes tests,
questionnaires, interview, guidelines. In this step the research has to have a good preparation of his/her
instrument. Then have his/her instrument validated by at least professors in the study area.

Data collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can
impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. After the instrument is validated, the
researcher can starts the data collection with the prepared instrument.

Step 8: Analyse and interpret the data

Once you have collected data for your research, you need to sort it out and make sense of what it means,
and that is data analysis and interpretation. In analysing and interpreting data there are some points that
the research should keep in mind: 1. During this step the research should briefly introduce the topic,
carefully present the data, then thoroughly analyze and interpret the results; 2. Presentation of the results
should follow the order and sequence of the problems raise in chapter1; 3. The research should analyze
an interpret the results scholarly by providing scientific & unbiased insights concerning the results of the
study; 4. It is also advisable for the research to integrate the contents of chapter 2 in the analysis &
interpretation of the results.

Step 9: Write a research report

After all the aforementioned 8 steps are done, the research can start the last step, that is writing a
research report, which. is a summary, conclusion and recommendation of his/her research. While writing
a research report, the research should aware that the report should also include the research design, the
population and sample and the statistical techniques used. The summary of findings or results of the
study is presented in the order of the problems raised in chapter 1. The conclusions are based on the
findings of the study. The recommendations are based on the derived conclusions. And the purpose of
this step is to summarize the entire research project. It would include discussion on what the research is
all about, the problem and the hypothesis and a brief introduction of data collection, interpretation
process.

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3. Current practices in various organizations (education, business, health, government, etc.) recognized the
important role of research in promoting management efficiency and effectiveness. Describe at least 3
practices in your area of concentration (major field) which demonstrate the application of research
principles. (15 pts)

4. Describe/explain the following key terms/concepts in the research process? (15 pts.)
4.1 Research Questions / Research Problem
4.2 Research Hypothesis / Null Hypothesis
4.3 Theoretical Framework / Conceptual Framework
4.4 Independent Variable / Dependent Variable

4.1 Research problem is a question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty that is proposed
for solution or discussion. It is the problem lacking of understanding in the literature or the things we
don't know or that need further clarification. It can be stated in both statement form and question form.
A good research problem should be Specific. The problem should be specifically stated; Measurable. It
is easy to measure by using research instruments (i.e., questionnaire, test, ect.) in collecting data; and
conjecture. It is a assumption; correlation between the main variables However research question is
stated as questions that might help to depict the solution to the research problem. Generally many
research questions will be answered to get a better insight into the solution to the research problem.

Differences between research problem and research question.

1. Research problem is the problem meets the above characteristics.
2. Research question some times called developmental question which serves to a developmental
purpose in the study.
3. Specific problems can be both research problem and research questions.
4. Research question has only one variable being talked about.

For example:
Major problem: The influence of the leadership behaviors of school administrators on teachers'
performance. (This is a research problem)

Specific problems (chop major problem into 3-4 specific problem).

1. What is the profile of school administrators in terms of educational preparation, training, age,
etc? ( Research question)
2. How may the leader ship behavior of school administrators be described in terms of task and
relationship dimensions? (Research question)
3. What is the level performance of the faculty in terms of teaching competency, professional
development,activities, ect? (Research question)
4. Do the leadership behavior of school administrator exert significant influence on the
performance of the faculty. (Research problem).

Among the specific problems being presented above, number 1, 2, and 3 are research questions. Because
in each of them there is only one variable being talked about. And they serve the purpose of question 4.
However, specific problem no.4 is the research problem since there are two variables being mentioned
and it meets the above criterias.

4.2 A research hypothesis almost equals to a statement of prediction, and it is the statement created by
a researcher when he/she speculate upon the outcome of his/her research. Research problems and
questions are too broad as statement and are not testable by any reasonable scientific means. They are
merely tentative question arising from literature reviews and intuition, thus they are unscientific. The
research hypothesis is a paring down of the problem into something testable. There are two types of
hypothesis, namely, null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis (also known as research hypothesis) .

The null hypothesis is a denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or a difference of an effect.

It is always stated in a negative form. In contrast, the alternative hypothesis (aka. research hypothesis)
is the opposite extreme of the null hypothesis because this is always stated in a positive form.
Alternative hypothesis is an affirmation of the existence of an observed phenomenon. And it predicts the
relationships between variables thus it is the basic premise of a research.

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4.3 The theoretical framework outlines the research theory to be verified in the study. The conceptual
framework specifies the key variables of the study and shows their interrelationships. The following part
is going to differentiate them in aspects of definitions, purposes and ways of developing the two
frameworks.

Theoretical framework:
What is theoretical framework?
The theoretical framework of a study is a structure that can hold or support a theory of a research work.
It presents the basic theory which explain why the problem under study exists. Thus, the theoretical
framework is a theory that serves as a basis for conducting research. It is outlines the theory that one
wishes to espouse to verify in the study. It is basis structure upon which concepts are built. And it is the
research study's frame of reference that provides the very foundation for which the study is being
conducted.

What's the purpose of formulating a theoretical framework?

Developing a theoretical framework is to help the researcher see clearly the variables of the study; it can
provide the researcher with a general framework for data analysis; and it is essential in preparing a
research proposal using descriptive and experimental methods.

How to formulate a theoretical framework?

To formulate a theoretical framework: 1) the research has to know whether there is a theory that can be
use. If there is, then use it as his theoretical framework and verify whether it is true or not. If there is no
available theory, postulate one; 2). After a theory is being identified or postulated, specifies the theory
used as basis for the study; 3). Mentions the proponent ; 4). Cites the main points emphasized in the
theory; 5). Support the researcher's exposition of the theory by ideas from other experts. 6). Illustrates
the theoretical framework by means of a diagram; and 7). Reiterates theoretical proposition in the study.

Conceptual framework:
What is conceptual framework?
After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher has to develop the conceptual framework of
the study. In order to answer what is conceptual framework, it's better to know what is concept first. A
concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea. While the theoretical frame work is
the theory on which the study is based, the conceptual framework is the operationalization of the theory.
To be specific, a conceptual framework is the set of terms and relationships within which the problem is
formulated. It relates or translates the basic theory/postulate into more specific concepts. And it is
usually depicted by a diagram or schematic framework called paradigm. The paradigm is the operational
framework of the research study which illustrates the interrelationships among variables. In other words,
conceptual framework is the researcher's own position on the problem and gives direction to the study. It
may be an adaption of a model used in a previous study with modifications to suit the inquiry. Aside
from showing the direction of the study, through the conceptual framework, the researcher can be able to
show the relationships of the different constructs that he wants to investigate.

How to formulate a conceptual framework?

To formulate a conceptual frame work, the researcher has to: 1). Cite his conceptual framework or
paradigm; 2). Identify his variables; 3). Point out the dependent and independent variables; 4). Show the
direction of the study.

4.4 Independent variable. This is variable influencing other variables, thereby determining the values
of these affected variables and it is variable that the researcher manipulates. For instance, an investigator
wants to determine the influence of study motivation on the academic achievement of the students. He
takes a group of students with higher motivation and observes their academic achievement. Likewise, he
takes another group of students with lower motivation and also observes their achievement. The
motivation of students is the independent variable because it is the manipulated value which can
influence the academic achievement of the students.

Dependent variable. They are variables whose values are influenced by the value of other values and
the are potentially influenced by the independent variable, because it is influenced by, and thus to some
extent depends on the independent variable. Also considering the above example, students' academic

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 achievement is the dependent variable, because it depends on the other variable (independent) which is
the motivation.

5. Discuss in-depth the following basic types of research: (15 pts.)

5.1 Historical 5.3 Experimental
5.2 Descriptive 5.4 Action

5.1 Historical research.Historical research is popularly called "what was" research. It deals with issues
happened in the distant past. Historical research is the process of systematically examing past events to
give an account of what was happened in the past. It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or
even a description of past events. It is a flowing, dynamic account of past events. The historical method
is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting events and/or conditions that occurred in the
past. An attempt is made to establish facts in order to arrive at conclusions concerning past events or
predict future events.

Goals: The goals of historical methods are to reconstruct the past objectively and accurately; to answer
questions; to identify the relationship that the past has to the present; to record and evaluate the
accomplishments of individuals, agencies or institutions; and to assist in understanding in the culture in
which we live.

Process of conducting a historical research:

1. Identification of the research topic and formulation of historical problem.
There are three types of historical questions. They are: question of evolution, which intends to establish
the trend; question of resemblance which tries to institute a comparison: and question of value which
seeks to find causes and reasons. When formulation the historical problem, the researcher can use any
one of them or use the combination of them.
2. Data collection (involves identifying, locating and collecting information pertaining to the research
topic.
The researcher should notice that there are two sources of data in historical research one is primary
source, another is secondary source.

Primary source: Primary source is a source that has a direct involvement with the event being
investigated like a diary, relics, remains, artifacts, original map, original documents or an interview with
a person who experienced them.

Secondary source: Secondary source is a source that was created from a primary source such as books,
written about the event, encyclopedias, newspapers, periodicals and review of research and other
references. Secondary source are considered less useful than primary source.

3. Evaluation of materials
There are two main types of evaluation. They are external criticism and internal criticism.

External criticism: It refers to the process of determining the validity, trust worthiness, or authenticity
of the source. Sometimes this is difficult to do, but other times it can easily be done by handwriting
analysis or determining the age of the paper on which something was written.

Internal criticism: This refers to the process of determining the reliability or accuracy of the
information contained in the source collected. After the source is authenticated, it asks if the source is
accurate, was the writer or creator competent, honest, and unbiased? How long after the event happened
until it was reported? Dose the witness agree with other witnesses? This is done by positive or negative
criticism.
4. Data synthesis
5. Historical report
While the researcher is at this stage, there are three basic ways of presenting a historical report and the
researcher can choose among them a proper one to present his/her report based on the need of his/her
research. The researcher can present it chronologically or thematically which means the researcher
group materials according to topic or themes or eclectically 折衷 地 of the both two ways mentioned
above.

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5.2 Descriptive research. Descriptive research also known as statistical research which focuses at the
present condition with the purpose of finding new truth and describes data and characteristics about the
population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the question who, what, where,
when and how... It is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena, to
identify issues or problems, to give an assessment of phenomena in the light of certain standards/norms
and to identify factors associated with the problem. The methods involved range from the survey which
describes the status, the interrelationship study which investigates the relationship between variables, to
developmental studies which seek to determine changes over time.

Goals: The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is
being studied and to describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually and accurately. The
idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations.
Descriptive research is mainly done when a researcher wants to gain a better understanding of a topic.

Process of conducting a descriptive research:

1. Statement of the problem.
2. Identification of information needed to solve the problem.
3. Selection or development of instruments for gathering the information.
4. Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure.
5. Design of procedure for information collection.
6. Collection of information.
7. Analysis of information.
8. Generalization and/or predication.

As aforementioned descriptive methods include survey study, interrelationship study and developmental
study, now lets have a look at these three types of studies separately.

Survey study: Survey studies assess the characteristics of whole populations of people or situations. It
includes the following types:
1. School survey - used to gather data concerned with internal or external characteristics of a school
system.
2. Job analysis - used to gather information to be used in structuring a training program for a particular
job.
3. Documentary analysis - a special type of survey dealing with documenting present situations.
4. Public opinion survey - a special type of survey used to enhance the decision making process by
government officials.
5. Community survey - used to gather data concerned with internal or external characteristics of a
community.

Steps of doing descriptive survey:

1. Formulate the survey problem
2. Review literature/studies
3. Identify subjects/develop instruments
4. Data collection
5. Analyse/interpret collected data
6. Write the survey report.

Interrelationship study: Interrelationship study traces relationships among the facts obtained to gain a
deeper insight into the situation. It includes the following types:
1. Case study - probes in depth into an individual situation or personality with the intent of diagnosing a
particular condition and recommending corrective measures
2. Causal comparative study - compares the likeness and difference among phenomena to determine if
certain factors or circumstances tend to accompany certain events, conditions, or processes.
3. Correlation study - determine the extent of the relationship between two or more variables. The main
purposes of this type of study are to identify related variables, to identify predictive relationships and to
examine possible existence of causation.

Developmental study: Developmental study is concerned with the existing status and interrelationships
of phenomena and changes that take place as a function of time. In includes the following types:

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1. Growth study - may be either longitudinal or cross-sectional. The longitudinal technique is the most
satisfactory for studying human development. The cross-sectional technique is more commonly used
because it is less expensive.
2. Trend study - used to make predictions from social trends, economic conditions, technological
advances, ect. To future status.
3. Model or system development - creative development of a model or system based on a thorough
determination of the present situation or system and the goals sought.

5.3 Experimental research:Experimental research is an attempt by the researcher to maintain control

over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. It uses manipulation and controlled testing to
understand causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect
on a dependent variable. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may
occur.While doing an experimental research there are usually an experimental group and a controlled
group. Experimental research is through the comparison of the EG(experimental group) and
CG(controlled group) to deduce a claim, then applying the claim to the two groups to test the validity of
the claim.

In doing an experimental research there is an important term that can not be ignored, that is experimental
design. Experimental design is a blue print of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his
hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent
variables. It refers to the conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted.

Goals: The goals of experimental research are to establish causal relationships between variables
through investigating possible cause-and-effect relationships by exposing one or more experimental
groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing the results to one or more control groups not
receiving the treatment; to control for threats to internal (interpretability) and external (generalizability)
validity; and to enable the researcher to explain some kind of causation and predict phenomena.

Process of conducting an experimental research:

1. Identify and define the problem
2. Formulate hypotheses and deduce their consequences.
3. Construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions, and relations of the
consequences. In constructing an experimental design one can follow the following steps:
a. Select sample of subjects.
b. Group or pair subjects.
c. Identify and control non-experimental factors
d. Select or construct, and validate instruments to measure outcomes.
e. Conduct pilot study
f. Determine place,time, and duration of the experiment.
4. Conduct the experiment.
5. Compile raw data and reduce to usable form
6. Apply an appropriate test of significance
7. Generalization/predication/conclusion.

Essentials of experimental research:

1. Manipulation of an independent variable
2. Experimental control is made to hold all other variables except the dependent variables. It attempts to
predict events that will occur in the experimental setting by neutralizing the effects of other factors.
3. Observation - effect is observed of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent
variable.

5.4 Action research. Action Research is a reflective investigation of a personal interest, problem or
challenge. It is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice, systematically
and carefully, using the techniques of research.(Watts,H,1985).It is conducted by people who want to do
something to improve their own situation. It is concerned with changing situations, not just interpreting
them. Action is what distinguishes action research from the traditional research, which implies that the
practitioner will be acting as the collector of data, the analyst, and the interpreter of results. A cycle of
critical reflection and action is the heart of action research. This form of research then is an iterative,
cyclical process of reflecting on practice, taking an action, reflecting, and taking further action. It is most
often conducted by teachers and principals in schools and classrooms using less controlled procedures to

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 understand the effects of some educational intervention. Changes are made during the study with the
purpose of obtaining knowledge that can be applied directly to the local classroom situation and to give
the participating teachers inservice training. Since it is a reflective investigation, it must involve a
reflective process. There is an action research cycle, that is :
plan action reflect observe revised plan action observe reflect plan

Goals: The goals of action research is to improve professional practice through continual learning and
progressive problem solving; to have a deep understanding of practice and develop a well specified
theory of action; and to make an improvement in the community in which your practice is embedded
through participatory research.

Process of conducting an action research:

1. Identify and formulate the problem. If we are not clear and specific about what the problem is, we can
not develop and plan to solve the problem even we might not know when the problem is solved. So
identifying the problem must be starting point of a good action research. When formulating the problems
the following steps can be followed:
• Define the problem by isolating the real problem from other confounding variables that affect the
problem.
• Select the strategies that would be more appropriate to solve the problem.
• Narrow down the problem to a few questions to be answered.
2. Review the related literature. Literature review is to help us to become familiar with other research
done on the area of focus; to utilize the findings of others to help develop the plan; and to apply research
findings through the lens of others' experience.
3. Collect the data. Using a variety of data collection strategies to gather information that will contribute
to the findings.
4. Organize, analyze and interpret the data. As the data is collected, it is also continually organized and
analyzed. This step involves looking systematically at all the data collected to see what trends or
patterns emerge and what conclusions can be drawn, and what meaning these results, insights and new
understanding have for your practice.
5. Report the results. Write a report to summarize the findings of the research so that others may learn.
6. Take action and apply findings. This is the ACTION part of action research. From the stage of the
reporting the results conclusion has been drawn from the data analysis. In this stage the research should
translate these conclusions into actions or behaviors and plan how to implement the actions or
behaviors. Then do it.

6. The research methodology encompasses the following consideration: (15 pts.)

a) Data recognition c) Data analysis
b) Data collection d) Research framework

Explain carefully what these four considerations entail?

7. What preparations would you make as a researcher, if you intend to conduct an experimental
research? (15 pts.)

If I intend to conduct an experimental research, the first preparation I should make is to have a clear idea
of experimental research, thus further preparation works can be done. Experimental research is an
attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment.
It uses manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes. Generally, one or more
variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable. In doing this, the researcher
attempts to determine or predict what may occur.While doing an experimental research there are usually
an experimental group and a controlled group. Experimental research is through the comparison of the
EG(experimental group) and CG(controlled group) to deduce a claim, then applying the claim to the two
groups to test the validity of the claim.

After having a clear mind about what is an experimental research, another important preparation needed
to make is to identify and define the research problem, which is the basis of any kind of research. Since
the research problem is being defined, it is necessary to know what research has or has not been done on
the problem; what are the theories related to my research problem; and to make sure that important
variables related to the study would not be overlooked, then an intensive literary review will be quite

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 necessary. When the research problem is clear and an intensive literary review is done, the next
preparation is to formulate research hypothesis. As stated above experimental research is through the
comparison of the EG and CG to deduce a claim, then applying the claim to the two groups to test the
validity of the claim, therefore when the hypothesis is formulated, it is essential to deduce their
consequences which would be applied to the EG and CG to test its validity.

After all those pre-preparation has been done, another important preparation comes, that is experimental
design. Experimental design is a blue print of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his
hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent
variables. It refers to the conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted. In order to
have a good experimental design, specifically the following preparations can be followed: a) to decide
the sample of subjects and the sample size; b) group the sample subjects into experimental group and
controlled group; c) identify what are the non-experimental factors and control those non-experimental
factors; d) prepare an valid instrument to measure the outcomes; e) have a planing of how to conduct
pilot study; and f) determine place, time, and duration of the experiment. For example I wish to conduct
a study on the growth rate of milkfish cultured in the fishpond using fish meal and bread meal as
supplemental feeds. My research problem will be the relationship in the weight and length of milkfish
cultured in the fishpond using fish meal and bread meal as supplemental feeds. After I get this research
problem and an intensive literary review has been done. My further preparation for the research is to
select the sample of subjects and group them into two experimental groups. I will plan to have two
compartments in the fishpond as experimental groups, one is the milkfish fed with fish meal, another is
milkfish fed with bread meal. The feeds are independent variables and the growth rate is the dependent
variable. Since all those are clear, to do the experimental research the next preparation is to identify
what factors are non-experimental factors, in this example the ecological factors such as PH, oxygen
content of water, ect., would be the non-experimental factors. As a preparation ways to control those
non-experimental factors must be constructed. Since my research is about the relationship between the
feeds and the growth rate of the milkfish, to test the significance of the relationship an valid instrument
to measure the weight and length of the milkfish fed with different feeds must be prepared. When all
these preparations are done, another preparation will be determining the place, time and duration of my
experiment, that is where, and when and how long am going to do this experiment.

When an experimental design is carefully prepared, I still need to prepare and think about the way of
collecting data and how to process data, together with the statistical treatment that is going to be used in
my research. If all the preparations mentioned above are done, then I can conduct my experimental
research.

8. We often mention in our research class that the correct identification of a research problem is the
alpha and omega of the research process. Explain why? (15 pts.)

To explain why we often mention in our research class that the correct identification of research problem
is the alpha and omega of the research process, we have to bear in mind some basic terms and their
relationships in research first. These are research problem, hypothesis and variables. The research
problem is the heart of the research process, without which no research process can take place. However
while we are formulating the problem the variables must be take into consideration, and a hypothesis
should accompany the research problem. That is to say only when the research problem is clearly
defined, it is possible to identify the variables and to translate the research problem into a research
hypothesis that states a relationship between two or more variables in one (or more) population(s). Then
the research can be a good one that shows a clear linkage of the research problem, research hypothesis
and existing variables and the following works can be done based on the research problem identified.

Why we say the correct identification of a research problem is because the a correct identification of a
research problem is the first step and the most important requirement in the research problem. It serves
as the foundation of a research study, thus if well formulated, a good study can be expected to follow.
According to the Kerlinger: in order for one to solve a problem, one must know what the problem is.
The large part of the problem is knowing what one is trying to do. A research problem and the way you
formulate it determines almost every step that follows in the research study. Identification and
formulation of the problem is like the input into the study and the output is the quality of the contents of
the research report. Since the identification of a research problem is the alpha, which means a beginning,
of a research process, an important point to keep in mind when defining or formulating a research
problem is that it should be specific rather than general. When a problem or question is specific and

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 focused, it becomes a more answerable question than if it remained general and unfocused. A well
formulated problem is already a half-solved problem. A research problem is expressed as a general
question about the relationship between two or more variables. The correct identification of a problem
introduces the necessity of defining clearly all concepts used and of determining the variables and their
relationships.

From above discussion, it is quite clearly why we regard the correct identification of a research problem
as the alpha of a research problem. Because without it nothing can be followed. Now let's move to the
question why we call the correct identification of a research problem as the omega of a research
problem. According to Kumar (2005) research identification is like the identification of a destination
before undertaking jouney. As in the absence of a destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest or
indeed and route in the absence of a clear research problem, a clear economical plan thus is impossible.
Further more while we are doing a research, our ultimate goal is to solve the research problem being
identified at the very beginning of the research process. In conclusion, a research problem is like the
foundation of a building. The type, design and process of building is dependent upon the foundation of a
building. That is why we mention in our research class the the correct identification of a research
problem is the alpha and omega of the research process.

9. How will you assess the impact of the subject - Methods of Research, to you as a professional? (15 pts.)

To assess the impact of the subject Methods of Research is to assess the importance of research to us,
because this subject is to teach as us how to do a good research. Without knowing the impact or
importance of research to us as a professional, it is impossible for us to be truly understand the subject,
thereby a good research is difficult to be achieved. Through the subject, my knowledge about research
can be greatly improved. Therefore I can use what I learnt from this subject to realize the following:

1. Improviing the quality of life. Research has led us to search for ways in improving our life. It has led
us to focus on improving processes and means by which we must love. The quality of life has improved,
through research because we are dreamers, are ambitious and industrious in achieving our dreams. Take
my case as in instance, as a professional teacher in order to improve my quality of life, I would like to
know what's the impact of educational qualifications on socio-economic status. Therefore in order to get
an answer I might do a research on the educational qualifications and socio-economic status. If the
findings shows that the higher the educational qualifications the I can achieve, the higher also will be the
socio-economic status of me, and vice versa. Then I will know that educational qualifications has
significant implications with my socio-economic standing. Thus, in order to improve my socio-
economic status, I will try harder to achieve higher educational qualifications.

2. Improving instructions. Research has no beginning and no end. It is a never ending task. Educators,
policy makers, and educational researchers continue to conduct research to improve instruction. Studies
on the different strategies and approaches in the various subject areas and year levels have been
conducted to determine which strategy or approach is best and most effective in teaching. Through
research, instruction can be improved as well as the teacher's competence. For example, as an English
teacher how to improve the students' oral ability is of great importance in English teaching in China. In
order to determine what kind of teaching strategy will be effective, say online Vs in class room teaching,
a research can be done to find the answer. Then my way of instruction can be improved.

3. Improving student's achievement. The students' achievement could be improved through research, if I
study and understand the students' characteristics , problems and needs on the basis of which I fit my
methods accordingly.

4. Developing a systematic thinking. One characteristic of good research is systematic, in preparing a

good research a set of procedural specifications from data collection up to the statement of valid
conclusions must be followed, each important term is defined, variables are identified, procedures are
described in detail, results are objectively recorded and conclusions are presented with scholarly
cautioned and restraint. All these mentioned require a very strict systematic thinking. Thus it definitely
help me to develop a systematic thinking and to do things in a systematic way, which surely would be a
very good help in my study, work and life.

5. Developing a logical thinking. Another important characteristic of a good research is logic, which
without doubt will be help a researcher in developing logical thinking. During the process of doing a

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 research,one must come across many informations and data. In the procedure of presenting those
informations and data, one has to arrange them in a very logical way, thereby one's logical ability can be
gradually coming into being.

6. Improving language ability. While doing a research, there will be assembly of data from various
sources, then it is a practice of the language ability of the researcher to present them in the form of
writing. This will help one to improve one's writing skills thereby improving one's vocabulary. To do a
good research, an intensive literary review is quite necessary which will of on doubt help the researcher
to get faster and efficient in reading and picking up the matter more quickly.

7. Developing objectivity. Everybody is opinionated, even scientists. They often will also adhere to their
own theories. Research is a tool by which they can test their own, and each others theories. The purpose
of research is really an ongoing process of correcting and refining hypotheses, which should lead to the
acceptance of certain scientific truths.

What's more, research help us gather information on subject or phenomena that we lack or have little
knowledge about. It develops and evaluate concepts, practices and theories. Through research doing, we
can obtain knowledge for practical purpose like solving problems on population explosion.

10. How would you go about preparing for a descriptive research? What procedures would you follow?
(15 pts.)

Descriptive research also known as statistical research which focuses at the present condition with the
purpose of finding new truth and describes data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon
being studied. It answers the question who, what, where, when and how... It is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of the phenomena, to identify issues or problems, to give an
assessment of phenomena in the light of certain standards and to identify factors associated with the
problem. The methods involved range from survey study which describes the status, the interrelationship
study which investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to
determine changes over time.

If I am going to do a descriptive research, the first consideration will be determining among the three
methods, namely, survey study, interrelationship study and developmental study, which one will suit my
research. As stated above if my research is going to describe the status, the survey study will be used; if
my research aims to investigate the relationship between variables, the interrelationship study will be the
choice; and if my research wants to determine changes over time, the developmental study will do. After
the proper method being identified the following procedures will be followed to do my research.

1. Identifying and developing a good topic, which is a basic and beginning procedure of almost all types
of research. And it is a basic assumption that is needed to start the study.

2. Identifying and developing research problems, questions, and hypothesis. After the topic is already
identified, the next thing needed to be done is to develop a research problem, which is regarded as the
alpha and omega of a research. And it is the basis and goal of a research. Thus it is important to define
the research problem and state it in a proper way. Thereafter, translated the research problems into
testable hypothesis.

3. Reviewing related literature. Literature review servers as a source of research problems which can be
deduced from existing studies; it ensures that important variables relevant to the study are not
overlooked; it establishes the need/significance/justification in conducting the present study; it provides
a historical background perspective about the study; it serves as a basis for the development of research
framework; and it helps to familiarizes the reader with previous studies related to present topic. Without
literature review, one can not have a clear picture about the research going to be done. So after the
research problem and hypothesis being formulated, it's time to have an intensive literature review.

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4. Developing theoretical and conceptual framework. When the above steps are done, the researcher
need to figure out his theoretical and conceptual framework to support his study.

5. Identification of information needed to solve the problem. Through the literature review, a large
number of information will be obtained. When the theoretical and conceptual framework are formulated,
the researcher has to identify carefully among the vast information he got, which are useful and
necessary in solving the problem, and which are of little use in the research.

6. Preparing and validating the instrument for gathering the information. Instrument is a description of
the data-gathering tools and their development. The common instruments includes test, questionnaires,
interview, guidelines. In this step the research has to choose which method to use to collect data and to
have a good preparation of instrument. When the instrument in well prepared have it validate.

7. Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure. When the instrument is
ready and its validity is tested. The next step is to fix the target population. The researcher has to explain
how and where the subjects are taken. When the population is determined, the next consideration will be
the sample size and sampling design together with a carefully planned sampling procedure.

8. Design of procedure for information/data collection. In this step the researcher has to come out a
detailed procedure about how to collect the information.

9. Collection of information/data. With a carefully planned information collection procedure, the

research can collect the information now.

10. Analysis and interpret the data. Once the data have been collected, the research need to sort it out
and make sense of what it means, and that is data analysis and interpretation.

11. Generalization, predication and write a research report. After all the
aforementioned steps are done, the research can start the last step, that is to generalize and/or predict the
results of the data analysis, and then put it into a research report, which is a summary, conclusion and
recommendation of the research.

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