Online Private Ambulance Booking Website

BY
Alishba Qamar
2021-GCWUF-1734
Zahra Khushnood
2021-GCWUF-1739

Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Associate Degree Program

IN
Computer Science

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

GC WOMEN UNIVERSITY
FAISALABAD PAKISTAN

June 2023
DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the contents of the thesis, “Website” is product of my own research and no
part has been copied from any published source (except the references, standard mathematical
and genetic models/ equations/ formula/ protocols etc.). I further declare that this work has not
been submitted for award of any diploma/ degree. The university may take action if the
information provided is found inaccurate at any stage (in case of default the scholar will be
proceeded against as per HEC plagiarism policy).

Alishba Qamar
2021-GCWUF-1734
Zahra khushnood
2021-GCWUF-1739
(Sample Certificate Page)

The Controller of Examinations,

The members of the Supervisory Committee find the thesis submitted by Miss. -----------------
(Registration No.) satisfactory and recommend that it be processed for evaluation by the External
Examiner(s) for the award of degree.

NAME SUPERVISOR-I ----------------------------------

NAME MEMBER -----------------------------------

NAME MEMBER -----------------------------------

Acronyms and Abbreviations

HTML Hyper Text Markup Language

CSS Cascading style sheets
JS Java Script
PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
SQL Structured Query Language

Chapter 1
Introduction
This is one of the most important chapters of the report. It should begin with a clear
statement of what the project is about so that the nature and scope of the project can be
understood by any reader. It should summaries everything you set out to achieve,
provide a clear summary of the project’s background, relevance and main contributions.
The introduction should set the context for the project and should provide the reader
with a summary of the key things to look out for in the remainder of the report. When
detailing the contributions it is helpful to provide pointers to the section(s) of the report
that provide the relevant technical details. The introduction itself should be largely non-
technical. It is useful to state the main objectives of the project as part of the
introduction. Should have the following headings:

• Project Background/Overview

I. This website is designed for “Online Ambulance Booking:” this means that the
website specifically created to facilitate the process of booking an ambulance. It
serves as an online platform where user can request and schedule ambulances
services.
II. “It gives a ride to the patient for check-up:” This implies that the website provide
transportation services via an ambulance to patient who need to visit a health
care facility for a medical checkup. The ambulance will pick up the patient from
their specified location and transport them to the designated medical facility.
III. “When the patient is discharge from the hospital:” This refer to the situation
where are patient has completed their treatment or medical care at a hospital and
is ready to leave. Once the hospital declare the patient fit for discharge, the
website can arrange an ambulance to transport the patient from the hospital back
to their desired location such as their home or another specified address.
IV. “It provide facilities for driver to get Jobs:” This mean that website offers
opportunities for individuals to work as a drivers. These drivers would be
responsible for operating the ambulance and transporting patient to and from
medical facilities the website likely offers a platform for interested drivers to apply
for these position or to register their services.
V. “Purchase Coffin:” this statement indicate that the website allow user to by
coffins. A coffin the patient use to hold the deceased individuals for burial or
cremation purposes. It suggest that the website might have additional feature or
section where use can browse and purchase coffins if they require such services.
Overall the website primarily focuses on online ambulance booking and transportation
services for medical purposes however, it also appear to have separate feature related
to the purchase of coffin, and this provide opportunities for drivers to work within the
ambulance services.
Quick response: online platform can connect users with online ambulance services
swiftly. Instead of waiting on hold during phone calls or searching for available
ambulance user can quickly find and book an ambulance online, ensuring a faster
response during emergencies.
24/7 Hour Availability: online ambulance booking platform accessible 24/7, ensuring that
user can request emergency medical transportation at any time. This round the clock
availability can be crucial during critical situation when immediate medical attention is
required.

User panel:

Registration and login: Users can create an account by providing their detail and then
login using their credentials.
Ambulance booking: User can search for available private ambulance, required services
and availability, they can select the preferred ambulance and book it for a specific date
and time.
Services selection: User can chose the type of ambulance service they require, such
as basic transportation advanced life support, or specialized services.
Booking management: User can view their upcoming and past ambulance bookings,
make change to existing bookings, and cancel bookings if needed.
Payment: when you book the online private ambulance, you may need to pay the
services provider in cash or by other mean of physical payment, such as using a card
machine or other offline payment method.

Admin panel:

1) Dashboard: Admin have access to a centralized dashboard that provide an

overview of the system performance, including the number of booking, revenue
generated, and user statistics.

Brand
Create Brand: Add a new Brand in the vehicle management section the admin would
find an option to add a new brand. They would click on the option to start the process of
create new brand entry.

Manage Brand:

 Update brand: Edit the brand and enter the new information. Save the changes
to update the vehicle brand in website. Verify the changes by checking the
vehicle listing or relevant pages where the brand is displayed.
 Delete Brand: Find the specific brand to be deleted. Select the brand and chose
the delete option. Confirm the deletion when promoted.
Manage testimonial:

Testimonial submission page where user can submit their testimonial. This form should
include field such as name, email, testimonial and date. The admin should review the
testimonial to ensure they meet the website’s guidelines and standard. Once approve
the admin can chose to display the testimonial on relevant pages of website.

Manage subscribers:

Admin can manage subscriptions on the website on the private ambulance booking
service by implementing a subscription management system. This system should allow
the admin to perform task such as adding new subscriptions plans, modifying existing
plans, and cancelling or pausing subscriptions.

Register drivers:

 Click on the “register driver”.

 Fill out the required information for the driver, such as name, contact details,
Email, DOB, address, city, country and other necessary detail.
 Submit the registration form or save the details to complete the process.
Once registered, the driver will be able to access their account view available job, and
accept or decline booking as per their availability.

Update contact info:

 Login in the admin panel of the website.

 Locate the contact information field, such as phone number, email address, or
address.
 Update the desired contact information with the new details.
 Save the changes or click on the “update” Button to apply the updated contact
information.
 Verify that the changes have been successfully applied by checking the website
Front-end or testing the contact information functionality.

Product upload:
  Click on the “product upload” to create a new product entry.
 Fill the required information for new product, such as its title, amount or detail of
product.
 Upload high quality image of product. Multiple images from different angle are
often preferred.
 Save or publish the new product to make it live on the website, accessible to
customers.

Registered User:

 Click on the “register user”.

 Fill out the required information for the driver, such as name, contact details,
Email, DOB, address, city, country and other necessary detail.
 Submit the registration form or save the details to complete the process.
Once registered the user gains access to the website feature and functionalities
based on their assigned role and permission.

User management: Admin can manage user account, including registration

approval, account suspension, and password reset and functionality.

Booking management: Admin can view and manage all ambulance bookings,
including approving new booking, modifying existing once, and handling
cancellation.

Payment management: Admin can track and manage payment made by users,
ensuring accurate transactions records and resolving any payment related
issues.

Reports and analytics: Admin can generate reports and access analytics to the
system performance, revenue, popular services, and user behavior. This data
can be utilized to make informed business decision and improve the service.

• Problem Description

Limited availability:

One common problem with online private ambulance booking is the limited
availability of ambulances. Since private ambulance are not as widespread as
public ones, there may be a limited number of providers in certain areas. This
can result in unavailability or long waiting times for user typing to book an
ambulance online.

Inaccurate information:

Another problem can arise from inaccurate information provided on the online
booking [platform this can include incorrect addressees, contact details or
medical information, which can lead to delays in ambulance dispatch or
confusion during emergencies.

Lack of customization:

Online booking platform may not always offer sufficient customization option
to cater to the specific need of user. For example, users may require
specialized medical equipment of or transportation accommodation that can
to be adequately communicated through the booking interface, this lack of
customization option can limit the suitability of online booking for certain
cases.

Communication challenges:

During emergencies, clear and efficient communication crucial. However

online private ambulance booking platform may lack real time communication
channels, making it difficult for user to convey urgent information or receive
updates on ambulance arrival times. This can cause anxiety and delay in
emergencies situations.

Price transparency:

Pricing information may not always be transparent or readily available on

online booking platforms. User may find it challenging to determine exact cost
of the services, including any additional charges of fees. This lack of
transparency can lead to super prices or dispute regarding the final billing
amount.

Reliability and trust

:
Trust is essential when booking an ambulance, especially during critical
situation some user may have concern about the reliability of online private
ambulance providers. Trust issues can arise due to lack of a user reviews. In
inadequate background checks on provider, proceed lack of professionalism
in the booking process.

Limited coverage:
 Online private ambulance booking platform may have limited coverage
areas, restricting access for user outside those origins this can be particularly
problematic in remote, where private ambulance services may be
nonexistent.

Coordination with healthcare providers:

Seamless coordination between private ambulance providers and healthcare

facilities is crucial for efficient patient transfers. However, online booking
platform may not always facilities effective communication and coordination
between these parties, leading to delays during the transfer.

Data privacy and security:

Online booking platforms handle sensitive personal and medical information.

Users may have concern about the privacy and security of their data when
making booking online. The risk of data breaches or misuse of personal
information can discourage some individual from using online platform for
private ambulance booking.

• Project Objectives

Improve Accessibility:

The primary objectives of online private ambulance booking is to enhance the

accessibility of ambulance services. By providing an online platform, individuals
can easily and quickly book private ambulance whenever needed, ensuring
timely medical assistance.

Streamline booking process:

The project aims to simplify the process of booking private ambulance by offering
an intuitive online interface. User can input their location, medical requirements,
and other relevant details to find and book an available ambulance efficiently.

Enhance efficiency and response time:

One of the key objective overall efficiency and response time of private
ambulance services. By automating the booking process, the system can quickly
match the nearest available ambulance to the user location, reducing response
time and increasing the chance of timely intervention.
 Ensure transparency and information sharing:

The project seeks to promote transparency and information sharing by providing

user with essential detail about the private ambulance services available. This
include information about the ambulance provider, their credentials, ratings and
feedback from previous users, enabling individuals to make informed decisions.

Integration with emergency services:

Another objectives is to establish integration with emergency services, such as

hospitals, clinics and emergency response centers. This allow for seamless
communication and coordination between the private ambulance booking
platform and the relevant healthcare providers, ensuring a smooth transfer of
patient information and medical requirements.

Implement safety and quality standard:

The project aims to inforce safety and quality standards for private ambulance
providers. This involves verifying the credential and certification of the
participating ambulance services, ensuring they meet the necessary regulation
adhere to best practices in the industries.

Enable real-time tracking:

Online private ambulance booking system often include real-time tracking

feature, allowing user to monitor the location and estimated arrival time of then
booked ambulance. This objective enhance transparency and provide piece of
mind individuals waiting medical assistance.

Enhance user experience:

The project aims to provide a user user-friendly and intuitive interface that enhance the
overall user experience this involves designing a responsive website with clear
navigation, easy to understand instruction, and robust customers options.
Overall, the project objectives of online private ambulance booking revolve around
improving accessibility, efficiency, transparency, and user experience, all while ensuring
the safety and quality of the provided services

• Project Scope

The project of an online private ambulance booking system involves creating a web
based platform are that allow user to easily book private ambulance for medical
emergency or non-emergency medical transportations. The system aim to provide
convenient and efficient way for individuals or medical facilities to request and
manage ambulance services online.
Here are some keys aspect of the project scope:
User registration and authentication:

The system should allow user to create account and authenticate themselves to
access the booking functionality. This ensure security and allow user to track their
booking history.

Ambulance provider management:

The platform needs to onboard and manage a network of private ambulance service
provider ambulance provider should be able to register, submit their credentials, and
undergo a verification process. The system should maintain an up-to-date database
of authorized provider.

Notification and alerts:

The system should send confirmation notification to user upon successful booking
along with relevant detail such as ambulance provider contact information and
estimated arrival time.

Administrative dashboard:

An administrative dashboard is necessary for managing the overall system

operation. It allows administration to monitor booking, resolve the issue and manage
ambulance accounts.
Feedback and rating:

The platform can include the feedback and rating system, enabling user to provide
reviews and rating for the ambulances services they receive. This feedback
mechanism help maintain service quality and assists feature user in making
informed decision.

Reporting and analytics:

The system can generate reports and analytics based on the data collected,
providing insight into booking trend, user behavior, and overall system performance.
The information can be evaluable for decision-making and continuous improvement.

It’s important to note that the specific requirement and features of online private
ambulance may very base on the target audience, geographical location, and local
regulation. Therefore the project scope should be tailored to meet the needs of the
intended user and comply with relevant laws and regulations.
Chapter 2
Literature Review

Introduction:
In recent years, there has been a significant rise in the utilization of private ambulance
services. With advancements in technology, online platforms for private ambulance
booking have emerged, providing convenience and efficiency in accessing emergency
medical transportation. This literature review aims to explore the various aspects of
private ambulance booking online, including its benefits, challenges, and potential
implications for healthcare systems.
A literature review on private ambulance booking online would involve exploring the
existing research, studies, and publications related to the topic.

 Evolution of Online Ambulance Booking:

The evolution of online private ambulance booking has significantly transformed

the way emergency medical transportation is accessed and coordinated. The
following points outline the key stages in the evolution of this process:

 Traditional Phone-Based Systems:

In the past, the primary method for booking private ambulances

was through telephone calls. Patients or their caregivers would
 contact private ambulance companies directly to request services. This
method had limitations, including potential delays, communication errors,
and difficulties in accessing real-time information.

 Emergence of Online Platforms:

With the advent of the internet and advancements in technology, online

platforms for private ambulance booking began to emerge. These
platforms provided a centralized hub where patients and healthcare
providers could access and book private ambulance services. Users
gained the convenience of browsing through multiple service providers,
comparing prices, and checking availability in real-time.

 Mobile Applications:

The evolution of smartphones and mobile applications further

revolutionized private ambulance booking. Mobile apps provided users
with an even more accessible and user-friendly experience. Patients could
book ambulances, track their location, and receive real-time updates
directly on their smartphones. Mobile apps also facilitated seamless
communication between patients, ambulance providers, and healthcare
facilities.

 Integration of GPS and Tracking Systems:

One significant advancement in online private ambulance booking was the

integration of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and tracking
systems. This innovation allowed for real-time tracking and monitoring of
ambulance locations, ensuring that the nearest available ambulance could
be dispatched promptly. GPS integration improved response times,
resource allocation, and overall operational efficiency.

 Enhanced Communication and Information Sharing:

Online platforms enabled improved communication and information

sharing between patients, healthcare providers, and ambulance
personnel. Vital information such as the patient's medical condition,
location, and special requirements could be shared electronically, allowing
ambulance crews to be better prepared for the specific needs of each
patient. This seamless flow of information enhanced the quality of care
and patient outcomes.
  Integration with Healthcare Systems:

More recently, there has been a growing trend towards integrating online
private ambulance booking platforms with existing healthcare systems.
This integration facilitates seamless information exchange between
hospitals, emergency departments, and ambulance services. It enables
efficient coordination, streamlined workflows, and improved continuity of
care.

 Artificial Intelligence and Automation:

The future of online private ambulance booking is likely to involve the

integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and automation. AI algorithms can
optimize dispatching systems, considering factors such as ambulance
availability, traffic conditions, and the urgency of the medical situation.
Automation can further streamline the booking process, reducing the need
for manual intervention and improving efficiency.

In summary, the evolution of online private ambulance booking has progressed from
traditional phone-based systems to sophisticated online platforms and mobile
applications. Advancements in technology, including GPS integration, enhanced
communication, and integration with healthcare systems, have significantly improved
response times, resource allocation, and overall patient care. Further developments in
AI and automation hold the potential to revolutionize the process even further in the
future.

 Benefits of Private Ambulance Booking Online:

The evolution of online private ambulance booking has progressed from

traditional phone-based systems to sophisticated online platforms and mobile
applications. Advancements in technology, including GPS integration, enhanced
communication, and integration with healthcare systems, have significantly
improved response times, resource allocation, and overall patient care.

 Convenience and Accessibility:

Online booking platforms provide convenience and accessibility to

patients. They can access the website at any time, from anywhere, using
their computers or mobile devices. This eliminates the need for making
phone calls or physically visiting ambulance service providers, saving time
and effort.
 Faster Response Times:
Online booking platforms enable faster response times by leveraging real-
time data and technology. Patients can quickly request an ambulance, and
the system can identify the nearest available ambulance based on GPS
tracking. This efficient dispatching process reduces waiting times and
ensures timely medical assistance.

 Transparent Information:

Websites for private ambulance booking often provide transparent

information about service providers, including their credentials,
certifications, and ratings. Patients can review the available options,
compare prices, and make informed decisions based on their specific
needs and preferences. Transparent information fosters trust and
empowers patients to select reliable and appropriate ambulance services.

 Enhanced Resource Allocation:

Online platforms facilitate better resource allocation. Ambulance providers

can manage their fleet more effectively, ensuring that ambulances are
strategically positioned to respond to emergencies in a timely manner.
Improved resource allocation optimizes efficiency, reduces response
times, and enhances overall emergency medical service delivery.

 Real-time Tracking:

Many online booking platforms incorporate GPS tracking systems,

allowing patients and healthcare providers to track the location of the
assigned ambulance in real-time. Real-time tracking provides
transparency and peace of mind, as patients can monitor the ambulance's
progress and estimated arrival time. It also enables healthcare facilities to
prepare for the patient's arrival, improving coordination and reducing
delays.

 Improved Patient Satisfaction:

The convenience, efficiency, and transparency offered by online private

ambulance booking contribute to higher levels of patient satisfaction.
Patients appreciate the ease of access, reduced waiting times, and the
ability to make informed choices. Satisfied patients are more likely to have
positive experiences with ambulance services, which can positively impact
overall healthcare outcomes and reputation.

 Data Analytics and Continuous Improvement:

 Online booking platforms can gather and analyze data on ambulance
utilization, response times, and patient feedback. This information can be
used to identify areas for improvement, optimize service delivery, and
enhance the overall quality of private ambulance services. Data analytics
can help identify patterns, predict demand, and allocate resources more
effectively.

 Challenges and Concerns:

Privacy and Data Security:

Online ambulance booking involves the exchange of sensitive personal and

medical information. Maintaining the privacy and security of this data is critical to
protect patient confidentiality. Websites must implement robust security
measures to safeguard data from unauthorized access, hacking, or breaches.

Quality Assurance and Reliability:

Ensuring the quality and reliability of private ambulance services booked through
a website can be challenging. There is a need for effective mechanisms to verify
the credentials, certifications, and service standards of ambulance providers
listed on the website. Quality assurance protocols and regular monitoring are
necessary to maintain service quality and patient safety.

Regulatory Compliance:

Ambulance services are subject to specific regulations and licensing

requirements imposed by healthcare authorities or government agencies. Online
booking platforms must ensure that the ambulance providers listed on their
websites comply with these regulations. They should also adhere to relevant
legal and ethical standards to protect patients' interests and rights.

Technological Infrastructure and Connectivity:

Online ambulance booking relies heavily on technology, including stable internet

connectivity and reliable website performance. Technical glitches, server
downtime, or slow website loading speeds can hinder the booking process and
create frustration for users. Maintaining robust technological infrastructure and
ensuring seamless connectivity are essential to provide a smooth user
experience.

Limited Coverage and Availability:

Depending on the geographical location, the availability of private ambulance

services may be limited. Some areas, especially remote or rural regions, may
have inadequate coverage by private ambulance providers. Websites should
 address this challenge by providing accurate information on service coverage
areas, availability, and alternative options in areas with limited coverage.

Language and Accessibility Barriers:

Language and accessibility barriers can pose challenges for certain individuals,
such as those with limited English proficiency or disabilities. Websites should
consider providing language options and ensuring accessibility features to
accommodate a diverse range of users and make the booking process inclusive
for all.

Integration with Public Emergency Services:

Coordinating private ambulance services with public emergency services is

crucial for efficient emergency response. Websites should explore ways to
integrate private ambulances with the existing emergency medical services
infrastructure to ensure seamless collaboration, information sharing, and
coordinated response during critical situations.

 User experience and patient satisfaction:

User-Friendly Interface:

The website should have an intuitive and user-friendly interface that is easy to
navigate. Clear and concise instructions, well-organized menus, and
straightforward booking forms make the process efficient and user-friendly. A
visually appealing and responsive design also enhances the overall experience.

Seamless Booking Process:

The online booking process should be streamlined and straightforward. Patients

should be able to easily select the required services, provide essential
information (such as location and medical condition), and complete the booking
quickly. Minimizing the number of steps and simplifying data entry can enhance
the convenience and efficiency of the process.

Availability and Real-Time Updates:

The website should provide accurate and up-to-date information on the

availability of private ambulances. Patients should be able to see real-time
updates on the status of their booking, including the assigned ambulance's
location and estimated arrival time. Regular communication and notifications
regarding any changes or delays further contribute to patient satisfaction.

Clear Pricing and Transparent Information:

Transparency in pricing and service details is crucial for patient satisfaction. The
website should provide clear and transparent information about the cost of
services, any additional fees or charges, and the terms of payment. Patients
should have a clear understanding of what they are paying for, helping them
make informed decisions.

Responsive Customer Support:

Accessible and responsive customer support is vital in addressing any questions,

concerns, or issues that may arise during the booking process. The website
should provide multiple channels for customer support, such as live chat, email,
or phone support, ensuring that patients or caregivers can easily reach out for
assistance whenever needed.

Trust and Security:

Patients need assurance that their personal and medical information is secure
when booking private ambulances online. The website should clearly
communicate its privacy and data security measures, assuring users that their
information is protected. Displaying trust indicators such as security certificates
or testimonials from satisfied users can also enhance trust and confidence.

Post-Booking Feedback and Reviews: Allowing patients to provide feedback

and reviews after using the private ambulance service can further improve
patient satisfaction. Feedback mechanisms, such as online surveys or rating
systems, help monitor and improve service quality. Positive reviews and
testimonials from previous users can also instill confidence in potential users.

Continuous Improvement:

Websites should demonstrate a commitment to continuous improvement based

on user feedback and evolving needs. Regular updates and enhancements to
the website's features, based on user feedback, can improve the overall user
experience and patient satisfaction over time.
By prioritizing user experience, ensuring transparency, providing responsive customer
support, and continuously striving for improvement, online booking platforms for private
ambulances can enhance patient satisfaction levels. Positive experiences lead to higher
patient trust, increased utilization of online booking services, and ultimately better
outcomes in emergency medical transportation.

 Future Direction:

The future direction of booking private ambulances online using websites is likely
to involve several advancements and developments. Here are some potential
future directions for this field:

Integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI):

AI technologies can optimize the booking process by analyzing data and patterns
to suggest the most suitable ambulance resources based on factors such as
proximity, availability, and urgency. AI algorithms can also facilitate dynamic
pricing based on demand and supply, ensuring efficient resource allocation.

Predictive Analytics and Demand Forecasting:

By leveraging predictive analytics, websites can anticipate demand for

ambulance services and proactively allocate resources accordingly. This can
help ambulance providers optimize their operations, minimize response times,
and ensure timely availability during peak demand periods or in specific
geographical areas.

Mobile Applications and Wearable Devices:

The development of dedicated mobile applications can further enhance the

accessibility and convenience of booking private ambulances. Mobile apps can
offer features such as one-touch emergency booking, real-time tracking, and
seamless communication. Additionally, wearable devices equipped with health
monitoring sensors can provide real-time health data to ambulance crews,
enabling more targeted and personalized care.

Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity:

IoT devices can be integrated into the booking process to enable seamless
communication between ambulances, patients, and healthcare facilities. For
instance, IoT-enabled medical devices can transmit vital signs data directly to the
ambulance crew and the hospital, facilitating early assessment and intervention.

Block chain for Data Security and Interoperability:

Block chain technology can enhance data security, privacy, and interoperability in
the online booking process. By utilizing block chain, patient records, consent, and
 other relevant information can be securely stored and shared between
stakeholders while maintaining data integrity and confidentiality.

Collaborations and Partnerships:

Websites for private ambulance booking can form collaborations and

partnerships with various stakeholders in the healthcare ecosystem, including
hospitals, clinics, emergency medical services, and telemedicine providers. Such
collaborations can enhance coordination, information sharing, and seamless
transitions of care between different healthcare entities.

International Expansion and Global Reach:

As online booking platforms for private ambulances evolve, there is potential for
expansion beyond local or regional boundaries. Websites can aim to provide
services across different countries, ensuring a seamless experience for travelers
or expatriates who may require emergency medical transportation in unfamiliar
locations.

 Regional or Local Coverage:

Private ambulance services are typically localized, operating within specific

regions or areas. Online booking platforms may only partner with private
ambulance providers that offer services in those specific areas. As a result, the
availability of private ambulances for online booking is limited to those regions
where the partnered ambulance providers operate.

 Ethical consideration:

The emergence of private ambulance booking websites has brought about

various ethical considerations that need to be examined. While these platforms
offer convenience and accessibility to medical transportation services, it is
important to critically evaluate their impact on equitable access to healthcare,
patient safety, and the integrity of healthcare systems.
Chapter 3
Requirement Specifications

In this chapter, first describe the existing system, its limitations or drawbacks and then
explain how the new or proposed system will overcome these problems. This should
then be followed by complete requirements specification for the proposed system.
Describe the behavior of the system to be developed and include a set of use cases
that describe interactions the users will have with the system. In addition also describe
non-functional requirements. Non-functional requirements impose constraints on the
design or implementation (such as performance engineering requirements, quality
standards, or design constraints). Should have the following headings:

• Existing System
• Proposed System
• Requirement Specifications
• Use Cases

Chapter 4
Design
Systems design is the process of defining the architecture, components, modules,
interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. This chapter should
have the following sections:
4.1 System Architecture
This section describes the system in narrative form using non-technical terms. It should
provide a high-level system architecture diagram showing a subsystem breakout of the
system, if applicable. The high-level system architecture or subsystem diagrams should,
if applicable, show interfaces to external systems. Supply a high-level context diagram
for the system and subsystems, if applicable.

1. User Interface:
This is the part of the website that users interact with. It includes web pages, forms,
and interfaces that allow users to search for available ambulances, select their desired
options, and make bookings.

2. Database:
Ambulance needs a database to store important information such as user details,
ambulance availability, booking records, and other relevant data.

3. Booking Management System:

This subsystem handles the process of managing and organizing ambulance bookings.
It includes functionalities like checking ambulance availability, handling user requests,
confirming bookings, and updating the database accordingly.

4.Payment at the time of service: When the ambulance staff arrives, they will provide
the necessary care and assistance to the user. At the end of the service, the user pays
the agreed-upon amount directly to the ambulance staff in person. This can be done in
cash.

5. Notification System: This component is responsible for sending notifications to users

regarding their bookings, updates, and any other relevant information. It may involve
email notifications, SMS alerts, or push notifications to keep users informed.

4.2 Design Constraints

This section describes any constraints in the system design (reference any trade-off
analyses conducted such, as resource use versus productivity, or conflicts with other
systems) and includes any assumptions made during the developing the system design.

1. Resource Constraints:
The website may have limitations in terms of server capacity, bandwidth, or storage
space. These constraints can impact the system's performance and scalability. Trade-
off analyses may be conducted to determine the optimal allocation of resources to
ensure efficient operation of the website.

2. Time Constraints:
The development and deployment of the website may have specific time constraints,
such as meeting a certain deadline or launching before a particular event or date. These
constraints can influence the development process, prioritization of features, and testing
timelines.
3. Compliance Constraints: The private booking ambulance website needs to adhere to
various regulatory and legal requirements. For example, there may be privacy and data
protection regulations that govern the handling of user information. Ensuring compliance
with these constraints can impact the system design, data storage, and security
measures implemented.

3. Integration Constraints:
The private booking ambulance website may need to integrate with external systems or
services, such as hospital databases or emergency response systems. These
integration constraints can involve compatibility issues, data exchange formats, or API
limitations. Trade-off analyses may be conducted to determine the best approach for
seamless integration while considering the constraints of the external systems.

4. User Experience Constraints:

The system design should prioritize a user-friendly and intuitive interface. However,
there may be constraints related to the target audience, user preferences, or
accessibility requirements. Trade-off analyses can help balance the design choices
while considering constraints like simplicity, responsiveness, and usability.

4.3 Design Methodology

Summarize the approach that will be used to create and evolve the designs for this
system. Cover any processes, conventions, policies, techniques or other issues which
will guide design work. This is for deciding whether you will use structured, object-
oriented or other specific methodologies. Most people will use some object-oriented
technique with UML.
When creating and evolving the designs for a private booking ambulance website, the
approach taken will depend on various factors such as the development team's
expertise, project requirements, and organizational preferences. The following is a
summary of some possible approaches, processes, and methodologies that could guide
the design work for the system:

1. Design Process
A systematic design process will be followed to ensure a structured and efficient
approach. This typically involves steps such as gathering requirements, conducting
analysis and research, creating design concepts, prototyping, iterating, and validating
the designs through user testing and feedback. The process may be iterative, allowing
for continuous improvement and refinement of the design.

2. User-Centered Design:
The design work will be driven by a user-centered approach, putting the needs,
preferences, and usability of the website's target users at the forefront. This involves
conducting user research to understand their requirements, behavior, and pain points.
The designs will be created with the aim of providing an intuitive and satisfying user
experience.
3. Usability Testing:
Regular usability testing sessions will be conducted to validate the designs and ensure
they meet the user's needs and expectations. This involves observing users interacting
with the website, collecting feedback, and identifying areas for improvement. Usability
testing can be done through various methods such as moderated or unmoderated
testing, interviews, surveys, or eye-tracking studies.

4.4 High Level Design

This section describes in further detail elements discussed in the Architecture. High-
level designs are most effective if they attempt to model groups of system elements
from a number of different views. Typical viewpoints are:
1. Conceptual or Logical: This view shows the logical functional elements of the
system.
Each component represents a similar grouping of functionality. For UML, this would be
a component diagram or a package diagram.

1. User Management Component:

This component handles user registration, authentication, and management. It includes
functionalities like user account creation, login, password reset, and profile
management.

2. Booking Management Component:

This component is responsible for handling the booking process. It includes
functionalities such as ambulance availability checking, booking creation, scheduling,
and updating the status of bookings.

3. Payment Processing Component:

This component handles payment-related functionalities. It includes integrating with
validating payment information, processing transactions, and generating payment
receipts.

4. Notification Component:
This component manages the sending of notifications to users. It includes
functionalities like sending booking confirmations, reminders, and alertsvia push
notifications.

5. Reporting and Analytics Component:

This component gathers and analyzes data related to bookings, user activity, and
system performance. It includes functionalities such as generating reports, visualizing
data, and providing insights for decision-making.

2. Process: this view is the runtime view of the system. The components are threads or
processes or distributed applications. In UML, this would be a process interaction
diagram.
:
1. Threads or Processes:
In the process viewpoint, components of the website are represented as threads or
processes. These threads or processes can be thought of as individual units of
execution that perform specific tasks or carry out particular functionalities. For example,
the user interface component of the website may run in a separate thread, responsible
for handling user interactions and displaying the interface.

2. Runtime Interactions:
The process viewpoint highlights the interactions and communication between different
components during runtime. For instance, when a user initiates a booking request, the
user interface thread/process may communicate with the booking management system
thread/process to handle the request, check availability, and update the database.

3. Distributed Applications:
In the case of a distributed architecture, where the website's components are spread
across multiple servers or nodes, the process viewpoint captures the runtime behavior
of these distributed applications. For example, the user interface component may reside
on one server while the database and booking management system are hosted on
separate servers. The process viewpoint would illustrate how these distributed
applications interact and exchange information during runtime.

4. Concurrency and Synchronization:

The process viewpoint also considers issues related to concurrency and
synchronization. In a multi-threaded or distributed environment, different components
may run simultaneously, and careful consideration needs to be given to handling
concurrent access to shared resources, data consistency, and synchronization
mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the system.

3. Physical: this view is for distributed systems. The components are physical
processors that have parts of the system running on them. For UML, this would be a
deployment diagram.
Here's a further explanation of this viewpoint:

1. Distributed System:
A private booking ambulance website may be designed as a distributed system, where
various components of the system are hosted on different physical processors or
servers. This distribution allows for scalability, fault tolerance, and load balancing.

2. Physical Processors
In the physical viewpoint, the system's components are represented by the actual
physical processors or servers on which they run. Each processor hosts one or more
components or subsystems of the private booking ambulance website.

3. Allocation of Components:
The physical viewpoint considers how the different components are allocated to specific
physical processors. This allocation decision is based on factors such as performance
requirements, resource utilization, and system architecture considerations.

4. Communication and Network:

The physical viewpoint also takes into account the communication and network
infrastructure between the physical processors. It considers the channels or protocols
used for inter-processor communication, data transfer, and synchronization.

5. Scalability and Redundancy

The physical viewpoint allows for designing the system with scalability and redundancy
in mind. For example, additional physical processors can be added to handle increasing
user traffic or to provide fault tolerance in case of hardware failures.

6. Deployment Considerations:
The physical viewpoint influences decisions regarding the deployment of the private
booking ambulance website. It helps determine where the system components will be
deployed, whether they are hosted on-premises or in the cloud, and how the network
infrastructure is configured.

4. Module: this view is for project management and code organization. The
components are typically files or directories. This picture shows how the directory
structure of the build and development environment will be designed.

1. Directory Structure:
The module view involves defining a logical directory structure that organizes the
codebase. This structure typically groups related files and directories together, making it
easier for developers to locate and navigate through the code. For example, directories
may be dedicated to different functional areas of the website, such as user
management, booking management, payment processing, and notifications.

2. Modular Breakdown:
Within each directory, the system's components are further broken down into smaller
modules. These modules represent discrete units of functionality or code that perform
specific tasks within the system. For instance, a "user management" directory may
contain modules for user registration, login, profile management, and authentication.

3. Dependency Management:
The module view also considers the dependencies between different modules. It
identifies which modules rely on others and ensures that the dependencies are properly
managed. This involves defining the relationships and interactions between modules, as
well as specifying any interfaces or APIs that need to be implemented for
communication between modules.

4. Project Management:
 The module view is beneficial for project management purposes. It helps in assigning
tasks to development teams or individual developers, as each module can be assigned
as a separate unit of work. This modular breakdown allows for parallel development,
where different teams can work on different modules simultaneously, enhancing
productivity and enabling efficient project coordination.

5. Code Organization:
The module view contributes to code organization and maintainability. By breaking
down the system into modules, the codebase becomes more modular and modular,
making it easier to understand, modify, and extend. It also promotes code reuse, as
modules can be designed to be independent and reusable across different parts of the
system.

5. Security: this view typically focuses on the components that cooperate to provide
security features of the system. It is often a subset of the Conceptual view.

1. User Authentication and Authorization: This involves the components responsible for
verifying the identity of users and granting them appropriate access rights and
permissions within the system. It includes features like secure login mechanisms,
password policies, and user role management.

2. Data Protection:
The viewpoint examines how sensitive user data is protected throughout the system.
This includes considerations such as encryption techniques for storing and transmitting
data, secure communication protocols, and mechanisms to prevent unauthorized
access or data breaches.

3. Access Control:
This aspect deals with the mechanisms and components that control access to different
parts of the system. It involves defining and enforcing granular access control policies,
such as limiting access to specific user roles or granting access based on user
privileges.

4. Secure Communication:
The viewpoint considers the components involved in ensuring secure communication
between different system elements. This includes the use of secure communication
protocols (e.g., HTTPS) to protect data transmitted between the website and users, as
well as any integrations with external systems or services.

5. Auditing and Logging:

This aspect involves components that capture and record relevant system events, user
activities, and security-related information. It includes features like logging security-
related events, monitoring system activities, and generating audit trails for analysis and
forensics purposes.

6. Vulnerability Management:
 The viewpoint addresses the components and processes involved in identifying,
assessing, and mitigating potential vulnerabilities and threats. It may include security
testing and vulnerability scanning tools, as well as procedures for monitoring and
applying security patches and updates.

4.5 Low Level Design

This section provides low-level design descriptions that directly support construction of
modules. Normally this section would be split into separate documents for different
areas of the design. For each component we now need to break it down into its
fundamental units or modules. For an OO implementation in Java, our components
would become packages.
Then the low level design will take each package and break it down into its classes. For
smaller systems, you may have a single UML class diagram that each module
description refers to.

1. Identify High-Level Components

Begin by identifying the high-level components of the website, such as the User
Interface, Booking Management System, Database, Payment Gateway, and Notification
System. These components represent the major functional areas or subsystems of the
system.

2. Decompose Components into Modules or Packages:

Take each high-level component and break it down into smaller modules or packages.
These modules represent cohesive units of functionality within a component. For
example, within the Booking Management System, you may have modules for
ambulance availability, booking request handling, confirmation management, and
database interactions.

3. Detailed Design of Modules:

Once the modules or packages are identified, the low-level design provides a detailed
description of each module. This includes specifying the internal workings, interfaces,
and responsibilities of each module. For instance, within the User Interface component,
there may be modules for user registration, ambulance search, booking form, and
payment processing.

4. Object-Oriented Implementation:
If the implementation follows an object-oriented approach, the low-level design further
decomposes the modules into classes. Each class represents a blueprint for creating
objects with specific attributes and behaviors. For example, within the ambulance
search module, you may have classes like AmbulanceSearchForm,
AmbulanceSearchResults, and AmbulanceFilter.

5. Design Patterns and Techniques:

The low-level design may also incorporate design patterns and techniques to ensure
modular, reusable, and maintainable code. Design patterns such as MVC (Model-View-
Controller) or SOLID principles may be applied to guide the organization and structure
of the classes within each module.

6. Considerations for Implementation:

The low-level design takes into account implementation-specific considerations, such
as programming languages, frameworks, and libraries to be used. It may specify
dependencies, interfaces, data structures, and algorithms necessary for the
construction of the modules and classes.

4.6 Database Design

The section should reveal the final design of all database management system (DBMS)
files and the non-DBMS files associated with the system under development. Provide a
comprehensive data dictionary showing data element name, type, length, source,
validation rules, maintenance (create, read, update, delete capability), data stores,
outputs, aliases, and description.

1. Data Element Name:

This refers to the name or label given to a specific data item. For example, "Patient
Name" or "Booking Date."

2. Type:
The data type represents the format or category of the data element, such as text,
number, date, boolean, etc. For example, "String" for patient names or "Date" for
booking dates.

3. Length:
The length specifies the maximum number of characters or digits that a particular data
element can hold. For example, a patient's name might have a length of 50 characters.

4. Source:
This indicates the origin or source of the data element. It may refer to user input, data
imported from external systems, or data generated within the system.

5. Validation Rules:
Validation rules define the criteria or conditions that data must meet to be considered
valid. For example, a validation rule might require a phone number to be in a specific
format or a booking date to be in the future.

6. Maintenance:
This describes the operations that can be performed on the data element, including
create, read, update, and delete (CRUD) capabilities. It specifies whether the data
element is mutable or immutable.

7. Data Stores:
 Data stores refer to the specific storage locations or tables in the database where the
data element is stored. For example, there may be a "Patients" table or a "Bookings"
table in the database.

8. Outputs:
This indicates any reports, forms, or outputs that involve the data element. For
instance, the patient's name may be included in a booking confirmation email or
displayed in a patient information report.

9. Aliases:
Aliases are alternate names or abbreviations used to represent the data element. They
may be helpful in cases where the data element has a long or complex name. For
example, "DOB" as an alias for "Date of Birth."

10. Description:
The description provides additional information or context about the data element,
explaining its purpose or usage within the system.

4.7 GUI Design

This section provides the detailed design of the system and subsystem inputs and
outputs relative to the user. Depending on the particular nature of the project, it may be
appropriate to repeat these sections at both the subsystem and design module levels.

1. Inputs:
This section describes the various inputs or information that users provide to the
system. It includes data or requests that users enter or submit to initiate specific actions
or processes. For example, in the case of a private booking ambulance website, inputs
from users might include:

- Patient details: Name, contact information, medical history, etc.

- Booking information: Date, time, location, urgency level, specific requirements, etc.
- Payment details: Credit card information, billing address, etc.
- Search criteria: Filters for finding available ambulances based on location, type, or
availability.

2. Outputs:
This section specifies the outputs or responses generated by the system based on the
inputs provided. These outputs are typically presented to the users in a user-friendly
format. Examples of outputs in a private booking ambulance website may include:

- Booking confirmation: A confirmation message indicating that the booking request

has been successfully submitted.
- Ambulance availability: A list of available ambulances matching the user's search
criteria.
- Booking details: A summary of the confirmed booking, including the date, time,
location, and assigned ambulance.
 - Payment receipt: A receipt or confirmation of the payment made for the booking.

3. Subsystem and Design Module Levels:

The section suggests that, depending on the nature of the project, it may be appropriate
to repeat the detailed design of inputs and outputs at both the subsystem and design
module levels. This means that inputs and outputs can be further specified and refined
for each subsystem or individual design module within the overall system. For example,
if the private booking ambulance website has subsystems for user management,
ambulance management, and payment processing, each subsystem may have its own
specific inputs and outputs that contribute to the overall functionality of the website.

.
4.8 External Interfaces
External systems are any systems that are not within the scope of the system under
development. In this section, describe the electronic interface(s) between this system
and each of the other systems and/or subsystem(s), emphasizing the point of view of
the system being developed.
1. Notification Service:
When a booking is confirmed or there are updates related to a user's booking, the
private booking ambulance website may need to send notifications . The electronic
interface would involve integrating with an external service provider's API .
2. Ambulance Dispatch System:
In some cases, the private booking ambulance website may need to integrate with an
existing ambulance dispatch system used by the ambulance service provider. The
electronic interface would facilitate the exchange of relevant booking details, such as
location, time, and patient information, between the two systems to ensure seamless
coordination and dispatch of ambulances.
Chapter 5
System Implementation
Implementation is the process of moving an idea from concept to reality. The System
implementation is a realization of a technical specification or algorithm as a program,
software component, or other computer system through programming and deployment.

1. Realization of Technical Specifications:

During the system implementation phase, the technical specifications and requirements
of the private booking ambulance website are translated into a tangible form. This
involves writing code and developing the necessary software components that will
power the website's functionality.

3. Programming and Coding:

Skilled developers write the code that brings the private booking ambulance website to
life. They use programming languages, frameworks, and libraries appropriate for web
development to create the necessary software modules, database interactions, user
interfaces, and business logic.

4. Software Component Development:

The implementation process involves developing and integrating various software
components required for the private booking ambulance website. This includes
components related to user authentication and registration, ambulance availability,
booking management, payment processing, and communication with external systems.

5. Testing and Quality Assurance:

During the implementation phase, rigorous testing is conducted to ensure that the
private booking ambulance website functions as intended and meets the specified
requirements. This includes unit testing of individual components, integration testing of
different modules, and system testing to evaluate the website as a whole. Quality
assurance measures are implemented to identify and resolve any bugs, errors, or
performance issues.

4. Deployment:
Once the private booking ambulance website has been thoroughly tested and
validated, it is deployed to a production environment where it becomes accessible to
users. This may involve setting up the necessary infrastructure, configuring servers, and
ensuring the website's availability, scalability, and security.

7. Iterative Development:

System implementation is often an iterative process where feedback from testing and
user evaluations is used to refine and enhance the website. This iterative approach
allows for continuous improvement and adjustment based on user needs and evolving
requirements.

5.1 System Architecture

Describe the architecture e.g. in terms of: System internal components, Functionality of
the components, Communication between the components Tools and Technology Used
Development Environment/Languages Used Processing Logic/Algorithms Application
Access Security Describe new application access related security measures, e.g. in
terms of: Security Zones/Firewalls, Encryption, Authentication, e.g. Account & Password
structures and rules, Authorization, e.g. operator rights and roles, authority handling,
Auditing / Access Logging, Safe Data Storage Database Security
Describe new DB related security measures, e.g. in terms of: Remote Access,
Authentication (Account & Password: structure, rules), Authorization (rights/roles,
handling), Anonymous and Group Users, Auditing/Logging (events, data, log handling).

1. System Internal Components:

This refers to the various software components or modules that make up the private
booking ambulance system. It includes components such as the user interface, booking
management system, database, payment gateway integration, notification system, and
any other relevant components.

1. Vehicle Control Systems:

This includes the engine, transmission, braking system, and steering mechanism.
These components enable the driver to operate the ambulance safely and efficiently.

2. Medical Equipment:
Ambulances are equipped with various medical devices and tools to provide immediate
medical assistance. These may include cardiac monitors, defibrillators, oxygen supply
systems, stretchers, and medical cabinets.

3. Communication Systems:
Ambulances need reliable communication systems to stay connected with the dispatch
center, hospitals, and other emergency services. This includes two-way radios, cellular
networks, and GPS systems for tracking the ambulance's location.

4. Lighting and Sirens:

 Ambulances have distinctive lighting systems, such as flashing lights and sirens, to
alert other drivers and pedestrians and ensure a clear path while responding to
emergencies.

5. Electrical Systems:
The electrical components power the ambulance's various systems and equipment.
This includes the vehicle's battery, wiring, and control panels.

6. HVAC System:
Ambulances are equipped with heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems to
maintain a comfortable environment for both patients and medical personnel.

7. Storage and Accessibility Features:

Ambulances have compartments and storage areas to house medical supplies,
equipment, and patient records. These components are designed for easy accessibility
during emergencies.

2. Functionality of the Components:

The functionality of each component describes the specific tasks or operations it
performs within the system. For example, the user interface component handles user
interactions, the booking management system manages booking requests and
availability, the database component stores and retrieves data, and the payment
gateway integration component handles online payment processing.

1. Online Booking System: This component allows users to make private ambulance
bookings through an online platform. It provides a user-friendly interface where
individuals can enter their details, including the pickup location, destination, and
required medical assistance. The functionality includes verifying the availability of
ambulances, scheduling appointments, and managing the booking process.

2.Medical Equipment and Supplies:

Ambulances are equipped with various medical equipment and supplies to provide
necessary medical care during transportation. This includes items such as stretchers,
oxygen cylinders, defibrillators, cardiac monitors, basic medications, and other essential
medical tools. The functionality of these components ensures that the ambulance is
well-prepared to handle medical emergencies and provide appropriate care en route to
the hospital.

3. Communication System:
An effective communication system is vital for private booking ambulances. It enables
seamless communication between the ambulance crew, the central dispatch, and
healthcare providers. The communication system may include two-way radios, mobile
phones, or dedicated ambulance communication networks. This functionality ensures
prompt coordination, updates, and relay of critical information during transportation.
4. Safety Features:
Private booking ambulances incorporate various safety features to ensure the well-
being of patients and crew members. These features may include proper securing
mechanisms for stretchers, airbags, anti-lock braking systems (ABS), sirens, and
emergency lights. The functionality of these safety components helps maintain a safe
and stable environment inside the ambulance during transit.

5. Electronic Medical Records (EMR) System:

An EMR system allows the ambulance crew to access essential patient information
electronically. This functionality ensures quick and accurate retrieval of medical history,
allergies, ongoing treatments, and other relevant data. Having access to such
information enables the ambulance crew to provide appropriate care tailored to the
patient's needs.

6. Communication between the Components:

This describes how the different components of the private booking ambulance system
interact and exchange information. It includes the communication protocols, data
formats, and interfaces used for seamless integration between the components. For
example, the user interface component may communicate with the booking
management system to submit booking requests, while the payment gateway
integration component may communicate with the database to record successful
payments.

1. Components:
In the context of private booking ambulance, the components refer to the various
entities involved in the process. This can include the individuals or organizations
requesting the ambulance service, the ambulance service provider, the ambulance
dispatch center, and any other relevant parties.

2. Communication:
Communication refers to the transmission and exchange of information, instructions, or
messages between the different components involved. Effective communication
ensures that all parties involved are informed about the necessary details and can carry
out their respective roles smoothly.

3. Private Booking Ambulance:

Private booking ambulance refers to the process of reserving or requesting an
ambulance service from a private provider. This could be for medical emergencies, non-
emergency medical transportation, or other situations requiring the assistance of an
ambulance.

1. Requesting the Service:

 The individual or organization in need of an ambulance service would contact the
private ambulance provider to make a booking. They would provide essential details
such as the location, the nature of the situation, and any specific requirements.

2. Information Exchange:
The private ambulance provider would communicate the details to their dispatch center
or relevant personnel. This could involve sharing information about the patient's
condition, the pickup location, and any special instructions.

3. Confirmation and Coordination:

The dispatch center would then confirm the availability of an ambulance and
communicate back to the individual or organization requesting the service. They would
provide details such as the estimated time of arrival, the assigned ambulance unit, and
any additional instructions.

4. Updates and Feedback:

Throughout the process, communication may continue between the involved parties.
The dispatch center could provide updates on the ambulance's progress, address any
concerns or changes in the situation, and receive feedback from the requesting party.

7. Tools and Technology Used:

This section lists the specific tools, technologies, and frameworks used in the
implementation of the private booking ambulance website. It may include programming
languages, development environments, software libraries, frameworks, and other
relevant technologies that support the development and deployment process.

In the context of "Tools and Technology Used" for private booking ambulance services,
it refers to the various tools and technologies employed to facilitate the process of
booking private ambulances. These tools and technologies are designed to streamline
the booking process, enhance efficiency, and improve overall ambulance service
delivery. Here are some examples of tools and technologies commonly utilized:

1. Online Platforms:
Private ambulance providers often have dedicated websites or mobile applications that
allow individuals to book ambulance services online. These platforms provide a user-
friendly interface where users can input their requirements, such as pick-up location,
destination, and any specific medical needs. The platforms may also display the
availability and types of ambulances.

2. Call Centers:
Private ambulance services may operate dedicated call centers with trained personnel
who handle booking requests over the phone. Users can call the designated number
and provide the necessary details to book an ambulance. The call center staff then
arranges the appropriate ambulance based on the caller's requirements.
3. Electronic Medical Records (EMRs)
EMRs allow private ambulance providers to access and store critical patient information
securely. EMRs can include medical history, allergies, pre-existing conditions, and other
relevant details. Access to this information helps ambulance crews prepare for the
specific needs of the patient being transported.

4. Communication Systems:
Private ambulance services rely on advanced communication systems to facilitate
coordination between dispatchers, ambulance crews, and healthcare facilities. These
systems can include two-way radios, mobile data terminals, or dedicated mobile
communication devices to ensure seamless communication and updates.

5. Payment and Billing Systems:

Tools and technologies for payment processing and billing are crucial for private
ambulance services. These systems enable users to make online payments securely
and efficiently. Additionally, they facilitate the generation of invoices and track billing
information for insurance purposes or reimbursement.

8. Processing Logic/Algorithms:
This refers to the logic and algorithms implemented within the private booking
ambulance website to perform specific operations or calculations. It includes the
algorithms for searching and filtering available ambulances, validating booking requests,
handling payment processing, and any other processing logic required for the website's
functionality.

1. User Input: The user provides the necessary information for the ambulance booking,
such as the pickup location, destination, date, and any specific requirements or medical
conditions.

2. Validation:
The input data is validated to ensure it meets the required criteria. This includes
checking the correctness of the provided locations, verifying the date and time, and
validating any additional details.

3.Availability Check:
The system checks the availability of ambulances based on the provided information. It
may involve querying a database or contacting a fleet management system to
determine the availability of ambulances in the specified area.

4.Algorithmic Selection:
 If multiple ambulances are available, an algorithm can be used to select the most
suitable one based on factors such as proximity, type of ambulance (e.g., basic life
support or advanced life support), and availability of necessary medical equipment.

5.Booking Confirmation:
Once an ambulance is selected, the system generates a booking confirmation with the
relevant details, including the ambulance number, estimated arrival time, and contact
information. The confirmation is sent to the user through their preferred communication
channel, such as email, SMS, or app notification.

6.Dispatching and Tracking:

The booking system dispatches the selected ambulance to the pickup location. Real-
time tracking mechanisms may be employed to monitor the ambulance's movement and
provide updates to both the user and the dispatch center.

7.Completion and Feedback:

After the ambulance completes the requested transportation, the system can collect
feedback from the user regarding their experience. This feedback can be used to
improve the service and address any issues that may have arisen.

9. Development Environment/Languages Used:

This aspect specifies the development environment and programming languages
utilized in building the private booking ambulance website. Examples of development
environments could include IDEs (Integrated Development Environments) like Visual
Studio Code or Eclipse, while programming languages could include JavaScript,
Python, or PHP, among others.

1. Development Environment: It encompasses the software tools and infrastructure

necessary to create, debug, and deploy the application. This includes integrated
development environments (IDEs), text editors, compilers, libraries, and frameworks.
Common development environments for building web or mobile applications include
Visual Studio Code, Xcode, Android Studio, and Eclipse.

2. Languages Used: These refer to the programming languages employed to write the
code that powers the private ambulance booking system. The choice of programming
languages depends on various factors such as the requirements of the project, the
development team's expertise, and the intended platform. Here are some languages
commonly used in web and mobile application development:

a. JavaScript: A popular language used for web development. It enables interactivity

and functionality on web pages and is often used with frameworks like React, Angular,
or Vue.js.
 b. HTML/CSS: Although not programming languages, HTML (Hypertext Markup
Language) and CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) are essential for building web pages and
defining their structure and visual appearance.

c. Python: A versatile and widely-used language known for its simplicity and
readability. It is often used for web development, data analysis, and scripting.

7.Application Access Security:

This aspect focuses on the security measures implemented to protect the application
and ensure authorized access. For a private booking ambulance website, security
measures may include:

Security Zones/Firewalls:
Setting up network firewalls or security zones to control access to the application and
protect it from unauthorized access.
Encryption:
Implementing encryption techniques to secure sensitive data, such as user information
and payment details, during transmission and storage.
Authentication:
Implementing a secure authentication mechanism to verify the identity of users, such
as using account and password structures, enforcing password rules, and implementing
multi-factor authentication if necessary.
Authorization:
Defining roles and access rights for different types of users, such as administrators,
operators, and patients, to control their permissions and access to specific
functionalities or data.
Auditing/Access Logging:
Implementing logging mechanisms to track and record access attempts, system
events, and user activities for auditing purposes.
Safe Data Storage:
Ensuring secure storage of sensitive data in the database, such as applying
appropriate encryption, access controls, and backup strategies.

8.Database Security:
This section focuses specifically on the security measures implemented to protect the
database used by the private booking ambulance website. It may include:

Remote Access:
Restricting remote access to the database server to authorized users or IP addresses.
Authentication:
Implementing secure authentication mechanisms for database access, such as using
account and password structures and enforcing password rules.
Authorization:
 Defining user roles and permissions within the database, specifying which operations
or data they can access or modify.
Auditing/Logging:
Implementing logging mechanisms to track and record database events, access
attempts, and data modifications for audit purposes.

Chapter 6
System Testing and Evaluation

System testing of software or hardware is testing conducted on a complete, integrated

system to evaluate the system’s compliance with its specified requirements. Be warned
that many projects fall down through poor evaluation. Simply building a system and
documenting its design and functionality is not enough to gain top marks. It is extremely
important that you evaluate what you have done both in absolute terms and in
comparison with existing techniques, software, hardware etc. This might involve
quantitative evaluation and qualitative evaluation such as expressibility, functionality,
ease-of-use etc. At some point you should also evaluate the strengths and weaknesses
of what you have done. Avoid statements like "The project has been a complete
success and we have solved all the problems associated with ...! It is important to
understand that there is no such thing as a perfect project. Even the very best pieces of
work have their limitations and you are expected to provide a proper critical appraisal of
what you have done. The following are different types of testing that should be
considered during System testing

1. Compliance with Specified Requirements:

System testing aims to verify whether the private booking ambulance website adheres
to the specified requirements. This involves comparing the actual behavior of the
system with the expected behavior outlined in the requirements documentation. The
testing process ensures that the system functions as intended and delivers the
expected outcomes.

2. Evaluation Metrics and Analysis:

For research-based projects, the system testing chapter may include a detailed
description of evaluation metrics and an analysis or discussion of the evaluation results.
This means defining specific metrics or criteria to measure the performance,
effectiveness, or efficiency of the private booking ambulance website. Examples of
evaluation metrics could include response time, system availability, user satisfaction, or
accuracy of ambulance availability information. The analysis and discussion section
would then provide an assessment of how well the system performs according to these
metrics.

3. Quantitative and Qualitative Evaluation:

System testing may involve both quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods.
Quantitative evaluation aims to measure and analyze numerical data, such as response
times, system performance metrics, or user survey results, to assess the effectiveness
and efficiency of the private booking ambulance website. Qualitative evaluation, on the
other hand, focuses on subjective aspects like expressibility, functionality, ease-of-use,
and overall user experience. It involves gathering feedback from users or experts and
analyzing their opinions and impressions of the system.

5. Strengths and Weaknesses Evaluation:

System testing requires evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the private booking
ambulance website. This means conducting a critical appraisal of the system and
acknowledging its limitations. It is important to avoid making exaggerated claims like
"The project has been a complete success and we have solved all the problems
associated with..." as no project is perfect. Instead, a balanced assessment of the
system's strengths and weaknesses should be provided, highlighting areas where
improvements or further development may be needed.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI) Testing:

 Graphical user interface testing focuses on evaluating the user interface
components of the private booking ambulance website. It involves checking the
visual elements, user interactions, and overall usability of the interface. GUI testing
ensures that users can easily navigate the website, enter information, view available
ambulances, and perform necessary actions without encountering usability issues
or confusion.

1.User Interface Design:

Assessing the overall design and aesthetics of the booking system's interface, ensuring
it is visually appealing, intuitive, and consistent.

2.Functionality:
Verifying that all the necessary functions for booking a private ambulance are
accessible and work as intended. This includes testing features like selecting the
required ambulance type, specifying the pick-up and drop-off locations, entering patient
information, and confirming the booking.

3.User Input Validation:

Checking the validation of user inputs to prevent errors and ensure accurate data entry.
This may involve testing the system's response to invalid or missing information, such
as displaying appropriate error messages or highlighting fields that require attention.

4.Navigation and Workflow:

Evaluating the flow of the booking process, ensuring that users can easily navigate
between different screens and steps without confusion or errors. It also involves testing
the responsiveness of the interface when users interact with various elements.

5.Error Handling:
Verifying how the system handles errors or exceptions that may occur during the
booking process. This includes checking error messages, notifications, and the system's
ability to recover from unexpected situations gracefully.

6.Compatibility:
Testing the GUI across different devices, screen sizes, and browsers to ensure a
consistent experience for users regardless of their platform or device.

• Usability testing

1. Usability Testing:
Usability testing focuses on evaluating the system from a user's perspective. It involves
assessing the ease-of-use, intuitiveness, and overall user experience of the private
booking ambulance website. Testers or users perform specific tasks and provide
feedback on the website's navigation, clarity of instructions, input forms, and general
user interactions. Usability testing helps identify areas for improvement in terms of user
interface design and functionality.

1.Task Completion:
Testing how effectively users can complete common tasks related to booking an
ambulance. This includes actions like selecting the appropriate ambulance type,
entering patient information, specifying pick-up and drop-off locations, and confirming
the booking. The goal is to ensure that users can accomplish these tasks without
confusion or errors.

2.User Interface Intuitiveness:

Evaluating how intuitive and user-friendly the interface is for individuals with varying
levels of computer literacy. Testing involves assessing the ease of finding and using
different features, understanding the purpose of various buttons and icons, and
navigating through different screens.

3.Efficiency:
Measuring the speed and efficiency with which users can complete tasks within the
booking system. This includes evaluating the number of steps or clicks required to
accomplish a task, the clarity of instructions provided, and the overall time taken to
complete the booking process.

4.Error Prevention and Recovery:

Testing the system's ability to prevent errors and guide users to rectify any mistakes.
This involves examining the error handling mechanisms, such as displaying clear error
messages and providing suggestions for corrective actions. The focus is on ensuring
that users can easily recover from errors and continue with their booking process.

5.User Feedback:
Collecting feedback from users regarding their experience with the booking system.
This can be done through surveys, interviews, or observation sessions to gain insights
into their opinions, frustrations, and suggestions for improvement. User feedback is
valuable for identifying areas of improvement and enhancing the overall usability of the
system.

2. Evaluation Metrics:
This refers to the metrics or criteria used to evaluate the performance and effectiveness
of the private booking ambulance website. For example, evaluation metrics could
include response time, system availability, booking success rate, user satisfaction
ratings, and other relevant measures. These metrics provide quantitative data to assess
the system's performance and compare it with existing techniques or industry
standards.
3. Analysis and Discussion of Evaluation Results:
Once the system testing is conducted and the evaluation metrics are collected, an
analysis and discussion of the results are performed. This involves interpreting the data
gathered during testing and drawing conclusions based on the evaluation metrics. It
may include identifying strengths and weaknesses of the private booking ambulance
website, discussing any limitations or areas that need improvement, and comparing the
system's performance with existing techniques or similar systems.

4. Critical Appraisal:
It is important to provide a critical appraisal of the system and avoid claiming that the
project is a complete success without acknowledging its limitations. Even the best
projects have areas for improvement, and it is crucial to provide an honest evaluation of
the private booking ambulance website's achievements and shortcomings. This
appraisal demonstrates an understanding of the project's strengths, weaknesses, and
potential areas for future development or enhancements.

• Software performance testing

This involves assessing the performance of the software system under various
conditions, such as high user loads, peak usage times, or complex scenarios.
Performance testing aims to evaluate factors like response time, scalability, resource
utilization, and overall system efficiency. In the case of a private booking ambulance
website, performance testing might involve simulating multiple concurrent booking
requests to determine how well the system handles heavy traffic and maintains
responsiveness.

1.Concurrent Users:
Testing the system's capability to handle multiple users accessing the booking system
simultaneously. This involves simulating a realistic load of concurrent users to
determine how the software performs under peak usage conditions.

2.Response Time:
Measuring the time taken by the system to respond to user actions, such as searching
for available ambulances, selecting a preferred time slot, or confirming a booking. It is
important to ensure that the response times are within acceptable limits to provide a
smooth and efficient user experience.

3.Scalability:

Evaluating how the software scales when the demand for booking ambulances
increases. This involves testing the system's ability to handle a growing number of
users, transactions, and data without experiencing performance degradation or
resource bottlenecks.
4.Database Performance:
Assessing the performance of the underlying database system that stores and retrieves
ambulance booking data. This includes testing the efficiency of data retrieval, data
insertion, and database query response times to ensure optimal performance.

5.Network Performance:
Evaluating how the software performs over different network conditions, such as varying
bandwidth or high-latency connections. This is important to ensure that the booking
system remains responsive and functional even in less-than-ideal network
environments.

6.Stress Testing:
Subjecting the system to extreme loads and stress conditions to assess its behavior and
performance under such circumstances. This involves pushing the software beyond its
normal capacity to determine its stability and identify any performance bottlenecks or
failures.

• Compatibility testing

Compatibility testing is a specific type of testing that should be considered during

system testing. In the case of a private booking ambulance website, compatibility testing
involves assessing how well the system interacts and functions with various devices,
operating systems, web browsers, or other software components that it needs to
integrate with. It ensures that the website is compatible with different platforms and
provides a consistent user experience across them.

1.Operating Systems:
The booking system should be tested on different operating systems commonly used by
the target audience, such as Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, and Android. This ensures
that the interface and functionality are consistent and work seamlessly across different
platforms.

2.Web Browsers:
Compatibility testing involves testing the booking system on popular web browsers like
Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Internet Explorer (or Microsoft Edge). It ensures that the
interface is rendered correctly, and all functionalities are supported across different
browsers.

3.Devices and Screen Sizes:

The booking system should be tested on various devices, including desktops, laptops,
tablets, and mobile phones, to ensure proper rendering and usability on different screen
sizes and resolutions.
4.Internet Connectivity:
Compatibility testing also involves assessing the booking system's performance under
different network conditions, such as a stable high-speed connection, a slow or
intermittent connection, or even offline scenarios. This helps verify that the system can
handle varying network conditions and still provide a consistent user experience.

5.Third-Party Integrations:
If the private ambulance booking system integrates with other software or services,
compatibility testing ensures that these integrations function correctly and seamlessly.
This may involve testing APIs, data exchange, and compatibility with external systems.

• Exception handling

Exception handling testing focuses on evaluating how well the system handles
exceptional or unexpected scenarios. In the context of a private booking ambulance
website, this would involve testing how the system handles errors, invalid inputs, or
exceptional conditions that may arise during the booking process. The goal is to ensure
that appropriate error messages are displayed, the system recovers gracefully from
failures, and user data remains secure.

1. Detecting Exceptions: Exception handling involves monitoring the execution of the

booking system to identify any abnormal or erroneous conditions. For example, it could
detect situations such as network failures, database connection issues, invalid user
inputs, or conflicts in scheduling ambulance services.

2. Capturing Exceptions: When an exception occurs, the booking system captures the
relevant information about the error, including the type of exception, the location where
it occurred, and any related data. This information is important for diagnosing and
resolving the issue.

3. Handling Exceptions: Once an exception is captured, the booking system implements

appropriate procedures to handle the exception. This may involve displaying an error
message to the user, logging the error for debugging purposes, or taking corrective
actions to recover from the exception gracefully. For example, if a network failure occurs
during the booking process, the system may attempt to reconnect or inform the user to
try again later.

4. Graceful Degradation: In the context of private booking ambulances, exception

handling is crucial for ensuring that the system remains functional even in the presence
of errors or exceptional events. The booking system should be designed to handle
exceptions in a way that minimizes disruption to the user and provides alternative
options or fallback mechanisms. For instance, if a specific ambulance is unavailable, the
system can suggest alternative ambulance options or notify the user about the
unavailability and offer a rescheduling option.
5. Logging and Debugging: Exception handling also involves logging relevant
information about exceptions for diagnostic purposes. This includes recording details
such as the time of occurrence, specific error messages, and any associated data. This
information can be used for troubleshooting and resolving issues during system
maintenance or updates.

• Load testing

Load testing is a type of performance testing that evaluates the system's behavior and
performance under normal and peak load conditions. In the case of a private booking
ambulance website, load testing would involve simulating a high volume of concurrent
user interactions and booking requests to assess the website's response time, stability,
and scalability.

1. User Load Simulation: The booking system is tested by simulating a realistic number
of users who are accessing the application simultaneously. The goal is to replicate the
expected peak usage scenarios, such as during busy periods or emergency situations,
to assess how the system performs under such loads.

2. Stress Testing: This type of load testing aims to evaluate the system's behavior when
it operates beyond its normal capacity. By subjecting the application to a significantly
higher workload than it is designed to handle, stress testing helps identify any
bottlenecks, limitations, or performance issues that may arise under extreme conditions.

3. Response Time Analysis: Load testing involves measuring and analyzing the
response times of the booking application during different load levels. This allows
developers to determine whether the system meets the desired performance
requirements, such as providing quick response times to user requests for booking
ambulances.

4. Resource Utilization Monitoring: Load testing also involves monitoring the system's
resource utilization, including CPU, memory, network bandwidth, and database usage.
This helps identify any resource constraints or inefficiencies that may affect the system's
performance during peak loads.

5. Scalability Assessment: Load testing helps assess the scalability of the private
booking ambulance system. It determines how well the application can handle an
increasing number of users, bookings, or requests, and whether it can scale up or
allocate additional resources as needed.

6. Stability and Reliability Evaluation: Load testing aims to uncover any stability issues,
such as memory leaks or crashes, that may occur when the system is under heavy
load. By identifying and addressing these issues, developers can enhance the reliability
and robustness of the booking application.

• Security testing

This type of testing focuses on evaluating the system's security measures. It involves
assessing the website's vulnerability to potential threats and attacks, such as
unauthorized access, data breaches, or system manipulation. Security testing aims to
identify weaknesses in the system's security controls and ensure that appropriate
measures are in place to protect sensitive user information and maintain system
integrity.

1. Confidentiality: Ensuring that the personal and medical information of patients, as

well as any other sensitive data, is adequately protected from unauthorized access. This
involves checking for proper data encryption, access controls, and secure transmission
of information.

2. Authentication and Authorization: Verifying the effectiveness of the mechanisms in

place for verifying the identity of users and granting appropriate access privileges. This
includes testing user login credentials, password policies, session management, and
role-based access controls.

3. Data Integrity: Assessing the system's ability to maintain the accuracy and
consistency of data throughout the booking process. Security testing focuses on
detecting any vulnerabilities that could lead to data tampering, such as inadequate input
validation, SQL injection, or cross-site scripting (XSS) attacks.

4. System Availability: Checking the resilience and availability of the private ambulance
booking system to ensure that it can withstand potential security threats or attacks, as
well as handle a high volume of concurrent users without performance degradation or
system crashes.

5. Secure Communication: Verifying that communication channels between the user's

devices and the booking system are secure. This involves assessing the
implementation of secure protocols (such as HTTPS) and checking for any potential
vulnerabilities that could expose data during transmission.

6. Vulnerability Assessment: Conducting regular vulnerability scans and penetration

testing to identify any weaknesses or loopholes in the system's infrastructure, network,
or application layers. This helps uncover potential entry points for unauthorized access
or malicious activities.

.
• Installation testing

This type of testing ensures that the private booking ambulance website can be
properly installed and configured in different environments. It involves verifying the
installation process, checking for compatibility with various operating systems and
hardware configurations, and validating that all necessary dependencies are correctly
installed.

1. Installation Process: This involves testing the installation procedure of the ambulance
booking software. It includes steps such as running the installer, selecting installation
options, specifying installation directories, and confirming the installation process. The
goal is to ensure that the installation process is straightforward, error-free, and properly
installs all the required components.

2. Compatibility: During installation testing, compatibility checks are performed to

ensure that the ambulance booking software can be installed on different operating
systems (such as Windows, macOS, Linux) and versions. Compatibility testing helps
identify any issues related to dependencies, hardware requirements, or conflicting
software that may hinder successful installation.

3. Configuration: Private booking ambulances may require configuration settings

specific to the user's environment or preferences. Installation testing involves verifying
that the software allows for proper configuration, such as setting up database
connections, integrating with external services, or customizing certain features. The
software should handle configuration changes effectively without causing any errors or
inconsistencies.

4. Post-installation Checks: Once the installation is complete, it is essential to perform

post-installation checks to ensure that the software is fully functional. This may involve
launching the application, testing basic operations, and verifying that all required files,
directories, and registry entries are correctly created or modified.

5. Uninstallation: In addition to installation, installation testing also includes verifying the

proper uninstallation of the ambulance booking software. This ensures that all the
software components are removed from the system cleanly and without leaving behind
any remnants or conflicts.
.

For research based projects this chapter should include complete description of
evaluation metrics and analysis/discussion of evaluation results.
Chapter 7
Summary

The project’s conclusions should list the things which have been learnt as a result of the
work you have done. For example, "The use of overloading in C++ provides a very
elegant mechanism for transparent parallelisation of sequential programs". Avoid
tedious personal reflections like "I learned a lot about C++ programming..." It is common
to finish the report by listing ways in which the project can be taken further. This might,
for example, be a plan for doing the project better if you had a chance to do it again,
turning the project deliverables into a more polished end product.

1. Efficient Booking Process: The implementation of a private booking ambulance

system streamlines the booking process, allowing users to easily request and secure
ambulance services in a timely manner.

2. Enhanced Accessibility: The availability of a user-friendly graphical user interface

(GUI) enables individuals with limited technical expertise to make ambulance bookings
independently and efficiently.

3. Improved Resource Management: The automated system facilitates better resource

allocation by efficiently managing ambulance availability, reducing response times, and
optimizing ambulance utilization.
4. Real-time Tracking and Updates: Integrating real-time tracking and communication
features within the system allows users and stakeholders to monitor ambulance status,
track their location, and receive updates on estimated arrival times.

5. Data Collection and Analysis: The system's ability to capture and store booking data
provides valuable insights into demand patterns, resource utilization, and operational
efficiency, enabling informed decision-making and process optimization.

6. Enhanced Customer Satisfaction: The private booking ambulance system aims to

improve overall customer satisfaction by providing a seamless and convenient booking
experience, ensuring timely response, and maintaining clear communication channels.

Suggestions for further project development and improvement might include:

1. Integration of Mobile Applications: Developing mobile applications for popular

platforms (iOS and Android) can enhance accessibility, allowing users to book private
ambulances directly from their smartphones.

2. Integration with Emergency Services: Exploring the integration of the private booking
ambulance system with emergency services, such as emergency hotlines or medical
databases, to ensure seamless coordination and improved emergency response.

3. Incorporation of Advanced Routing and Navigation: Implementing advanced routing

algorithms and GPS navigation integration can optimize ambulance dispatching, reduce
response times, and improve overall efficiency.

4. Integration with Electronic Health Records (EHR): Connecting the booking system
with EHR systems can enable seamless sharing of patient information, ensuring that
ambulance staff have access to critical medical data during transportation.

5. Implementation of Feedback and Rating System: Introducing a feedback and rating

mechanism within the system allows users to provide feedback on their experience,
enabling continuous improvement and quality assurance.
6. Integration with Payment Gateways: Incorporating secure online payment options
within the system simplifies the billing process and enhances user convenience.

References

It is important that the students should go to the primary sources of information and an effort
always be made to obtain the information from original articles published in a journal or a reprint
obtained from the author. The tendency to cite the literature from abstracting journals is neither
enough nor in scientific spirit. In only unavoidable circumstances, the secondary source of
information may be utilized or when the original article is in a language other than English.
Secondary reference(s) should be written in parenthesis after quoting primary reference without
the main heading. Following points should be kept in mind while enlisting references.
i. References should be arranged alphabetically according to author and then according to
the year.
ii. A complete reference includes author(s), year of publication, complete title of the paper,
and reference to journal
iii. The number of the issue of the volume of a journal may not be given, unless paging of
each number starts from 1 or issue number may be given in all the references
consistently.
iv. In case of book, the name of the author(s), year of publication, title, edition and complete
address of the publisher must be given and should not be underlined.
v. Names of journals and number of their volumes should not be underlined.
vi. The words ‘Idem’ and ‘Ibid’ may be avoided in citing references.
vii. The word ‘References’ may be used in preference to ‘Literature Cited’.
viii. The title must appear exactly as it does on the first page of article or the title page of the
book.
ix. For titles of scientific papers, only the first letter of the first word is capitalized.
(exceptions are proper names, scientific names or certain other words which are
capitalized always).
x. The family name of the first or sole author precedes the initials or given names. The
names of co-author(s) follow in normal order and are separated by comma.
xi. When the reference is the proceedings of a symposium etc. and the author to be cited is
the editor, it may be indicated as such in parenthesis.
xii. References except of publication by Government department or other organization for
which no author is known, may be listed as Anonymous.
xiii. In case of publications of organizations, learned societies or Government department, the
name of the organization, Government department, Ministry or Division be given in place
of author, if no author is indicated in the publication.
xiv. Work of authors, whether individual or joint should be discussed under different topics or
headings in the review, i.e. integration and analytical treatment.
xv. There are many systems of writing References in vogue in various sciences and journals.
With this end in view, a model list is given below to be followed for uniformity in the
thesis preparation.

Format of Listing References

i. Journal article
1. Nazli, Z. H., A. Khalid, M. Khalid and M. Arshad. 2008. Aminocyclopropane – 1 –
carboxylate – dependent biosynthesis of ethylene in soils of different textures. Pedobiologia.
51(): 351–358.
2. Nazli, Z. H., M. Arshad and A. Khalid. 2003. 2 – Keto – 4 – methyl thiobutyric acid
dependent biosynthesis of ethylene in soil. Biol. Fertil Soils, 37(): 130–135.

3. Arshad, M. and Z. A. Zahir. 2004. Kinetics of effects of trace elements and electron
complexes on 2 – Keto – 4 – methyl thiobutyric acid – dependent biosynthesis of ethylene in
soil . Letters in Applied Microbiology. 39(): 306 – 309.

ii. Article in serial publication

1. Zia, K.M., and M. Fiyyaz. 1997. Control of soil-home plant pests using glucosinolate-
containing plants. Adv. Agron. 61():167-231.
2. Zubair A.C. and M.S. Rehman. 1992. Freezing and its effect on chemical and biological
roperties of the soil. Adv. Soil Sci. 18():59-79.

iii. Article not in english with english abstract

Title translated into English
Mahmood, C. A., J. C. O. Arshad and A. Khalid. 1982. Foliar fertilization of soybean: II. Effects
of NPK and micronutrients (In Portuguese, with English abstract.). Pesq. Agropec. Bras.
17():1559-1562
Title in original language
Mahmood, C. A., J. C. O. Silverio and O. Primaves. 1982. Adubacao foliar de soja: II. Efeitos de
NPK micronutrients (In Portuguese, with English abstract.) Pesq. Agropec. Bras. 17():1559-
1562.
iv. Without English abstract (Translated title)
Sana, S. and A. R. Selmer-Olsen. 1981. Uptake of heavy metals by some plants from sewage
sludge (In Norwegian.) Fast Avfall. 2():26-29.
v. Magazine article
Chughtai, F.A. 1984. Computer programmes from your radio? Agri. Marketing. 22(6):66.
Zulfiqar. D.L. and L. Paul. 1984. Rotating crops and tillage. Crops Soils. 36:18-19.
vi. Article with known errata follow-up
Shahid, J. M., E. J. A. Amiel and C. F. Corroler. 1996. Conductimetric measurement of CO2
concentration: Theoretical basis and its verification. Agron. J. 88(): 675-682 [errata: 88(6):vii].
vii. Books (including bulletins, reports, multivolume works, series)
Jean Luc, J. 1966. Soils of the Okpilak River region, Alaska. CRREL Res. Rep. 188. U.S. Army
Cold Reg. Res. Eng. Lab, Hanover, NH, USA.
Ridha, R. L., G. A. Salma, E. E. Hartwig and C. J. Edwards. 1988. Origins and pedigrees of
public soybean varieties in the United States and Canada. USDA Tech. Bull. 1746.
viii. Book equivalent: Numbered bulletin, report or special publication
Ahmad, A. A. (ed.). 1997. Sunflower technology and production. Agron. Monogr. 35. ASA,
CSSA and SSSA, Madison, WI, USA.
Tallat, C. T. Johnston, and M. E. Sumner (eds.). 1996. Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA
Book Ser. 5. SSSA. Madison, WI, USA.
ix. Conference, symposium or workshop proceedings and transactions
Amiel, J. W. (ed.). 1968. Trans. Int. Congr. Soil Sci., Adelaide Elsevier, New York, NY, USA.
McGarry, D. 1992. Final report of the soil management training workshop, Dalby. 3-4 July 1991.
Conf. and Workshop. Ser. QC92008. Dept. Primary Industries, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
x. Chapter in a book
Jamil, P. P. and H. L. Noor. 1985. Developments in potassium fertilizer technology. p. 49-66. In
R.D. Munson (ed.) Potassium in agriculture. ASA, Madison, WI, USA.
Aslam, W.H. 1986. Water content. p. 493-544. In A. Klute (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 1
(2nd Ed.). Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI, USA.
xi. Chapter in a proceedings volume
Nawab, M. I. and C. Token. 1996. Path-coefficient analysis for grain yield and related characters
under semiarid conditions in barley. p. 607-609. In A. Slinkard et al. (eds.) Proc. 5th Int. Barley
Genet. Symp., Vol. 2. Univ. Saskatchewan Ext. Press, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
xii. Dissertation or thesis
Endres, C. 1986. Influence of production practices on yield and morphology of Amaranthus
cruentus and Amaranthus hypochondriacus. M.S. thesis, Dept. Agron., Univ. Arkansas,
Fayetteville, AR, USA.
Schuster, A. 1987. The response of cotton to ammonium and nitrate in the irrigation solution (In
Hebrew with English summary). M.S thesis. Hebrew Univ. Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel.
xiii. Abstracts
NB: Cite abstracts only until a more formal publication becomes available Caldwell, B.A. 1 997.
Fatty acid esterase activity in forest soils and ectomycorrhizal mat communities. p. 223. Agron.
Abstr. 1997. ASA, Madison, WI, USA.
Talat, G. S. R. and P. M. Huang. 1991. The role of Al in Fe(II) transformation. p.96. In
Abstracts, Annual Meeting, Clay Minerals Soc., Houston, TX. 5-10 Oct. 1991. Clay Miner. Soc.,
Houston, TX, USA.
xiv. Software and software documentation
Abacus Concepts. 1991. Super ANOVA users guide. Release 1.11. Abacus Concepts, Berkeley,
CA, USA.
Boone, K., D. Porter and J. McKinion. 1995. Rhizos-1991: A simulator of row crop rhizosphere.
USDA ARS-113. USDA ARS Crop Simulation Res. Unit, Mississippi State, Stoneville, MS,
xv. Printed publication with on-line edition and/or updates
University of California. 1996. UC IPM pest management guidelines: Tomato. UC-DANR Publ.
3339. (Available on-line with updates at http://www.ipm. ucdavis.edu/PMG/
selectnewpest.tomatoes.html).
xvi. Standards
ASAE (Am. Soc. Agric. Eng.). 1993. Manure production characteristics. EngineeringPractice
Subcommittee, ASAE Agri. Sanit. Waste Manage. Comm. D384.1. ASAE StandardD384.1.
ASAE, St. Joseph, MI, USA.
xvii. Supplements and special volumes
Hardy, R.W.R, R.C. Bums, R.R. Hebert, R.D. Holsten and E.K. Jackson. 1971.
xviii. On-line electronic sources
Treat electronic sources as you would the same kind of material in print, starting with the author,
year, and title and then giving further information as for a chapter or journal article, but adding
the essential on-line address URL and the date the information was posted or accessed or when
the address was verified.
xix. Electronic version only
Aslam. F.P., M. Jansen and K. Metalmark. 1995. Newsletter of Agro-Ecosystems Modeling
[Online]. November extra Ed. Available by e-mail Listserv (camase-l@hern.nic.surfnet.nl) or
Web link to http://www.bib.wau.nl/camase/cam news.html (verified 1 Nov. 1996).
Huma, M., D. Langseth, R. Stoffel and T. Kroll. 1996. Large-scale hybrid poplar production
economics: 1995 Alexandria, Minnesota, establishment cost and management [Online].
BIOENERGY 96. Proc. Natl. Bioenergy Conf., Partnerships to Develop and Apply Biomass
Technologies, Nashville, TN. 15-20 Sept. 1996. Available at http://www.esd.
oml.gov/bidp/papers/bioen96/downing.html (posted 10 Dec. 1996;
xx. CD-ROM
Moore, K., and M. Collins (eds.). 1997. Forages, CD-ROM companion [CD-ROM
Computer file]. 5th Ed. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA, USA.
Appendix A
User Manual
Appendices are generally included to help clarification and make readers Understand statements
in the main body of theses or dissertations. In addition, sometimes appendices are useful to
support the interpretation of results. This becomes a record of data for different computations
later by the author or the readers