Mathematics Opss 124109

SECONDARY SCHO
MATHEMATICS
A COURSE FOR GRADES 10 - 12.
COVERS:
- ECZ
-IGCSE
- SOME '0' LEVEL ALTERNATIVES
~ ., ~
;( = b- + c-- 2bcCosA
A= yjh(a + b)
A= yjabsinC
TOPIC PA(;~
1. ~~FtS------------------ _ 1
• Classification----------------------------------- _ 1
• HCF and LCM --------------------------------- ~ . 4
• The number line-- -- - -- - -- ------- - ---- - --- ----- - -- --------- --- -- --- -- -- _ 5
2. S~TS----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
• Sets and symbols - -- - - - - ---- - -- --- --- -- --- --- -- - - - --- ---- -- - -- - ----- - ---- - --- - -- _ 7
• "enndiagrarns _
3. OP~RA TIONS _ 10
20
• Order of operations _
20
• Operations on the number line _
4. FRACTIONS _ 20
23
• Types------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
• ()rdering _
24
• Addition .
26
• SubtractioD _
28
• ~Multiplication _ 29
• EijvisioD _
5. I>~<:~ FFtil<:1lI()NS _ 30
34
• Place value _ 34
• Addition and subtraction _ 34
• Multiplication _ 35
• Division - -- - - - - -- --- - - - --- -- - -- - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- - ----- -- - -- - - -- - -- --- - - - -- --- 36
• Recurringdecimal&--- _ 38
• AIgebraicfractions .
39
6:'APPROXIMAnONS _ 41
• Decimal places and significant figures~ _ 41
•. Rounding offV-- _ 42
• Error and accuracy - _ 44
• Absolute and relative error - -- -- ------ ----- -- - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- --- --- - __ 45
7. RAno ANI> PROPORTION----------------------- _ 47
• Sharing in a given ratio -------------- 47
• Increasing and decreasing in given ratio. Scale _ 49
• ~ortion------------------------------c------------------ _ 51
· ~------------------------------------------------------------------------------_. 52
55
56
(;~-------------------_:_------------------------------------------------- 58
a ..."l;i~. percentage to a fraction, decimal--------------------------------------------. 58
• Cbanging a fraction to a percentage u _ u u u u _ u u u _ u u u . 58
• Changing a decimal to a percentage -------- 59
• Decreasing a quantity by a given percentage _ 61
• Profit and loss---------------------------.------------------------------------------- 64
• Simp'le interest --- - -- --- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - -- -- - -_ --- -- - -- - -- - -- - - --- - -- - - -- - -- --- 67
9. ~I<:~ -------------------------.----------------------------------------------------. 70
• Negative and fractional indices --------------------------------------------------------- 1
• Square roots and cube roots -------------------------------------------------------~--- 73
• Index equations ------- -------- --- -- --- --- -- - -- - --- --- - - --- - -- --- -- - - -- - __ 73
• Standard form--------------------------------- __ ~ , _ 74
10. ~XP ANSIONS -- -------- -- ----- -- -- ---- ----- ---- -------- --- -- - _ 77
• The square of a binomial--------------------- _ 77
• Compreting the square -- - -- ----- ----------- --- -- - - - -- - -- - --- -- --- - -- - -- - -- - -- - --- -- - -- 78
• Maximum and minimum ---- _ 80
11. FACTORS ------ -- --- --- --- -- --- ---------- --- ---- -- --- --- -- -- ---- --- ----- --- --- ---~--- 81
• Factorising binomial and trinomial expressions ~ . 81
• Difference of two squares ------------------------------------------------------------- 81
• Pairing------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
• Factorising quadratic expressions ------------------------------------------------------ 84
12. PERIMETER AREA AND VOLUME ----------------------------------------------- 86
• Square and rectangle --------------------------------------------------------------___ 86
• Triangle and parallelogram 87
• Kite and trapezium_ - -- - -- - -- - - - --- -- - --- -- -- - --- ----- ---- -- - -- ---- -- - __ ___ __ ___ 88
• Circle and sector _ ___ __ _ __ _ _ ___ ___ __ ___ ______ _ 90
• Surface areas --- -- --- --- --- -- ---- -- --- -- --- --------- --- --- --- --- --- ---- -- --- --- --- - 94
• Cube and cuboid -------------__ 94
• Closed cylinder ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
• Cone---------------_________________________________________________________________ 96
• Pyramid and sphere ---------------___________________________________________________ 97
• Volume ___ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ 100
• Cube, cuboid and triangular prism------------------------------------------___________ 100
• Right circular cone and Solid sphere 101
• Hollow sphere - - -- -- --- --- --- -- - -- - -- - ---- - --- -- - -- --- -- - --- - -- --- --- -- --- - --- -----___ 10Z
• Cylinder, Pyramid and pipe---------------------------------------------------_________ 104
• Compositebo<ties--------------------------------------------------------------------" 105
13. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES-------------------------------------- 107
• Linear equations -- - - - - --- --- -- - " 107
• Equations with fractions ___ _____ ____ __ ___ ___ _____ ___ _____ ____ ___ ___ ___ _____ 108
• Cross multiplying __ ~ ___ _ __ __ _ ___ ___ __ _ __ ___ _ __ __ 108
• Problems leading to linear equations 109
• Linear inequalities ___ _____ _____ ___ ___ _____ ___ ____ __ _ __ _ ___ _ 112
14. FORMULAE -_- " 115
• Constructing formulae -- - -- - - -_ - - - - -- - -- --- - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - -- - -- --- - -- ----- 115
• Transposing formulae __ __ ___ __ ___ ___ __ ___ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 117
15. SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS ---------------------------------------------------- 120
• Elimination method - - -- - --- - --- - - - - ~ -- ----- --- --- - -- -- - -- - --- -- --- --- - --- -- - -- - -- --- -- 120
• Substitution method - - -- - -- - ---- - -- - -- - ----- --- --- - - -- - - -- - -- - -.- --- ----- --- - --- --- --- - 121
• Use of formulae ----- ------- - - -- - - - --- -- - -- ----- --- - ----- "c --- - -- --- - ---- - -- - --- --" 121
• Problems leading to simultaneous equations --------------------------------------_______ 123
16. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ------------------------------------------------_________ 125
• Method of factors --------------------------------------~---------------------- . 125
• Method of completing the square------------------------------------------------ " 126
• The quadratic formula , --------- 127
• Problems leading to quadratic equations 129
17; FUNCTIONS ---------------------------------------------------------------------____ 133
• Domain and rauge --------------------------_________________________________________ 133
• Inverse functions __ ______ __ ______ ___ _____ ___ ___ _ __ ___ _ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ __ 136
• F1owchar~---------------------------------------------- c____________ 137
• Composite rnnctions ~ .__ __ __ ___ __ ___ _ _ 140
18. V ARIATION--- ---- ---- -------- ---- -0--- -- - --- --- -- - --- -- - -- ------ - - - - -- - -- --- --- ----- 142
• Direct variation -- - -- ------ -- - -- ------- - - -- --- --- - -- --- --- --- --- -- - -- - --- -- - -- - -- - -- -- 142
• Inverse variation - -- ------ -- - - - ....,--- -- - -- - ---- --- - --- -- --- --- ------ --- -------- - -- - -_':.. - - 144
• Joint variation -~ --- -- --:------ -- --- - ----- --- --- ---.-- --- - -- --- --- --- -- - - ----- --- --- -- - 148
• Variation by parts ---------------------------------~----------------------------______ 149
19. (;RAPIIS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 151
• Straight line graphs -- --- --- - -- -- --- - - - - ---- - -- - -- - -- --- --- --- - - - -- - --- --- -- - -- - -- - -- -" 151
• Graphical solution of simultaneous equations -------------------------------------------- :ts2
• Gradient of a'straight line -----------------------------------------------------________ 153
• Graphs of quadratic functions , _
• Graphs of cubic functions b-
• Exponential graphs :"::::::.:. '-__.. ., ~. ~ _
20. COORDINATE GEOMETRY------------------------------------------------------- 164
• (;radJent --------------------------------------------------------------------------. 164
• Midpoint of a line - - -- --- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - ----- - --- - - --- -- - -- - -- - --- ------ -- - -- - -- - -- -- -. 165
• Length of a line segment-------------------------------------------------------------- 166
• Eqnation of a straight line and intercepts -----------------------------------------------. 167
21. TRAVEL GRAPHS ------------ 171
• Distance time graphs ------- - ----- --- - - - --- --- -- --- --- --- -- - -- - -- - - - - -- ---- -- - --- -- -- 171
• Velocity time graphs --- - --- - -- - - - - - --- -- -- - -- - -- --- -- - -- - -- - - - --- --- - - - --- --- --- -- --. 171
22. GRAPHICAL INEQUALITIES & LNEAR PROGRAMMING ---------------c--· 175
• (;raphicalinequalities ---------------------------------------------------------------. 175
• Maximum and minimum values _ 177
• Linear Programming --- --- -- ~ --------------- -- --- --- --- -- ---- --- --------- ----- --. 179
• Terminology associated with linear programming -----------------------------------c---- 179
23. ANGLES AND POLYGONS --------------------------------- _ 184
• Types of angle --- -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- - - . 184
• Supplementary and complementary angles _ 185
• Vertically opposite angles - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - --- --- --- -- - -- - -- --- - - - - -- - -- -- - -" - -- - - ---- --- 185
• ParaUellines _
187
• The triangle _ 189
• ~uadrilaterals _
192
• Polygons _ 193
24. SIMILARITY AND CONGRUENCY _ 198
• SinEilartriangles . 198
• Sinnlarsolids _
199
• Congruenttriangles _ 202
25. PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM _ 206
26. SINE, COSINE AND TANGENT- _ 211
• SOHCAHTOA --- -- - - - - ---- - - - - -- -- - . 211
• Sine and cosine of complementary angles _ 218
• Sine, cosine and tangent of supplementary angles _ 219
27. ANGLES OF ELEVATION, DEPRESSION. BEARINGS _ 221
• Angles of elevation and depression !.. _
221
• Bearings ----- --- -------- ------ ----- ------------ ------ ----- --- --------- . . 224
28. SINE AND COSINE RULES, AREA OF A TRIANGLE _ 229
• Sinerule------------ .
229
• Sine rule and hearings -- - -- - - - -- - -- - -- -- _-- _ 232
• <:osineruJe-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 235
• Cosine rule and hearings " _
238
• Area of a triangle ----------------------------------------------------------------- 243
29. CIRCLE THEOREMS --- --_--_-- -- _ 245
• 1l~entp~rties . 245
• <:kordproperties -- : _
246
• TheoreIDS associated with arcs _ 252
• Se~en~ _ 253
• The cyclic quadrilateral . _
~55
30. GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION AND LOCI _ 260
• Construction of angles • , _ 260
• <:onstruction of angle bisector ~ _ 260
• Construction of line bisectors L _
261
• Construction of triangles _ 261
• Construction of inscribed and circumscribed circie _ 262
• Construction of quadrilaterals -- -------- - -- --- - - - - - - . 262
• L9Ci ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 264
•
_31. MATRICES --------- ---------- -- --- -- --- --- -- ---- -------- --------- ---- ----- ---- --- --- 269
• Order of a matrix ------------------------- _ 269
• Addition and snbtraction - - _
270
• Matrix multiplication - - --- _
272
• Ad joint and inverse of a2x2 matrix . 275
• Solving simultaneous equations by a matrix method ~. _ 277
32. S1tMMETR1{ ---------------------------------------------- _ 280
• Line and rotational symmetry ------------------ _ 280
33. VECTORS -- --- --- --- ----__ -- -- _ 282
• Magnitnde of a vector - - -- --- --- -- - -- - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - ------ -- --- - ---- ---- - -- - -- --- --- -- 282
• Mnltiplying a vector by a scalar---------------------------------------------------- _ 283
• Triangle rnle of addition for vectors and position vECtors ---------------- _ 286
• Parallel lines and collinear points _
290
34. TRANSI'ORMATlONS -- --- --- -- --- ---- -- -- ------- --- -- --- ----- -- --- --- ---- -- --- ---- 297
• Translation, reflection - --- -..,- -- - -- --- -- - --- -- --- --- --- -_.- -- - --- --- -- - -- - -- - - ----- ----- 297
• Itotations -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 298
• Enlargements ----------------
302
• Shears -----------------------
305
• Stretches _
310
35. MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATlONS------------------------------------------ 316
• Matrices of translation and reflection --------------------------------------------------- 316
• Matrices of rotation _ 317
• Matrices of stretch -- --- -- - -- - -- -- - --- -- - - - -- - -- - - - - -- -- - --- - -- - -- - -- - _ 318
• Matricesofenlargement-------------------------------------------------------------- 319
• Matricesofshear -------------------------------------------------------------- 320
• Inverse transformations -- -- - -- - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - --- -- - ---- - - - -- - -- - -- -- - -- --- 323
• Combining transformations - - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - - - - -- - - - --- - --- --- -- - -- - - - - -- 324
36. STATlSTlCS • _ 327
• Organising and presenting statistical data, Frequency distributions Bar charts ----------------- _ 327
• JIistograrns----------------------~ _ 328
• Frequency polygon ~ _ 330
• Cumulative frequency diagrams "'------------------------------------------------------ 331,
• Pie charts, Pictographs _ 336
37. MODE, MEDIAN AND MEAN _ 340
• Mode, median mean . 340
• Mode, median mean of frequency distributions _ 341
• l\1easures of dispersion . _ 346
• Range, , quartiles _ 346
• Percentiles _ 348
38. PROBABILIT1t ~ _ 354
• Most likely event . 356
• Mutually exclusive events, independent events _ 357
• Expected value, sampling • - -- _-- - __ 363
• Probability trees _ 364
39. EARTH GEOMETR1{ _ 368
• Longitndes and latitndes ~
368
• The earth's grid . :. ~ ... _ 368"
369
:.' ~~~a:~~:::Ci;~I~~-=====================~=========~==============================
The Nautical mile. Time
40. SEQUENCES ANI> SERIES
_
_
370
375
378
• nth term of a sequence _ 378
• Arithmetic progression , _ 380
• ,G.eometric progression -- --- _-- - -- --- --- -- _--"'-- --- - -- - -- --- --- - - - --- - -- --- - - - -- - -.- --. 386
• Surnnto infinity _
388
ANSWERS -----'- -- --- -- --- --- --- ----- ----------------------- --- --- --- --- --- ----- -----
1. NUMBERS
CLASSIFICATION
Natural numbers'-Th'
. . the set 0 f countmg
IS IS . numb ers {1 "2"
3 4 }and"It IS
denoted by N. Thus N = {1, 2, 3,4, )
Integers:-This is the set of numbers consisting the positive and the negative whole numbers
including zero. This set of numbers is denoted by Z, so Z = { -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, }
Z+ stands for positive integers and Z-denotes negative integers.
Rational numbers:-These are numbers which can be expressed in the form ~, where a and b
b
are integers and b *0. Cb *0 is read as b is not equal to zero). From this, it follows that rational
·
numb ers are fractions 1-,
e.g. _, 3-2an
d so on.
241
Irrational numbers:-This is the set of numbers which cannot be expressed in the form ~. This
. b
set of numbers include 11:, .j2,.J3 and so on. These numbers form non recurring decimals e.g.
11: = 3.1415926538979 ... and goes on and on without recurring.
Real numbers:-This is the set of numbers which includes all the number systems discussed above
and it is denoted by R.
FACTORS
Factors are components of a number. For example, 1, 2, 3 and 6 are factors of 6 because they all
divide into 6 without leaving a remainder. For the same reason 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 are factors of 12.
To [md all the factors of a number, divide the number by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc until all the factors are
found.
Example: Find all the factors of 12.
Solution: We proceed as shown below.
1)12 =12
2)12 =6
3)12 =4
4)12 =3
6)12 =2
12)12 = 1 Therefore the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and i2
.
Prime number~_ A prime number is a nu~ber whose factors are 1 and the number itself. In
other words it is a number divisible by 1 and itself. Example of prime numbers: 2,3,5,7, 11, 13
etc. 1 is not considered as a prime number.
•
Prime factors:- A prime factor is a factor which is itself prime For example, the factors of 24
are 1, Z, ~ 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24. The prime factors of 24 are therefore 2 and 3 since these are the
only prime numbers in the list of factors of 24.
Similarly, the factors of 42 are 1, 2, 3, 6,7, 14, 21 and 42, of these only 2, 3 and 7 are prime
numbers, hence the prime factors of 42 are 2, 3 and 7.
Expressing a number in prime factors.

To express a number in prime factors start by dividing the number by 2, the least prime number, if lhe
number is not exactly divisible by 2, try 3 then 5 and so on.
Example: Express the following numbers in prime factors

(i) 210 (ii) 315
Solution: We proceed as shown below

(i) 2)210 (ii) 3)315
3)105 3)105
5)35 5)35
7)i ifi
I 1
:.210 - 2 x x5 x7 :.315 - 3. x 3 x~x 7.
Even numbers:- these are numbers exactly divisible by 2 i.e. 2 is a factor of all even numbers.
Example of even numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 etc.
Odd numbers:- odd numbers are numbers not exactly divisible by 2, examples are 1,3,5,7,9
etc. Note that apart from 2, all prime numbers are odd.
Square numbers: these are numbers with an exact square root or numbers which mn be
expressed in the form i where a is a positive integer. The following are some of the square
numbers: 1,4,9, 16,25, etc.
Exercise la.
I State whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) the set of natural numbers and the set of positive integers are identical
(b) 3.14 is a rational number
(c) there are less than 10 rational numbers between 0 and 1
(d) all prime numbers are odd.
(e) .J16 is iITational
(t) the numerical value oh is 3.142
2. List the next five prime numbers after 23. .

3. List the integers between 70 and 80.
•
4~ Find all the factors of each of the following
(a) 18 (b) 10 (c) 32 (d) 42 (e) 64 Ct) 56 Cg) 100 (h) 125
5. Express the following in prime factors

. , (a) 80 . (b) 126 Cc) 555 (d) 525 Ce) 168 Ct) 175 (g) 2310 (h) I 050 .
?
6. List the even numbers between 81 and 90.
7. List the square numbers lying between 45 and 85
8. List the prime numbers lying between 1 and 20
9. List the odd numbers between 100 and 110.
10. Express each of the following as a product of prime factors

(a) 1 260 (b) 2.100 (c) 3 465 (d) 5005 (e) 2 805 (t) 6 545
11. List the odd numbers from the following se~ 23, 45, 98, 73, 122, 145,244,501,724.
12. From the following set of numbers 1, 2, 3, .J3, 3 16, 0.5, 5, 11, 25, 36, -J8 list the
5
fo llowing sets;
(a) integers
(b) natural numbers
(c) rational numbers
(d) irrational numbers
(e) Prime numbers
(t) square numbers
13. Find the integers x, yand z for whiclD 292 = 2 x x 3Y x 7z
14. Express I 764 as aprduct of prime factors leaving your answer in index form
Hence fmd .,}1764
15. Express 4 356 as aprduct of prime factors leaving your answer in index form
Hence fmd .,}4356
16. A teacher lists the following set of numbers and asks the pupils to copy and complete the
table. Copy and complete the table.
r;:; 3 .
3,5, "/7,-,0.1,0.3,&3.2
4
4, 0.45, 13, 4, 25, 23, f4
5
I, 16, 41, It, 81; 29, 0.5.
Square numbers Prime numbers Odd numbers Irrational numbers

4 29
Highest common factor (HCF)
The highest common factor oftwo or more numbers is the greatest factor among the common
factors of the numbers.
Example: The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3,4, 6 and 12

The factors of 16 are 1,2,4,8 and 16
The factors common to both 12 amll6 are 1,2 and 4, the greatest of these is 4, so the highest
common factor of 12 and 16 is 4.
Multiples:-
Multiples of a number are produced by multiplying the number by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and so on. The
multiples of any numbern are divisible by n. Thus, all multiples of 4 are divisible by 4
Example: 5, 10, 15,20,25 are multiples of 5. Note that all these numbers are divisible
by 5.
Lowest common multiple (LCM)

The lowest common multiple of two or more numbers is the least (lowest in value) number in the
list of multiples of the numbers.
Example: Find the LCM of 3 and 4.
Solution: Multiples of3 are 3, 6, 9,12, 15, 18,21,24,27,30,33,36, .

Multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16,20, 24,28,32, 36,40,44,48, .
The common multiples of 3 and 4 are 12, 24 and 36, the smallest of these is 12, so
the LCM of 3 and 4 is 12.
Exercise Ib
1 Write down the fIrst five multiples of 10
2. Write down all the multiples of 4 between 30 and 50
3. Write down the common multiples of 3 and 5 between 2 and 52
4. Write down the common multiples of 5 and 8 between 4 and 100. Hence fmd the LCM of
5 and 8.
5. List all the factors of 30 and 45. Hence fmd the HCF of 30 and 45.
6. Write down the multiples d' 3 and 7 lying between 20 and SO.
7. Find the HCF of each of thefollowing .

(a) 12 and 18 (b) 30 and 40 (c) 42 and 56 (d) 36 and 64
.
(e) 24 and 36 (t) 45 and 60 (g) 50,75 and 125 (h) 70, 80 and 100.
8. Find the LCM of each of the following

(a) 2 and 3 . (b) 4 and 5 (c) 6 and 7 (d) 2, 3 and 5
(e) 4, 5 and 6 (t) 3,4 and 8 (g) 8, 12 and 20 (h) 10, 11 and 15.
4
The number line
A number line (Fig. 1) is the set of points representing the real number system. Points on the
number line lying to the left of 0 are assigned a negative sign and those to the right, a positive sign.
Numbers increase in value as we move from the left to the right and decrease in value as we move
from the right to the left.
4 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ~
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 1
Order on the number line

The symbols < (less than), > (greater than) and = (equal to) are used to describe the positions and
hence the sizes of the numbers relative to each other. Other symbols used are";;; (less than or equal to)
and ;;> (greater than or equal to.)
Examples:
0> -3 means 0 is greater than- 3 or 0 lies to the right of. 3 on the number line (see fig 2)
4 I I I I ~
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t t
Fig 2
-3 < 5 means- 3 is less than 5 or -3 lies to the left of 5 on the number line (fig 3)
I I I I
4 ~
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t t
Fig 3
Sets on the number line

x < - 2 represents the set of real numbers lying to the left of- 2 on the number line. Fig 4 illustrates
these points. The bold portion of the n.umber line shows his set of numbers. The hollow at -2
shows that - 2 is not a member of this set.
• I 0 I I I ~
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig 4
x > 1 represents the set of numbers lying to the right of 1 on the number line (Rg 5)
.
If I 1 0 ..
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 l' 2 3 .4 5 6
Fig 5
5
-3 < x < 2 represents the set of real numbers lying between- 3 and 2. This set of numbers is
shown by the bold portion of the number line (Fig 6)
• ! 0 0 I I I.
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
•
Fig 6
-2 < x < 4 represents the set of real numbers lying betweeil. and 4. Fig 7 illustrates this set
of numbers. The end points of the set are shaded showing that the end points are included in the
set.
• 1 • • I I.
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig 7
Exercise le.
1. Describe the following sets. Use the terms less than, greater than etc in your statements.
(a) x> 1 (b) 0 < x (c) -1> x (d) x <-8 (e) x ?> 12
(f)-I<x<5 (g)3<x< 5 (h)2< x <4 (i) 2<x< 10 0)0<x<3
2. Draw number lines to show the following sets

(a) x> 3 (b) x ?> 4 (c) x < 0 (d) x >- 1 (e) x ?>-3
(f) 2 < x < 5 (g) -2 < x < 1 (h) 0 < x < 3 (i) -1 < x < 4]) -2 < x < 3
3. Describe the following sets in words letting x be the variable.
(a) --':O----{9"'""'"':2~'~3 ...- (b) ~'!':-~!:---"O>--.:'...' ---'-'-"~

-3 -2 -1 0 1
(c) I:----ll:--~.~"!"·_~I_
-2 -I {) 1 2
(d) I '
o
1
1
(
3
~
(e).'
10
1
11 i8 13
,
14
[ .
(g) -OL-I----{?~2-~ (h) ~_3----{-02---'-I'--~0----<;1)--.. (i) II_-L~.~"""'""o-
-2 -1 0 1 2
0).........0. I~ .(k).' 1 • 1 • ~ (1).1 • ! , .~

o 1 2 3 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -3 -2 -1 0 1 t
4. Use symbols «, >, <, or?» to describe the following sets
(a)_O-~I __I",,_-',-,--:-'_~ (b).' . 1 (c) 0-..1..1_~I_"'1__"-,-

1 0 1 2 3 -3- -2 -1 -2 -I 0 I 2
(d) I'10 11, 12

• 13 I ~ (e).' , •
32
1 1
-4 -3 -1 o
(g)~ (h) ~,-o-'--""""-o-- (i) 1 • 0-
-3 -2 -1 0 1 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
0).........0 • I ~ (k).' • I '. • (I). I • 1 I ••

-2 -1 0 1 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -3 -2 -1 0 1
6
2. SETS
Definition:- a set is a well defmed collection of distinct cbjects. Consider the following sets:
a set of numbers
a set of natural numbers.
The former is not well defined whereas the latter is.
Set notation: A set is usually denoted by a letter of the alphabet and the members of the set
enclosed in brackets. For example, if A is the set of whole numbers from I to 9 then the set
is expressed as A = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Describing a set: A set is described in any of the following ways:

• listing the members of the set e.g. {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• describing the set in words e.g. {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} is described as a set of the first five natural
numbers or the first five positive integers.
• naming the set by any letter of the alphabet e.g. A = {odd numbers between 4 and 1O}
• using the set builder notation e.g. {x: 1 ";;;X ~}, x EZ, meaning x is an integer lying
between I and 6 inclusive, Thus A = {x: 1 ";;;x ~}, x EZ => A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Sets and symbols

Empty set:- a set is said to be empty if it has no members. UP is the set of whole numbers
between 0 and 1 then P is an empty set because there are no whole numbers between 0 and 1.
The symbols <p or {} denote empty set. Thus, ifP is the set of whole numbers between 0 and 1
then P = <p or P = { }.
Number of members in a set

The letter n is used for number of members. Thus, if A = {a, b, c, d}, then n(A) = 4. The notation
n(A) stands for number of members in set A.
Equal sets
Sets are equal if they have the same members. Example; if A = {I, 2, 3, 4} and B = {first four
natural numbers}, then A = B because they have the same members.
If C = {a, b, c} and D = {e, f, g}, C *- D though n(C) = n(D). In this case C and D are unequal
Sets. The symbol *- means is not equal to.
Subset
The subset of a set is that set which contains all, some or none of the members of the given set.
Example: IfN = {l, 2,3}; the subsets ofN are {I, 2, 3}, {l, 2}, {2, 3}, {I, 3}, {I}, {2l, {3}
and {}. The symbol used for subset is C, so A CB means A is a subset ofB.1f A is not a subset
ofB we write A ~ B. The symbol ~ denotes-'is not a subset of.
Proper subset: This is the subset which contains only some of the members of the set. In the
example above {I, 2l, {2, 3l, {I, 3l, {I}, {2}, and {3} are the proper subsets ofN.
Improper subset: An improper suhset contains all or none of the members of a set. In the
ahove example, {1,2, 3} and the empty set {} are the improper subsets of N.
For the reason that a subset may contain none, some or all the members of a set, A is a subset of B
is more appropriately written as A cB and the symbol C is exclusively used for proper suhsets.
. Number ofSubsets of a set

If a set has n members, then the number of subsets in the set is 2". Thus a set with 2 members has
7
-------------..
22 = 4 subsets, a set with 3 members has t = 8 subsets and a set with 4 members has 24 = 16
.1
subsets and so on. If a set has 64 subsets then 2" = 64 => n = 6: meaning that a set with 64
subsets has 6 members.
Membership
, The symbol E denotes membership, so p E B means the element p is a member of set B. If P
is not a member of B we write p $ B. The symbol $ denotes 'is not a member of.
Intersection of sets
Sets are said to intersect ifthey have members in common. For example, if A = {a,b, c, d, e )
and B = {b, d, f, h, i); members common to both A and Bare b and d, so A and B ae intersecting
sets. The symbol ndenotes intersection, so A nB is read as 'A intersectionB'. In the foregoing
example A nB = {b, d}.
Union of sets
The union of two or more sets is the assembly of the sets. For example, if P = {a, b, c, d} and
Q = {c, d, e, f, g, h ), then P UQ = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. The symbol U denotes union. Note
that the members common to both P and Q i.e. c and d are written only once in the union set.
The universal set

This is the set containing all the elements under consideration and it is denoted by V.
Example: If, in a school, M = {Mathematics teachers), P = {Physics teachers} and

G = {Geography teachers}, then the universal set is teachers of the school i.e. V= {teachers of
the school).
Complement of a set
The complement of a set A, denoted by AI is the set of members of the universal set outside set A
or members of the universal set which are not members of A.
Example: If (f= {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A={3, 5), thenA/ = {I, 2, 4}

(A n Bi , read as A intersection B complement, is the set of members outside the intersection of
A and B.
Example: If A= {I, 2, 3,4} and B = {I,4, 5, 6}, then (A nB) = {I, 4}, therefore
(A nBi = {2. 3, 5, 6}
Exercise 2a
1. List the following sets
(a) t he fIrst fIve letters of the alphab~t (c) days of the week
(b) prime numbers between 1 and 10 (d) the last four months of the year.
2. Describe the following sets in words .

(a) {a, e, i, 0, u) (b) (January, February, Ma-ch, April)
(c) {2, 4, 6, 8) (d) {Square, Rectangle, Trapezium, Rhombus).
3. If A = {days of the week), B = {2, 4, 6, 7, 9}, C = lp, q, r, s, t, u} and D = {}, fmd

(a) n(A) (b) n(B) (c) n(e) (d) n(D)
8
4. IfP = {I, 2,5,7, 9}, Q = {I, 2, 3, 4} and R ={ 1,5, 9}, state whether the following
are true or false.
(a) Q C P (b) 2 EP (c) Rep ( d) 3<ER (e) 0 C R
5. IfL = {a, e, i, 0, u}, M = (a, d, e) and N = id, e, a}, state whether the following statements
are true or false.
(a) L nM= {a, cl, e, i, 0, u} (b) M=N (c)LnM = {} (d) L nN= (a, e).
6. If A = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 5, 7 }, list the elements of

(a) A nB (b) A UB
7. If r = {I, 2, 3, 4 .... 1O}, A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4,6, 8}, list the following sets
(a) P! (b) B' (c) (A nB) (d) (A nB)' (e) (A UB) (t) (A UB)'
8. IfM2 = {Multiples of2 between 1 and 17}, M 3 = {Multiples of3 between 1 and 20} and
P = {Prime numbers between 1 and 12}, list the sets M 2 , M3 and P and fmd the following
(a) M 2 nM3 (b) M3 np (c) M 2 UM3 (d) M 2 UP
9. State the universal set of each of the following

(a) {Spinach, Rape, Cabbage}
(b) {Monday, Tuesday, Thursday}
(c) {Jupiter, Saturn, Earth, Mars}
(d) {Africa, Asia, Europe}
10. If er = {I, 2, 3,4,5,6, 7}, A = {2, 3, 5, 7}and B = {3, 4, 6, 7}, list the following sets
(a) (A nB) (b)(A nB)' (c) A' (d) B' (e) A' nB'
(t) (A UB) (g) (A UB)' What do you notice about P! nB' and (A UB)'?
11. IU r = {x : 1 .;; x.;; ~(k EZ, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {2, 5, 7} ,
list the following sets
(a)AnB (b)AnC (c)BnC (d)AnBnC (e)AUB (t)AUC
(g) A UB nc (h) A UB UC (i) (A UB UC)' (j) (A UB)' (k) (A UB)' nc
12. If (': = {I, 2, 3, 4, .12}, P = {x : x is a prime number}, 0 = {x : x is an odd number}

and S = {x : x is a square number}. List the sets P, 0 and S and hence find the following
(a) p' Cb) 0' (c) P no (d) (P no)' (e) (P nS)
(t) (P ns)' (g) PUS (h) (P US)' (i) PUS UO (j) (P US UO)'
13. If A = {a, b, C}, list tlie following

(a) proper subsets of A
(b) improper subsets of-A
14. (a) a set has 5 members, how many subsets has it?
(b) a set has 128 subsets how many members h~s it?
15. A set M has 8 members, find

(a) the number of subsets in M
(b) the number of improper subsets inM
(c) the number of proper subsets in M
9
VENN DIAGRAMS
Venn diagrams are used to illustrate sets in a pictorial way. This is done by drawing a rectangle
with circles in it olCircles if the universal set is not defined. The rectangle represents the universal set
and the circles represent the subsets of the universal set E:.
The diagram shows a Venn diagram with four non empty subsets. From the diagram the sets are
\
e'= {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, lO}
A = {2, 4, 6, 8}
B = {I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7}
4
C={3,5}
In the event where the universal set is not defmed, it

8 suffices to draw circles to present sets.
10 9
Fig 2.1
Example 1: From the diagram (Fig 2.2), list the elements of:
(a) P
(b)Q
P a (c) R
(d) P nQ
g (e) Q n R
b
(f) (P uQi
J
Fig 2.2
Solution: (a) P = (a, b, d, g, i) (b)Q= {e, d, e, f, i, I} (c) R= {e, f, I}

(d)P nQ= (d, i) (e) Q n R = {e, f, I} (f) (P uQi = (j, k)
Example 2. If (, = {Who le numbers from 1 to 15}, A = {Even numbers between 1 and 15},
B = { multiples of3 between 1 and 15} and e = {6, 7, 9, 10}, list the sets A and B
and state the elements of;
(a) A nB (b) A ne (c) B ne (d) A nB ne
Show the sets A, B and e on a Venn diagram
Solution: A = {2, 4. 6. 8,10,12, 14} and B = {3, 6, 9, 12}

(a) A nB = {6, 12} (b) A ne = {6, 10} (c) B ne = {6, 9} (d) A nB ne = {6}
The Venn diagram is as shown in fig 2.3. I
,(,--::::::=-:::---::::=::::::--, Note that 6 is enclosed by all three circles sh0"ting that
(
6 is a member of all three sets.

4 3
14
2
Fig 2.3
10
Alternative notation
In the two examples above, the items in the sets are elements of the sets.In some cases, the items
represent the number of members in the set. The following example illustrates this.
Example 1: In a class of 25 pupils, 14 take Chemistry, 15 take physics and 4 take both Chemistry
and Physics. Illustrate thi s information by means of a Venn diagram.
Solution: Number who take Chemistry = 14

Number who take Physics ~ 15
Number who take both Chemistry and Physics = 4
Now, the number who take Chemistry include those who take both Chemistry and Physics,
therefore the number who take only Chemistry = 14 - 4 = 10
Similarly, the number who take only Physics = 15 - 4 = 11
C The Venn diagram is as shown in Fig 2.4, where setsC and P

represent pupils who take Chemistry and Physics respectively.
10 11 Note that the 4 who take both subjects are enclosed by both
circles and 10 + 4 + 11 = 25, the total number of pupils in the
class.
Fig 2.4
Example 2: A group of girls were asked about their favourite drink. 6 said they like Coca-cola
(C), 7 said they like Sprite(S) and 3 said they like both Coca-Cola and Sprite.
Find the number of girls asked if all those asked like at least one of the drinks.
Solution: First we fill in the intersection, representing those who like both types of dfink.
This is shown in fig 2.5. The 6 who like Coca cola
include those who like both types of drink, therefore
the number who like only Coca cola = 6- 3 = 3
3 Similarly, the 7 who like Sprite include thosewho like
both drinks, therefore the number who like only Sprite
is 7 - 3 = 4.
The complete Venn diagram is as shown in fig 2.6.
Fig 2.5 The number of girls asked is therefore 3J: 3+ 4 - m
3 4
Fig 2.6
11
Example 3. In a class of 30 pupils, 17 play Football, 15 play Volleyball, 12 play Rugby,
9 play only Football, 6 play only Volleyball and 3 play only Rugby. If all pupils
play at least one of the three games, find the number who play only Volleyball
and Rugby and display the information on a Venn diagram.
Solution: Let the number who play only Volleyball and Rugby be x as shown in fig 2.7
F V Now, the number who play Volleyball is 15,

therefore the number who play only Football and
9 6 volleyball = 15 - 6 - 2 - x = 7 - x
Similarly, the number who play Rugby and
2
Football = 12- 3 - 2- x = 7- x
3
R
Fig. 2.7
We now use the information found to fill in the remaining regions of the Venn diagram
as shown in fig. 2.8
F V Now, number who play football

= 9 + (7 - x) + 2 + (7- x) = 25 - 2x
9 6 :.17=25-2x
___"'_x: =4
Therefore the number who play only Volleyball
and Rugby is 4
R
Fig. 2.8
The complete Venn diagram is as shown in fig. 2.9. This is obtained by replacing
x by 4 in fig 2.8
F V
Note that 9 + 3 + 6 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 3 = 30
9
,
Fig. 2.9
12
Example 4. 40 people were asked about their favourite bath soap. 9 said they like only Choice
7 said they like only Geisha and 8 said they like only Protex. 7 said they like
both Cho ice and Geisha,S said they like both Geisha and Protex and 8 said
they like Choice and Protex. If all those interviewed like at least one of the three
types of soap, fmd
(i) how many like all three types of soap
(ii) how many like only two types of soap
Solution: Let C = people who like Choice

G = people who like Geisha
P = people who like Protex
x = people who like all three types 0 f soap
Using the given information we fill in the known regions of the Venn diagram shown in
Fig 2.10.
C G The 7 who like Choice and Geisha include those who
9 7 like Protex. Therefore number who like only Choice
and Geisha = 7 - x
Similarly, the number who like only Choice and

Protex = 8 - x and the number who like only Gei;ha
8 and Protex = 5 - x
P
Fig. 2.10
We now use the mtorrnatlOn tound to fill in the remaining regions of the Venn diagram
as shown in fig. 2.11.
C G Now the sum of the terms in the 7 regions of the
Venn diagram is 40
7
... 9 + (7 - x) + 7 + x + (8- x) + (5 - x) + 8 = 40
".44-2x=40
".x=0.2
8 (i) Therefore 2 people like all three types of soap

P (ii) The number who like only two types of soap
= (7 - 2) + (8 - 2) + (5 - 2)
Fig. 2.11
= 14
C G
the complete Venn diagram is as shown in fig 2.12
P
Fig. 2.12
13
of formula
any two intersecting sets A and B, n( A UB) = n(A) + n(B)- n(A n B), this is because in
ting the members of each set, the intersection is counted twice so we subtract one of these
counts. If the two sets do not intersect, then r(A nB) = 0, therefore n(A UB) = n(A) + n(B)
Example 2 above can be solved be solved using the formula as follows; let
n(C) = number who like Coca cola :. n(C) = 6
n(S) = number who like Sprite and :. n(S) = 7
n(C nS) = number who like both Coca Cola and Sprite :. n(C nS) = 3
Now, n(C US) = n(C) + n(S) - n(C nS),
=6+7-3
=10
Therefore the numQer....ollir!s asked isJ 0
lYing problems using the three set formula

If A, B and C are three intersecting sets then
n(A UB UC) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A nB) - n(A nC) - n(B nC) + n(A nB nC)
Example: In a community of 40 families, 20 families grow maize, 16 grow cotton and 17 grow
groundnuts. 4 grow both maize and groundnuts, 3 grow both groundnuts and cotton
and I family grows all three crops. Find the number of families who grow both
maize and cotton if all families grow at least one of the three crops.
SOlution: Let n(M) = number who grow maize

n(C) = number who grow cotton
n(O) = number who grow
n( M nO) = number who grow both maize and groundnuts
n( 0 nC) = number who grow both groundnuts and cotton
n( M nc nO) = number who grow all three crops
n(M UC UO) = number of families in the community
:. n(M) = 20,
n(C) = 16
n(O) = 17
n(M nO) =4
n (0 nc) = 3
n(MnCnO)=1
n(M UC UO) = 40
Now n(M UC UO) = n(M) + n(O) + n(C) - n(M nC) - n(M no) - n(O nC) + n(M nc no)
:.40= 20+17+16'- n(Mnc)- 4- 3+ I
40 = 47 - n(M nC) ;,
n(M nC) = 47 -40 ..
:. n(MnC)=7
So thS;.JUFnber QUaf!1ilies w o'¥ b..oJh.maize and cotton is 7
This problem can also be solved by using the method in example 4 above.
14
Shading of venn diagrams
Sometimes the location of members of a given set is shown by shading the region occupied by
the members. The following diagrams show (by shading) the location of members in various sets.
SetA A compliment
A A
(A UB)' MIB
MIB ne AUBue
e''----
AnB ue (A ue)' n B
15
Exercise 2b
1. From fig. 1 list the members of the following sets

If m (a) A (b) B
A B
f b i (c) AnB (d) A UB
(e) J>.! (f) (AnB)1
k (g) (A UBi (h) ~n B
d
J
Fig. 1
2. From fig.2 name the following sets

(a) {I, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11}
(b) {2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 12, 14}
(c) {5, 6, 8}
(d) {{I, 7,10,11,13,15, 18)
(e) {2, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18}
(f) {13, 15, 18}
Fig. 2
3. From fig.3 fmd the following
(f
A-- (a) n(A) (b) n(B)
(c) n(AnB) (d) n(A UB)
(e) n(Ai (f) n(Bi
8 (h) n(AU B)I
(g) n (AnB/
Fig. 3
4. In fig. 4, n(A) = 14, find

(a) the value of x and hence fmd:
(b) n(B)
(c) n(AnB)
(d) the value ofy ifn(~) =42
Fig. 4
5. From fig.5 list the'members of the following sets
B
(a) A (b) B '"
(c) e (d) AnB :"
c (e) Ane (f) B ne

(g)AnBne (h) A UB
d (i) (A UB) ne G) (A nE) UC
m (k) (A uei nB (I) (A UBi ne
n e J (m) (A UB uei
C
Fig. 5
16
6. In fig. 6 list the members of the following sets;
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) A nE
(e) Ane (t) B ne
(g) AnBnC (h) A UB
(i) (A UB) nc G) (A nB) UC
(k) (A uci nB (I) (A UB)' nc
(m) (A UB uci
Fig. 6
7. From fig. 7 fmd the following;

(a) n (A) (b) n(B)
(c) n(C) . (d)n(AnB)
(e) n(AnC) (t) n(B n C)
(g) n(AnBnC) (h) n(A UB)
(i) n[(A UB) nC] G) n[(A nB) UC]
(k) n[(A UC)' nB] (I) n[(A UBi nC]
18 14 C (m) n[(A UB UCi]
Fig. 7
8. In fig. 8 n(A) = 24 find (a) the value of x and hence find

(b) n(B)
(c) n(C)
(d) n(AnB)
(e) n(A UB)
(t) n[(A nB) UC]
C
Fig. 8
9. In the Venn diagram below, A = {Pupils who take Art}, B = {Pupils who take Biology] and
C = {Pupils who take Chemistry}, fmd
(a) the number of pupils who take Art
(b) the number of pupils who take Biology
(c) the number of pupils who take both Biology and Chemi&try
(d) the number of pupils who take only Art ..
(e) the number of pupils who take both Art and Biology but not
Chemistry
(t) the number of pupils who take only two of the three subjects
11
C
Fig. 9
17
10. In fig.1O, find (a) n(A)
(b) n(B)
(c) n(C)
(d) n(AnB)
(e) n(Arc)
(f) n(C)'
(g) n(B nq'
Fig. 10 (h) n(A n B re)
11. If A and B are two sets and

a. n(A) = 9, n(B) = 5, n(AnB) = 3, fmd n(A UB)
b. n(A UB) = 20, n(A) = 12, n(B) = 10 fmd n(AnB)
c. n(A UB) = 40, n(An B) = 8, n(B) = 24 find n(A)
d. n(A) = 30, n(B) = 25, n(AnB) = 3 fmd n(A UB)
e. n(A UB) = 28, n(A) = 15, n(AnB) = 10 find n(B)
f. n(A UB) = 20, n(A) = 12, n(AnB) = 8 find n(B)'
12. Ofthe 100 pupils at a party

49 took Fanta (F)
56 took Coca-cola (C)
49 took Pepsi (P)
16 took only Fanta
20 took only Coca cola
18 took only Pepsi
18 took both Fanta and Pepsi
21 took both Coca cola and Pepsi and
23 took both Fanta and Coca cola
All the pupils took at least one of the three types of drink.
(a) Denoting the number of pupils who took all three types of drink by x, copy and complete
the Venn diagram (fig. 11) expressing some of your answers in terms of x where
appropriate.
(b)Write down in terms ofx
(i) the number who took only Pepsi and coca cola
F (ii) the number who took only Fanta and Coca cola
(iii) the number who took only Fanta and Pepsi.
(c) Form an equation in x and solve it. Hence fmd
(i) the number of pupils who took all three types of
drink
(ii) the number of pupils who took only two types of
drink.
...\
Fig. 11
18
13. A group of Zambian students were asked about which neighbouring country
Malawi, Zimbabwe or Botswana they have visited. The following
information was obtained.
80 have visited Malawi
70 have visited Botswana
55 have visited Zimbabwe
10 have visited all three countries
35 have visited both Malawi and Botswana
30 have visited both Malawi and Zimbabwe
30 have visited both Zimbabwe and Botswana
20 have not visited any of the three countries
Find the number of students interviewed.
14. Fig 12 shows three intersecting sets, A, Band C. It is given that n(A)= 50,
n(B) = 42 and n(C) = 62. By considering each of the sets B and C show that
(i) a + b = 38 - x
(ii) a + 2 b = 58 - x
A B Solve these equations simultaneously to fInd the value of b.
a b Given that c = b + 10, fmd the values of, a and x.
Copy the venn diagram and write down the numerical value
4 of the element in each region of the diagram.
a x
2b C
Fig. 12
15. Make four copies of each of the following fIgures and show by shading, the regions
defIned by (a) Ml!3 (b) (A UB) (c) B / (d) (A nB) /
yr-----------,
(i) A B (iii) A
BO
16. Make four copies of each of the following fIgures and show by shading, the regions
defmed by (a) A nBUC (b) (A UBi (c) (A UBi nc (d) (A nB)/ UC
y
(i) A (iii) B:'
19
3. OPERATIONS
The most common operations (mathematical signs) used in mathematics are addition (+).
subtraction (-), multiplication (x) and division (+).
+ is used to express a sum e.g. 4 + 2 means the sum of 4 and 2
- is used to express a difference e.g. 5 - 3 means the difference between 5 and 3
x is used to express a product, so 2 . 3 denotes the product of 2 and 3
+is used to express a quotient e.g. 10 I 5 denotes the quotient of 10 and 5
Example 1 Find the sum of24 and 10

Solution: 24 + 10 = 34 :. the sum of 24 and 10 is 34
Example 2 Find the difference between 5 and 8

lntion: 8 - 5 = 3, so the difference between 5 and 8 is 3
Example 3. Find the product of 40 and 5.

lution: 40 x 5 = 200 .' .the product of 40 and 5 is 200
fiample 4: fmd the quotient of 30 and 15

ution: 30 + 15 = 2, so the quotient ono and 15 is 2.
er of operations
- an expression where the sign x or + is used together with either + or - sign, the former
uld be done fIrst. In other words, multiplication and division should be done fIrst before
" ion and subtraction
f.J::ample 1 2 + 4 x 3 = 2 + 12 = 14
Note that multiplication has been done fIrst before addition.
E:x:ample 2: 3 + 16+ 4 = 3 + 4 = 7.
pie 3. 3x 4-12+3 = 12-4 =8
of brackets
an expression where brackets are used, the brackets must be worked fIrst before
iplication and division.
Example 1: (3 + 5) 12 = 8 12 = 4
I:=mple 2: 18 1(4 + 5) = 18 I 9"= 2

£=mple3: (12 + 8) J (10-5) =20 15 =4.
erations on the number line.

It has been pointed out in the previous chapter that "numbers on the number line increase in
value from left to right and decrease in value from right to left. For this reason increases are
given a positive sign and decreases are given a negative sign.
20
Examples:
+2 denotes an increase of 2 units i.e. going 2 units to the right starting from 0 (see fig. 2.1)
- 3 denotes a decrease of 3 units i.e. going 3 units to the left starting from 0 (see fig. 2.2)
+2 -3
-I 4
I I I I I
4
-3
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 - • I
-3
I
-2
I
-1
I
0
I
1
I
2
I
3 -
Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2
Addition
2+3=5 (see fig. 2.3)
2 3
I I I I I I
1
1 1
-I
I I I -I I
4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -
Fig. 2.3
Subtraction
-2 + (-3) = -5 (see fig. 2.4)
-3 -2
4 I I
• I 1
I-
I
1
I ! I I I
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -
Fig. 2.4
Multiplication
2· (-2) = -4 (see fig. 2.5)
-2 -2
4 14 I
I 1 I I I I I I I I
4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -
Fig. 2.5
Example: Insert brackets in each of the following so that the statement is true
( a) 12 - 3 + 4 = 5 (b) 8 - 3 - 4 + 2 = 11
Solution: (a) Ifwe put 12 and 3 in brackets the statement becomes (12- 3) + 4 = 5. This is
obvimsly not true since 9 + 4 *5. The brackets should therefore enclose 3 and 4
so that the statement becomes 12 - (3 + 4) ~ 12 - 7 = 5 which is true.
(b) Here the options are (8 - 3) - 4 + 2 = 11 or 8 - (3 - 4) + 2= 11 or

8 - 3 - (4 + 2) = 11 or (S- 3) - (4 + 2) = 11; which one of these is true?
Of course 8 - (3 - 4) + 2 = 11 is the true statement.
.
Exercise 3
1. Find the sum of
(a) 3 and 5 (b) 10 and 20 (c) 45 and 55 (d)" 23 and 66 (e) 4, 5 and 13
(f) -5 and 3 (g) -24 and -22 (h) 26 and -19 (i) -42 and -34 (j) 10, -12 and -34
21
2. Find the difference between
(a) 6 and 8 (b) 12 and 33 (c) 32 and 60 (d) 19 and 37 (e) 45 and 22
(t) 2 and-2 (g) -20 and 10 (h)-12and-13 (i) -1 and 0 0) 0 and -24
3. Find the product of
(a) 21 and 10 (b) 20 and 50 (c) 32 and 30 (d) 25 an d 12 (e) 2, 5 and 40
(t) 3 and-lO (g) -12 and-lO (h)- 4 and 50 (i) - 2 and -100 0) -4, -5 and-lO
4. Find the quotient of

(a) 4 and 4 (b) 24 and 12 (c) 50 and 10 (d) 25 and 300 (e) 42 and 7
(t) 350 and 70 (g) 36 and 144 (h) 77 and 11 (i) 450 and 15 0) 1200 and 50
5. Evaluate the following

(a) 4 x 3 - 2 (b) 3 + 3 - 1 (c) 2 + 2 x 2 (d)14-3 x 2 (e)14-12+4
(t) 12 x 2 - 24+ 4 (g) 33 + 11 - 2 + 2 (h) 20 + 10 + 2 x 4 (i) 18 x 5 + 4 x 5

(a)(2 + 2) x 2 (b) 15+ (3 + 2) (c) 20 x (6 - 4) (d) 24 x (8 - 4) (e) 100 + (2 + 18)
(t) 12 - (5 - 3) (g) 30 - (2 - 4) (h) 17 - (20 - 3) (i) 10 I (5 - 3) 0) 30 - (6 - 12)
7. For each of the following insert brackets so that the given statement is true
(a)8-2+2=4 (b)2+2x 4=16 (c) 12-3+4=5 (d)8-4+2=2
(e) 2+2x2=8 (t)16-12+2=2 (g)10-3+3+4=1 (h) 20+ 8-4=5
8. Town A is 400m above sea level and town B is 200m below sea level, what is the difference
in altitude between these towns?
9. What is the difference between the following temperature readings? (Both are in °C.)
5~
I I I I
( -ib J io Jo 30 10 11 0)
~
!
( -ih
I
3U k 00 ko 0)
10. The temperature in Cape Town is-4o C when it is 20°C in Lusaka fmd
(i) the difference in temperature between Cape town and Lusaka at this time.
(ii) the temperature in Cape town when the temperature has increased by 3°C
11. Town A is !'IOm above sea level, town B is 100 above sea level and town C is 280m
below sea level, Find the difference in altitude
(a) between town A and town i3
(b) between town A and town C 'I
(c) between town B and town C
22
~. FRACTIONS
Consider the diagram below. The straight line AB divides the circle into two equal parts. This
gives the fraction .!. i.e. 1 circle divided in 2 parts. The straight lines AB and CD divide the
2
circle into 4 equal parts each part being .!. (one fourth) of the whole circle. Three of the four
A 4
parts into which the circle is divided make the fraction ~
4
(three quarters or three fourths) of the circle.
C~---+------I D
For every fraction expressed in the form m , the top
n
number is the numerator and the bottom number is the
denominator. The numerator is the number of items to
B be shared or divided and the denominator is the number
of parts the items are shared.
The size of the numerator in relation to the denominator determines the type of fraction we
have.
• If the numerator is less than the denominator e.g. 3. the fraction is known as a proper
3
fraction
• If the numerator is greater than the denominator e.g. ~ the fraction is known as an
2
improper fraction
• A fraction consisting of a whole number and a fraction e.g. 4~ is known as a
5
mixed fraction or mixed number
Note: a mixed number is the sum of a fraction and a whole number eg
3 3
4- =4 +-
5 5
Converting an improper fmction to a mixed number

To change an improper fraction to a mixed number, divide the numerator by the denominator
and exnress the remainder as a fraction ofthe denominator.
11 1 1
Example 1. - = 2 +.- = 2-
5 5 5
22
Example 2: -
1
= 3+- = 3-
1 ' •.
7 7 7
To change a mixed number to an improper fract,ion, multiply the whole number by the
denominator and add the numerator to the result. .
Example 1: 2! = 3· 2 + 1 = 2.
3 3 3
Example 2: 3.±. = 15· 3 + 4 49
15 15 15
23
Equivalent fractions
Consider the diagrams a, b and c below:
(a) (b) (c)
Shaded region is + Shaded region is i Shaded region is %

of the circle of the circle of the circle
The fractions ~, .3.

and 4 represent the same shaded region of the circle, therefore
248
2 d4
~ an
. Ient l.e.
- are eqUlva . ~I = -2 = -4
2 4 8 2 4 8
o produce equivalent fractions, multiply or divide both numerator and denominator

ofthe fraction by the same number.
Example 1: -2 2x2
= -- = -
4 , so -2 and -4 aTe eqUlva
. Ient fr actIons.
.
9 9x2 18 9 18
6 6+6 1
Example 2: - = - - =-
18 18+6 3
Reducing a fraction to its lowest terms

To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms divide both numerator and denominator by their
highest common factor.
Example 1: Reduce .!..3.

to its lowest terms.
42
Solution: The HCF of 12 and 42 is 6.
. 12 12+ 6 2
-= =-
42 42+ 6 7
Example 2: Reduce 84 to its lowest terms

140
lution: The HCF of 84 and 140 is 28

. 84 84+28 3
-= =-
140 140+ 28 5
Comparing fractions (ordering offractions)

To compare two or more fractions, find their equivalent forms such that they have a common
denominator.
24
Example 1: Determine which of the fractions is the greater ~ or ~
~ 4 5
Solution: The LCM of 4 and 5 is 20
3 3 3x5 3x4
- or -::} - - or--
4 5 4x5 5 x4
::} ~org
20 20
Now the denominators are the same and the fractions can be easily compared by
comparing the numerators.
15 12 3 3
Thus - > - . Hence - > -
20 20 4 5
Example 2: Write the following fractions in order of size from smallest to the greatest
2 5 3
and
3'6 S
Solution: The LCM of 3, 6 and 5 is 30 so we write the fractions with denominator 30
. 2 2x 10 20
=
3 3xIO 30
=
5 5x 5 25
= =
6 6 x 5 30
3 3 x 6 18
= =
5 5 x 6 30
18 20 25 .
Now - < - < - (Note: the denommators are the same so we compare numerators)
30 30 30
325
Hence -<-<-
536
Exercise 4a
1. Express the shaded region as a fraction of the whole leaving your answer in lowest terms
(a) (b) (c)
.
~
2. Express the following as mixed numbers

a. ~ b. 20 c. 25 d. ~ e.
35
f.~
5 743 6 21
25
3. Express the following as improper fractions;
a. 3~ b. 9~
2 4
c. 14- d. 5 - e. 11.!2 f. 14~
2 16 9 15 13 14
4. Replace * by an appropriate symbol <, > or =

7 (3 3 I 2 8 d.~* 200
a. 10 " 5 b. 4 * "2 c. 15 * 15 2 400
500 300 4 8 13 13 I 12
e.--*-- f. - *- g. *- h. - *-
1000 1000 5 11 15 14 8 96
5. Reduce the following to their lowest terms
a. 20 b. 42 c. 84 d. 39 210 105 0' 144
_ h. 132
e. - - f.
40 35 140 105 300 189 b' 189 189
6. Replace * by an appropriate number

1*
a. - = -
210
b. - = -
3*
c. - = - *
d. 9=- e.-=-
* 7 f.
* =
50
2 8 3 * 4 12 4 60 12 400 100
7· Write the following fractions in order of size starting with the smallest to the largest. Your
answers should be in the form ..... < ..... < ......
123 974 123 4 7
a - - -
'2'3'5
b. - - -
10'8'5
c. - - -
8'9'10
d
. 5' 10' 8
.2.-
335 11 9 5 7 7 5 1 2 3
e. 4' 5' 7 f. 12' 10' '6 g. 11' 10' '8 h. 3' 5'-::;
8. In a competition, teams are ranked according to their chance of winning the compttition.
Four teams A, B, C and D take part in a competition and their chances of winning are
respectively. ~, ~,..!..
and ~, rank the teams chances from the least likely to win to
8 5 7 6
the most likely. Express your answer in the form ..... < ..... < .....< .....
Addition of fractions
To add two or more fractions follow the following steps
• Find the LCM of the denominators
• divide each denominator intl;) the LCM and multiply the result by the numerator
• add
Example 1: Simplify ~+~

5 5
SOlution: The LCM of denominators is 5
1 3 1+3 4 .
-+- = - - = - ..
5 5 5 5
Note: both fractions have the same denominator so we do not carry out step number 2.
26
Example 2. Simplify i. + i.
4 5
. 3 3 15+ 12
.. .. - + - = - - -
4 5 20
27
=
20
7
= 1-
20
Example 3. Simplify ~+4 +~

356
Solution: The LCM on, 5 and 6 is 30
. 2 4 1 20 + 24 + 5
.. -+-+- =
3 5 6 30
49
=
30
= 119
30
To add mixed fractions, add the whole numbers first then add the fractions as
discussed above.
Example 1: Simplify 3~+ Ii.

2 4
1 3 I 3
Solution: 3-+ 1- = 3 + 1 + -+-
2 4 2 4
=4+ 5
4
=4+ 1~
4
= 5~
4
· I'f
E xamp Ie 2: S1ITlp 7 1 3
I Y - + 1- + -
3 2 4
Solution: We fIrst change ~ into a mixed number ,
3
7 1 3 I 1 3
Thus -+1-+- = 2-+1-+-
3 2 4 3 2.4
1 1 3
=2+1+ -+-+-
324
=3 + .!2. = 42.
12 12
27
Subtraction of fractions
A process similar to addition is applied here
Example 1. Simplify ~- ~
4 5
:. %- ~ = ( ~ x ~~) - G~~)
x
15 8
=- -
20 20
7
=
20
Example 2: Simplify 3~ -1 ~
5 4
. 31
SolutIon: 3--1-=3-1+ - - -
5 4 5 4
(3 1)
7
=2+-
20
=2~
20
Mixed operations
Example: Simplify 3~ + 1~ - 2~
2 2 4
Solution: 3~+1~ -2~ = 3 + 1- 2 + (~+~ -~)
2 2 4 2 2 4
3
=2+ -
4
= 2~
4
Exercise 4b
I. Simplify
3 1 123 1 3 5 2 4 ,3,
a. -+- b. -+-+- C. -+- d. -+- e. - + -
4 4 555 2 4 6 3 5 10
2 3 1 I 1 1 1 3
f. -+-+- g. 1 + 2- I. 2 + -+2- J. 1-+2-
346 2 4 2 3 7
3 3 I 2 3 1 2 1 3 4 2
k. 3-+5- I. 2+1-+2- m.5-+3+4- n.l-+3-+2- o. 4-+1-+5
4 5 6 3 8 4 3 2 5 5 3
28
2 Simplify
5 3
a. - - - b. ~-~ c.
3 1
--- d. 2.!. - ~
2 2
e. 3---
9 9 6 4 2 2 3 5 5 7
f. 4.!. - 3.!. g.2- I.!. - .!. h. 5.!.-~-2 I. I.!.-~-.!. . 17 -2.!.-~
5 2 2 4 4 8 8 2 3 4 j. 5 4 10
3. Simplify
I I I I I I 3 1 3 I 3 3 1
a.l- -+- b. - - - + - c. 3 + 1--2- d.l-+--- e. - + - - -
2 4 3 4 12 2 5 5 10 2 5 4 10
551 53131
f. 1---+- g. 4-+2--3- h. -+2--1
9 6 36 6 4 7 5 4
Multiplication offractions
To multiply fractions, simplify fITst, where possible then multiply the numerators together and
the denominators together. Where mixed fractions are involved, change them into improper
fractions fITst then apply the rule.
Example 1. Multiply 2 by ~
9 8
. A"' -3"
SolutIon: - x - =
J
- x -
I
5/8 3 4
J
=
12
Example 2. Multiply 2.!. by 3~

2 4
I 3 5 15
Solution: 2- x 3- = - x-
2 4 2 4
75
=
8
= 9~
8
To multiply a fraction by a whole num.ber simplify fIrst where possible then multiply.
Example 1: Multiply ~ by 10
25
Solution: ~ x).,{1= ~
7% 5
= 3~
5
29
Example 2. MUltiply 2~ by 6
2
Solution: 2~ x 6 =~ x 6
2 2
=l5.
Note that the mixed fraction 2~ has been changed into the proper fraction ~ before
2 2
simplifying and multiplying.
Diyision of fractions
To divide fractions invert the divisor (turn it upside down), simplify where possible then
multiply them. Where mixed fractions are involved, change them into improper fractions fIrst
then apply the rule.
Example 1. Divide ~ by ~
8 4
1 3 1 4
Solution: - = - x-
8 . 4 8 3
1
=
6
Example 2. Divide 3~ by 1~
2 4
1 1 7 5
Solution: 3- + 1- = -+-
2 4 2 4
7 4
= -x-
2 5
14
=
5
= 2 i
5
To divide a fraction by a number multiply the fraction by the reciprocal of the umber.
Example: Divid~ 1O~ by 3

2
Solution: 1O~ + 3 = 21 + 3
2 2
= 21 x~ (Reciprocalof3 is 1/3)
2 3 ..
7
=2
= 3~
2
30
To divide a whole number by a fraction invert the fraction and multiply.
Example: Divede 28 by -
5
Solution: 28 + ~ = 28 + 4
5 5
5
=28 x-
4
= 35:
Exercise 4c
1. Simplify
3 2 I I 3 14 I 1 I 1
a. -x- b. -x- c. - x - d. 1- x3- e. 3-xl-
4 3 5 2 7 15 2 4 3 5
I 1 1 3 . 3 4 2
f. -x6 a.3-X4- h. 4x- 1. I-x 10 J l-x2- ,
4 " 4 2 7 5 5 '1
1 1 I I I 1 3 I 1 2
k.I-x3- 1. 12 x 22 m.32x3-xl- n. I-x 3-x 1- o. l2-x 3- x 1-
2 4 3 8 4 2 4 13 2 5 3
2. Simplify
I I 2 4 4 3 I I I 2
a. -+- b. - + - c. - - d. 1-+1- e. 2-+-
2 4 5 IS 5 5 5 2 4 3
2 5 5 5 5 2 2
f. 9 +1- g.4-+2- h.58+2- 1. 4-+3- J 10+ 1-
3 6 12 12 7 3 3
k.7~+.!i 5
1. 5-+8-
I 5
m. 4-+29
5
n.3-+46
3 14
0.4-+-
11 3 9 3 6 6 7 62
Miscellaneous examples
Example 1: Find the value of (4 1 + 3~ ) + I I

4 4 2
. I I I I 1
SolutIon: (4-+ 3-) + 1- = 7 -+1-
4 42 2 2
IS 3
= -~-
2 2
IS 2
= -x-
2 3
=i
Example 2: SimPlifY(3~ +1 ~)+ (5; -2 ~)

Solution: (3!+1~)+
2 4
(5~-2!)
4 4
= 5!+3! (Note that brackets are worked out first)
4 2
= ~x3. = jl.
4 7 ~
11
Example 3: Find ~ of KI 000
4
Solution: In all problems involving 'of, replace 'of by a multiplication sign
... ~ ofKl 000 = ~x K1000
4 4
=K75fl
Example 4: A vessel contains 10 litres of water. After a while _1_ of the water has evaporated
100
and ~ has leaked away. Find
5
(i) what fraction of the water is lost
( ii) how many litres are left
Solution: (i) _1_ evaporated and ~ leaked away
100 5
1 1 21 .
- + - =- of the water was lost through leakage and evaporation.
100 5 100
(ii) The fraction of water left = 1- ~

. 100
79
=
100
Therefore the quantity of water left = 79 of 10 litres
100
= 79 x 10 litres
100
= 7-9 l'Itres
10
Exercise 4d
1. Simplify the following leaving your answers in their lowest terms
a. 1~x
2
( ~+~ )
3. 2
b. ( 2~2 - ~4 ) x ~
21
c. ~9 x ( 4~2 - 2~4 )
d. 2-x 1-+1-
1 (1 3) 7-+1-
e. (.3 2) x (1
1-+1-
2) 7-+1-
f. (3 2) 7- (1
1-+1-
2)
3 7 14 5 5 9 3 5 5 9" 3
h. (7~-6~)7-(3~+1~)
5 5 10 5
3 5.1-31.
1. 2 4
J 2 4 4.1+1.1
-+- 4 2
5 5
32
2. By how much is! greater than _l_?
4 100
1 3 2 9 1 3
3. Find the fiaction lying mid way between (a) - and- (b) - and - (c) 1- and 2-
2 4 5 10 2 4
4. Find the following

2
(a) - of360km (b) 4 of a kilometre in metres (c) i of a kilogram in grams
3 5 8
5. How many buckets of capacity ~ litres can be filled from a cylinder containing 40 litres
6
of water?
6. Of 200 eggs in a box ! were rotten and ! had cracks and the rest were good. Find the
5 4
number of good eggs.
7. How many strings of length 14cm can be cut from a string 2m long and what fraction of
the string is left over?
8. A farmer used 3:. of fence wire to fence a cattle kraal and! of the wire to fence a chicken
5 4
run. Find the fraction of fence wire left over.
9. A vessel contains 50 litres of milk. How many containers of capacity 23:. litres can be filled
5
from the vessel and what fraction of the milk is left over?
10. The diagram shows a rectangular piece of land. A farmer uses this piece of land to grow
vegetables, tea and coffee. Use the information given in the dialrram to fmd
(a) the area used to grow tea
500m
(b) the fraction of land used to grow tea
(c) the fraction of land used to grow
Vegetables lOOm vegetables and coffee together .
Coffee 200m
240m
Tea
~ 300m ~I .
11. The diagram shows a cylinder containing two immiscible liquids X and Y. The !est of
the cylinder is empty space. The cylinder is 1 full, calculate:
(a) the fraction of empty space
(b) the he,ight of empty space
(c) the fraction of tlie cylinder occupied by X
(d) the fraction of the cylinder occupied by Y
24cm
(e) as a fraction how much more is Y than X.
X ZOcm
33
S. DECIMAL FRACTIONS
Decimals arise from dividing numbers by powers of 10 such as Id, 102 , 103 etc.
9 19 25 25
Examples: - = 0.9, - = 1.9 , - 2 =- = 0.25 etc
10 10 10 100
The dot (.) is known as the decimal point and that part of the number following the decimal
point is known as the decimal fraction.
Place value
In a number such as 3 456 which can be written as 3 000 + 4)() + 50 + 6, every digit has a
certain value according to its position in the number. Thus 3 is in the thousands, 4 is in the
hundreds,S is in the tens and 6 is in the units.
The following table shows place value of each digit in the numbers 3125,43.56 and 2894.316
Number Thousands Hundreds Tens Units Tenths Hundredths Thousandths
3125 3 1 2 5
43.56 4 3 5 6
2894.31 2 8 9 4 3 1 6
Addition and subtraction of decimals
To add or subtract decimals write the digits with the same place value in the same column i.e.
write thousands, hundreds, tens etc in their respective columns then add or subtract.
Example 1. Find the value of 125.63 + 14.24

SOlution: 125.63
+ 14.24
132n
Example 2. Find the value of 14.283 - 4

Solution: 14.283.
- 4.000
10.283
Note that for convenience, 4 is written as 4.000.
Example:1 Find the value of 28.43 - 13.25 - 11.58

Solution: Problems 'involving mixed operations are best solved by adding together the terms
with like signs first then subtracting thereafter
13.25
+ 11.58
24.83
28.43
-24.83
3.60
:.28.43 - 13.25 -11.58 = 3..&Q
34
Exercise Sa
1. Fill in the missing digits

(a) 4.25 = 4 units + ...tenths + ...hundredths
(b) 245.34 = 2 hundreds + ...tens + ...units + 3 tenths + hundredths
(c) 48.92 = tens + ...units + ... tenths + ...hundredths thousandths
(d) 283.25 = hundreds + ...tens + ... units + ... tenths + hundredths + ...thousandths
2. Write the numbers in the table in decimal form

Thousands Hundreds Tens Units Tenths Hundredths Thousandths
a 4 2 8 9 0 3
b 2 0 0 5 6 3 0
c 4 1 0 0 2 8 1
d 2 4 0 3 0

(a) 4.5 + 0.5 (b) 0.81 + 2.5 (c) 13.24 + 13.8 (d) 1.93 + 0.07
(e) 18.413 + 2.41 (f) 124.42 + 0.542 (g) 143.41 + 982.56 (h) 48.25 + 3.75 +025
(i) 5.2 + 42.3 + 4.75 (j) 94.2 + 11.45 + 33.5 (k) 381.45 + 7412;5 (I) 0.05 + 22.45 + 12·1

(a) 0.47 - 0.34 (b) 16.25 - 4.75 (c) 102 - 0.04 (d) 0.45 - 0.002
(e) 14.31- 5.5 (f) 436.28 - 136.07 (g) 247. 35 -187.299 (h) 121.31 - 0.99
(i) 188.09 - 187.59 (j) 131 - 23.721 - 0.451 (k) 44 - 20.41 - 23.59 (I) 199.3 - 11.5 - 0.59

(a) 43.27 + 9.41 - 28.02 (b) 31.89- 131.57 + 104.47 (c) 3.77 - 10.8 + 9.341
(d) 261.3 - 18.45 + 100 (e) 132.41+ 18.76- 122.69 (f) 591.3 + 6.755 - 108. 25
(g) 0.55 + 1.04 - 1 (h) 2.303 - 1.99 + 0.11 (i) 90.001 - 122 + 36.50
Multiplication of decimaL~
To multiply decimals follow the following steps
1. Multiply the numbers as if they are whole numbers
2. Count the number of decimal places in the multiplier and multiplicand
3. Starting from the right count as many digits in the result obtained in the frrst step as
there are decimal places in the second step and insert the decimal point.
Example t Find the value of 15.21x 0.05
Solution: 15.21 is the multiplier and 0.05 is the multiplicand

Step I 1521
x ---.2
7605
Step 2 Multiplier and multipiicand have a total of 4 decimal places
Step 3 Counting 4 digits from the right in the result in step 1 gives 0.7605
:. 15.21 x 0.05 =Q2605
35
Example 2. MUltiply 18.62 by 21.3
Solution: 1862
x 213
3724
1862
+ 5586
396.6ilii :.18.62 x 21.3 = 3~6.6ilii
Multiplying bv powers of 10
Multiplying a decimal by a power of 10 moves the decimal point to the right by the power
of 10. Thus, multiplying the decimal by
. 10 1 moves the decimal point 1 place to the right
102 moves the decimal point 2 places to the right
103 moves the decimal point 3 places to the right
and so on.
Example 1 3.14 x 10 = 31.4
Example 2 0.087 x 102 = 'ii1
Division of decimals
To divide decimals, convert the denominator to a whole number by multiplying both numerator
and denominator by the same power of 10 then divide.
Example 1 Find the value of 35.77

0.7
S I' 35.77 35.77 x 10 357.7 = iLl
outIon: - -=
0.7 0.7 x 10 7
Example 2. Find the value of 436.8 10.12

2
Solution: 436.8 = 436.8 x 10 = 4368 =:L6AQ
0.12 0.12 10 2 12 -
Problems involving long division

Example 1. Divide (i) 61.38 by 1.2 (ii) 1128.423 by 15.1
Solution: (i) 61.38 = 613.8 (ii) 1128.423 = 1128.423 x 10 = 11284.23

1.2 12 15.1 15.1 10 151
74.73
12)~~n 151)11284.23
60 1057
13 ------n 4
12 604
18 1102
12 1057
60 453
60 453
:.61.38 + 1.2 = iLlS. 1128.423 + 15.1 =7A.J3
36
Division by powers of 10
Dividing a decimal by a power of 10 moves the decimal point to the left by the power of 10.
So, dividing a decimal by 10 2 moves the decimal 2 places to the left and dividing the decimal
by 103 moves the decimal 3 places to the left and so on.
Example 1. 23.5 = b32 (the decimal point has been moved I place to the left)
10 -
Example 2: 0.51 = 0.521 =0.0051 (the decimal point has been moved 2 places to the left)
100 10
Exercise 5b
I. Evaluate
(a) 5.2 . 0.2 (b) 0.4· 2.4 (c) 2.04 . 3.7 (d) 27.6 . 0.5
(e) 3.1 . 7.05 (f) 14.32 . 2.8 (g) 275· 10.5 (h) 0.05 . 0.27
(i) 781.24 . 0.21 (j) 41.25· 3.14 (k) 30.1 . 15.82 (I) 421.5 . 0.059
2. Evaluate
(a) 40.2· 10 (b) 33.49· 100 (c) 0.051· 100 (d) 481.23 . 1000
(e) 0.02· 100 (f) 0.19 . 10 (g) 0.643· 10 000 (h) 20. 48· 1000
(i) 0.00045· 1000 (j) 45.3 . 100 (k) 0.0004 . I 000 (I) 40.051 . 1000
3. Evaluate
(a) 4.28 10.2 (b) 3.2 11.6 (c) 5.4 I 0.09 (d) 0.21 I 0.14
(e) 1.47 I 2.1 (f) 14.4 13.6 (g) 28 I 0.07 (h) 42.67 125.1
(i) 822.96 I 32.4 (j) 292.67 125.9 (k) 74.382 I 294 (I) 173.482 I 25.4
4. Evaluate
(a) 3.2 I 10 (b) 45 1100 (c) 451.2 I 100 (d) 462.2 I 1 000
(e) 100.25 11 000 (f) 41.2 \1000 (g) 288 \ 100 (h) 340 I 100
(i) 140 I 1000 (j) 0.4 I 100 (k) 3 412 I 1 000 (I) 294.8 1100
Converting decimals to vulgar fractions

To convert a decimal to a fraction consider it as a fraction with denominator I then make the
numerator a whole number by multiplying both numerator and denominator by a power of 10.
Example 1: Convert 0.9 to a vulgar fraction

Solution: 0.9 = 0.9. 10 =~
1 10 10
Example 2. Convert 0.05 to a vulgar fraction in its IONest terms

Solution: 0.05 = 0.05. 100 =~ I
1 100 100 20·
Example 3: Express 4.3 as a mixed number

Solution: 4.3 = 4 + 0.3 =4 + ~ = 4~
10 10
37
Converting vulgar fractions to decimals
To convert a vulgar fraction to a decimal, divide the denominator of the fraction into the
denominator.
Example: Express the following as decimal fractions

(i) ~ (ii) ~ (iii) 3~
2 20 8
Solution: (i) ~2 = Q.5.
~
(ii) ~ = lLA5.
20--
I 1 •
(iii) 3- = 3 + - = 3 + 0.125 = ll2i
88--
ecurring decimals
Some vulgar fractions cannot be cOINerted to exact decimals no matter how many times the
division is done. Of these, some form a recurring pattern i.e. some digits keep appearing in a
certain pattern as the division goes on. Some recurring decimals are listed here below.
1 2 4
- = 0.333333333 , - = 0.666666666 , - = 0.36363636 .
3 3 11
Decimals showing such patterns are known as recurring decimals and the simpler way of
expressing a recurring decimal is to place a dot or dots on top of the recurring digits, e.g.
2 .
- = 0.6,
3
If the digits recur as a group, the dots are placed on the frrst digit and the last digit in
the group, e.g.
l = OA2857i 2-= 0.i85·

7 27
Exercise Se
1. Express the following decimals as vulgar fractions in their lowest terms.
(a) 004 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.08 (d) 0.225 (e) 0.75
(t) 0.29 (g) 0.375 (h) 0.500 (i) 0.825 U) 0.0 I
2. Express the following decimals as vulgar fractions in their lowest terms

Ca) 1.5 (b) 1.3 (c).3.25 (d) 7.12 (e) 4.75
(t) lA (g) 3.5 (h) 17.85 (i) 8.4 U) 3 .35
3. Express the following vulgar fractions lE decimals

I 3 5 3 7
(a) - (b) - (c) - (d) - (e) -
4 5 8 ·10 8
(t) l () 4 Ch) _I (i) ~ (j) ~
4 g 5 25 40 16
38
4. Express the following mixed fractions as decimals.
1 1 3 1 1
(a) 1- (b) 3- (c) 5- (d) 7- (e) 2-
4 2 4 8 10
(t) 4 17 (g) 6 3 (h) 1 2 (i) 3~ U) 11~
100 50 25 100 20
5. Express the following as recurring decimals

1 2 4
(a) - (b) - (c) - (d) ~ (e) -
1
6 9 9 27 11
(t) -
4
(g) -
2
(h) I-
5
(i) 3~ (j) 5 ~
II 11 9 3 27
6. Express each of the following as a fraction of a kilometre (I km = 1 OOOm)

(a) 500m (b) 400m (c) 20m (d) 850m (e) 250m
(t) 900m (g) 44m (h) 225m (i) I 200m (j) 4 500m
Algebraic fractions
These are fractions involving letters of the alphabet e.g. a, x, y etc. The principles of working
algebraic fractions are the same as those of numerical fractions.
Example 1: Simplify (i) ~+~ (11..) -

3 --
2 (..III') 2 +4- -3-
x x a a y 2y
Solution: (i) Here the denominator is the same so we simply add the numerators
. 1 2 1+ 2
.. -+-=--
x X X
3
=
x
(ii) 3 _ 2 = _3-_2
a a a
1
= a
...) Here we treat 2 as the fr action

( III . 2 The expression
-. . can b '
e Written -2 + -4 - - 3 ,
. . 1 ' 1 y 2y
The LCM of I, yand 2y is 2y
. 2 4 3 4y+8-3
.. -+---= --=----
I Y .2y 2y
4y+5
= --=---
2y
39
Example 3: Express as _3_ + _1_ a single fraction in its lowest terms.
x-2 x-3
Solution: The LCM of (x- 2) and (x- 3) is (x - 2)( x - 3)

: ._3_ + _1~ = _3(,--x_-_3-,-)_+_I(,--x_-_2--,--)
x -2 x -3 (x -2)(x -3)
3x -9+x -2
=
(x-2)(x-3)
4x -11
=
(x -2)(x -3)
Note that (x - 3) is multiplied by 3, (~ 2) is multiplied by I and (x - 2) is

multiplied by (x- 3) as shown ~~~
x-~-3
, Exercise Sd
1. Simplify
x x (b) 2x _~ (c) 3y + 2y (d) m _ 2m + m
(a) -+-
2 3 3 6 4 3 2 5 3
x 2x I I 2 4
(e) x- - + - (f) -+- (g) -+- (h) 1- 4
3 5 n n P P Y Y
( 1.) -+-
2 5 (j) ~-2. 2 3
(k) I + - + - (I)
t
-+-
t
X X y 3y X 2x P P
m-2 m (n) 2x+3 x-3 2-x 2x -3 x- 5 x
(m)--+- (0) --+ (p) 1- - - +-
2 3 4 3 5 6 6 3
(q) 3x+5 2x-4 (r) 2x -14 +2x x-2 x-I 5m-4 m+5
(s) x - - - - - - ()
t +--
4 7 5 7 3 3 4
2. Express each of the following as a single fraction in its lowest terms

I 'I 2 I 3 2 (d) _4__ ~
(a) - - + - - (b) - - + - - (c) - - + - -
x+2 x-I x·-3 x-2 x+4 x+3 y-2 Y
3 2 3 5 (g) _4_- 2 (h) 2 + 1
(e) - - - - - (f)2'3+-
3-m 5+m x- X Y -5 3y+7 3p-4 2p+5
.) 7 _ I (j) _3 4_ (k) 6 +_4_ I 2
(1 -- -- (I) - - + -
2-x I-x x+4 X'+3 . 2x +5 x-3 x -6 3x
(m) _5_- 2 , (n) 2x +y 1 3 2 4 1

(0) - - + - - (p)---
x-4 2x-7 x -y 2 x-y x+y 3x x +1
40
6. APPROXIMATIONS.
Decimal places
If we are asked to find 2 of a metre, the answer would be 0.27272727 or simply
11
0.27 metres. Attempting to fmd 2of a metre is an impossibility since it gives a recurring
11
decimal. Apart from recurring decimals, exact values of certain calculations cannot be found
or could be meaningless. For these reasons, measurements or answers to certain calculations
are given correct to a specified number of decimal places or significant figures.
To express an answer correct to a specific number of decimal places, count as many digits as
required then check the next digit; if this is 5 or greater then add I to the last of the required
digits otherwise leave the last digit unchanged.
Example: Express 3.0783 correct to

(i) I d.p. (ii) 2 d.p (iii) 3 d.p.
Solution: (i) We are required to write the number with only I digit after the decimal point
The second digit after the decimal point is 7 so we add I to O.
Hence 3.0783 - 3 I co~ct t9 l--d-R.
(ii) Here, we are required to write the number 3.0783 with 2 digits after the decimal
point. The third digit after the decimal point is 8 therefore we add I to 7.
Hence 3JL7Jt3 - 3~orrect to 2 d.l!
(iii) 3.0783 = 3.078 cQl:fficuo3 d.j;1

Notice that the 4th digit in the number 3.0783 is less than 5 so we don't add
I to 8.
Significant figures
Consider the following statements
1. The distance from the earth to the moon is 92 000 004 km.
2. One of the fossils in the Livingstone museum is 3 000 009 years old
Your reaction to both statements is probably obvious. To the first: where was this measurement
taken from? From the top of Mount Kilimanjaro? Everest?- let alone the p:ht of the moon to
which this distance was measured.
The second statement brings about qastions of the year and even the month when th~ dating
was done.
In each of the above statements, the last digit is insignificant when compared with the millions.
Thus the distance from the earth to the moon is 92 000 OOOkm correct to 2 significant figures.
Similarly, the fossil in the museum is 3 000000 year-s old correct to 1 significant figure.
In both cases the zeros are not significant but are written to give the place value of the
significant figures.
41
Example I.Express the number 26 045 638 correct to
(i) 1 s.f. (ii) 2 s.f. (iii) 4 s.f.
Solution: (i) 26 045 638 = 30 000 onQ correct to 1 s.f.

Notice that we have added 1 to 2 because the secor,J digit is greater than 5.
(ii) 26 045 638 = 26 QQQ QOO correct to 2 s,f.
(iii) 26 045 638 = 26 Q5Q QQQ correct to 4 s.f.

Notice that figures considered insignificant are replaced by zeros. A zero between significant
figures is considered significant (see soluti:m (iii». Zeros occurring before a significant figure
are considered insignificant.
Example 2. Express 0.6594 correct to

(i) 2 s.f. (ii) 3 s.f.
Solution: (i) 0.6594 = O,fi.6. correct to 2 s.f
(ii) 0.6594 = M52. correct to 3 s.f
Rounding off
Sometimes it is necessary that measures are given in such a way that people easily understand
them. It could be more easily understood if a football coinmentator said there are 20 000 people
in a stadium when the actual figure could be say 19 897. This way of giving measures
is known as rounding off. In this case we say 19 897 has been rounded off to 20 000 to the
nearest thousand or has been rounded off to 1 significant figure.
Example 1: Round off9.75kg correct to the nearest kilogram.
Solution: 9.75 is closerto 10 than it is to 9 (see fig 6.1) below

:. 9.75kg = lOkg to the nearest kilogram.
9.5
9 10
Fig 6.1
Example 2. Round off 20.4cm to the nearest centimetre

SOlution: 20Acm is nearer to 20 than it is to 21 (see fig 6.2)
.'. 20Acm = 20cm correct to the nearest centimetre
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 cm
I I I I I I I L
t
20.4 Fig. 6.2
42
Exercise 6a
1. State the number of decimal places in each of the following

(a) 1.05 (b) 4.542 (c) 19.7 (d) 112.35 (e) 12.00
(t) 0.0002 (g) 21.0 (h) 13.3452 (i) 21.260 G) 120
2. State the number of significant figures in each of the following
(a) 1000 (b) 130 (c) 100 (d) 18.4 (e) 1 004
(t) 1 000001 (g) 25.00 (h) 9.0 (i) 1.025 G) 0.0 02
3. Express the following correct to 2 decimal places

(a) 14.755 (b) 0.0517 (c) 121.8345 (d) 0.4452 (e) 0.032
(t) 4.007 (g) 23.998 (h) 200.402 (i) 2.459 G) 0.998
4. Express the following correct to 3 decimal places

(a) 0.6654 (b) 2.0558 (c) 67.2219 (d) 90.2843 (e) 4.0003
(t) 2.5099 (g) 33.0008 (h) 200. 1235 (i) 0.2979 G) 456.8885
5. Express the following numbers correct to 1 significant figure
(a) 10.9 (b) 350 (c) 405 (d) 133.5 (e) 29.99
(t) 256 000 (g) 19000 (h) 89789 (i) 999000 G) 0.045
6. Write the following numbers correct to 3 significant figures
(a) 76 345 (b) 888.981 (c) 0.2884 (d) 0.519 (e) 0.7751
(t) 284 991 (g) 3 045 664 (h) 2.0055 (i) 29 884238 G) 0.7235
7. Express the following distances correct to the nearest kilometre
(a) 1O.34km (b) 0.58km (c) 9.05km (d) 100.7km (e) 765. 45km
(t) 4.5km (g) 9.5km (h) 23.4 km (i) 1.59km G) 890.235km
8. Round off the following times to the nearest hour

(a) 12 25hrs (b) 08 45 hrs (c) 00 40hrs (d) 10 lOhrs (e) 12 30hrs
(t) 06 29hrs (g) 14 50hrs (hXl9 25hrs (i) 00 29 G) 05 05hrs
9. Round off the following to the nearest KI00

(a) K5 546 (b) K123 673 (c) K3 804 225 (d) K395 458 (e) K7 465 057
(t) K233 478 (g) K225 355 (h) K496 666 (i) K5 003 050 G) K566 278
10. Express the following correct to the nearest kilogram

(a) 4.75 kg' (b) 277.8kg (c) 6.45kg (d) 245.l25kg (e) 2.23kg
(t) 0.579kg (g) 11.55kg' (h) 2.90kg (i) 90.50kg G) 113.26kg
11. Write the following correct to the nearest 100
(a) 55 (b) 245 (c) 255 (d) 3475 (e) 3 215 566
(t) 77. 99 (g) 12450.43 (h) 277.65 (i) 125 G) 3555.99
12. Write the following correct to the nearest whole number

(a) 1028 (b) 3.5 (c) 0.63 (d) 9.49 (e) 0.5
(t) 30.45 . (g) 1.409 (h) 2.099 (i) 13.79 G) 7.60
43
Error and accuracy
By way of counting, 2 + 3 = 5 is a true and accurate result. If, however, 2 and 3 are dimensions
say of a rectangle in centimeters then 2cm + 3cm = 5cm is a true result but cannot be accurate.
This is because all measurements are subject to error.
A dimension of 2cm to the nearest cm lies bttween 1.5cm and 2.5cm (see fig 6.3). similarly,
a dimension of 3cm to the nearest centimeter lies bttween 2.5cm and 3.5cm (see fig 6.4)
----k'
o
_-+,_0 t I
I 2 3 4 o I 2 4
Fig 6.3 Fig 6.4
Hence we say there is an error of 0.5cm in the measurement of the dimensions of the rectangle.
If the breadth of the rectangle is b and the length is I then
1.5 <b < 2.5 meaning the breadth, b lies between 1.5 and 2.5 and
2.5 <I < 3.5 meaning the length, I lies between 2.5 and 3.5
These can also be expressed as
breadth b = 2 ± 0.5 and
length I = 3 ± 0.5
In each case the lesser figure is known as thelower limit and the larger is the upper limit.
So for the dimension 1.5 <b < 2.5; 1.5 is the lower limit and 2.5 is the upper limit.
Sometimes the lower and upper limit are referred to as the minimum and maximum values
respectively.
In general, if a dimension is given to the nearest n, where n is an integer or a decimal then the
error is n ie error = ~. If this is the case then the dimension, d = d ± n or _ n <d < n .
2 2 2 2 2
Example 1: Find the error in each of the following dimensions

(a) 340 to the nearrst 10
(b) 3600 to the nearest 100
(c) 12 to the nearest integer
(d) 10.4 to the nearest tenth
Solution: (a) n = 10 :.error = 10 = 5 units

2
(b) n = 100 :.error = 100 = 50 units
. . 2
(c) n = 1:.error = ~ = 05 units
2
(d) n = 0.1 :. error = 0.1 = 0.05 units
2
Example 1: A dimension is stated as 4.3crn ± 0.05cm, find

(i) the lower limit
(ii) the upper limit of the dime nsion
Solution: (i) Lower limit = 4.3 - 0.05 = 4.25cm

(ii) Upper limit = 4.3 + 0.05 = 4.35cm
Example 2: The length and breadth of a rectangle given to the nearest centimeter are 15cm .
and IOcm respectively. Find
(i) the leastpossible length and the least possible breadth of the rectangle
(ii) the greatest possible length and the greatest possible breadth of the rectangle
(iii) the limits between which the area must lie
SOlution: 15cm given to the nearest centimeter lies between 14.5cm and 15.5cm. 10cm lies
between 9.5cm and 1O.5cm , therefore
(i) least possible length = 14.5
least possible breadth = 9.5cm
(ii) greatest possible length = 15.5cm
greatest possible breadth = 1O.5cm
(iii) least possible area = least possible length x least possible breadth
= 14.5 . 9.5 =137.75crrC
Greatest possible area = greatest possible len~th x greatest possible breadth
= 15.5· 10.5 =.16U5!;llL
Therefore the area lies between 137.75cm2 and 162.75cm2
od37J5~Ill2 ~ <l62~cm2
Absolute error
The absolute error of a dimension is the difference between the true value and the
recorded value i.e.
Absolute error = recorded value - true value
Relative error
The relative error of a dimension is the ratio of the absolute error to the true value i.e.
' absolute error
I e1a t Ive error = ------
true value
Example: The true value of the length of a rectangle is 10cm. If this is recorded as 10.2cm,
find (i) the absolute error )
(ii) the relative error
Solution: (i) Absolute error = recorded value - true value

= 10.2 - 10
=Q,2cm
( 11..) RI'
e alive error ab$olute
=- --- error
-
true value
0.2
10
=0..02
Exercise 6b
1. Which of the following can be found accurately
(a) the number of words on this page (b) one's age
(c) the dimensions ofthis book (d) one's mass
(e) the number of houses in a location (f) the number of people at a party
45
2. Find the limits between which the following measures must lieputting your answers in the
form <I < where 1is the given measure.
(a) 8cmcorrect to the nearest centimeter (t) 50 correct to the nearest integer
(b) O.Scm correct to the nearest tenth of a centimeter (g) 20.1Sg correct to 2 decimal places
(c) 3.Skg correct to 1 decimal place (h) SSm correct to the nearest Srn
(d) 14m correct to the nearest metre (i) 1 4S0krn correct to the nearest SOkrn
(e) 1 OOOkrn correct to the nearest lOkrn G) O.OSkg correct to 2 decimal places
3. The length of a rod is given as 12 ± O.Scm, find

(a) the least possible length (b) the greatest possible length of the rod
4. The true value of the length ofa rectangle is 4cm. If this is recorded as 4.4cm,
find (a) the absolute error (b) the relative error
5. A square has length 84cm to the nearest centimeter, fmd

(a) the least possible length (c) the lea st possible area ofthe square
(b) the greatest possible length (d) the greatest possible area of the square
6. The length and breadth of a rectangle are given as 14.Scm and 8.Scm correct to one
decimal place
(a) the least possible lengthand greatest possible length
(b) the least possible breadth and greatest possible breadth
(c) the least possible perimeter of the rectangle
(d) the greatest possible perimeter of the rectangle
7. The length and breath of a rectangle are given as 20cm and 10cm correct to the nearest
centimetre, fmd
(a) the least possible perimeter (c) the least possible area of the rectangle
( b) the greatest possible perimeter (d) the greatest possible area ofthe rectangle
8. A circle of radius 16cm has the radIUS recorded as 16.1cm correct to 1 decimal place, find
(a) the absolute error
(b) the relative error
(c) the minimum circumference of the circle
(d) the maximum circumference of the circle
9. The radius of a circle is given as 12.Scm correct to I decimal place, find

(a) the limits in the form < r< between which the radius r must lie
(b) the limits in the form < C < between which the circumference C must lie
(c) the limits in the form < A< between which the area A must lie.
10. In diagrams (a) and (b) below, the area of the shaded region is Acm2 Alldimensions
are given to the nearest centimeter. In each case calculate (i) the lower limit of A .
(ii) the upper limit of A
(a)
o
l()rm
8cm
12cm
46
LRATIO AND PROPORTION
Ratio
This is one way of comparing two or more quantities of the same kind measured in the
same units. If the number of boys in a class is twice the number of girls; we say the ratio
boys to girls in the class is 2 to 1. Thus
number of boys
-------"- =2
number of girls I
Note that a ratio is a fraction and 2 in ratio notation is written as 2 : I
I
Example 1 Find the ratio of 20cm to Im in its simplest form.
Solution: To compare the two quantities they should be in the same units
20cm I
:. 20cm to lm = =-
100cm 5
The requill:d ratio is theIclQIl:;J :....5.
Example 2: Over time, a boy's mass increases from 35kg to 42kg, express these masses
as a ratio in its simplest form. (-
. 35kg 5
Solution: - - = -
42kg 6 )
The required mho iuherefQ~6
I
Note that expressing a ratio in its simplest form is synonymous with expressing a fraction in
its simplest form.
Example 3: Mundia's father is 50 years old and his mother is 40. If Mundia is 20, express
their ages as a ratio in its simplest form.
Solution: We consider the ages in ascending order and so the required ratio is ill the form
Mundia's age to mother's age to father's age
i.e. 20 : 40 : 50 - 2 : 4 : 5
Sharing in a given ratio
Example 1. A sum of K2 000 000 is to be shared between Peter and John inthe ratio 2 : 3
respectiVely. Find how much each one receives.
• Solution: 2 + 3 = 5, so we divide the sum into 5 equal parts so that Peter gets 2 parts and
John gets 3 parts. -
2000000
= K400000
5
:.Peter's share is 2 x K400 000= K800J)OQ
John's share is 3 X K400 000 = KI 200000
Note that K800 000 + KI 200 000 = K2 000 000
..
47
Example 2: A piece of land of area 2 000m2 is divided into zones A, Band C in the
ratio 2: 3 : 5 respectively, fmd the area of each zone.
Solution: 2 + 3 + 5 = 10
2000 = 200m 2
10
Area of zone A = 2 x 200 = 400m~
Area of zone B = 3 x 200 = 600m2
Area of zone C = 5 x 200 = iMm2
Exercise 7a
1. Express the following ratios in their simplest terms
(a) 5: 15 (b) 3: 18 (c) 14: 42 (d) 24: 56 (e) 27: 63
(t) 4: 12: 24 (g) 15: 20: 40 (h) 21: 42: 77 (i) 22 : 44: 121 U) 3k: 4k: 5k
2. Express the following ratios in their simplest terms

(a) lOcm: 100cm (b) 50g: 100g (c) 77cm: 121cm (d) 500m: 1.5km (e) 20g : 1kg
(t) 1000cm3 : 1 litre (g) 400m2 : 1hactare (h) 5kg : 50g (i) 2 hactare: 200m2 U) 8h : 5h
3. A bus covers a certain distance at an average speed of 80kmlh while a car covers the saIl1fC.-
distance at an average speed of 250km/h. Find the ratio of these speeds in its lowest terms.
•
4. The price of an article is decreased from K450 000 to K225 000, find the ratio of the old
price to the new price.
5. A sum of K2 400 000 is to be shared between two partners A and B in the ratio 3 : 5
respectively. Find how much each one receives.
6. An alloy consists of three Illetals P, Q and R in the ratio 2: 3 : 5 respectively, fmd the
mass of each metal in 4kg of the alloy.
7. K42 000 000 is shared between three partners A. B and C in the ratio 1: 2: 4 respectively.
Find (i) A's share
(ii) B's share
(iii) the ratio of the sum of A and B's share to C's share in its simplest form.
8. After sharing the profit from a joint business venture, A received $12 000 and C's share
was twice B's share. Given that the profit was $60 000, fmd
(i) B's share
(ii) C's share
(iii) the ratio A's share to B's share to C's share.
9. If x =t and y = 2t fmd the following ratios in their simplest forms

(a) x: y (b) 2y: x (c) 2x: 2y (d) (y- it) : x
10. If x : y = 3 : 4 and y : z = 1 : 3, fmd the following ratios

(i) x : z (ii) x : y : z
48
Increasing or decreasing a quantity in a given ratio
To increase or decrease a quantity in a given ratio, multiply it by the ratio
Example 1: Increase K2 034 000 in the ratio 8: 3
Solution: K2 034 000 x ~

3=·K5.- 424JJ00
--
Example 2: Decrease $30 400 in the ratio 4: S

Solution: $30 400x 4S = $24320
--
Scale
To make maps meaningful, map makers incorporate a scale. The scale tells us what a unit
length on the map represents on the ground" For example, a scale of I: 10000 means Icm
on the map represents 10 OOOcm on the ground. The ratio
distance on the map
is known as the representative fraction (RP) of the
, corresponding distance on the ground
map.
Example: The scale shown on a map is I : 40 000, fmd

(i) what length in centimeters on the map represents 2km on the ground
(ii) what distance in kilometers on the ground is represented by 3cm on the map.
Solution: (i) Ikm = 100 OOOcm ... 2km = 200 OOOcm

Distance. on the map 1
--------'- =---
Distance on the ground 40 000
...Distance on the map = 1 x distance on the ground

40000
I
= x 200 OOOcm
40000
=Scm
... 2km QUJh~ou!!d is wresented by Scm O!lJhe..I!la~
(ii) Dis tan ce on the ground = 40000

Dis tan ce on the map 1
... d"lstance on the ground = 40 000 x d"!Stance on the map

1
= 40000 x 3cm
=. 120000<;m
: .3C!D on th~J!PJe-presents 1.2 km on th¥.,Jrround
49
Exercise 7b
1. Increase the following by the given ratio

(a) K40 000,8: 5 (b) 75g, 5: 3 (c) $12 100, 12: 11 (d) 1 OOOkm, 9: 8
(e) 120 hectares, 3 : 1 (f) £1 200, 5: 3 (g) K427 000, 10: 7 (h) $12 342, 5 : 3
2. Decrease the following by the given ratio

(a) K44 000, 3 : 5 (b) 60kg, 1: 3 (c) $ 12 100, 5: 11 (d) l24km, 3 : 8
(e) l4kg, 3 : 7 (f) £1200, 1: 3 (g) K427 000, 2: 7 (h) $12 330, 5 : 9
3. After an increase in the ratio 5: 3, a sum of money is K2 700 000. What was the amount
before the increase?
4. Following an illness, a man's weight is decreased in the ratio 5: 8. If the man's weight is
now 64kg, what was his weight before the illness.
5. Following the graduation of 40 students, the number of students at a college is 120, by what
ratio has the college population decreased?
6. After a 20 year period the population of a country has increased from 8 000 000 to
12000000, by what ratio has the population increased.
7. A class has 16 girls and 24 boys. If the number of girls is increased in the ratio:5 4 and
the number of boys decreased in the ratio 1: 2, what is the resulting population of the
class?
8. A map has representative fraction 1 , fmd

1000000
(i) the length, in kilometres, of a stream 9.5cm long on the map
(ii) what length in centimetres on the map represents 7km on the ground.
9. The scale of a map is 1: 50000, fmd

(i) the length, in kilometres, of a field 2cm long on the map
(ii) the area in square kilometres of a square field 4cm2 on the map.
(iii) the distance in kilometres between two landmarks 3cm apart on the map
10. On a photograph, the height of a man l40cm tall is decreased in the ratio 1: 20. Find, in
centimetres,
(i) the height of the man on the photograph
(ii) the actual height of a child 3,5cm tall on the photograph
(iii) the height on the [hotograph of a tree 2.2 metres tall.
50
Proportion.
Proportion is the equality of ratios
Direct proportion: If a material costs K20 000 per metre, it is common knowledge that
4 metres should cost K80 000. Here, an increase in the number of metres of the material
causes a corresponding increase in the cost. This is an example of direct proportion
where an increase in one ratio causes a corresponding increase in the other ratio i.e. the
length is increased in the ratio 4 to I so correspondingly the ratio of cost is increased in the
ratio K80 000 to K20 000 = 4 : 1.
Example: If 7 kg of potatoes K49 000, how many kilograms of potatoes can be bought
from K24 500?
Solution: Let the number of kilograms bought from K24 500 be x

. x K24500
7 K49000
... x = 24500 X7
49000
= 3.5
Therefure 3..5kg.can be bQ\!ght from K24 .500.
' I . f K24 500

AIternat Ive y: ratio 0 cost = =I : 2
K49000
Therefore we decrease 7 in the ratio 1: 2 since the amount of money has been decreased.
Therefore the required quantity = 7 x ~ =~
2
Inverse proportion: In inverse proportion, an increase one ratio causes a decrease in

the other ratio. For example it takes longer for a man to do a piece of work than it would take 2
or more people to do the same work while working at the same rate. Thus increasing the ratio
of men decreases the ratio of time taken to do the work.
Example: 4 tractors can plough a piece of in I hour. How long would 3 tractors working at the
same rate take to plough the same piece of land?
Solution: 4 tractors take 1 hour

... I tractor would take 1 ~ 4 = 4 hours (4 hours longer)
1x 4 1
".3 tractors would take - - = 1- hours
3. 3
... 3 tractors would take 1 hour 20 minutes to do the same work.
Alternatively: the number of tractors has been decreased in the ratio 3 : 4

... the ratio of time should be increased in the ratio 4: 3
... time taken by 3 tractors = I x ~3 hours
.
= .LhQ\!J .20 min\!tes
51
Exercise 7c
I. 8 metres of cloth cost K240 000, fmd the cost of 12 metres of the same material.
2. 10kg of rice cost K40 000, fmd how much rice can be bought for K25 000.
3. A group of soldiers eat 90kg of ration in 6 days, how many kilograms of ration do they eat
in 5 days assuming a constant rate of consumption?
2
4. A farmer requires 8 bags of fertilizer for every 10 000m of his farm. Find the number of
2
bags required for an area of 4 000m if the fertilizer is applied in constant amounts.
.... 5. A motorist travelling at a constant speed of 25kmlh takes 4 hours to complete a journey.
How long would he take if he covered the same distance at a constant speed of 40kmlh?
6. 4 men can build a wall IOm long in I day, what length of wail can 6 men working at the
same rate build in the same time?
7. A tractor can plough a piece of land in 6 hours. How many tractors working at the same
rate should be engaged to plough the same piece of land in 2hours?
8. 3 pipes deliver 90 000 litres of water in I hour, how much water canS pipes of the
same size deliver in the same time?
9. A school of 400 pupils has enough food to last 3 months, how long will the same food last
for 300 pupils at the same rate of consumption?
10. A botanist estimates that a plant contains 109 of water. After 4 hours he estimates that
the water content of the plant has decreased by 19. If his estimations are correct and
the water content of the plant decreases at a constant rate, fmd what mass of water the
plant contains after 6 hours.
Speed
Speed is defmed as the rate of change of distance with respect to time i.e.
dis tan ce travelled where S = speed, D = distance

Speed = - - - - - - or S= D
time taken T and T = time
Thus, if a car covers a distance of 60krn in I hour then its speed is 60kmlh.
Example 1. A car travels 56km in 1hour 20 minutes, fmd its average speed in kilometres per
hour.
Solution: 20 ~utes = 20 = ~ hours ;.lhour 20 minutes = It hours
60 3
dis tan ce travelled 56
Average speed = - - - - - - - =
time taken P3
=42kmLh
52
Example 2: A car travels 180km in 3 hours and a further 120km in 2 hours, fmd its average
speed in kmIh.
total distance travelled

Solution: Average speed = - - - - - - - -
total time taken
180km + 120km
=
3h+2h
300km
=
5h
= .6Dkmlh
Example 3: A plane covers a distance of 200km at an average speed of 800kmlh. Calculate I

the time taken to cover the distance.
" S d dis tan ce travelled

SoIu t IOn: pee = - - - - - - -
time taken
. T'
= -_d_is_tan_c_e_
". lIlle
speed
200km
=
800km/h
= 0.25 hours
The-l[rnuakenjs therefore 025 hmlli or 15 minutes
Exercise 7d
1. Calculate the average speed in kmlh in each of the following cases
(a) Distance travelled = 80km, time taken = 2 hrs
(b) Distance travelled = 100km, time taken = 10 hrs
(c) Distance travelled = 47.5km, time taken = 2 hrs 30mins
(d) Distance travelled = 54km, time taken = 2 hrs 40 mins
2. Calculate the distance travelled in each ofthe following cases

(a) Average speed = 50km/h, time taken = 5 hrs
(b) Average speed = 88km1h, time taken = 8 hrs
(c) Average speed = 20km{h, time taken =2 hrs 15 mins
(d) Average speed = 336kmlh, time taken =5 hrs 20 mins
3. Calculate the time taken in each of the following cases

(a) Average speed = 40kmlh, distance covered = 500km
(b) Average speed = 225km/h, dist¥1ce cov~red = 550km
(c) Average speed = 72km/h, distance covered = 234km
(d) Average speed = 84km1h, distance covered =756km
4. A train takes It hours to travel 45km, fmd its average speed in km/h.
53
5. A cyclist travels at an average speed of 15krnlh, fmd how far he goes in 21 hours.
6. A train travelling at an average speed of 40km/h takes 6 hours to reach its destination. A
car covers the same distance at average speed of 60km/h. How long does the car take to
complete the journey?
7. A and B are two towns 560km apart. A car starts from A towards B at an average speed
of 140km/h. At the same time a bus starts from B towards A at an average speed of
105km/h. How far apart are they after 2 hours?
8. A and B are two towns 420km apart. A car starts from A towards B at an average speed
of 140kmlh. At the same time a bus starts from B towards A at an average speed of 80km/h,
fmd (i) the time taken by the car to complete the journey
(ii) the time taken by the bus to complete the journey
(iii) at what distance from A the vehicles meet
9. A car and a plane start off from the same town at the same time. The car travels at an
average speed of90kmlh to a town 270km away. The plane travels at an average speed
of I 100kmlh to a town 2 200km away. Find
(i) the difference in time taken to reach their respective destinations
(ii) the speed at which the car should have travelled to reach its destination at the same
time as the plane.
10. Two towns P and Q are 100km apart. A car starts from P towards Q and its average speed
is 60km/h for the first 20 minutes, 50krnlh for the next 30 minutes and 44krn1h for the rest
of the journey. Calculate
(i) the distance travelled at each of the three speeds
(ii) the total time taken for the whole journey.
11. The diagram shows three towns on a map. A car and a train start off from A at the same
time. The train travels directly from A to C
at an average speed of 45kmlh. The car
travels at an average speed of 90krnlh from A
y to B then to C non stop. If the car reahes C
4 hours earlier than the train, fmd the value
450km ofy.
A
54
Conversions
To convert one quantity into another measured in different units we must know the conversion
scale. In some cases, conversion tables are provided for this purpose. For example, for the sake
of international travel and trade, conversion scales for currencies are provided. These show
how many units of each of the foreign curre ney are equivalent to the Zambian currency, the
Kwacha.
Example 1: If£l = K5 400, find

(i) how many pounds a re worth Kl24 200
(ii) how many Kwacha are equivalent to £64
Solution: (i) Let the required number of pounds be x

:.£x .~ K124200
£lXK5400
:.5 400x = 124200
124200
:. x =
5400
:. x = 23
SQJhe...rewired number of pounduw
(ii) Let the required number of Kwacha be y

:.Ky ~ £64
K5 400 '><;£1
:. y = 5 400 . 64
= 345600
So the requ~!lumber...QfKYtachais 345 600
Example 2: If 1m is equivalent to 100cm, find

(i) how many metres are equivalent to 340em
(ii) how many centimetres are equivalent to 6.5 m
Solution: (i) Let the required number of metres be x
:.xm ~40cm
1m >< • 100cm
:.lOOx = 340
. 340
·.x= -
100
:.x=3.4
Ihw;fore 340cllIis...eguiya!rnt to 3.4m
(ii) L et the required number o~ centimetres be y

:. ycm ~ 6.5m
100cmXlm
:.y= 100·6.5
=650
Iill;rclore 6.5m isegyiYaknWL65Jkm
55
Example 3: Convert the following the following to square metres (m2)
(a) 150cm2 (b) 1200mm2
Solution: (a)lm = 100cm :. (Im)2 = (100)2

:. Im2= 10 OOOcm2 (by squaring both sides of the equation)
We now use this relationship to convert 150cm2 to m2
Let the required number of m 2 be x
:. xm2 ~ 150cm
2
Im 2XlO
:.10 OOOx = 150
000cm2
150
..x =
10000
= 0.015
2
Therefore 150.krrCis ewyglenUQJlQl2m
(b) Im= l000mm :.lm2 = 1 000000mm2 (by squarig both sides of the relationship)
Let the pquired number of m 2 be y
:. ym ~ 1200mm
2
Im 2 X l 000000mm2
:. 1000000y = 150
. 1200
• . Ij1 = 1000000
= 0.0012
Therefore 1200mm2 is equivalent to 0.0012m 2
Density
Density is the ratio of mass to volume of a body. Thus,
. mass m
DenSity = - - - or D=-
volume v
The units of density are g/cm3, kg/m3 etc.
Example: A material of mass 2.5kg has volume 0.002m3: fmd the density of the material.
. mass
Solution: DenSity = - - -
volume
2.5kg
= -"0-:.0-:0-2"'m-:;-3
= 1 250kg/m3
The densit.Y.-Qf theJI!atellillliJherefore t 25.0kg/m 3
56
Exercise 7e
1 Given that Icm = 1Omm, convert the following millimetres to centimetres

(a) 7mm (b) 12mm (c) 12.5mm (d) I 240mm
(e) OAmm (t) 443mm (g) 347mm (h) 1.24mm
2. Given that Im = 100cm, convert the following centimetres to metres

(a) IOcm (b) 44cm (c) 200cm (d) 154cm
(e) I 200cm (t) 550cm (g) 4 320cm (h) 0.5cm
3. Use the scale in question 2 to convert the following metres to centimetres

(a) 2Am (h) 40m (c) 2Am (d) 1.45m
(e) 3A2m (t) 0.05m (g) 0.25m (h) 0.12m
4. Using the scale Im = 100cm, fmd how many square centimetres (cm2 ) are equivalent to
I square metre (m2 ). Hence convert the following to cm2 .
(a) 4m2 (b) 3m 2 (c) 0.lm 2 (d) 0.25m2
2 2 2
(e) 0.02m (t) 8m (g) 0.008m (h)2.5m 2
5. 1 litre = 1 000cm3 , convert the following to litres

(a) 500cm 3 (b) 2000 cm3 (c) 234 cm3 (d) 5 400 cm3
3 3
(e) 4 500 cm (t) 20455 cm (g) 0.34 cm3 (h) 20.6 cm3
6. 1 hectare = 10 000m2 , convert the following to hectares

(a) 20 000 m2 (b) 5400m2 (c) 1 398m 2 (d) 44 OOOm 2
2 2
(e) 200m (t) 129000 m (g) 1 384 000 m (h) 21 000 000m3
3
7. If £1 = K7 000, convert the following to Pounds (£)

(a) K70 000 (b) K21 000 (c) KZ8 420 (d) K42 140
(e) KZ88 400 (t) K3 150000 (g) KZI 490 (h) K14 287 000
•
8. Using the rate given in question 7, convert the following to Kwacha
(a) £45 (b) £340 (c) 500pence (d) £125A5
(e) £2 000 (t) £4100 (g) £1900000 (h) 4aOOpence
9. If $1 = K4 500, convert the following to Dollars

(a) K90 000 (b) KZ70 000 (c) K540 000 (d) K13 SOO
(e) KZ 250 (t) K8 100000 (g) K16 245 (h) K96 525 000
10. Using the rate given in question 9, convert the following to Kwacha
(a) $2 (b) $12, (c) $1 200 (d) $69
(e) $10 000 (t) $125.50 (g) 400cents (h) 10cents
11. Given that lkg = l000g, convert the following to grams

(a) 0.5kg(b) 20kg (c) 48.6kg (d) 6.5kg
(e) 0.042kg (t) 1.24kg . (g) 0.99kg (h) 0.66kg
12. A material of mass 2Akg has volume 0.004m3 , fmd the density ofthe material.
13. A cylinder of mass 5Akg has volume 0.02m3, fmd its density.
57
8. PERCENTAGES
A percentage is a fraction with denominator 100. Percent means per hundred or in a hundred.
Example of percentages
7
- read as 7 percent
lOO
10
- read as 10 percent
100
Usually, the denominator 100 is not written instead the symbol % is used to denote _1_
100
7 I
Thus, - =7x - =7%
100 100
10 1
-=lOx -=10%
100 100
In any circumstance, the total number of items being considered is taken as 100%. For
example, if there are 30 pupils in a class, this is considered as 100%. If 60% of these are girls
then the percentage of boys is 100% - 60% = 40%
Changing a percentage to a fraction
To convert a percentage to a fraction, replace the symbol % by _I-then simplify where
~yilik. lOO
I I
Examples: 25% = 25 x - - -
100 4
I 25
12-%= _x_=_ I I
2 2 100 8
I
120%= 120x-=I"-
lOO 5
Changing a percentage to a decimal fraction

To convert a percentage to a decimal fraction, replace the symbol % by _1_ then divide.
lOO
1
Examples: 5% = 5x - =Q,Q5.
100 -
23 1
ll"-%=-x-=
2 2 100 !lll5-~-
1
145% = 145 x - =lA5.
100 -
Changing a fraction to a percentage

To change a fraction to a 'percentage multiply tbe fraction by 100% and simplify.
1 1
Examples: - = - x 100% = 2!L%
5 5 --
21
4"-5 = -5 x 100% = -
420%
-
58
Changing a decimal fraction to percentage
To change a decimal fraction to a percentage, multiply it by 100%
Examples: 0.35 = 0.35 x 100% = 35!fu

2.50 = 2.50 x 100% = 250!fu
Finding the percentage of a given Quantity

To find the percentage of a given quantity, multiply the quantity by the percentage.
Example 1: Find 20% ofK600 000
100
- KI2000Q
.-
Solution: 20% of K600 000 = 20 xK600 000 (Note: we replace of by x )
Example 2: 25% of a sum of money is K800 000, fmd the sum of money.
Solution: Let the sum of money be x kwacha

:.25% ofx = 800 000
:. 25 xx=800000
100
:.~ = 800 000
4
:. x = 4 x 800 000
= 3 200 000
Expressing a Quantity as a percentage of another •

To express a quantity m as a percentage of another quantity n divide m by n then multiply
the result by 100% i.e. m x 100% gives the result.
n
Example: Express K5 000 as a percentage of K20 000

K5000
Solntion: x 100% =25%
K20000
Exercise 8a
I. In a village, 40% of the population are children, 26% are men and the rest are women.
Find the percentage of women.
2. In a certain country, 58% of the population are unemployed, find the percentage of
people employed.
3. Change the following percentages to fractions in their lowest terms.

(a) 50% (b) 20% (c) 14% (d) 33% (e) 75%
(f) 24+% (g) 2+% (h) 25+% (i) 125% (j) 66t%
'\Q
4. Change the following fractions to percentages:
(a) -
1
(b) ~ 1
(c) - (d) I !
1
(e) -
2 5 4 3 3
(f) ~ 3
(g) 25 (h) 2.2- (i) ~ G)~
8 20 16 40
5. Express the following as decimals

(a) 25% (b) 10% (c) 85% (d) 2% (e) 145%
(f) 12t% (g) lOi% (h) 200% (i) 16.5% G) 40.4%
6. Express the following as percentages
(a) 0.6 (b) 0.45 (c) 1.2 (d) 0.125 (e) 0.67
(f) 1.05 (g) 3.14 (h) 4.80 (i) 0.02 G) 0.75
(a) 50% ofK120 000 (b) 75% ofK16 000 (c) 2% of 12kg (d) 45% ono
(e) 40% of 40 pupils (f) 9% of 500 (g) 8% of $1 245 (h) 24% of75
(i) 12t%ofK2 000 000 G) 19%of62 (k) 251% of£40 (I) 2.5% of $40
. For each of the following, express the fIrst quantity as a percentage of the second
(a) 15cm, 30cm (b) K2 000, K8 000 (c) K170 000, K 680 000 (d) 10cm, Im
(e) 1l0g, 0.22kg (f) $124, $620 (g) 50p, £6 (h) 14,7
3
(i) K45 000, K22500 G) 1 000cm , 1 litre (k) Kl 000, KSO 000 (I) 20, 5
9. Find the value of y in each of the followlll?;

(a) 2% ofy = 14 (b) 2t% of Y = 20 (c)y%of250=50 (d) 15%of40=y
0.60% of the pupils in a school are boys. If there are 450 boys, fmd the number of girls.
1. After spending 55% of his money, a man had Kll 000 000 left. How much money had he
to begin with?
~2. In a class of 40 pupils, 16 are girls. Express the number of girls as a percentage of the
total number of pupils in the class.
•3. A salesman is allowed 5% comm~sion on all sales. What ims commission on sales
amounting toK622 400?
4. In a town the ratio of men to women is 4 5, express the number of men as a percentage
of the number of women.
,5. In a population of 540006, ! are Catholics, ! are Pentecostals and the rest belong to
3 . 4
other sects, find
(a) the number ofCatholics and Pentecostals together
(b) the fraction who belong to other sects
(c) the percentage who belong to other sects
(d) the percentage of Catholics
60
Increasing a quantity by a given percentage
To increase a quantity by a given percentage, multiply the quantity by the percentage and add
the result to the original quantity. .
Alternatively, add the given percentage to 100% and multiply the result by the quantity to be
increased.
Example: Increase KlOO 000 by 10%

Solution:KlOO 000 x ~ = KlO 000
100
KlO 000 + KlOO 000 = K220 QUQ
(
Alternatively, 10% + 100% = 110%

110
KlOO 000 x - = K22D 000 as before
100
Decreasing a quantity by a given percentage

To decrease a quantity by a given percentage, multiply the quantity by the percentage then
subtract the result from the original quantity.
Example: Decrease K30 000 by 12%
Solution: K30 000 x ~ = K3 600

100
Required amount is K30 000 - K3 600 = K26.400
Alternative method: We consider the K30 000 as 100%, so that the percentage after the
decrease is 100% - 12% = 88%. Let x be the amount after the decrease;
x 88
--=
30000 100
:.x = 88 x 30 000
100
= 26 400
Therefore.the reilllll:edamountiLKl6AOO as.before.
To find the original quantitv given the percentage increase and the new quantity.
Example: After an increase of25%, the bus fare between two towns is KSO 000, find the
old fare.
Solution: Let the old fare be x Kwacha
:. x + 25% of x = 50 000
25x
:.x+ = 50000
100
1.25x. = 50 000
50000
:.x= - - -
1.25
:.x =40 000
Therefore the old far~wasK4Q.QQQ
hl
Alternatively: we consider the old fare as 100% and the new fare as (lOO + 25) = 125%
x
-- - =-100 where x IS. the old fare.
50000 125
:.x = 100 x 50 000
125
= 40 000
Therefore the old~wl\s K40 000
To find the original quantity given the percentage decrease and the new quantity. ,
j Example: Following a demotion, a man's salary is reduced by 20%, find the previous
salary if he now earns K2 400 000.
Solution: Let the previous salary be x Kwacha

:.x - 20% of x = 2 400 000
:. x - 20x = 2400000
100
0.80x. = 2 400 000
2400000
:.x=----
0.80
:.x = 3 000 000
Th~r~foKth~Jlr~"illils saL~wasJ(3_00 0 000
rnative method: We consider the previous salary as 100% and the new salary as 80%
by percentage. Let x be the prev'lOus salary
x 100
----=
2400000 80
:.x = 100 x2 400 000
80
= 3 000000
Thecefure the_old fare was_K3 OQO 00_0
Exercise8b
1. Increase the following quantities by the given percentage
(a) KSOO 000 by 50% (b) K13 000 by 20% (c) $34.40 by 5% (d) £50 by 7%
(e) $10 by 4% (t) K1 224000 by 5% (g) 15kg by 80% (h) 442 by 60%
(i) 234 by 100% U) K2 034 000 by 25% (k) $325 by 0.8% (1) £1 200 by 12.8%
2. Decrease each ofthe following by the given percentage

(a) K3 000 by 10% (b) $4.50 by 20% (c) $900 by 52% (d) 1litre by 54%
(e) K12 000 000 by 6% (t) 32 by 82% (g) K124 000 by 34% (h) 72 by 60%
3. After an increase of 15%, the price of an article is K920 000, what was the price of the
the article before the increase?
62
4. Following an increase of 3.2%, the price of an article is K1 238 400, what was the price of
the article before the increase?
5. After a 25% discount, the price of a TV set is K1 500000, what was the original price?
6. The population ofa school is increased from 400 to 450, what is the percentage increase?
7. A school has 1200 pupils, if 300 pupils graduate from the school find,
(i) the percentage of pupils who graduated
(ii) the percentage of pupils remaining in the school
8. A flfm increases the salaries of its employees by 12%, find

(i) the new salary of an employee who earned K2 000 000
(ii) the previous salary of an employee who earns K1 500 000 after the increase.
9. A trader offers a 5% discount on all marked prices, fmd

(i) how much a customer pays for an article marked K250 000
(ii) the marked price of an article sold at K665 000
10. The price of an article is increased by 10%. Two months latedt is increased by 20% of
its price then. If the fmal price of the article is K1 056 000, fmd
(i) the price before the second increase
(ii) the price before the flfst increase
Is the total price increase 30%? If no what is the total price increase?
,.
11. A machine produces 832 litres of cooking oil every hour. Following a fault, the capacity is
reduced to 624 litres per hour. Calculate the percentage decrease.
After the machine is repaired and its original capacity restored, what percentage increase
raises the capacity from 624 litres back to 832 litres per hour? .
12. The following are the marked price of some items in a shop
TV set K2 400 000, 5% discount
Radio K800 000,2% discount
Pressure cooker K120 000, 1% discount
Calculate (a) the price of the TV after the discount
(b) the price of the Pressure cooker after the discount.
A woman offers to buy the Radio at K700 000;
(c) what percentage discount is s he asking for?
63
Profit and loss percentage
Cost price (CP) - this is the price a trader pays for an article
Selling price (SP) - this is the price at which a trader sells an article
Percentage profit (pP)-if the selling price of an article is greater than the cost price, the trader
makes a profit. The value of the profit is given by the difference between
the selling price and the cost price i.e.
Profit = selling price - cost price

P=SP-CP
If the profit is expressed as a percentage of the cost price we have what

known as thepercentage profit (PP). Thus
Profit
Percentage profit = . x 100%
Costpnce
or PP = -Lx 100%
CP
Percentage loss (PL) - If the selling price is lower than the cost price, the trader makes a loss.
The loss is given by the difference between the cost price and the selling price
Loss = cost price - selling price

L=CP- SP
If the loss is expressed as a percentage of the cost price we have what is known
as percentage loss (PL).
loss
Percentage loss = x 100%
cos t price
L
orPL =-x 100%
CP
Example 1: A trader bought an article for K100 000 and sold it for K150 ODD, fmd
(i) the profit
(ii) the percentage profit
Solution: (i) Profit = Selling price- Cost price

= Kl50 000 - K100 000
=K50_00Q
(ii) Percentage profit = ,Profit x 100%
Cost price
=
K50 000 x 100%
KlOO 000
= 50%
64
/
Example 2: A trader bought an article for K80 000 and sold it for K60 000, fmd
(i) the loss
(ii) the percentage loss
Solution: (i) Loss = Cost price- Selling price

= K80 000 - K60 000
=K2QJlill)
(ii) Percentage loss = Loss x 100%
Cost price
= K20 000 x 100%
K80000
= 25%
Example 3. By selling an article for K250 000 a shopkeeper makes 25% profit on the cost
price, fmd the cost price of the article.
Solution: CP + 25% of CP = SP
C P + 25 x CP = K250 000
100
CP + 0.25CP = K250 000
1.25CP = K250 000
.'. CP = K250 000
1.25
= K200 000
Therefore the <;ost price was K20QQOO
Alternatively CP = lOO i.e we consider the cost price as 100% and the selling price as 125%.
SP 125
:.CP=' 100 x K250 000
125
= K2QO 000 as before
Exercise Sc
I. Find the profit or loss in each of the following cases
(a) CP = K200 000, SP =.K224 000 (b) CP = K344 000, SP = K 336 000
(c) CP = K66 220, SP = K66 000 (d) CP = K2 234 000, SP = K2 200 000
(e) CP = $125, SP = $124.40 (f) CP = £1 280, SP = £1400
(g) CP = KI 453000, SP = KI540 000 (h) CP = $1 240, SP = $1230
(i) CP = KI2 334, SP = KI2 450 G) CP = K230 245, SP = K200 000
2. Find the percentage profit in each of the following

(a) CP = K700 000, SP = KI 050000 (b) CP = K2 800, SP = K3 500
(c) CP = $340, SP = $408 (d) CP = £12, SP = £16
(e) CP = K418 000, SP = K459 800 (f) CP = K850, SP = K892.50
(g) CP = $400, SP = $800 (h) CP = KI 250 000, SP =KI 400 000
(i) CP = $450.40, SP = K563 (j) CP = £56, SP =£63
3. Find the percentage loss
(a) SP = K80 000, CP = K100 000 (b) SP = Kl 240 000, CP = Kl 488 000
(c) SP = K120 000, CP K150 000 (d) SP = K2 700, CP = K2 760,
(e) SP = $34.40, CP = $36.12, (f) SP = £2670, CP = £ 40.05
(g) SP = $24, CP = $60 (h) SP =£4.80, CP = £5.40
(i) SP = K200, CP = Kl 000 (j) SP = K2 000 000, CP = K2 500 000
4. Find the cost price in each of the following

(a) SP = K270 000, P = 8% (b) SP = Kl 568000, P = 12%
(c) SP = K814 000, P = 10% (d) SP = K520, P = 25%
(e) SP = $30, P = 50% (f) SP = $21.73, P = 6%
(g) SP = £72.03, P = 5% (h) SP = £341.60, P = 40%
5. Find the selling price in each of the following

(a) CP = K12 000, P = 25% (b) CP = K24 million, P = 6%
(c) CP = K560 000, P = 12+% (d) CP = K1400 000, P = 7%
(e) CP = $28, L = 4+% (f) CP = $5 400, L = 5%
(g) CP = £2 700, L = 2+% (h) CP = £54, L = 40%
6. A trader bought 5 units of eggs at K840 per unit, sold them and made 221'0 profit on the
cost price what was his selling price per unit?
7. A boy buys 200 oranges at K500 each. He decides to sell them at K800 each, fmd
(i) his percentage profit
(ii) the price he should have sold them to make 2+% profit.
8. A farmer bought 600 chicks. The cost of keeping the chicks was K84 000 per week. After
6 weeks he sold them at K30 000 each, thereby making 20% profit on the cost price. At how
much did he buy the chicks? .
9. A street vendor bought 200 apples at K850 each. He decided to sell them at Kl 000 each
but discovered that 38 of them were bad and threw them away. Did he gain or lose if he
sold them at this price? Find his percentage gain or loss.
10. A dealer bought a TV set, a Radio and a Bicycle at K2 000 000, K800 000 and K200 000
respectively. He then sold them and made 12%, 8% and 4% profit respectively. Find
(i) the s'elling price of each item.
(ii) the total percentage profit he made.
11. A trader bought 10 refrigerators at a cost of Kl 200 000 each. He paid K45 000 for each
to transport them to his premises. Find
(a) the total cost of the refrigerators
(b) the total cost of transportation
(c) the total cost of the transactions
(d) the price per refrigerator if he made 20% profit after all of them were soId.
66
SIMPLE INTEREST
If you deposit money in a bank, the bank uses this money and pays you interest for using
your money. The money which the bank pays you is knownas interest. Likewise, if you
borrow money from the bank i.e. you get a loan, you are charged interest for the borrowed
money.
The money for which the interest is paid is known as the principal. The interest is worked as
a percentage of the principal per annum (per year). The percentage used to calculate the
interest per annum is known as the rate.
For example if you deposit KI 000 000 at the rate of 10% per annum then the bank will pay
you 10% ofKI 000000 = KIOO 000 after I year.
The interest paid to the lender per annum depends on the principal i.e. the money deposited
at the start of transaction. If the interest is paid based on the same principal every year, the
interest is known assimple interest. Since the interest is paid yearly, the amount of interest
also depends upon the time for which the money remains deposited in the bank.
It has already been shown that the interest on KI 000 000 at 10% per annum is
10% x KI 000000 = KIOO 000. For a period of2 years, the interest would be
2 x KIOO 000 = K200 000.
In the same way, iftheprincipal is P, the rate of interest is R% and the principal remains
deposited for T years, then the simple interest I is given by
Pr incipal x Rate x Time

Simple interest =
100
PxRxT
i.e. 1=
100
Example!: Find the interest on K320 000 at 4% per annum for 3 years
Solution: P = K320 000, R = 4 and T = 3

1= PxRxT
lOO
K320000x 4x 3
=
100
= K38 400
Therefore th~Lnte est-llfter 4 years is K38400
Example 2: Find the simple interest on K3 400 000 at 5% per annum for 6 months.
Solution: P = K3 400 000, R = 5 and T = 6 months = t a year

I=PxRxT
100 .
_ K3 400 OOOx 5 x ~2
100
=K85 000
Th'<Ieflli"e the-interest afteL6 mouths is K85_oo0
67
Finding the principal, time or rate
To fmd the principal, time or rate, we make the required quantity the subject and substitute
the known quantities. The following formulae should be helpful
p=100 x I, R= 100 x I
RxT pxT
Example 1: Find the sum of money which if invested at 14% per annum for 6 years yields
an interest of K84 000.
Solution: R = 14, T = 6 and I = K84 ODD, we are required to find P
x
:.P = 100 I
RxT
100xK84 000
= 14x 6
= KIOO 000
Therefore the reg\lired princillill is Kl QO OOQ
Example 2: Find the time taken for KI 245 000 to yield K560 250 interest if invested at 10%
per armum.
Solution: P = KI 245 000, I = K560 250, R = 10 and we are required to find T
:. T = 100x I
pXR
100 x K560 250
= K1245000xl0
=4.5
ThereforeJhueilllired time is 4.5 )'eMS
Amount
This is the sum of the principal and the interest i.e.
Amount = Principal + Interest

A=P+I
Example: Find the amount obtaining after 4 years if K5 000 000 is invested at 5% per annum
SOlution: p = K5 000 000, T = 4, R = 5, we are required to fmd the amount after 4 years·.
pxRxT
1=---
100
K5000000x5x4
=
100
= Kl 000000
A=P+I
= K5 000 000 + KI 000000
=K6000QOQ
68
Exercise 8d
1. Find the simple interest on

(a) K860 000 at 7% per annum for 5 years
(b) K4 300 000 at 5% per annum for 6 years
(c) K4 500 000 at 2% per annum for 3 years
(d) K346 000 at 12% per annum for 2tyears.
(e) $5 000 at 5% per annum for 4tyears
(f) $34 788 at 5% per annum for 4 years
(g) £80 348 at 2% per annum for 2 years
(h) £444 at 8% p.a. for 3 years 3 months
(i) K954 000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years 4 months
(j) Kl 200 000 at 6t % p. a. for 8 years
2. Find the principal to yield an interest of.

(a) K720 000 at 4% per annum for 3 years
(b) K45 000 at 5% per annum for 5 years
(c) K306 000 at 12% per annum for 5 years
(d) K124 at 6% per annum for 9 months
3. Find the time in which

(a) K4 500 000 would yield K3 240000 interest at 9% per annum
(b) KlO 800 000 would yield K3 801 600 interest at 8.8% per annum
(c) $155 400 would yield $69 930 interest at 15% per annum
(d) £4 500 would yield £720 interest at 12% per annum
4. Find the amount obtaining if

(a) K7 500 000 is invested at 12t% per annum for 3 years
(b) K95 400 000 is invested at 10% per annum for 6 months
(c) K120 000 000 is invested at 8t % per annum for 3 years 8months
(d) $4 000 is invested at 15±% per annum for 5 years
5. Find the rate to yield K1400 000 if K5 600000 is invested for 10 years
6. Find the interest on K34 000 000 at 2% per annum for 4 years.
7. How much money should be invested at 9% per annum for 8 years to yield K432 000
interest?
8. A man invested K24 000 000 at 4% per annum and the amount after a time was
K35 520 000. Find how long it took for this to be raised.
9. If after 8 years the amount is $1 200 and the interest is $200, [md the rate per annum at
which the principal was invested.
10. A man borrowed £9 000 at 8% per annum. Every )ear he paid back the int~est plus £80,
how much money had he paid back after 3 years?
69
A number expressed as an is said to be expressed in index form. Here, a is the base and n is
the index or power of a The plural for irrlex is indices.
The index of a number tells us how many times the number mUltiplies itself. Thus, 23means
_ multiplies itself three times i.e.
2 3 =2x2x2
Similarly. 104 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
a 5 =axaxaxaxa
a x a2 = (a x ax a) x (a xa) = a5
3
Working the above examples backwards we note that

10xlOxl0xlO = 10 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 104
a x a x a x a x a = a 1+1+1+1+1 = a5
a 3x a2 = a3+2 = a5
Generally, am x an = am + n
as a-X)ix;rxax a
Now, -3
a
= ;r"x;rx)i
=i -1
a6 )yxAxAx a x a x a a. 2
3
a3
= -ffxyX)i
m results 1 and 2 we note that

S
a 5-3 2
-=a =a
a3
6
a 6-3 3
and -=a
3
=a
a
hould be pointed out at this stage that to add or subtract indices of numbers expressed in
ex form, the bases should be the same. For example in the product a2 x b3 we cannot
d the indices because the bases are different.
The value of a O
m
a m-m 0
-=a =a
am
am
But - = 1 (by cancellation)
am
:.ao = 1
Generally, any number raised to zero is 1
Thus, 2° = 1, 100 = 1, 10000 = 1 etc
70
Quantities raised to two Indices
Negative indices
a
a 0-1 -I
-=a =a
a
. 1 _]
.. -=a
a
From this result it follows tha~

1 2-] , -1 = 5-] ' - 2
- =
1 = a -2 and so on.
2 5 a
From the foregoing the following rules have been established.
1. arnx an = am+ n
m
a _ m-n
2. - - a
an
3. (am)" = am. n
1 -]
4. -=a
a
a
S. a = 1
These are the rules of indices.
Fractional indices
Fractional indices are added, subtracted and multiplied in the same way as integral indices.
Examples:
(i) aY, x a}~ = aY,+}~ = a
•• 11 .1 }.1+.1 2
(n) a ' x a' = a ' , = a
3 I ;\ 1 .1
(iii) (2') '= 2'" = 2'
. 1 1 1_1 .1
(IV) b'+ b' =b' '=b'
Exercise 9a .
1. State the index of each of the following
(a) a2 (b) ba (c) 104 (d) 53 (e) 2 (t) 4- 1
2. State the base of each of the following

(a) a 3 (b) a (c) 3 2 (d) (ab)3 (e) (ab)4 (t) 3
71
••
Express the following with positive indices.
I
(a) a-2 (b) 2- 3 (c) (ab)-I (d) 4a- 1 (e) ----=2
a
implify the following

(a) (m2 )2 (b) (a3)4
3
-rite the following in full e.g. 2 = 2x2x2
(a) a
4
(b) c 2 (c) 2s (d) 10
4
(e) (ab)3
(f) (xy)6 (g) xV (h) 43 x 33 (i) (xYr
3 (j) m3x n- 4

(a) p x p (b) q x q3 2
(c) m x m 3 (d) x I l
2 3
(f) a x a x a-I (g) m 3 x m3 (h) b4x b-2 3
(i) c x c 4 x c
(k) h2x h-3x h3 (I) (ab)x (ab)2 (m) (xy)\ (xy)2 (n) (ab)ox (a2b)2
impl? the following

(a) m + m2 (b) c 4+ CO (c) m4+ m2 (d) i+a- 2 (e) p-3 + p-4
t) xS + X-I (g) 1+ aO (h) aO + a-I (i) (xy) 3+ xy (j) r-s + (6
3 2 2
) a x a + a (I) m + m x m (m) t6+t2 x t
6 2 3 (n) p x p3+p4 (0) (xy)+(xy)8 x (xYi
E''llluate the following

(a) 2 x 2 2 (h) 3° x 32 (c) 400x 2 3 (d) 2- 1 x 2 (e)3 2x 2 2
2
(f) 3 x 3° X 3- 2 (g) 100x 10 + 10 (h) lOox 10x 10- 1
(i) 2 1°+ 2 8 (j) 120 + 12- 1

X
2
x X4 c3 x c ab 2 x a 2 b 2a 2 x 3a 3
(a) (b) - 2- (c) - - - (d)---
x3 c ab a
12a 3b 2 5a 3bx3a 2 b 3 81 xy 3x 3x 2 45x 3y x 9x 3y'
(h) --;;-0;;--;;--,,-
(e) 4a 2 b (t) 6a 4 b 4 (g) 27x 3 y 3 y
81x 2 2 x lOx 3y 2
Simplify
x3 y3 (b) 2ab x 3ab 10a 3b 3
(a) - x - x---
y2 x2 a2 b2 3ab
72
••
Square roots and cube roots
The square root of any number a is expressed as .,J;. and in index form a·:
:.a~= j;.
J I I
a i = (a 3), , now (a 3); means square root of the cube of a
... a.~ =va-

J3
Example: Find the positive square root of

(i) 4 (ii) 9
Solution: (i) J4 = 41 = (2 2
)1=2
(ii) J9 =9t = (3 2
)1 = 3
The cube ;oot of a is expressed as v;;. or a 1in index form.

:.a1 ::: va
a 1 = (a 4 )t. (a 4 )t means cube root of a4
:.a~ =w
Example: Find the cube root of
(i) 8 (ii) 125
31n'
Solution: (i) v8 =8' = (2 3 );, = 2
(ii)
,=
v125 =125'' = (53),, = 5
Index equations
Some equations have the variable as the index. These are known as Index equations and they
are solved using the basic rules of indices.
Example 1: Solve the equation 2' = 8

Solution: We f~st express 8 with base 2 Le. 2 3
:.2 = 23 , the bases are the same so the indices should be equal.
:·x= J
Example 2: Solve the equation 9' = 27

Solution: 9' = 27
:. (32), = 33
:.32 ' = 33
:. 2x = 3
... x= 12"1
Example 3: Solve the equation 22x+ 6 = 16"

Solution: 22,+6 = 16-'
2 2x+ 6 = (24)"'
2 2'+6 = 2"4'
2x + 6 = -4x
:·x=-1
73
•
Exercise 9b
~. Write the following in the form '{jam, where m and n are positive integers
(a) 3; (b) 5! (c) 8: (d) 61 (e) 2- t (t) 3- lt
_. Write the following in the form a where y is a whole numbef or a fraction

(a) W (b) if;! (c) W (d) W (e) ~ (t) ,}.,
"\la \ta s
(a) VS (b) ifi7 (c) 'fi! (d) V64 (e)ifi8 (t) ifi!
ifF (k) # (I) R I if;."
2
(g) !J27 (h) VlOOO (i) V216 (j)
-1,. Solve the following equations

(a) 2'=2 2x
(b) 3 = 3
4
(c) 2 X + 1 = 22 (d) 32 x+3 = 3' (e) 5 =I
x
(t) 3'+2 = 27 (g) 2 2' = 64 (h) 3 4 = ~ (i) 22x - 1

= .!. (j) 5 2x = _1_
3' 8 125
tandard form
The average human life span is said to be 2 000 000 000 seconds. This seems quite a long time
hen expressed in seconds. Is there a shorter way of writing this number? Yes:
2000000000 = 2 X 109
This shorter way of writing numbers is known as standard form By this notation, numbers are
expressed in the form
ax 10
where I";;; a < 10 and nE Z (Reminder, nE Zmeans n belongs to the set of integers)
Example: Express the following numbers in standard form

(i) 100 (ii) I 200 000 (iii) 0.0004 (iv) 0.000000082
Solution: (i) 100 = I x 102

(ii) I 200 000 = 1.2 x 106
(iii) 0.0004 = 4 x 10- 4
(iv) 0.000000082 = 8.2 x 10- 8
Note that for numbers lying between 0 and I the power of 10 is negative.
Approximations using numbers in standard form

By writing the numbers involved in a calculation in standard form correct to one significant
figure, approximate values of certain calculations can easily be found.
Example: Find the approximate value of each of the following

(i) 24 x 0.18 (ii) 0.025 x 82.14 (iii) 242 x 0.451
8.42
Solution: (i) 24 x 0.18 =2 x 10 1 x 2 X 10-1
=2 x 2x 10 1 x 10-1
=4 x 10 1 +(-1)
=4 x 10°
=1
Therefore the <mProx,imate "alu~ is 4. Exact value is 4.32
74
f
(ii) 0.025 82.14 =3 x 10- 2 X 8 X 101

=3 X 8 X 10-2 + I
=24 X 10-1
=2.4
Therefore the-<lpproxinml~. Yl\lue is 2A,. Exact value is 2.0535
242 X 0 451 2 X 10' X 5 X 10- 1

(iii) . =
8.42 8
2 x 5 x 10' X 10-1
=
8
10x 10
=
8
=12.5
Therefore the apprOLllnat!:..Y..aJill:.js l2.i. Exact value is 12_96
Square roots of numbers in standard form

Example 1: Find the square root of 2.5 x 103
Solution: 2.5 x 103 = 2500

= 25 x 100
..)~25-·-1-0-0 = ..)25 x 100
= .fi5 x ..)100
= 5 x 10
=50
~r.efu.re.Jh.eSQuare root of 2.5 x...lQ~Q
Example 2: Find the square root of 1.44 x 108
Solution: .J1.44x 10 8 = .J1.44x 10' x 10 6

= .J144 x 10 6 (we make 1.44 a whole number by multiplying it by 102)
= ..)l44 x M
= 12 x 103
=12000 I
Example 3: Find the square rqot of 0.00000064
Solution: We first express 0.00000064 in index form i.e.

0.00000064 = 64 i 10-8
: . ..)0.00000064 = .J64 x 10--6
= .J64 x .J1O-8
=8xlO- 4
=Ql)QQ8
75
ercise 9c
Express the following in standard form

(a) 1 000000 (b) 2 490 (c) 0.0054 (d) 0.00000734 (e) 3 467000
(t) 21 700000 (g) 0.21 (h) 0.0000775 (i) 26 x 103 G) 125 x 10- 4
Remove the standard form from

(a) 7 x 104 (b) 3.9 x 105 (c) 8.77 x 10- 3 (d) 4.0 x 10- 5 (e) 4.56 x 10-2
1
(t) 7.4 X 10-4
(g) 2.37 x Hr (h) 9.30 x 10- (i) 1.03 x 108 G) 5.70 X 10-6
Express the following in the form a x IOn where 1< a < 10 and nE Z
(a) 356 000 000 (b) 279 (c) 445000 (d) 0.0000299 (e) 0.000056
(t) 412 (g) 0.00000456 (h) 0.70 (i) 10 G) 0.0001974
- find to 1 significant figure the approximate values ofthe following
(a) 0.35 x 21.5 (b) 2 .67 x 3.24 (c) 2.67 -:- 0.045 (d) 0.74 x 3.4 (e) 41.5x 0.048
0.082 1.54
- find the positive square root of each of the following

(a) 9 x 102 (b) 3.6 x 105 (c) 1.21 x 106 (d) 2.89x 102 (e) 1.44 x 10- 4
Evaluate the following without using a calculator

(a) .J0.04 (b) VO.000008 (c) ~25 000 000 (d) VO.000027 (e) V64000000
x = 3.6 X 104 and y = 8.1 x 106 , fmd the following leaving your answers in standard form
(a) xy (b) fZY (c) H (d) ~

ithout using a calculator find, correct to 1 significant figure, the approximate value of
(a) 19.9 x 20.45 (b) 29.9 x 9.23
.Jfi V28
~bdo 11owmg
~ are Istances 0 fhr
t ee stars AB
, andCfromth eearth
Sw A B C
Distance (km) 1 245 000 000 000 127400000000 30 800 000 000 000
(a) Which star is nearest to earth?

(b) Express the distance of each star in standard form correct to 3 significant figures.
(c) Star D is 7 times the distance of star C from the earth. Find the distance of star
D from the earth in standard form correct to 2 decimal places.
a) A sample of water is observed to contain three types of contaminants A, B and C.

A has mass 5.457 x 1O-3 g,
B has mass 9.549 x 1O-4 g and
C has mass 2.388 x 1O-2 g.
(i) Which of the three contaminants is heaviest?
(ii) Find the difference in mass between A and B in standard form correct to 2 d.p.
(iii) Find the total mass of the contaminants in standard form correct to 2 d.p.
(b) Another sample of water is observed to contain 50 of A, 3 ofB and 100 ofC, calculate
the total mass of the contaminants in the sample correct to 2 decimal places.
76
10. EXPANSIONS
An algebraic expression with brackets e.g. x(x + 2) is expanded if the bracketsare
systematically removed and if possible, simplified.
Example 1 Expand (i) 2(x - 3) (ii) y(2y + 3x) (iii) 2(x - 4) + 3(x + 2)
Solution: (i) fcf),) =21' - 6 (Note that 2 multiplies both terms in the brackets)
(ii) y(2y + 3x) = 2Y + MY

(iii) 2(x - 4) + 3(x + 2) = 2x - 8 + 3x + 6
= 2x + 3x- 8 + 6 (Note the collection of like terms)
= 5x-2
Example 1; Expand (i) xy(x - Y.) (ii) (x - 3)(x + 2)
Solution: (i) xy(x - y. ) = x: -. ~
(ii) (~'l) = x~x + 2) - 3(x + 2) (Note that each of the two terms in the first
~=x +2x- 3x-6 bracket multiplies both terms in the second
= x~x-..§ bracket)
Example 3: Expand (i) (x + 2)2 (ii) (2x - 3yl

Solution: (i) (x + 2)2 = (x + 2)(x + 2)
= x(x + 2) + 2(x + 2)
2
= x + 2x + 2x +4
= ~4x+4
(ii) (2x - 3yl = (2x - 3y) (2x - 3y)

= 2x«2x - 3y)) - 3y(2x - 3y)
= 4x2 _ 6xy - 6xy + 9y.
= ~X2 - !.2xy +~
Note: the squares in example 3 above can quickly expanded using the information given below.
The square of a binomial

A binomial is an expression containing two terms. To square a binomial, follow the following
steps: 1. square the first term
2. to obtain the second term, multiply theproduct of the fIrst and second term by 2
3. square the second term
Note: (a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2

(a - b)2 = a2 _ 2ab + b 2
77
U:lIIIJple 1 Expand (x + 3)2
WOT/i'on: (x + 3Y = x2 + 2x xx 3 + 32
= x2 + 6x+ 9
mple 2: Expand (3x- 2)2

tion: (3x- 2)2 = (3xi
+ 2x 3xx (-2)+ (_2)2
2
= 9x - 12x + 4
;rcise lOa
:;pand
2(x + 4) 2. 3(y + 5) 3. 5(x + y) 4. 4(2x + 3) 5. 2x(y - I)
x - 3) 7. y(2y + 5) 8. p(2 - p) 9. t(3 -t) 10. 3m(m + n)
2h(3h + 4) 12. 3t(x - y) 13. 5c(3 - c) 14. xy(x - y) 15 . st(2 + t)
1 3 2
-2x(2x - 3y) 17. hd(d2 - 3h2 ) 18. -m(4m -2n) 19.-x(8x - 4y) 20. --(12-6y)
2 4 3
!x(3x - 9y) 22. ~(f2 - 3f) 24.2w 2 (--w) 25. ~(h6 -h 3 )
I
_ 23.-2(x -2x 2 )
3 f x W h
Expand and simplify

(a) 3(m + 2) + 2(m + I) (b) 2(x- I) + 3(x- 4) (c) 5(x + y) + (x - y)
(d) 2(2x - 3) - 3(x - I) (e)3(p-4)-(p+4) (r) 5y(y + 3)--y(y + 15)
(g) 3(y + 3) - (y - 3) (h) -(2 - m) - 3(1 - m) ( i) x(x - 3) - x(x - 2)
G) h(h- 2) - h(h + 4) (k) pq(p + q) - pq(p - q) (I) mn(m- n) + 2mn(m + n)
_ Expand and simplify

a) (x + I)(x + 2) (b) (x- 2)(x - 3) (c)(f - 5)(f + 4) (d)(e + 4)(e- 3)
e) (2m + 3)(m + 2) (f) (x - 5)(x + 5) (g) (3y - 4)(2y - 1) (h) (s - 3t)(s + 3t)
1 (x - y)(2x - y) (j) (3 - 0(2 + t) (k) (4d - 3e)(d - 3e) (I) (2m + 3n)(m + 5)
) (s - 3)(s + 2)- s(s + I) (n) (2h + 4)(2h- 5) - (4h + 1) (0) (3h + 5)(3h- 5) -.3h(3h- 5)
Expand and simplify

a) (x + 2)2 (b)(y - li (c) (m - 3i (d) (3 - X)2 (e) (4+a)2_(3_a)2
f) (3 - mi + (3 + my (g) (2x -- y)2 + (2x + yy (h) (3y - 2x)2 + (2y- xi
pleting the square
3i = x2 + 6x + 9, so the expression x2 + 6x + 9 is a complete square since it is equivalent
x + 3)2. If, however, the constant term 9 is missing then the expression becomes t + 6x,
- h is not a complete square. To complete the square we add and subtract half the square of
coefficient of the term in x.
.......luple1. Find the value of a such that -; + 4x + a is a perfect square.
tion: a is a number such that the expressionx 2 + 4x + a can expressed in the form (x + b i
To do this, we complete the square. To complete the square we add half the
coef~icient of the term in x(middle term) and square it.
:. x +4x+a=x2 +4x+ (t· 4)2
=x2 + 4x + 22
=x2 +4x + 4
Comparing the left hand side with the right hand side we note that a = 4. With this
value of a, x2 + 4x + 4 = (x + 2)2, which is a perfect square
78
Example 2: Find the values of a and b for which 4JC - 12x + 9 = (ax + b)2, where a> O. ,
2 2
Solution: (ax + bi = a x + 2abx + b2 I
... 4x2 _ 12x + 9 = a2x2 + 2abx + b2 I
Comparing coefficients of the left hand side with those of the right hand side we
2
note that: a = 4 "·a = 2
2ab =- 12 ".4b =-12=>b =-:1
Example 3: Convert the following to perfect squares by fmding the missing term
(i) x 2 + 6x +... (ii) x 2 - 9x + ... (iii) ; + .... + 16
Solution: (i) To complete the square we add half the coefficient of x, square it and add the
t
result to the existing terms ie ( x 6)2 = 32
2 2
Hence x :L6" +3 = (x + ~
(ii) Here the missing term is half the coefficient of the term in x i.e. [to (_9)]2= ~l
So the missing term is ~l or (t Y
Hence x2 - 9x +(tY= (X-t)2
~
(iii) The constant term 16 is obtained by squaring half the coefficient of the middle
term, thus [t· coefficient of middle term]2 = 16. Let the coefficient of the
middle term be p ".[ tp]2= 16
I
tp=4
P=8
Hence the missing term is 8y so that i et 8-x-+ 16 = (v + '1i .
Converting an expression of the form a~ + bx + c to the form a(x +' pi + 9
Example 1: Express x2 + 4x + 6 in the form a(x + p)2 + q
Solution: Let x2 + 4x + 6 = a(x + pi + q
= a(x 2+ 2px + p2) + q
= ax 2 + 2apx + ap2 + q
Comparing coefficients of the left hand side with those of the right and side we
note that a = 1,
2ap = 4 => P = 2 (since a = 1)
2 . 2 .
af +q=6=>q=2 (Noteap =4 .. q=6-4=2)
Hence x.' :tAx + 6 --, (x--±..Z)2 + 2 (by putting a = 1, P = 2 and q = 2 in a(x + p)2 + q)
Example 2: Express 2x2 + 3x + 7 in the form a(x + pi + q

Solution: Let 2x2 + 3x + 7 = a(x + pi + q
= ax2 + 2apx + ap2 + q .
Comparing coefficients of the left hand side with those of the right and side we
note that a=2
2ap =3 => P = f
ap2+q=7=>q= ';;' ... 2x2 + 3x + 7 = 2(x + f )2 + ';;'
79
. urn and maximum
expressions in the form a(x + p) + q have a minimum or maximum value given
_ the value of q. For example, in example 1 above, the expression x2 + 4x + 6 which
\ . ntical to (x + 2)2 + 2 has a minimum value of 2. This is because the term (x + 2)
squared and it cannot be negative and so any value of x other'than that which makes
- 2 = 0 tends to increase the value of the expression. So the minimum value of
+2i + 2 is 2 and it occurs if x + 2 = Oi.e. at x =-2
Example 1: Find the minimum value of the expression 3(x - 4)2 + 4 and state the
value of x for which the expression is minimum.
Solution: The minimum value of the expression is 4 and it occurs if x- 4 = 0
i.e. at x = 4
Example 2 Find the maximum value of- 2(x + si -

3 and state the
value of x for which the expression is maximum.
lution: The term (x + 5) is always positive because it is squared but because of the
the ne!J1tive factor -2 outside the brackets, the term -2(x + 5)2 is always
negative, hence the maximum or greatest value of- 2(x + 5)2 - 3 is - 3 and
it occurs if x + 5 = 0 i.e. if x = -5
ercise lOb
The following are perfect squares; find the value of p in each case
(a) x2 + 4x + p (b) '! + 2y + P (c) x2_ 6x + p (d) m 2 + 8rn + p
(e)'!-lOy+p 2
(f)x +3x+p 2
(g)x +x+p (h)n2 --!-n+p
• Find the value of q in each of the following

(a) '! + 2y + 1 = (y + q)2 (b) x2 - 4x + q = (x- 2i
(c) x2 + qx + 9 = (x + 3i
(d) x 2
- 12x + 36 = (x + q)2 (e) m2 + qm + 4 = (m- 2)2 (f) x2 + 5x + q = (x +t )2
-. Express the following in the form (x + ai by first supplying the missing number
(a) x 2 + 4x + .... (b) x2 - 2x + (c) x 2 + 6x + (d) x2 + IOx + .
(e) x2 - .• +4 (f) X 2_ 7x + (g) x2 - X + (h) x2 - 3x + .
-. Express the following functions in the form a(x + p)2+ q .
(a) x 2 + 4x + 6 (b) x2+ 6x + 8 (c) x 2 _ 2x + 10 (d)x 2 +4x+2
(e)x 2 -lOx+4 (f) 3x 2 -2x+4 (g)4-x-x2 (h) 4+x-2x2
-. Exress 2x2 + 4x + 7 in the form a(~ + pi + q. Hence state the minimum value of
2x +4x+7. .
· Express I + 4x - 2x2 in the form a(x +pi + q. Hence fmd the maximum value of
1 + 4x- 2x2. .
· By expressing 6 - 4x - x2 in the form a(x + pi + q, filld

(i) the maximum value of 6- 4x - x2
(ii) the value of x for which the maximum value occurs.
· Find the minimum value of 2; + 6x - 7 and the corresponding value of x.
80
11. FACTORS
If two or more numbers are multiplied together, we get a product,e.g. 4 x 5 =20. Thus 20 is a
product of 4 and 5. 4 and 5 in this case are said to be factors of 20. A similar defmition is given
in chapter I where we dealt with numerical factors. Here we shall concern ourselves with
algebraic factors.
Factorisation
Factorization is the reverse of expansion. In expansion we;ystematcally remove brackets to
find the product and in factorization we reintroduce brackets to express the product in factors.
Expansion
I ...
x(x + 2) = ill + 2x
t
Factorisation
Factorizing an expression like a + ab involves finding algebraic numbers whose product is

a + ab. a + ab = a(1 + b), so the factors of a + ab are a and 1 + b.
Factorising binomial and trinomial expressions
Example: Factorise (i) 2x + 4 (ii) x2 + 3x (iii) 6xy - 2x - 4x2

Solution: In factorizing we look for numbers or letters common to the terms that make the
given expression.
(i) 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2) (Note that 2 is common to both terms in the given expression)
(ii) x2 + 3x = x(x + 3)
(iii) 6xy- 2x - 4x 2 = 2x(3y- 1- 2x)
Exercise 11a
Factorise completely
1. 2x + 6 2. 4y + 4 3. 3x - 6 4. m-Dill
5. 2x + 2xy 6.5- 15x 7. 2y- 5xy 8. px- ph
9. mn+ 2n 10. 49-7k 11. g2 - gh 12. 21x2 + 14x
13. 3xy + 15x 14. 14p2-20p 15. mn2 + m2 n 16. 12x2 - 15x3
17. xV-xV 18.121 + 9l 19. fg 3 - fg 20. rst + rs 2
21. 3x+ 12y + 15 22.5 - 5x - )5y 23. 3x - 6xy + 9rx 24. 4x - xy + tx

25. fr - 2f + 3Jg 26. 12x - 24y + 30 27. mr + m2 _ mr3 28. 8x + 12y- 28
29. 36p +18q + 12 30. r2 + r4 + r6 31. xl + x y - x i
2 3
32. 81x - 45xy - 54x2
33. + 3 2 2 3
100fr - 25rf - 50r 34. 11 P + 11 p2 77p3 35. d e + d e _ d6e
s
36. mo2 + m3 n2 _ mn3
Factorising a difference of two squares

a2 _ b2 is a difference of two squares i.e. the differenc~ between the square of a and the square
of b. All expressions ofthis form have factors of the form (a + b) and (a - b). Thus
a 2_ b2 = (a + b)(a- b)
81
Example 1: Factorise x2 _ 22
2 2
Solution: a - b = (a + b)( a - b)
: . x2 _ 22 = (x + 2)(x - 2)
Example 2. Factorise1- 16
2
Solution: We write 1- 16 as 1 - 4
2 2
a _b = (a+ b)(a-b)
:. y2_ 4 2 = (y + 4)(Y - 4)
Example 3: Factorise 4x2- 36
lution: We write 4x2 - 36 as (2X)2_ 62

:.4XZ - 36 = (2X)2_ 62
= (2x + 6)(2x -u6)
Example 4: Factorise l8x2- 721

Solution: This expression does not seem to have factors of the form (a + b) and (a- b),
however, 18 is a factor of both l8x 2 and 721
:.18x2 -721 2
= l8(x ) - 41
= l8[x2 _ (2y)2]
= l£UCi: 2y)(x - 2y)
Evaluations using the difference of two squares

The difference of two squares is sometimes used to evaluate numerical expnssions of the
same form. The following examples illustrates this
Example 1. Evaluate 82- 62

2
Solution: 82_ 6 = (8 + 6)(8 - 6)
= l4x 2
=28
Example 2: Evaluate 1002- 902
Solution: 1002_ 902 = (100 + 90)(100- 90)

= 190 x 10
=.1 900
82
Exercise llb
Factorise completely
1. x2 _ 3 2 2. Y _ 42 3. p2_ q2 4. r 2 _ t 2 5. x2 _7 2
6.Y-9 7.4- x 2 8.25-y 9. f-64 10.r2 -1
11. 100 - p2 12. I _ t2 13.S1-y 14. 121 - x2 15. x2 -49
2 17. 3x2 - 12
16. 2x - S 18.1S-2Y 19.5 - 20p2 20.12s2 - 4Sw 2
21. 4x2 - 9Y 22.100p2 - 49y 23. (2 +el-x2 24. (m+ nl-4 25 . x2 _2..L4
26. Evaluate
(a) 122_2 2 (b) 102 _ 62 (c) IS 2 _ S2 (d) 90 2 - 10
2
(e) 24 - 14
2
(f) 992 - 1 (g) 105 2- 52 (h) 0.9 2_ 0.1 2 2

(i) S.6 - 1.4
2
(j) 7.7 2 _ 2.3 2
2
27. Factorise 2x - lSY. Hence state the values of the constants a, b and c, (c < 0) for which
2
2x - lSy = a(x + by)(x + cy)
28. If P =l- x2 , express P as a product of two factors. Hence; by considering tha t

I SOO = 100 x IS, frod the positive values of x and y for which P = I 800
2 2
29. Simplify 3m -12n
3m+6n
2 2 2 2
30. Factorise m - n . Given that m - n = P and that P = 56 when ill- n = 4, find the
value of m + n.
Factorisation by pairing
To factorise expressions containing four terms, pair them in such a way that each pair has
a common factor.
Example 1: Factorise ax + bx + ay + by
+
Solution: ax + bx + ay + by =' ax ~ bx +'ay by (Note the pairing ofterms)
= x(a + b) + yea + b) (Now a + b is common to both terms)
=(1\+ bJexul
Example 2: Factorise h2 + hp - ah - ap
Solution: h2 + hp - ah - ap = h(h + p)- a(h + p)
= ili +J)lCh - a}
Example 3: Factorise ac - bx + bc- ax

Solution: Pairing the terms as they are does not give a common factor to any ofthe pairs,
so we rearrange the terms of the expression in such a way that the paired terms
have a common factor. Hence
ac - bx + bc- ax = ac - ax + bc - bx
= a(c - x) + b(c- x)
= .k~Je1\+ b}
Exercise Hc
1. Factorise
(a) ac + ad + be + bd (b) 3x + ax + 3y + ay (c) px + py + hx + hy
(d) ax- ay + 2x- 2y (e) 2r+ry-2t-ty (f) xy + 3x + 3y + 9
(g) 3r+ ry- 6-2y (h) pt - pr + t2- tr (i) Skn2- 3kn - 20n + 12
U) mh + 3m - 2h - 6 2
(k) v + vn - 2v - 2n (1) 8- 4x-14y+7xy
_ Factorise
(a) ax + by - ay - bx (b) ry - 6 - 2y + 3r (c) 16px+ 4r - 8p - 8rx
(d)4h+r- hy-4y (e) pr-nx-px + ill (f) m2 - 3n + 3m- n
2
(g) xy -r- ry + rx (h) p2 + 4p- pq - 4q (i) xy - 4m - rnx + 4y
xy -2x+3y-6
3. Factorise xy - 2x + 3y - 6 and xy + Sx + 3y + IS. Hence simplify -=--------''------
xy+Sx+3y+lS
· l'fyxy+Sx+2y+10
S lffip 1 .
H ence find the va Iue 0 f y if xy+Sx+2y+10 --2.
xy - 3x + 2y - 6 xy - 3x + 2y - 6
- S'lffip I'fy
_. 1
mn-Sm+3n-IS . H ence fiill d the va Iue 0 f n if mn-Sm+3n-IS 3
mn+3m+3n +9 mn+3m+3n +9
. 2pr _ pt + 2qr - qt r
. Given that = I, find the value of -
~+~+~+~ t
ctonsing quadratic expressions
e, we consider expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are numbers. To
torise such expressions we first form a product and a sum. The product is given by a x c
the sum is b. We hereafter proceed to find two numbers whose product is given by a x c
whose sum is given by b. This enables us split b into a sum of two parts. The split changes
number of terms from three in the original expression to four. The four tenus are paired
common factors to each pair found. The expression is then factorised by the method of
. ing discussed above.
uample 1: Factorise x2 + Sx + 6
lntion: Comparing x2 + Sx + 6 with a.J + bx + c we note that a = I, b = S and c = 6
Product = a x c = 6
Sum=b=S
Therefore we fmd two numbers whose product is 6 and sum is S i.e.2 and 3. We use
these numbers to split S into 2 + 3
:. x2 + Sx + 6 = x2 + 2x + 3x'+ 6 (Note the splitting of Sx into 2x + 3x)
= x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2)
= (X-± 2l(x + 31
mple 2: Factorise 2x2 + x -.: 6
lution: Here, a = 2, b = 1 and c =- 6
:. Product = a xc = -12
Sum = b = I, the numbers whose product is -12 and sum is 1 are 4 and-3
:.2x2 +x-6=2x2- 3x+4x-6
= x(2x- 3) + 2(2x - 3)
= (2x - 3)(x:+ ~
84
Example 3. Factorise 5x2 - 2x + 3
Solution: Here product = 15, Sum = -2, required numbers are -5 and 3
... 5x 2 - 2x + 3 = 5; - 5x + 3x + 3
= 5x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1)
=Lx + l)C5_x + 3)
Example 4: Factorise y2 - 5xy - 6x2

Solution: ; - 5xy - 6x2 . Here, product = -6 and sum = -5. Requir~d numbers are -6 and 1
...; - 5xy _6x 2 = ; - 6xy + xy- 6x2
= y(y- 6x) + x(y- 6x)
= Cv - 6x)C v + x)
Exercise lld
1. Factorise
(a) x 2 + 3x + 2 (b)x 2+7x+6 (c) x2 + 4x + 3 (d) x2 + 7x + 12
(e) l + 6y+ 8 2
(t) m + 7m + 10 (g)x 2 +9x+18 (h) p2 + 8p + 15
(i) 2 + Y- ; (j) h 2 _ 5h + 4 (k) p2 + 9p + 20 (I) 3 +2x- x
2
(m) 2-h- h2 (n) 12-y-; (0) 15 +2p_ p2 2
(p)t -t-20
(q) c 2 - 8c + 16 (r) 30 - x - x2 (s)x 2_ 5x+4 (t) w 2_ w - 2
2. Factorise
(a)2h2 + 4h- 6 (b)2x2 +x-6 (c) 3m2_ m-4 (d) 2x 2 + 5x + 3
(e) 2x2 _x_ 3 2
(t) 2x + x- 3 (g) 3h2 + l3h + 12 (h) 6 + h- 2h2
(i) 5x 2 + 2x- 3 (j) 3x 2- 8x - 16 (k) 6- f-12f (I) 10 + llb- 6h2
(m) 3e2 - lle + 10 (n) 5x 2 - 16x - 16 (0)5g2 +l3g+6 (p) 15-4x-3x2
(q)6p2+11p+3 (r) 7x 2 + l3x + 6 (s) 12 - z - Z2 (t) 2s2 + 7s - 30
3. Factorise
(a) x2 + 2xy +; (b) x2 + 3xp + 2p2 (c) ; - 5xy + 6x2 (d) p2 + 6pt + 8t
(e) n2- 8nt + 7t2 (t) m2 -mn-2n2 (g) 21- xy - 3x2 (h) r2 + ar - 2a2
4. Simplify
x 2 -2x-3 2
(b) x +x-12 m 2 _m_2 x 2 +x-12
(a) 2 (c) (d)
x + 3x + 2 x 2 -2x-3 m 2 +4m+3 x 2 -4x+3
2 2
· lify x2 +x_2 ' hence find the va Iue 0 f X if x2 +x-2 = - 1
5. S lillp
x +2x-3' x +2x-3
6S ' l'fx2-3x+2h
. Imply 2 ence fidh I' ffi hihx2_3x+2=2
ill t evaueo x orw c 2
x -1 . x -1
85
"2. PERIMETER. AREA AN.D VOLUME
Perimeter - this is distance around an object and it is;rneasured in mm, cm, m etc
2 2
<\rea - this is space in two dimensions and it is measured,in mm , cn''?, m etc
I' -
;;.<Juare
L
Perimeter = 4t
2
Area = t
t where t = length
LLo.Illple: Calculate the perimeter and area of a square of side 3cm

tion: length, t = 3cm "
2
Perimeter = 4t Area = t
=4x3 =3 x 3
..-----; 12c!TI =_!knl
tangle
L
Perimeter = 2(1 + b)
Area=!xb
b
Where I = length and
b = breadth
h r
mple 1: Find the perimeter and area of a rectangle of breadth 5cm and length 12cm
tion: b = 5cm, 1= 12cm
Perimeter = 2(1 + b) Area = I x b
= 2(12 + 5) = 12 x 5
= 34C!Il =_60C!ll
Example 2, A rectangle has length 25cm and breadth 9cm, fmd the side of a square whose area
is equal to the area of the rectangle,
lution: I = 25cm, b = ~km
Area of rectangle = I x b
= 25 x 9
2
= 225cm
Area of a square = 12
Area of square = area of rectangle
,'.f = 225
:.1=.J225
,'. 1- 15cm
"SQ-lh~_s9\!N~oJ an~a ej1uaLlo-lhe area of the rectanglejUlf ~ide 15ru!
86
Triangle
,, ,,
•, ,,,
•
:'-Hel th Height--:
•
•, ,,
base b ~I tJL--------~14~==-==-=1);balSs~e======~~1
Area of a triangle = t x basex perpendicular height

= .lbh
2
Note: the base is considered to be the side containing the right angle.
Example: Find the area of each of the following triangles

(i) (ii) 34cm
,
•
-------q
,
• ,,
,
•
•
:lOcm ,:12.5cm
,,,
,
14 15cm ~I
Solution: (i) A= tbh (ii) A -- .lbh

2
= .lx15xl0
2
= t x34x 12.5
2
=75CJJ1- = 212.5cm
Parallelogram
,,
• Area = base x perpendicular height h
••
,, ,•
,, A=bh
•
.:.-- height
, ,:h
•
4f=~b~a~se;tb>=;\~I .d
t;\
Note: we consider the base as the side that contains the right angle
Example: Find the area of the parallelogram below

,
,,
••
:15cm
,,•
cm
Solution: A = bh = 12 x 15 -18ili;mI
87
_ consider the kite to he male up two triangles, ilABD and ilBDC and the area of the kite
the sum of the areas of these triangles.
Area of ilABD = t x BD x AE
Area of ilBDC = t x BD x EC
~-----h+-t--~c Area of kite = .lxBDxAE+ .lxBDxEC
2 2
= -j-xBD(AE+EC)
D = tXBDxAC (Q AE+EC=AC)
... A = t x product of its diagonals
nom
zium is a four sided figure with two parallel sides.
~ a Area = ~ x perpendicular height x sum of parallel sides

I 2
I
A= -h(a+b)
2
~ b
£.J::ample: Calculate the area of each of the trapezia below.
(ii) 17cm
i) Is:m
/~~A 9cm
Scm
22cm
lution: (i) a = IScll, b = 22cm and h = 14cm (ii) a = SCll, b = 9cm and h = 17cm
I I
A=-h(a+b) A= -h(a+b)
2 2
I I
= -xI4(IS+22) = -xI7(S+9)
2 2
= 252.~nl = 119cm:
Exercise 12a
(,) 0-
I. Find the area and perimeter (where possible) of each ofthe following figures
(b) : : ,«m (0)

,,
,,
,,: 12cm
,,
L-----;c==----'--- -0
4cm 18cm 20cm
1 cm
(d) (e) ~LUWL~ ~
(t)
,
,:6cm
,,
15cm
88
(g) ,, (h) (i) ,,
,, ,,
, lOem 6em Bc : 12cm
: 16c
•, ,,,
__ LJ
,
24em 8em 20em
18em
(I)
8em
14em
I- ~I
Co) tu d-
2. Find the area of the shaded region
12em
~)
(c)
15cm~
F7\l
15em
(d) (e) (t)
j.i JOem j.J

(g) (h) (i)
24cm 22em
3emI 1-----1 8em 14cm IE------rl-'-~ 12em
2
3. A square has area 25cm , calculate
(i) the length of side of the square
(ii) its perimeter
4. A parallelogram has area 64cm2 . If one side is of length lOcm, calculate the length of the
perpendicular to this side.
2
.
5. The area of a triangle is lO4cm , if the altitude is of length 8cm, calculate the length of the
base.
6. The diagram shows a paiallelogram with sides AB = 15cm, and BC = 12cm. If the area of
A ~5cm the parallelogram is .l50cm calculate
---- 2 i, (i) hI
N : hi (ii) h 2
2qll (iii) the area of the shaded region given that DM = DN = 6cm
DL--~MF----f-c-_D
89
~. The diagram below shows a rectangular flower bed of length 7m and width 5cm surrounded
by a path whose edges are of length 9m and breadth 7m. Calculate
(a) the perimeter ofthe outer edge of the path
(b) the perimeter of the flower bed
7m (c) the area of the flower bed
(d) the area of the path.
9m
8. The diagram shows a rectangle of length l2m and breadth lOm of which a triangular
portion of it is shaded. Calculate
(a) the perimeter of the shaded region
10m (b) the perimeter of the unshaded region
(c) the area of the shaded region
(d) the area of the unshaded region
12m
Area and circumference of a circle

Area of a circle =rr x (radius),
A = rrr2
Also, since the diameter is twice the radius
Diameter d i.e. d = 2r => r = ~ ... A = TTd'

2 4
Circumference, which is the distance around
the circle is given by C =ftr or C = rrd
since 2r = d
Area of a sector
A sector is a portion of a circle bounded by two radii. If the circle below is cut aleng the
radii OA and OB th en we have a minorsector and a major sector.
...__-___..A
For a given circle, the area of a sector is proportional to
the angle e at the centre.
Major 0 Area of minor sector is given by
SectOI
8 XTTr 2
A= __
360
Length of an arc
An arc is a portion of the circumference

bounded by two radii. For a given circle,
the length S of sector is proportional to
the angle e at the centre of the circle.
8
S = --x2TTr
360
•
90
Example 1. A circle has radius 30cm, calculate
(i) its area (ii) its circumference
Solution: (i) r = 30cm (ii) circumference = 2nr
Area = nr' =2 x 3.142x30
= 3.142 x 302 = 188.52
2
."J\--==-2811.Bili;m :.C - 188.52cm
Example 2. A circle has area 78.55cm2 , fmd

(i) the diameter of the circle
(ii) the circumference ofthe circle
Solution: (i) A = 78.55cm2 (i i) C = rrd
d'
A=rr - ~ 3.142 x 10
4
:. rr£ ~ 78.55cm2 = 31A2rn!
4
d3
3.142 . - = 78.55cm2
4
4x 78.55
:. d=
3.142
--'.,Uia!ll~ = IOcm
Example 3: For the sector shown below, fmd, by taking rr = 22 ,

7
(i) the length of the arc AB
(ii) the area of the sector
B a
Solution: 0) Length of an arc = - x 2nr
360
120 22
= - x 2x-x 42
360 7 •
:.$ - 88cm
(ii) Area of a sector = ~x nr'

360
= 120 x 22 x 42'
360 7
:.A - 1848cm:
91
Example 4: Find,by taking 1T = 22 the area of the shaded region in the diagram below.
7
B
c
Solution: The shaded area is bounded by the outer sector OBe and the inner sector OAD.
The area of the shaded region is therefore the difference betwee n the area of the
outer sector and the area ofthe inner sectori.e.
Area of the shaded region = area of the outer sec tor - area of the inner sector.
:.A= 84 x22x212_ 84 x22xl42
360 7 360 7
= 323.40 - 143.73
:.A = 179.67cm-=
Exercise 12b
1. Find, taking 1t = 2,2, the circumference and area of a circle of radius;
(a) 14cm (b) 28cm (c) 56cm (d) 0.7m
2. Find, by taking 1T = 3.142, the area of each of the following sectors

(a) angle 23°, radius lOcm (b) angle 68°, radius 14cm
(c) angle 224°, radius 40cm (d) angle 300°, radius 27cm
3. Taking 22 , fmd the circumference and area of each of the following circles with the
TI=
7
given diameter.
(a) 28cm (b) 7cm (c) 42 cm (d) 91cm
4. A circle has area 176cm2 , fmd, by taking 1T = 22,

7
(a) the radius ofthe circle (b) the circumference.
5. A circle has circumference 132mm, fmd

(a) the radius. (b) the area of the circle
•
6. Find the area and circurnferen<;e of a circle equal in area to a square of side 28mm
(bG
7. Find the area of each of the following figures
26cm
(b)
6cm
(c)
~
\j/
92
8. Find the area of the shaded region. Taken = 3.142.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (t)
540m
12cm
12cm
36cm
9. A man wants to paintthe four walls of a room of length Srn, breadth 4m and height 3m. One
of the walls has a window measuring O.8Sm by 1.9m, another wall has a window measuring
I.Sm by 2m. The third wall has a door measuring 1m by 2m. Calculate, to the nearest whole
number, the total area of wall he has to paint.
(a) B
10 . Calculate the area of the shaded region of each of the following figures. Take" = 272
(b) rYl 28cm
28cm lAJ
28cm
11. The diagram shows a decoration in a waiting room. It consists of a circle inscribed in a
semi-circle of diameter 28cm. The circle just touches the
diameter and the circumference ofthe semi-circle. By
taking n = 22 where necessary; find
7
(a) the diameter of the circle
(b) the area of the circle
(c) the area of the semi-circle
(d) the area of the shaded region·
12. The diagram shows one wall of a house. The wall which measures 3m by 3m has awindo
with a semicircular top. The total length of the window is 1.2m and is O.6m wide. Calculate
(a) the radius of the semi circular portion of
the window
(b) the area of the semi circular portion of the
3
the window
(c) the area of the whole window
. m (d) the area of the wall excluding the window.
3m
93
urface areas
The surface area of most objects, in particular regular objects, is found by considering the
ea of their nets.
The cube
As
@ I
_ ....._et_ _~
I AI
I
A2
I
A3 ~
I
I
I A<,
I
All sides of a cube are equal, therefore all areas of the net are equal, thus
AI = A2= A3 = ~= As = A<, = t (each area equals t )
2 2
refore, the total surface area of a cube is given by

2
S.A. = 6t
Example: Find the total surface area of a cube of side Scm

lution: Length of side = Scm :. t = Scm
2
SA = 6 t
= 6 xS 2
= lS0cm2
Therefore the total surface an~a ofthe cube.is 15J)~
e Cuboid
le A<,
•
h As
Q Q _ _N.e.t.---l~
b AI A2 A3
h
h ~
AI = bh A2 = lb A 3 = bh ~ = lh As = lh A6 = lb
Total surface area = bh + lb + bh + lh + lh + lb
= 2bh + 2lb + 2lh
.'. S.A.= 2(bh + Ib + Ih)
94
Example: Find the total surface area of a cuboid of length 15cm, breadth 7cm and height lOcm
Solution: 1= 15cm, b = 7cm and h = 10cm

SA= 2(bh + lh + lb)
= 2(7 x 10 + 15 x 10 + 15 x 7)
= 650cm2
:Therefo e the total surface area oUhe cuboid is 650cm2
Closed cylinder
Top
/' ""
~
}
./
Net ~
Curved surface
V
'-
r"'
./
1" 2m
I- ·1
G Bottom
The net of a cylinder is as shown in the diagram. The total surface area is the sum of the
area of the top and bottom circle, and the curved surface. Notice that the curved surface is a
rectangle when straightened up. The length of the rectangle is equal to the circumference
of the circles and the breadth is equal to the height ofthe cylinder.
Therefore total surface area of a closed cylinder is given by
S.A. = area of top circle + area of bottom circle + area of curved surface
=m2+~+2mxh
= 2rrr2 + 2mh
...S.A. = 2rrr r + h If thilllinder is 0
Example 1: Find the total surface area of a closed cylinder of radius 12cm and height IOcm.
Solution: r = 12cm, h ='lOcm

SA = 2rrr(r + h)
=2 x 3.142 x 12(12 + 10)
= 1658.98cm2 •
:The total surface area-9f!he cylindel;js thereforelQ58,98cm:
Example 2: Find the total surface area of an open cylinder of radius 23cm and height 30cm.
Solution: The cylinder is open so we consider only the area of one circle and the area of the
curved surface => S.A. = rrr2 + 2mh
S.A = m(r + 2h)
= 3.142x 23(23 + 2 x 30)
= 5 998cm 2
The totaL£l!ITace area of the cylinder is.Jherefore~~8~m:
95
Net ~ A Sector B
~S/
r = radius
h = vertical height
I = slant height Base circle
The net of a cone consists of a sector of radius equal to I, the slant height of the cone
and arc length S, equal to the circumference ofthe base circle. If this sector is folded such
that the dges OA and OB meet a cone of radius r and slant height I is formed.
The cone so fonned has curved surface area = 71:rl where I = .Jr 2
+ h2
Area of the base circle = 71:r2
The total surface area of a cone is the sum of the area of the curved surface and the
area of the base circle.
Therefore the total surface area of a cone is given by
S.A. = 71:r1 + 71:r2
= m(l+ r)
Example 1: Find the total surface area of a cone of radius 6cm and slant height 12cm.
Solution: r = 6cm, 1= 12cm
SA = m(1 + r)
= 3.142 x 6(12 + 6)
= 339.34
SQJne total urface area_oLthe con~js339.34cmZ.
Example 2 A sector shown below is turned toform a cone, [md

(i) the curved surface area of the cone
(ii) the adius ofthe cone.
lScm
Solution: Here, r = lScm, e = 120°. The area ofthe sector is the area ofthe curved surface
of the coneformed, therefore
(i) A = ~ x TTi'
(ii) Area of curved surface = area of sector
360 :. ml = ~39.34
= 120 x3.142 x1S2 :.3.142 x lSx r = 339.34
360 :.If = 339.34
2
:. A - 339.34cm 3.142x IS
_:.r=6cm
96
Pyramid
The base of a prism may be square or rectangular. Thediagram below shows a pyramid on
a square base and its net.
Net
----~ ----------- t ____h. _
The total surface area of the pyramid is the sum of the areas of the triangles and the area of
the base in this case, the area of the square. Thus the total surface area of the pyramid on
a square base is given by
I 2
SA = 4 x - x tit + t
2
2
= 2 tit + t
SA = t(21i + e)
Note: this formula is not applicable to a pyramid on a rectangular base.
Example: Find the total surface area of a pyramids on a square base of side 80crrr and height
of triangular faces 50cm
SOlution: The sketch of the pyramid in question is as shown below. Thereforet= 80cm
•
and Ii= 50cm
~
\ 50cm :.f£A=t(21i+e)
~ = 80(2 x 50+80)
, .= 14400cm2
80cm
The total surface area of the pyr~id is therefore 14 400cm
2
Sphere
There is no well established net of a sphere but higher mathematics shows that the total surface
area of a sphere of radius r is given by
2
S.A. = 4m
,__-------r--
---------- --
Example: A sphere of radius 7cm has surface area = 4 x 3.142 X 72 = 6J2.83cm2
97
cise 12c
Find the total surface area of each of the following
(a) a cube of side 3cm (b) a cuboid of length 32mm, breadth 20mm and height 15mm
(c) a sphere of radius 7cm (d) a cone of slant height 20cm and radius 8crn.
(e) a cube of side 0.2m (f) a closed cylinder of radius lAm and height 1.2m
(" d 'emQ
_ Calculate the total surface area of each of the following figures
(c)
(b)
cm Im
14cm 7cm
2m l'l
Open cylinder
(d) ( e)
.... _-----"'---
Solid hemisphere
(g) (h) (i)

6cm
47mm 24cm
3. A cube has surface area 40Ocm2 , [md the length of its side.
4. A coin is 2mm thick and has radius 2.8crn. Taking IT = 22 , calculate the total surface area
7
2
of the coin giving your answer in mm
5. Calculate the total surface area of a pyramid of height 12cm on a square hase of length lOcm
6. The diagram below shows a pyramid VABCD on a square base of side 62cm. The vertex V
is 44cm vertically above F where F is the point ofintersection of the diagonals AC and BD.
V of the square. Calculate
(a) the length of FM where M is the midpoint of CD
44cm (b) the length ofVM
B C (c) the total surface area of the pyramid
F
K
A'"""--6"2'c-m--D
7. The diagram below shows a sector of angle 1 04° and radius 6Amm. If the sector is turned
to form a cone, [md for this cone
(a) the curved surface area
(b) the radius
104°
6.4mm (c) the vertical height
98
8. The diagram shows a cylindrical tin 0 f coffee. The tin has diameter7cm and height 8cm.
C ~ Calculate, taking IT = 22
7
Coffe4l Ca) the area of the top of the tin
Cb) the area of the curved surface of the tin
~ Cc) the total surface area of the tin
~ ~ Cd) the number of such tins which can be made from a
rectangular material of length 7m and breadth 3.5m.
9. The diagram shows the net of a box with dimensions as shown in the diagram. When
assembled the edges fit perfectly without overlap.
Ar-----,J
Ca) State the lengths of BC, IH and IG
40c Cb) Find the length of CD and state the length of DE
(c) Find the total surface area of the box
'---_ _~B I H
(d) Draw a diagram showing what the box looks like
30cm when assembled.
D --------- G
E L---:;3"'Oc-m-...J F
10. The diagram shows a toy. The toy is made by joining together a cone and a hemisphere.
Both have radius 15cm. The cone is painted grey and the hemisphere yellow. Find,
(a) the value of h, the vertical height of the cone
35cm
T
Cb ) the area painted yellow
(c) the area painted grey
(d) the total surface area of the toy
1 · area pa int ed grey

Ce ) the ratIo, - - - - - " - - - - - - - ' ' ' - = - - - - - -
Total surface area of the toy
in its simplest form.
11. The diagram shows a rectangular piece of metal of length 24cm and breadth 16cm from
which a circular and two semi circular portions of diameter 12en have been removed.
Calculate
Ca) the area of the circular portion
(b) the total area ofthe portion removed
(c) the area of the rectangular piece of metal
(d) the area of the remainder.
99
OLUME
-olume is space in three dimensions. The units used in measuring volume include mm3 , cm3,
3 etc. The litre is a unit of volume used to measure the volume of fluids eg water and air.
e unit cube
building block of all volume is the unit cube. The unit cube has side equal to I unit.
~lunit
./ ./ ./
./ ./ ./
x 8 2 units
L-j)lunit .-/
.-/
1 unit
olume= I x Ix!= lunit3 2 unIts

lz'units
Volume=2 x 2x2
= 8units 3
lume of standard figures
nbe
Volume=txtxt
3
=t
Thus, a cube of side 3cm has volume
V=3x3x3
= 27cm3
uboid
Volume = length x breadth x height

/: / V =Ibh
Thus, a cuboid of length 10cm, breadth 7cm and
,/', ------h /b height 6cm has volume
1 V= IOx7x 6
= 420cm3
riangular prism
Volume = area of cross section x length
= area of triangle x length
= .lbhl
2
1 or V = AI where A = t bh = area of triangular face
Example: Find the volume of triangular prism of length 8cm, base = 6cm and height 4cm.
Solution: Volume = area of triangle x length

-- .lbhl
2
= tx6x4x8
:.IN -96cm:.
100
Right circular cone
A cone ofradius r, vertical height h has volume V

given by V = .!. nr"h
3
Example 1: Find the volume of a cone of radius Scm and vertical height 14.2cm.
Solution: Here, r = Scm, h = 14.2cm
V = .!.m>h
3
1
V =-x 3.142xS'x 14.2
3
= 371.80cm3
The volume of the cone is therefore371.80cm~
Example 2: : Find the volume of a cone of radius 12cm and slant height 20cm
Solution: The diagram of the cone is as shown below. Frcm the given information
r = 12cm and 1= 20cm: to work out the problem we need to find the vertical
height h.
By E.ythagoras' theorem (see chapter 25)
<,,' ..J-202 -123
h= =16cm
1 2
V = -TIr h
3
1
= -x3.142x12 2 x 16 = 24l3cm3
3
:fhuiillumlliJ:hJ:.-conej therefore 2 4l:km3
Solid Sphere
A sphere of radius r, has volume V given by

---------- 4
V = -TIr'
----------- 3
Example: Find the volume of a sphere of radius l3cm

Solution: r = l3cm
4
V = -TIr'
3
4
= -x3.l42xl3 3
3
= 9203.97cm3
Thld'9I\l!illUlf~phere is.Jherefore 9203.97cm3
101
ow sphere
-B- -
.--
'- -- -
., ""-
-- ,
__I
If a sphere of radius R is hollow with the internal space spherical with
radius r (see diagram), then the volume of material of the sphere is given
by the difference between the sphere and the volume of the internal space.
4
volume of sphere = _nR3
~
3
volume of internal space = i TTf3
3
Therefore the volume of material of the sphere is given by
4 4 3
V = -nR - -TIr
3
3 3
4
= _lI(R 3 _r 3 )
3
mple: A hollowsphere has internal radius 4cm and external radius 7cm, find the volume
of the sphere.
lution: Here, r = 4cm and R = 7cm
4 3 3
V= -n(R -r )
3
= 4 x 3.142x (7 3 _4 3 )
3
= 1168.82cm3
Therefore the volume of the sj{herejs 116.lL82=3
ercise 12d
Find the volume of each ofthe following figures. (where necessary, taken = 3.142)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
/: / 4cm
4cm
.",,
(e) (t) (g) (h)
""Ir t
a ~,~
,,
-
:
'
f~----
LOem
.
12cm
4cm
.
e
Solid hemisphere
.-:l Dc
(i) (j) (k) 01

T -------- ... T
T 15em
--
IDem
r
50cm -------~
1
3em!
.-£=- l
102
2. A sphere has volume l40cm3, find the radius of the sphere giving your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.
3. A cubical vessel of side 2m is half full of water, Calculate the volume of water in the
vessel.
4. A solid metallic sphere of radius l4cm is melted down and cast into 4 cubes of side l4cm.
Calculate (i) the total volume of the cubes
(ii) the volume of material left over.
5. A triangular prism of length 40cm hasheight 20cm and volume 400cm3 , calculate
(i) the area of the triangular face of the prism (ii) the length ofbase of the face
6. A solid metallic cone of radius 24cm and vertical height 32cm is melted down and cast
into two identical spheres. Calculate the radius of the spheres.
7. A cubical vessel of length l50cm is half fuU of water. Two identical spheres of radii 2lcm
are placed into the vessel and are completely submerged. Calculate the rise of water in
the vessel.
8. An orange of radius 4cm has a peel of uniform thickness. The peel is O.5cm thick. Assuming
the orange is spherical, fmd
(a) the radius ofthe pulp
(b) the volume of the peel
(c) the volume of juice in the orange given thatthe juice is three quarters ofthe 'volume
of pulp.
9. The diagram shows a toy. The toy is made by joining a cone and a hemisphere together.
The cone is painted grey and the hemisphere yellow. Find,
(a ) the value of h, the vertical height of th~ cone
T
36cm
(b ) the volume of the cone
(c) the volume of the hemisphere
(d) the total volume of the toy
1 . volume of cone
(e ) the ratio, - - - - - - - - - m Its
volume of hemisphere
simplest form.
..
10. The diagram shows a section through the left and right banks of a dam wall. The section is
in the shape of a trapezium 50m wide at the top, 20m at the bottom and contains water to a
SOm I a depth of 20m
I4 ~ Given that the dam is 200m long, 30m deep when
40m T "full and the length of the water surface is 40m
........::: ::...... 'T 30m calculate,
.:"\\\\~{? fm1 ~~~ ~~: ~~ll~:: ~~:~~:.~t~:~~ when full
14 2Om~1 (c) the volume of water required to completely
fill the dam from this level
103
Volume of a cylinder
A cylinder of radius l' and height h has volume given by
V = rrr2h
h For example, a cylinder of radius Srn and height 1Om has

-------i--- volume V = 3.142 x 52 x 10
'- ./ =7 5.5!L 3
Volume ofa pyramid
Volume of a pyramid = ~x area of base x vertical height

3
1
... v=-xAxh
3
The base of a pyramid may be square or rectangular.
Example: A pyramid of vertical height 12cm on a rectangular
base of length I Ocm and width 6cm has volume given by
V= txI0x6xl2
= 240cm3
Volume of a pipe
A pipe of internal radius 1', external radius R and lengtht has
l1 ,
: t
volume V given by
V = rrR2 t- m 2 t
= rrt (R2 _ r 2 )
v,-J 1
'-... '-------
or V = rrt (R + r)(R - r) (by difference of two squares)
Example: A metallic pipe of length 2m has internal radius O.4m and external radius 0.41m.
Find the volume of metal used to make the pipe.
Solution: R = 0.41m, l' = O.4m and t = 2m
V = rrt(R2- 1'2)
=3.142 x 2(0.41 2 -0.42 )
3
= 0.05 m
Ih~me of th~~ is th~r~fQr~_O.05m3 COIT~ct to 2 decimq!..Qlac~s
Discharge through a pipe

If the speed of water flowing in a pipe of given radius is known and the pipe is running full,
the volume of water passing through a point in the pipe eg the mouth, can be calculated.
If fluid is moving in a pipe of cross sectional area A withspeed S, the volume V of fluid
discharged from the pipe in time t is given by
V=SAt
Note: A is the cross sectional area of the internal space of the pipe.
104
Example: Water is supplied to a tank through a pipe of radius O.04m. If the speed of the
water in the pipe is 2m/s, find the volume of water supplied to the tank
(i) in 20 seconds (ii) in 5 minutes
Solution: (i) S = 2m/s, A ~.142 . 0.04' ~ O.OOSm', t = 20s,
V=SAt
= 2x 0.005 x 20
= 0.2m3
(ii) Here, we convert the minutes to seconds

5 minutes = 5 x 60 = 300 seconds
V = SAt = 2 x 0.005 x 300
= 3m3
Volume of composite bodies

We consider a composite body as a body made up oftwo or more ofthe figures discussed
above. The diagram below shows a composite body consisting of a hemisphere of radius
r and a cylinder of the same radius and height h. The volume
I~---I f of the figure is the sum of the volume of the hemisphere and
h the volume of the cylinder. The volume V of the figure is
1 . therefore given by
\ , V = 2 ni' + rrr'h
3
Exercise 12e
1. Calculate the volume of each of the following
(a) a cylinder of radius 40cm and height 25cm
(b) a hemisphere of radius 70mm
(c) a hemisphere of radius 0.25m
(d) a cylinder ofradius 3cm and height 4cm
(e) a pipe of internal radius 30cm, external radius 30.2cm and length 400c m
(t) a pipe of internal radius 7mm, external radius 7.4.mm and length 200mm
2. Calculate the volume ofeach of the following figures
(a) (b) (c) (d)
T
T lm -------
IDem
r m
3
1 3e{6--~l
3. A girl used 440cm of clay to make a cylillder of radius 5cm, taking TT = 22 , calculate the
7
height of the cylinder.
4. A sphere has volume 38 808cm3, taking TT = 22 , calculat~ the radius of the sphere.
7
5. A pipe has internal diameter 20cm and external diameter 22cm. Given that the volume of
material ofthe pipe is 2 772cm3 and taking TT = 22 , calculate the length of the pipe.
7
105
company makes identical pipes each of internal diameter 3cm, external diameter 4cm
:md length 2m. Calculate to the nearest whole number, the volume of material required
make 80 pipes givin,g your answer in cm3 .
- The diagram shows a hemisphere surmounted by a cylinder of the same radius. Given that
e~.I
h
the two solids have equal volumes, fmd the value ofh, the
height of the cylinder.
ee identical balls fit exactly in a cylinder of height 42cm as shown in the diagram.
Taking TT= 'i, where necessary, fmd
r
42cm
(a) the radius of the balls
(b) the internal radius ofthe cylinder
(c) the volume occupied by the balls
~l
(d) the volume of the cylinder
(e) the volume of the cylinder not occupied by the balls
volume occupied by the balls.
(t) the ratio m its lowest term~
volume of the cylinder
potter makes identical open cylindrical vessels each of internal radius 0.1 m, external
!"lidius O.ISm and height O.3m. The base of each cylinder being O.OSm thick and radius
.ISm, calculate
(a) the volume of material required for the base of one such cylinder
(b) the volume of material required for the curved portion of the cylinder
(c) the vo lume of material required for one cylinder
(d) the volume of material required for 100 cylinders.
Water flows out of a pipe of internal radius Icm with a speed of 3m1s, find
(a) the volume of water, in cm3, di~charged in 1 second
(b) the volume, in cm3 , of water discharged in 4S seconds
(c) the time in seconds, taken to fill a cylindrical tank of radius I m and height 2m.
. A company makes cylindrical pipes like the one shown below.. Each pipe has an internal
radius ofO.2m, external radius 0.2Sm and length l2m. Calculate
, (a) the thickness of the pipe
,,-r-- - - - - -- ---
, "" (b) the volume of material required to make the pipe
,,, "
" O.25m (c) the volume of internal space
,, "
,, "
," , O.2m The pipes are designed to carry fluid from a source A to
...... _/------------ point B 4.8km away. The pipes are to be laid end to
12m end for the whole distance and the speed of the fluid is
expected to be 2m1s and always running full. Calculate
(d) the number of pipes required for this distance
(e) the volume of material required for this pipe work
(t) the volume of fluid delivered to the receiver
at B in 1 hour.
106
13. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
An equation is a mathematical statement telling us that that two expressions are equal
The sign = separating the left and the right hand expression denotes equality between the
two expressions.
The highest power of the unknown quantity (l> y etc) determines the type of equation we
have. An equation like 7x + 2 = 9 with the highest power of the unknown I is called a linear
equation. An equation like 2x2 + x - 6 = 0 where the highest power of the unknown quantity
is 2 is known as a quadratic equation. x 3 + x2 - X + 2 = 0 has highest power 3 and is known
as a cubic equation and so on.
Solving an equation
Solving an equation involves fmding the value of the unknown quantity such that the equality
holds true. Consider solving x + I = 0: x = I gives I + I = 0 or 2 = 0, which is not true. x =- 1
gives -I + I = 0 or 0 = 0 which is true, hence x =- I is the solution to the equation x + I = O.
Example 1: Solve the equation 2x + 3 = 9

Solution: 2x + 3 = 9
2x=9-3
2x= 6
=> x = 3
Check: putting x = 3 in the original equation gives 2 x 3 + 3 = 9 or 9 = 9, true.
Example 2: Solve the equation 3x + 3 = II + x

Solution: 3x + 3 = II + x
3x - x = II - 3 (collecting the like terms)
2x= 8
=> x=4
Example 3: Solve the equation 3x + 2(x- 5) = 3x - (x + I)

Solution: 3x + 2(x- 5) = 3x - (x + I)
We first simplify by removing brackets
:.3x + 2x- 10 = 3x - x - I
3x + 2x- 3x + x = 10- 1
3x= 9
=> x= 3
Exercise 13a
Solve the following equations
1.2x+1=5 2.5x-I=4 3.3y- 2y=3+4 4.5x-4=4x+2
5. 4x- 2x =4+ 2 6. 2m- 2=4m- 6 7. 6y + 4- 2y-6 =0 8. 7t- 5t + 8- 11 = 0
9. 9 - 7x + 8 = lOx 10. 4(p + 2)- 23 = 0 11. 3(2 - x) + 3 = 2x 12. 5(x - 3) - 3x = -29
13. 7(2x - 5) = 3(4x- 10) 14. 2(x + 3) = 3x + 11 15. 3(m- 6) - m = 2(5 - m)
16 3(0 + 6)- n = 2(5 - n) 17. x(x + 2)- x(x - 2) = 12 18.2- 5(x + 3) = 3(x + 1)
19. 2x - 5 - (x - 3) = 4- x 20. y(y - 4) = 5 + 1+ 13 21. x - 2x(x + 5) = 5- 2x(x - 1)
107
Equations with fractions
x 2x
Example 1: Solve - + - = 7
2 3
Solution: The LCM of of 2 and 3 is 6 so we multiply both sides of the equation by 6
:.6(;+2X)=7 X 6
3
.'. 3x +4x=42
7x=42
:. x - 6
Example 1: Solve the equation ~+~ = -1

2y Y
Solution: The LCM of of 2y and y is 2y so we multiply both sides of the equation by 2y
:.2Y(~+~)=2YX
2y y
(-1)
:.9+1O=-2y
:.2y =-19
:. y = -2.5
Cross multiplying
We cross multiply if and only if each side of the equation has one fraction
Example 1. Solve the equation _3_ = 2

x+2 x
Solution: Here, each side of the equation has one fraction therefore we cross multiply
x~¥~
:.3x = 2(x + 2)
:.3x- 2x = 4
:. x = 4
Example 2: Solve the equation _6_+.! = I

x -5 7
Solution: Here, the left hand side has two fraction so we proceed as follows
_6_=1_.!
x -5 7
6 6
x -5 7
Now each side of the equation has one fraction so we cross multiply,
x~
:~ 6(x
- 5) = 6 . 7
:.6x-30=42
:. x - 12
108
. 5x + 10
Example 3. Solve the equation 2x + 3 = - - -
3
Solution: We consider 2x + 3 as a single fraction 2x + 3 and cross multiply
1
.2x+3 5x+1O
--=---
1 3
:::} 3(2x + 3) = 1(5x + 10)
6x + 9 =5x + 10
6x - 5x = 10- 9
... = 1
Exercise Bb
n n
1. - + - = 5
x x
2. - + - =9 3. 2x -~=7 4. m + 3m =14
2 3 4 5 5 6 4 2
5. P -2 =2 6.5+ - =9
m 7. ~ = x+ 2 x+3
8 . --=x+ 2
3 2 4 12 5
9. -'2-f --'4-f = 5 1
2
2
10. -(x+3)--x=-2
3
t
5
2
11. --t=-
5
521
12. -+-=4-
2p P 2
13. ~h - 2 (h - 4) = -'- 14. x+5+3x-4=_1 15.2'.-2= y-4 16. _4__ -'- = ~

6 3 5 2 4 3 6 x-I 3 3
17. 12-x = 2x+4 18. _5_=_3_ x+ I 1 2

19. 2(x + 3)- - - = 11 20-. -+- = 4
2 3 x+2 x-2 2 x 3
21. x + 3 = 3x + 7 22.
3x -7
=4x + 9
4n
23. -=n+3 24. -'-_~= 10
2 2 5 t 3t 3
Problems leading to linear equations
Example 1: The length of a rectangle is 3cm greater than the width. Given that its perimeter
is 22cm, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
Solution: Let the length of the rectangle be x
Therefore the breadth is (x - 3) cm
Now, 2(1 + b) = Perimeter
... 2(x + x- 3) = 22 (since I = x and b = (x- 3))
2x+2x-6 =22
4x= 28
".x =7
So the-kngtlLoftbe rectangle is 7CllUlOd the brea~=-.1- 3 =~rn
109
Example 2. After spending + of his money on a house and~ on a car a man had K42 000 000
left in the bank. lbw much money did he have in lhe bank before these transactions?
Solution: Let the total amount of money he had i.nl1e bank be x

Therefore he spent +x on the house and ~ x on the car
... +x+~x+42000000=x
ix +42 000 000 = x
3x + 168 000000 = 4x (by multiplying throughout by 4)
x = 168000000
Therefur~he had K168 OOQJ)OO in the bank hefQreJhe tmnsac1wnsc
Example 3 Thandiwe is 20 years older than her daughter Jelita. 10 years ago Thandiwe was
twice as old as Jelita. Find their ages.
olution: Let Thandiwe's age be x years, therefore Jelita's age is (x- 20) years
10 years ago, Thandiwe was (x - 10) years old
and Jelita was (x - 30) years old
10 years ago Thandiwe was twice as old as Jelita.
".x - 10 = 2(x- 30)
... x= 50
T.he[(,~fQre Thandiwe iL5~and Jelita is-5.0=.2.0 = 30 elll'S old.
Example 4 A school has 150 more girls than boys. If the ratio of girls to boys is 5 4, fmd the
number of pupils in the school.
Solution: Let the number of girls in the school be x, therefore the number of boys is~ 150
x 5
---=
x-ISO 4
...5(x· 150) = 4x
5x -750 = 4x
".x= 750
... number of boys is 750- 150 = 600
Therdore the number of pupils inJh~schQQl i£15O.i'.iiQO = 1 350
Exercise 13c
I. A square of side xcm has perimeter 32 cm, fmd the value of x.
2. I think of a number. If! divide the number by 4 and take away 6 from the result the answer
is 10. Find the number.
3. Mulenga is x years old. His brother Mapesho is 6 years younger. If the sum of their ages is
24 years, fmd their ages.
4. Engiwe is 4 years older than her sister Jane. If Jane is x years old;
(a) write down Engiwe's age in terms of x
(b) find their ages if the sum of their ages is 20 years.
110
5. The difference between two numbers is 12. If the smaller number is x,
(a) write down the larger number in terms of x
(b) fmd the value of x if their sum is 54
(c) find the product of the numbers
6. In a shop, an exercise book costs K700 more than a pen. Given that an exercise book costs x
Kwacha and a pupil bought 6 exercise books and 2 pens and paid K7 400, fmd
(a) the cost of a pen in terms of x
(b) the cost of an exercise book and a pen.
7. The sum of two numbers is 36. If the smaller number is x,

(a) write down the value of the larger number in terms of x
(b) fInd the value of x ifthe larger number is twice the smaller number.
8. The sum of three consecutive odd numbers is 21, if the smallest of the three numbers is x
(a) find, in order of size, the next two numbers
(b) form an equation in x and solve itand hence
(c) write down the numerical value of the largest of the three numbers.
9. x Kwach is shared equally among 10 girls so that each one receives K~.
10
If the number of girls was increased by 2
(a) find, in terms of x, how much each girl would receive
(b) form an equation in x given that each girl received KI2 000 more in the first
case than if the number of girls was increased by 2.
(c) solve the equation in (b) for x
10. When the temperature in town A is yQ C, the temperature in town B is3 QC higher,
(a) write down an expression in y for the temperature in town B
(b) if the sum of these temperatures is 21, find the value of y and henc~
(c) the temperature in town in town B.
11. (a) A hotel has a fIxed charge of K50 000 per head and charges Kx per person for a night's
stay. On one occasion 10 people booked for four nights, find their total bill in terms of x.
(b) If the 10 spent three more nights at the hotel, their total bill would be K3 750 000 more,
fmd the value of x.
(c) Hence fmd the bill.for 12 people who spent 5 nights at the hotel.
• 12. A wire of length 72cm is cut into two parts. One part is bent to form a circle and the
other a square of side xcm. Given tha,t there is no overlap and the side of the square is
equal to the radius of the circle;
(a) fmd, in terms of x and/orn . (i) the length of wire used to make !hesquare.
(ii) the length of wire used to make the circle.
(b) By considering your results in (a) (i) and (ii) and takingn = ~2, form an equation
in x and solve it.
· d the ratio
. area of circle
(c) F m
area of square
111
LINEAR INEQUALITIES
The definition of inequality and the associated symbols have already been discussed in
chapter I page 5.
ules for inequalities

1. Adding or subtracting the same number from both sides of an inequality does not
ecessitate reversal of symbol. The following examples illustrate this.
(i) 5 >-2
5 + 4 >- 2 + 4 (adding 4 to both sides)
9>2true
Note that the inequality still holds true after the same number is added to both sides of the
inequality.
(ii) -4<-2
-4-5<-2-5
-9 <-7
Note that the inequality still holds true after the same number is subtracted from both sides
of the inequality.
_ Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a positive number does not

necessitate reversal of symbol. The following examples illustrate this.
(i) 5 > 2
5x3>2x3
15> 6
ote that the inequality still holds true after multiplying both sides ofthe inequality by the
same positive number
(ii) - 6 <-3
-6 13 <-3 13
-2 <-1
ote that the inequality still holds true after dividing both sides of the inequality by the
same positive number
. Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a negative number necessitates

reversal of symbol. The following examples illustrate this.
(i) - 4 <-2
-4x-3 <-2x-3
12 < 6 False, so a reversal of symbol is necessary
Thus 12> 6
(ri) 15 >6
15 1-3> 6 1 -3
-5> -2 False, so a reversal of symbol is necessary.
Thus-5 <-2
olvinl! an inequality
Unlike a linear equation 'which has a unique solution, a linear inequality usually has a large
number of solutions. For this reason the solution to an inequality is given as arange or set.
Thus, a linear inequality is solved if the set of values of tie unknown quantity which satisfies
the inequality is defined or found.
112
Example 1 Solve the inequality 3x + 5 > 2
Solution: 3x + 5 > 2
3x + 5 - 5 > 2 - 5 (subtracting 5 from bothsides of the inequality)
3x >-3
3x > - 3 (dividing both sides of the inequality by 3)
3 3
:,x >- 1
So x is satisfied by all numbers greater than-I eg - 0.5, - 0.1,0,1.2 and so on
Example 2: Solve the inequality 4x- 2 < 3x + 2

Solution: 4x - 2 < 3x + 2
4x - 2 + 2 < 3x + 2 + 2 (adding 2 to both sides) ~ Step I
4x < 3x + 4
4x - 3x < 3x- 3x + 4 (subtracting 3x from both sides) ~ Step 2
:. x <4
Note: To avoid multiplicity, steps I and 2 are done at once or in a much simpler
case, the like terms are collected by posting them to one side of the
inequality. The following example illustrates this.
Example 3: Solve the inequality 4x - 5 ,;;; 6x + 3

Solution: 4x - 5 ,;;; 6x + 3
4x - 6x ';;;3 + 5 (collecting like terms)
-2x';;; 8
-2x 8
--<-=-
-2 -2
.'. x ~ 4 (Reversal of symbol is necessary upon dividing both sides by a
negative sign)
Example 4 Solve the inequality -2 < 2x + 6 ,;;; 4 and illustrate the solutions on a number line.
Solution: There are two inequafities here- 2 < 2x + 6 and 2x + 6 ,;;; 4. We solve these
inequalities separately as (i) and (ii) and combine the results.
(i) -2 < 2x + 6 (ii) 2x + 6 ,;;; 4
- 8 < 2x 2x ,;;; -2
-' 4<x x~1
-----i ' ?
-s -4 -3
I
-2 -1 0
• Solution set for inequality (i)
I Solution set for inequality (ii)

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-~
J I
-I'
-5
1
-3 -2 -1 0
lit ~ Combined solution
Therefore the solution to the inequality is- 4 < x ~ 1 where both inequlities are true
113
Exercise 13d
Solve the following inequalities
1. 2x > 6 2. 3x < 12 3. -2x:;" 10 4. 15> 3x
5. 12 :;,,-2x 6. -5x < -20 7.-t x >2 8. -%x :;" 3
9.4x+I>5 10.3x-2<7 11. 5x - 25 :;" 0 12. 2x + I < 9
13.5x-8>-8 14. 15-5x<0 15.-3> 9 -4x 16. 2y + 3 < Y - 5
17.3-2x<6-x 18.4-3y<5y-12 19. x - 3 :;" 2 - 6x 20. +y-3>%
Solve the following inequalities and illustrate the results on the number line
21.2<x+3<8 22.0<x-3< 2 23.-6<2x+2<-4 24.-6<3x+6<-3
If x E. Z+ state the set of values of x such that

25. \ < x. < <\ 26. \) < x < ':) 1'J. <\ ,,;;, x";;' 1
14.-IORMJJLAE
A formula tells us how two or more quantities are related. For example, y = x + p tells us
that y is the sum of two quantities; x and p. If I am 10 years older than my brother who is
15, then I am (15 + 10) = 25 years old. This relationship between my age and my brother's is .
only valid for a year because the next year my brother will be 16 and I will be (16 + 10) = 26
years old.
To establish a general relationship (formula) between my age and my brother's, we let my age
be y and my brother's be x, say. My age in any year is then given by y = x + 10. Thus, to find
my age in any year, we replace x by my brothers age in that year so that if my brother is 20
then I am (20 + 10) years old and if my brother is 25 the I am (25 + 10) years old and so on.
Constructing fonnulae
Example 1: Sarah has x exercise books. If she buys y more exercise books, how many exer
b oaks does she have altogether?
Solution: Let the total number of exercise books she has be n

:.n=x+y
Therefore she has Cx + v) exercise books altogether
Example 2: An electricity bill consists of a fixed charge $f (f dollars) and an additional $g

for every unit used. Find the total bill for
(i) a household which llsed y units
(ii) a household which llsed 2x units
Solution: (i) Let the total bill be T

Total bill = fixed charge + unit charge x number of units used
:. T=f+ gx y
T= f + gy
Ihe tQtalbill is therefore $(f +gy)
(ii) Let the total bill in this case be B

Total bill = fixed charge + unit charge x number of units used
:.B = f + gx 2x
= f+ 2gx
The tQtaLbilLis. therefore.1(f + 2gJ0,
Example 3. A city has a total population N. If the average birth rate is x babies per year and
the average death rate is y people per year, find the population ofthe city after n y
Solution: Let the total population after n years be P

Number' of babies born after n years = nx
Number of deaths after n years = ny
After n years the population has increased by nx and reduced by ny
Total population after n years = N + number of births- number of deaths
:.P = N + nx- ny
= N + n(x- y)
TotallNv-ulatiQll afte r n ye 's thITliliJr.eu :t n(x- Xl
115
ercise 14a
. A boy buys 7 pencils at x Kwacha each and 6 pens at y Kwacha each, find
Ca) how much he pays for the pencils
(b) how much he pays for the pens
Cc) how much change, C she expects from n Kwacha.
_ A man buys x boxes of matcbes containing m sticks each and y boxes containing n sticks
each. Find
Ca) the number N of boxes of matches he has altogether
Cb) how many match sticks S he has altogether.
Cc) the cost C per box if he paid K4 000 for the boxes <f matches
The bus fare between two towns is x Kwacha per adult and y Kwacha per child. Find
Ca) the total charge C for A adults and B children
(b) the total charge C for 10 adults and 12 children
Cc) in terms of JI, the number <f adults who traveled between the two towns when a total
of K400 000 was collected from the adults.
- A certain cultured bacteria bears an average of x off springs per day and an average of y
bacteria die each day. If there are N bacteria initially, fmd
Ca) the number B of bacteria born in n days
(b) the number D of dead bacteria after n days
Cc) the number P of bacteria after n days
:. y litres of water per minute are pumped out of a dam containing V litres. Find the
formula for
Ca) Q, the quantity in litres of water pumped out of the dam in 30 minutes
(b) Q, the quantity in litres of water pumped out of the dam in I hour
Cc) ,the number of litres remaining in the dam after 24 hours.
A shelf of lengthl, contains x identical books when full: fmd

Ca) the thickness T of each book in terms of x andl
Cb) how many books twice the thickness can be placed on the shelfin terms of x
Cc) the number of books _1_ the length of the shelfthick can be placed on the shelf.
20
-. The diagram shows a rectangle of lengtht and breadth ct - x) from which two semi circular
portions hav.e been removed. Find the formula for
•• Ca) the radius r of the semi circular ends in terms oft and x
:t-x Cb) the area Al of the semi circles in terms ofu , x andt
,,,
, Cc) the area A 2 of the shaded region in terms of7f, x andt .
I
t
. The average age of n boys isQ and the average age of x girls is R, fmd
Ca) the sum SI of the ages ofthe n boys
Cb) the sum ~ of the ages of the x girls
Cc) the average age A of the whole group.
116
Transposing formulae
The relationship between my young brother's and mine is given by y = x + 10,

where x is my brother's age and y is my age When my brother was 10 years old i.e.
x = 10, I was 20 (y = 10 + 10 ). Now, how old was brother when I was 217 This requires
that we fmd x when y = 27, we therefore proceed as follows
y=x+1O
or x + 10 = Y
:.x+IO=27
:.x=27-1O
:.x = 17
Th~n;fQIe when I wa 27. my-brother .Wl\U 7.
The process of isolating the unknown quantity from the known or isolating a quantity from
other quantities of a different kind is known as transposition of formulae.
Examplel. If Y = x + 3, find x in terms of y

Solution: y=x+3
orx+3=y
.:.x = -
Example 2: If y = 3x - S express x in terms of y

Solution: y = 3x- S
3x -S = y'
:.3x=y+S
. Y+S
.. x = - -
3
Example 3: If'; = u2 + 2as fmd s in terms of a, u and v

Solution: v2 = u2 + 2as
2
u +13s=';
2
2as = v2 - u
v2 -u 2
:.s=---
2a
Example 4: From the formula V =1fr2 h, fmd.r in terms ofV,1f and h. Hence fmd r if
22
V = 6160, 1f = - and h = 10.
7
Solution: V = m h
2
m h=V
2
r=~:h
22'
• 2 V If V= 6160,1f = - and h= 10 then
··r = - 7
TTh
6160
:.r=~ r=
22 xlO
.. - 4
7
117
Example 5: If ..1.- = ..1.- +!, express v in terms of f and r. Hence find v if f = 20 and r = 16.
f r v
. I I I
oInhon: - = -+-
f r v
I v+r
=
f vr
".vr = vf + fr (by cross multiplication)
".vr-vf= fr
vCr - f) = fr
. fr
.. v = - -
r-f
Iff= 20 and r = 16 then

. 20x 16
.. v = - - -
16 -20
.:.v=-=-8Q
Example 6: The formula for determining the time period T (seconds) of a simple pendulum of
length e (metres) is T = 2rr Jf'express e in terms of rr, T and g. Hence find the
22
le ngth of the pendulum with T = 1.10. Take rr = - and g = 10.
7
olution: T = 2rr Jf
2rr Jf ~T
fgre ~ ~
2rr
(by dividing both sides of the equaton by 2rr)
~ = (~)2 (by squaring both sides)

g 2rr
IfT = LlO then

e= lOl!:>-:-1
1';; \2
, - I
= 0.3
Therefoc heJengtb QLtheJ>endulum is O.3m
Exercise 14b
Make the indicated letter the subject of the formula
1. y = 2x + 4 : x 2 . Y= fiX + c: x 3. C = 2rrr: r 4 . v = u + at: a
118
5. A = 6e 2: e 6. ~ = u2 + 2as: a
9. S = 2mh + rrr2: h 10. a2 + b2 = c2 : a 11. S = 180(n- 2): n 12. E= mgh: m
4 1
13. E = J:. mv 2 : v 14. r = PRT : R 15. V = -TTI"': r 16. V = _nr 2 h: h
2 100 3 3
~
x+2 x+3
17.y= - - : x 18. y = :x 19. m =\:2s.-3, X 20. W=:I~: r
x-I 2x+3 .....}~-:'
1
21. c =,,: ,,2 - be ; b 22. P = ~: + b : r 23 S = ut + -ae: t 24. S = 2mh + rrr2 : r
2
x+5
25. If y = - - , fmd 26. rfP = n+5 , fmd
x-2 2n -2
(a) y when x = 4 (a) P when n = 2
(b) x in terms of y (b) n in terms of p
(c)xwheny=2 (c) n when p = 1/4
27. The formula for the sum of the fIrst n terms of a certain series is given by
1
S = -n(n+1),
2
(a) fmd S when n = 10
(b) fmd S when n = 49
(c) fInd the value of n when S = 4n
28. The formula for the sum S of interior angles of a polygon with n sides is given by
S = 180(n - 2), fmd
(a) S when n = 3
(b) S when n = 8
(c) n when S = 1 800
29. The formula for fmding the total resistance R of resistors connected in parallel is
1 1 1
-=-+-,fmd
R r, r2
(a) R in terms oh and r2
(b) R when rl = 2 and r2 = 4
(c) R in terms ofr2 whenrl ~ 2r2
n
30. If s = a(r -1) ,fmd:
r -1
(a) s if a = 2, r = 3 and n = 2
(b) a if s = 32, r = 3 and n = 2
(c) n ifs = 80, a =2 andr = 3.
119
15. SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
A single linear equation with two unknowns, e.g. x + y = 4 has no defmite number of solutions
ie. there are several combinations of x and y which together satisfy the equation. These
combinations include (x = 2, Y= 2), (x = 3, Y= I), (x = +, y = 3+ ), (x =2+, y = I~). All these
and several other appropriate combinations give a sum of 4.
If, however another equation in x and y say x- y = 2 is given, we can fmd a value of x and a
value of y which together satisfy the two equations. The pair of equations is known as
imultaneous equations.
In this chapter we shall consider three methods of solving simultaneous equations., namely
elimination method, substitution method and the use offonnulae
1. Elimination method
By this method we systematically eliminate one of the unknowns x or y in order to fmd the
...alue of one of them. Once thevalue of one of the unknowns has been found, the other is found
by substituting this known value in anyone of the given equations.
Example 1: Solve the simultaneous equations

2x-y = 3
3x + y= 7
Solution: Notice that if the equations are added together, y is eliminated and thus we solve
the resulting equation for x.
2x - y = 3
+ 3x + y= 7
5x+0=10
. 10
.. X = -
5
:.x = 2
To fmd the value of y we substitute the value of x in one of the equations, say
2x-y = 3
:.2·2-y=3
:.4-y=3
:. y = I
=
Therefore th cllltio!"LNJhe.Mllm!t<\neol!s eqll_ations aIe x 2, Y= 1
Example 2: Solve the simultaneous equations

2x+4y=4.-1
3x+5y=5 - 2 .
Solution: We make the coefficients of x equal by multiplying equation 1 by 3 and
equation 2 by 2 and subtract equation 2 from equation 1. Thus
I
~x + 4y =4 x 3-=--
3x + 5y = 5 x z,.
6x+ 12y.= 12
- (6x+ 10y= 10)
o + 2y= 2
:.y = 1
If y = 1 then 2x + 4· I = 4 => x = 0
Therefore the sollltiQ!l...1QJhe.-£imultaneous Wl!ations are x = O. Y= I
120
2. Substitution method
Solving simultaneous equations by this method involves making one of the unknown
quantities the subject of the other in one equation, then substituting the results in the other
equation. The equation is then solved for one of the unknown quantities.
Example 1 Solve the simultaneous equations

x+y=1 _ _ 1
x-y=5 _ _ 2
Solution: From equation 1, y = I-x. Substituting this result in equation 2 we get
x - (1- x) =5
x-l+x=5
2x= 6
:.x = 3
Putting x = 3 in the transposed equation we get
y = 1- 3
:.y =- 2
The solm!9n to the equatilln£js..thcrefol:c_x = 3 = - 2
Example 2: Solve for x and y:

3x-4y=24 - - 1
5x+3y= 11 _ _2
Solution: From equation 1, x = 24+ 4y . Substituting this result inequation 2 we get
3
5(24;4 Y )+3 Y =11
5(24 + 4y) + 9y = 33 (by multiplying throughout by 3)

120+20y+9y=33
29y = 33 - 120
29y=- 87
:.y -- 3
. y =-3'm the equatIOn
puttmg . x = 24+ 4y , we get
3
24 + 4x (-3)
X=
3
:.x -4
Th~olutiO.nJQJhee uation£ iUherdore X = 4 =-3
3. Use of fonnulae
Consider equations of the form ax + by = c _ 1
dx+ey=f _ 2
Multiplying equation 1 by d and equation 2 by a we get adx + bdy = c d _ 3
adx + aey = af _ 4
Subtracting equation 4 from equation 3 we get bdy - aey = cd - af
:. y(bd-ae)=cd-af
cd -af
:.y
bd-ae
121
Substituting this result in equation I we get
bf -ce
x=---
bd-ae
So the formulae for solving simultaneous equations are

bf -ce cd-af
x= md y=-----
bd-ae bd-ae
Notice that the denominators are the same
Example .Solve the simultaneous equations: 3x - 2y = 13 ~ I

2x+y=4 - 2
Solution: Comparing the given equations with the general equations ax + by = c
dx + ey= f
we note that a = 3, b =- 2, c = 13
d=2,e=l, f=4
substituting these values in the formula for x ie
bf -ce
x= we get
bd-ae
-2x4-13xl Note this pattern for the value of x
x =----------- Denominator Numerator
-2 x 2-3 x I
-10-13 a><><-c=13
= -4-3 d = 2, e = I, f= 4
=3
If x = 3, then 3 x3 - 2y = 13 ~ y =-2 (by substituting x = 3 in equation I)
Th~utiQ!l to the egy!!1ionus th!;;(efork.X-=.J =-Z-
Exercise 15a
olve the following simultaneous equations by the elimination method
1.x-y=1 2.3x+2y=9 3.2x+3y=1 4. 4x+ y = 5
x+ y= 3 x + 2y = 3 2x- 3y =-1 2x + y= I
5.3a+4b=-1 6. 2rh+ 3n = 2 7. x + 5y = 11 8. 2p- 3q = 9

2a- 3b =5 3m-4n=-14 3x- 2y =-1 p-2q = 5
9. 4x + 3y=-3 10. 2t = 3- r 11. a =3 + b 12. 2y- 2x = t

3x-y = 14 4t- 3 = r 4a + 3b =-2 y+3x=l+
Solve the following simultaneous equations by the substitution method

13. x = y + 1 14 . x = y + 6 15 . 4r - t = 5 16. m=-t
2x+y=7 2x+y=3 t=r-2 2m+ 3n= I
17. P + n = 7 18. 3x + 2y = I 19. P + 2t = 8 20. 2f-3g = 28

P+2n=-1 2x- y= 3 2p+ 3t=-5 f+ 2g = 7
122
21.Sx-3y=16 22.2x-y=7 23.2x-y-9=0 24. 3x + 2y = 14
2x+3y=-2 Sx + 2y=-1O x + 2y+ 3 = 0 2x- 3y=S
Use the formulae to solve the following

2S.2x+y=4 26.x-2y=3 27. Sx + 3y = 11 28. x- 2y = 4
x + 3y = 7 x + Y= 3 3x- y= 1 3x- 4y= 6
29. 2s + St = 14 30.g +3h=-4 31. -;(-x+ty=3 32.1t a + b =7

3s - 2t = 2 2g - 3h= 19 x+y=8 2a+ 3b = 1
Problems leading to simultaneous equations
Example 1 The sum of two numbers is 23 and the difference between them is 3, fmd the
numbers
Solution: Let the numbers be x and y where x is greater than y

:.x + y = 23 (sum)
x- y=3 (difference)
Solving these equations simultaneously gives x = 13, Y = 10
Th~ore th\Ulum..b.mJJ(u3Jnd.lD
Example 2. If 3 pens and 4 pencils cost K6 500 and 4 pens and 2 pencils cost K7 000, fmd
(i) the cost of a pen and a pencil
(ii) the cost of 6 pens and 8 pencils
Solution: (i) Let the cost of a pen be x Kwacha and the cost of a pencil be y Kwacha
:.3x + 4y = 6 500
4x + 2y =7 000
Solving these equations simultaneously gives x = 1 500 and y = 500
Therefore a pen cos~KL5QlLa!ld aJleIlgl costs KSOJ1.
(ii) Cost of 6 pens = 6 . Kl 500 = K9 000

Cost of 8 pencils = 8 . KSOO - K4 QQQ
Total cost = K13 000
J'h~fure the CQsu.L6 penumd 8 pencilsJS-Kl.3-.OOQ
Exercise ISb
1. The sum of two nu mbers is 17 and their difference is 5, fInd the numbers.
2. The sum of two numbers is 45 and he difference between them is 23, fmd the numbers.
3. If x + Y= 24 and y = 2x fmd the values of x and y.
4. The sum of two numbers x and y is 63 where y isgreater than x. Given one number is
double the other form two equations in x and y and solve them.
S. A straight line has equation y = mx + c. Given that when x = 2, Y= 1 and that when x = ;;
y = 1Q, fmd the values of ID and c and write down the equation of the line.
123
6. The law of a certain machine is E = ax + b. Given that E =30 when x =4 and that E =45
when x = 7, fmd the values of the constants a andb
7. The perimeter of a rectangle is 28cm. If the width is 4cm less than the length, find the
dimensions of the rectangle.
8. A curve has equation y = ax2 + bx- 5, given that the curve passes through (-1,0), and
(2,3), fmd
(i) the values of the constants a and b.
(ii) the value of y when x = I
9. If31emons and 5 oranges cost K8 400 and 5 lemons and 3 oranges cost K7 600, Let a
lemon cost x Kwacha and an orange cost y kwacha. Form two equations in x and y and
solve them simultaneously to find
(a) the cost of 1 lemon and the cost ofI orange
(b) the total cost of 4 lemons and 4 oranges.
10. 1 pen and 3 pencils cost K4 380 and 3 pens and 2 pencils cost K6 700. Let a pen cost x
Kwacha and a pencil cost y kwacha. Form two equations in x and yand solve them
simultaneously to fmd
(a) the cost of a pen and a pencil
(b) the cost of 4 pens and 6 pencils.
11. Jane is 6 years older than Jean. At the moment the sum of their ages is 36 years. Let
Jane's age be x and Jean's age be y. Form two equations in x and yand solve them
simultaneously to fmd
(a) the ages of the two people
(b) the sum of their ages 12 years from now
12. If the cost of electricity is given by the equation C = b + ax where

C is the cost ofelectricity
x is the number of units used
a is the charge per unit and
b is the fixed charge.
Given that when 200 units are used the cost is K29 000 and when 450 units are used
the cost is K34 000, find
(a) the values ofthe constants a and b
(b) the cost of 320 units of electricity.
124
16. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
These are equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c areconstants and a *0.
x is the unknown quantity and solving a quadratic equation involves finding the values of
x which satisfy the equation. The values which satisfy the equation are known as the roots
Three methods of solving a quadratic equation will be discussed here, these arefactorization
method, completing the square and use of the quadratic formula
1 Method of factors
This method uses the fact that the product of two numbers A and B is 0 if A= 0 or B = 0 or
both A and B are equal to O. From this consideration, the possible values of the unknown
quantity are determined.
Example 1. Solve the equations (i) x(x + 2) = 0 (ii) (l<- 3)(x - 2) = 0

Solution: The equations are already in the factorized form. We consider that A x B = 0 if
A = 0 or B = 0 or A = B = 0
AXB
(i)--x(x +2Y~ 0
:::} x = 0 or x+ 2 = 0
".x =-2.
TheJQlliS-QLthe.J~quatio!lJll"~
Qg -2
A x B
(ii) (x-"=-'3)(x-::'-2) = 0
.. oX - 3 = 0 or x- 2 = 0
"ox = 3 or x = 2
The~Ql\!tiQfiS-!9jhe equation gre-therefOIe-x = 3 or x..=.. 2
Example 2. Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 7x + 12 = 0

Solution: We frrstfactorize the expression x2 + 7x + 12 by forming a product and a urn as
discussed in chapter 11. In this case we fmd two numbers with product 12and sum7
x2 +7x + 12 = 0 P = 12, S = 7, the numbers aretherefore 3 and 4

2
".x +3x+4x+ 12=0 (Note that 7x is split into 3x + 4x)
...x(x + 3) + 4(x + 3) = 0
".(x + 3)(x + 4) = 0
"0 x+3=Oorx+4=0
"oX =-3 or x =-4
The sQ!ytioIlUQJhe eqlliIJiO!1_are th~efo~- r x =-:4
Example 30 Solve the equation 2x2 - 5x - 3 = 0
Solution: Here, product = 2 x (-3) = 6 and sum= -5, the numbers with product -6 and sum-5
are -6 and 1
"0 2 x2_ 5x - 3 = 0
:::}2x2 - 6x + x- 3 = 0
"02x(x - 3) + l(x- 3) = 0
.. o(x - 3)(2x + I) = 0
"ox - 3 or x --1/2
The roots of the~tion are 3 Qr-IL2...
125
Constructing a quadratic equation.
Suppose that a quadratic equation in x has roots 0 and 13 therefore
:.x = 0 or x =13
:. x - 0 = 0 or x - 13 = 0
:. (x - 0)( x -(3) = 0
.' .x(x -(3) - o( x - (3) = 0
:. x2 - f3x - ox + 0 13 = 0
2
.'. x ( a + Bh + 0 B - Q This is the quadratic equation with roots 0 and 13.
It follows from the above that any quadratic equation can be expressed in the form;
2
x - (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
Example: Find a quadratic equation in x with roots 2 and 3

2
Solution: x - (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
:.x2 _(2 + 3)x+ 2x 3 =0
:.x2-5x + 6 =0
Therefore the illLadratic eguatiill!..Yl'.ith root s 2 and 3 is x2 5x + 6 - 0
Exercise 16a
Solve the following quadratic equations
l.x(x-4)=0 2.x(2x+3)=0 3. Y (2- y) = 0 4. (x + 2)(x - 5) = 0
5. (x - 2)(x - 2) = 0 6. (2 - 3x)(3 + x) = 0 2 2
7. x + 3x + 2 = 0 8. x + 6x + 8 = 0
9.y2_ 4y+3=0 10.x2 +x-2=0 11. x2 - X - 6 = 0 12. p2 + P - 6 = 0
13. x + 2x - 24 = 0 14 . m 2- m - 30 = 0
2 2
15. 2p2 + 5p + 2 = 0 16. 2x - 11 x + 5 = 0
17. 3y_ 8y + 5 = 0 18. 3y- 5y + 2 = 0 19. 2x2 + x-IS = 0 2
20. 6n - 11n + 3 = 0
. 2
21. 2 - x - x2 =0 22.2 9 - 3x - 2x = 0 23. 30 - x - X 2 = 0 24.4+ x- 5x = 0
2
25. x - 1= 0 26. x 2 - 16 = 0 27. 4x2 _ 9 = 0 28.1- 4x = 0
2
30. 6(x 2 - 1) = 5x 2
29. (x - 3)2 = 4 31. x - 3x = 28 32. x(x + 2) = 15
Find quadratic equations in x with the following as the roots

33. 1 and 2 34 2 and 3 35. - 2 and 3 36. 2 and-5
37. -3 and-3 38. t
and 1 39. t and t 40. It and -t
2. Method of completing the square.
The method of completing the square of an expression has been discussed in chapter 10.
Example 1 Solve the quadratic equation x2-; 2x - 15 = 0 by completing the square.

SOlution: x 2 - 2x - 15 = 0
:. x2 - 2x = 15
2
:.x _ 2x + (_1)2 = 15 + (-li (by adding half the squared coefficient of x
:. (x - l i = 16 . on both sides)
:.x-l=±.Ji6
:. x = 1 ±4
:. x = 1 + 4 or 1- 4
:.x=5or-3
126
Example 2. Solve the equation 2x2 + 7x + 3 = 0 by the method of completing the square
Solution: We fIrst divide every term by 2 to make the coefficient of the ,( term unity.
2x2 + 7x +3 = 0
• 2 7 3
..x + -x = - -
:r
2 2
2
:.x ~x+( ~r ~ +( = -
(by adding half the squared coefficient of x
on both sides)
:.(x+~J =-%+;:
x1:r ~:
:.x+: =±~~~
:.x=-:-±~. ::}x=-1.-2.or-1.+2.
"=' "l" 4 4 4 4
:.x --3 or -112
3. The quadratic formii1a

The quadratic formula is used to solve quadratic equations where the factors cannot easily be-
found and in cases where it is not possible to factorize the expression. This formula is derived
by the method of completing the square of the general quadratic equation ax2 + bx + C = O.
ax 2 +bx+c=O
.'. X 2 +bx= -~ (by dividing the equation throughout by a)
a a
2
:.x +:x+(;J =-~+(;J
x+~;J = -~ + -;-:-2
x+(;J b 2 -4ac
4a 2
::x+~=±~b2 -4ac
2a 4a 2,
. b ..j'b;;-2--4-a-c
.. x = - - ± - - - -
2a 2a
2
, . - b ± .Jb - 4ac
, .x =---'-----
2a
The formula for solving any equation of the form ax 2 + bx + C = 0 is
, -b±.Jb2 -4ac
.. x =---'-----
2a
127
Example 1: Solve the equation x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.
Solution: We compare the given equation with the general equation ax2 + bx + C = 0
and note that a = I, b = 5 and c = 2
-b±.Jb 2 -4ac
.x=------
2a
Putting a = I, b = 5 and c = 2 in the formula we get
-5±.J52 -4x I x2
x= .
2xl
-5± JU
=
2
-5±4.123
=
2
-5+4.123 -5-4.123
= ----or----
2 2
:. x = -D.44 or -4.56 correct to 2 decimal plqce~
Example 2: Solve the equation 3x2 - 5x + I = 0 by using the formula
Solution: Comparing 3x2 - 5x + I = 0 with ai + bx + C = 0 we note that a = 3, b = - 5, c = I

. -b±.Jb2 -4ac
.·x=------
2a
_ - (-5) ± .J'(_-5---O)2;-_-4-X-3-X-I
2x 3
=
5± -J13
6
5+3.606 5-3.606
= or---
6 6
.'.x = 1.43---oLD.23 correct to 2 decimalpl~
Exercise 16b
Solve the following equations by completing the square
l.x2 +7x+IO=0 2. x2 -3x-IO=0 3. x2 +x-2=O 4. x2 -x-12=0
2
5. 2a + a - 6 = 0 6.31 - 4y - i5 = 0 7. 2x2 - X - 3 = 0 8. 3p2 + 2p - 5 = 0
Solve the following byformula . Where necessary give your answers correct to 2 d. p.
9. x2 + X - 6 = 0 10. x2 + X - 30 = 0 11. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 12. 1- y- 6 = 0
13. 2t 2 2 2
+ IIp + 5 = 0 14. 2x + 6x + 3 = 0 15. 3x - 7x - I = 0 16. 2m + m- 5 = 0
17.x +x-5=0 18. a2 -a-3=0 19. 21+4y-5=0 20.4v2 -2v-l=0
2
21. 2x - x - 4 =: 0 2
22. x + 5x + 2 = 0 23. f + f - 3 = 0 24. 2b2 + 8b + 5 = 0
25. 2h2 - 13h + 12 = 0 26. 3r + 6r + 1 = 0 27.7 + 2x - 3x2 = 0 28. 12 + 15m - 2m2 = 0
2 2
29. 2x - 7x = 5 30. 17x - 8 = 4x 31. 2x 2 = 13(x - 1) 32. 10 - x2 = X
128
Problems leading to quadratic equatious
Example 1: The sum of two numbers is 17 and their product is 72, fmd the numbers.
Solution: Let the numbers be x and y, therefore
x+y=17_1
xy=72_2
From equation 1, Y= 17 - x. Substituting this result in 2 we get
x(l7 - x) = 72
17x-x2 =72
?
x- - 17x + 72 = 0
(x - 8)(x - 9) = 0
.:. x = 8 or 9
If x = 8, Y = 17 - 8 = 9
Ifx=9,y=17- 9=8
The numbers ar~ t!l\;refQK] and 2
Example 2: Tbe length of a rectangle is 2cm greater than the breadth. If the area of the
rectangle is 48cm 2, find its dimensions.
Solution: If the length of the rectangle is x therthe breadth is x - 2
Area = length . breadth
:.48 = x(x- 2)
2
: . x - 2x - 48 = 0
:. (x - 8)(x + 6) = 0
:.x = 8 or- 6
. The j(;ngtlLof the re1;ta,!I-J1;le is 8~m and the breadth is - 2 =~crn~
Note: the result x = - 6 is neglected since the length of a real object cannot be negative.
Exercise 16c
I. Solve the following simultaneous equations
(a)x+y=8 (b)x+y=9 (c)x 2 +J'"=61 (d)x 2_y=16
xy = 15 xy = 20 x + Y= 11 y - x = 4
2. The difference between two numbers is 8 and their product is 20. Find the numbers
3. The difference between two numbers is 5 and the sum of their squares is 73. Find the
numbers
4. The sum of two numbers is 16 and the difference between their squares is 32. Find the
numbers.
5. The product oftwo consecutive numbers is 72. By forming a suitable equation and solving
it, fInd the numbers.
6. In a right angled triangle, the lengths of the two non hypotenuse sidesiffer by 2. If the
area of the triangle is 24cm2 , fmd the lengths of these sides.
7. A curve has equation y = x2 - 2x - 15, fmd the values of x for which y = 0
129
8. The product of two consecutive even numbers is 168. By forming an equation and solving it,
find the two numbers
9. The length of a rectangle is 7cm greater than the breadth. lithe area of the rectangle is
60cm 2, find its dimensions.
10. The perimeter of a rectangle is 26cm and the area is 42cm2 Let the length be x and the
breadth be y. Form two equations in x and y and solve themHence state the dimensions
of the rectangle.
11. The diagram shows a rectangular cardboard of length 16cm and breadth xcm from which
16c a circular portion of diameter xcm has been removed.
If the area of the remainder, shown shaded in the
diagram, is 7<km2 , find the possible values of x.
xcm
22
Take TT=-.
7
12 ABDE is a trapezium of area 54cm2 . Form an equation in x and show that it reduces
to x2 + 4x- 32 = O. Solve this equation and hence state the lengths of AB and BD.
A,--,-------.-..E
(x+2)cm
(x+3)cm D
guations reducible to quadratics
ample 1: Solve the equation _x_ = _2_

x + I 3x + I
x 2
lution:
x + I 3x + I
:.x(3XfI) = 2(x+ I) (by cross multiplication)
:.3x +x=2x+2
2
:.3x-x-2=0
t
SolvinJUhis eguation gives x = lor - as the solutions
. I· I I
Examp12S1
e : 0 ve t he equation - - - - - = -
x+1 x+3 4
Solution: We first express -._1 1_ as a single fraction (see chapter 5 page 40)
x+1 x+3
2 I
(x + I)(x + 3) 4
...x2 + 4x + 3 = 8 (by cross multiplying and expanding)
:.x2 + 4x- 5 = 0
Solving thi~guation gLves_x = UlCX = -5 aUhe sQllltions.
130
Example 3: The sum of the ages of a group of boys is 150 years. When two boys
each aged 23 leave the group the average age drops by 2 years. Find the
possible values of the average age ofthe remaining boys.
Solution: Let the number of boys in the group be x

.. . th' . -150
elf average age IS
X
When two boys leave the group the average age of the remaining boys is 104
x -2
Note that the sum of the ages has reduced to (150 - 2 . 23) = 104
We are given that the departure of the two decreases the average age by 2 years,
:. 150 _ 104 = 2
x x-2
:. 46x-300 2
x(x -2)
:. 2xCx - 2) =46x - 300
. 2
. .x -25x + 150 = 0
Solving the above equation gives x = 10 or 15
Therefore the number of remaining boys is either 10 - 2 = 8 or 15 - 2 = 13
The average age 0 fh "
t e remmmg 'herefiore elt'h er -104104
b oys 1St or -
8 13
The average age 0 the..n:mindecQf the boc¥ is therJ;fQre 13 ~!!rs Qf 8 year
Exercise 16d
2 4
1. ~=~ 2.
x
= 3.
n
=
6
4.-.-=--
x
2 x 3x+8 x n -1 n+l x-I 2x - 5
5. ~=..1- 6 4 _ 3x 7. 7p-2 =4-p S. _n_= 3n

2x+l x 'x-I-2x+l 3p n+2 5n-4
3 6 11. _1__ ..1-=2 1 3

9. x+ -=4 10. 2m+ -=7 12. --+-=2
x m x+2 x x -2 x
1 _ 1 _ 1 1_.= ~
14. ..1- _ _ P 1 7 7 4
13. - - - - - - 15. - - + - = - 16.--+3=--
2x-1 x+l 2 n 2-n 4 p+2 P 4 x+4 x-2
17. A shelf 90cm long is full of identical books each xcm thick.
Ca) Write down an expression in terms of x for the numter of books on the shelf
(b) If the books are removed and replaced by other books lcm less in thickness, write
down another expression for the number of books on the shelf given that it is full.
Cc) If the shelf contains 15 more boo ks in Cb) than in case Ca~ form an equation in x and
show that it reduces to x2 - X - 6 = 0
Cd) Solve the above equation and hence state the number of books which were on the shelf
originally.
111
18. (a) x girls share 20 oranges equally among themselves. Write down an expression in x for
the number of oranges each girl receives.
(b) If (x ~ 5) girls share the same number" of oranges, write down an expression in x for
the number of oranges each girl receives.
(c) Ifthe number of oranges received by each girl in (b) exceeds by 2 the number of oranges
received by each girl in (a), write down an equation in x and show that it reduces to
~-5x-50=0 "
(d) Solve the above equation for x and hence state the number "of oranges received by one
girl in each case.
19. (a) An old man cycles to a place 30km away at an average speed of y km/h. Write down an
expression in y for the time taken on the trip.
(b) He returns the same way jogging at an average speed 4kmlh less than on the outward
speed. Write down anexpression in y for the time taken on this return trip.
(c) Ifthe return speed is 2 hours longer than the outward trip, find ta speed at which he
cycled.
20. (a) If the current price of COOL drink is x Kwacha per bottle, write down anexpression
in x for the number of bottles of COOL drink which can be bought for K8 000
(b) If the price were increased by K200 , write down an expression in x for the number of
bottles of COOL drink which could be bought for K8 000 at the new price.
(c) If the number of bottles which could be bought in case (b) is 2 less than the number of
bottles which can be bought in case (a), form an equation in x and show that it reduces
to x2 + 200x - 800 000 = O.
(d) Solve the equation x2 + 200x - 800000 = 0 and hence state the price of COOL drink.
21. A closed box measures (x + 2)cm by xcm by km as shown in the diagram.

(a) Given that the total surface area of the box is 52cm 2, show that
26-2x-x 2
h=----
,,, 2x+2
, bem (b) Given further thath = 3, show that the above equation reduces to
, ).. cm x 2 +8x-20= 0
/
(X + 2)cm (c) Solve the equation x 2 + 8x - 20 = 0 and hence fmd the surface
area to volume ratio of the box.
132
17. FUNCTIONS
A function or mapping is a mathematical instruction such as ' think of a number, square it
and add 5 to the result'. In this case if the number thought of is x then the result is x2 + 5 and if
the number thought of is 2 then the result is 22 + 5 = 9.
The diagram shows the result of carrying out the above instruction for numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Nurnber Resul t
x2 + 5
~
1 6
2 9
3 14
4 21
5 30
~
Notation
If the number thought of in the above instruction is x, then the mathematical expression for it
is f: x ~ x2 + 5, which means the function (instruction) f is such that x is mapped to
2
·x + 5. The notationf(x) = x2 + 5 denotes the value or result of carrying out the instruction
when the number thought of is x. ThusJ(2) denotes the value of the function if x = 2, hence
2
f(2) = 2 + 5 = 9.
Domain and range

Considerthe functionf: x ~ X + 3. Let the set of numbers {-I, O. I} be applied to
functionf. The results are as followsf(-l) =- 1 + 3 = 2, f(O) = 0 +3 = 3, f(l) = 1 + 3 = 4:
the results are therefore {2, 3, 4). The former set, {-I, O. 1), is known as thedomain set and
constitutes the values of x and the latter set {2, 3,4).is called ther ange set or image set and
it constitutes the values of the function.
Note: a function can be denoted by any letter of the alphabete.g. g, h, rn, etc
Example 1: Iff : x ~ 2x - 3 fmd, (i) f(2) (ii) f( t )

Solution: (i) f (x) = 2x- 3
:·f(2)=2 x 2-3
=4-3
=1
(ii) f ( t ) = 2x t - 3
=1-3
==2
Example 2: Iff: x ~ x2 - 4, fmd the range forthe domain {~1, 0, 1,2) and illustrate
the information graphically.
x f(x):
Solution: f (x) = x2 - 4
f(-1) = (_1)2 - 4 =-3 -1 -3
............
f(O) = 0 2_ 4 =--4 0 V --4
2
f(l) = 1 _4 =-3 l'
f(2) = 2 _ 4 = 0
2
2 0
The range for the domain {-I, 0,1,2) is {-3, --4, 0). The graphical illustration is
as shown above
133
L"OLlLlp.le 3. Iff (x) = x2 - X , fmd the domain for the range (O, 2)
"'>ilrti" on: Here we have values of f (x) , we are required to fmd the corresponding values of x
f(x) = x 2 - X .
2
:.0 = x _ X
:.0 = x(x- 1)
:.x= 0 oLl
f(x)=x 2 -x
:.2 = x2 _ x
:.x2 -x-2=0
:.(x-2)(x + 1) =0
:·x = 2 01.;,-1
The domain set is therefore (-1,~ 1, 21
mple 4: The parallel number lines below illustrates the function hex) = 2x- 3, fmd the
values of a and b
b 2 4
x- domain
--L.----~~\
-I 1
---J--\
a
h«) - nill'"
lution: Note that b belongs to the domain set, abelongs to the range set and that
h(2) = 2x 2 - 3 = I
hex) = 2x- 3
h(4)=2 x 4-3
:.a = 8 - 3 (by replacing h(4) by a since h(4) = a)
:. a= 5
hex) = LX- "3

h(b)=2 x b-3
:.-1 = 2b- 3 (by replacing h(b) by - I)
:.2=2b
.~b = !
ercise 17a
If f: x -> 2x + 3, find
(a)f(2) (b)f(-2) (c).f(3) (d).f(-3) (e)f(1 ) (f).f(-1 )
:::... Ifh :x -> 3x - 7, fmd

(a) h(O) (b) he-I) (c) h(-3) (d) h(5) (e) h(t) (f) h(-t)
,
If f (x) = 2x- x2 , find
(a) .f(l) (b) .f(2) (c) .f(-2) (d)f(-I) (e) f(3) (t) f ( 1 )
134
4. If g(z) = 1- 2z, fmd
(a) g(l) (b) g(-I) (c) g(-2) (d) g(7) (e) g(2x) (t) g(x - 1)
5. Ifj (y) = 10 - 5y, fmd the value of y for whichj (y) = 0
6. If j(x) = ax- 3 andj(3) = 3, fmd the value of a. Hence fmd

(a)j(-5) (b)j(-3)
7. If j (x) = b~- x andj (-1) = 2, fmd the value of b. Hence solve the equationj (x) = 6
8. If j(x) = ax + b andj (1) = 5 andj (-1) = 1, fmd the values of the constants a and b.
9. If j(x) = ax2 + b andj (1) = -2 and j (2) = 1 fmd the values of the constants a and b.
Hence find, (a)j(4) (b) j(-3)
10. Given thatj (x) = 2x2_ X - 3, fmd the values of x for which
(a)j(x) = 0 (b)j(x) =-3
11. Two functionsjand g are such thatfix) = 3x- 7 and g(x) = 2x- 1, find the value ofx
for whichj(x) = g(x).
x-4
12. Ifj(x) = - - , fmd the value of x for whichj(x) = 2
x+5
13. Ifj{x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x fmd the values of x for whichfix) = g(x).
14. Ifj{x) = x 2 + 4, find the range for the domain {-2, -1, O,l}
2
15. Iffix) = 2x + x, fmd the domain for the range {O, lO}
16. The parallel number lines below illustrate the function hex) = 3x- 5, find the values
ofa and b
b 5 7
x
~\ 1
-:'::---\
10
~\ a
h(,)
17. The diagram illustrates the functionj(x) = 2- x, fmd the values of a, b, c and d.
x fix)
3 -1
-1 a
-3 b
c 6
d 12
135
verse functions
a functionf is such thatf(a) = b, then the inverse function of f, denoted by f-I, is the
function for whichf-I (b) = a. The diagram below shows the relationship betweenf andf-I. I
~
f(x)
f(x) maps element a to b
j-l(X) maps element b back to a ,
Note that the range of f (x) is the domain off-lex)
rl(x)
Example 1. If f(x) = 2x- 5, fmd f-I(X), the inverse function off·

Iution: : We putf(x) = y and express x in terms of y
:. 2x-5 = y
:.2x = y+ 5
. Y+ 5
..X=--
2
~
. (-I() x+5
. • X = - - (by replacing y by x)
2 .
,
Check: f(x) = 2x- 5 :.f(3) = 2 X 3 - 5 = I
:.rl(x)= x+5 :.rl(1)=1+5 =3

2 2 ~
i
f(3)
".
Note that fmaps 3 to 1 and!-l maps 1 back to 3 ;

I
Example 2.. If! (x) = 2x + 3, find. the inverse function of f. Hence fllldj-I(l)
I :;
x+2
olution: Again we putf(x) = y and express x in terms of y
,
. 2x+3
..y =
"x+2
xy + 2y = 2x + 3 (by cross multiplication)
:.xy-2x=3-2y I
.' .x(y - 2) = 3 - 2y
. 3-2y
. . x = ----"--
y-2
3-2x
Hence rl(x) = - -
x -2
Therefore f- l (l) = 3 - 2x 1 = cl
1-2 -
136
Use of flow charts
Consider tha instruction: 'think of a number, multiply it by 2 and take away 5 from the result':
We let the number be x and present this instruction by a flow chart as follows;
Start End result
D X2~ I I 2x -~ I 2x - 5 I
If we now start from the right towards the left working in reverse, and startingwith x, then
we get the inverse function of2x- 5. We work with inverse operations, thus minus is replaced
by plus and multiplication is replaced by division.
End start
I x~ 5 t5
+l- x
I I x+5 I
We check by putting x = 4 in the result 2x +5

Start End result
D x~
I 8
I
-5
~
I
3
~
Start
+2 +; 3
~
I 8 I I
Restricting the domain
A mapping is a function if and only if every element in its domain has one and only one
relative in the range i.e. the domain and the range must have a one to one relationship.
The diagrams below show thedifference between a relation which is a function and one
which is not.
x x x
a -t-----. r a-t-------iI-
b b
c P c-t------;;.-<-~+p
d----i'----+q d q
e£..--j----+t
A function: every element of
the domain is related to only Not a function: element e
one element in the range. gives two different results
In some cases the inverse function of a function may not be a function unless its domain is
restricted or redefmed. The following example illustrates this.
2
Consider the function! : x --> x ;
FI(x) = ±.JX (one element gives two different results)
Now, one element in the domain of!-I (x) is related to two elements in the range.
E.g. 1-1(4) = ± -!4 = ± 2: the element 4 in the domain off-I(x) has two relaions in the range.
For this reasonf-I(x) is not a function. If however we restrict the domain off-I (x) to positive
real numbers: in which case/-I (x) = .JX, thenf-I(x) is a function.
137
In some cases the function may not exist or may not be defmed for certain values in the
domain. In this case, and other related cases, the function should be given with certain
preconditions. For example, the functionf (x) = _3_ is undefined for x = 1, since ~ is
x-I 0
infmite. In this case the precondition x *1 is necessary when defming the domain off. The
function hex) = ~ has no real values for the domain x < 5 since the square root of a
negative number is not real. The necessary precondition for the functionh(x) = ~ is
therefore x> 5, xE R
Example: Define the domain off in each of the following

(i)f(x) = 1 (ii)f(x) = -J3x +2
2x -3
olution: (i) f (x) = 2x1-3 : this .function does not exist for 2x - 3 =0 i.e. for x = I t so
the precondition x *It is necessary when defming the domain off·
(ii) f (x) = -J3x + 2 ; the functionf gives no real values for 3x + 2 < 0 ie x < - 3.3
Therefore x >- 3. is a necessary precondition when defining the domain off·
3
Exercise 17b
x- 4
I. Iff: x -> 3x + 4 and g : x -> - - , fmdf (1) and g (7). What can you say about the
3
functions f and g ?
_. Iff: x -> 2x + 3, find

(a)f(2) (b)f-l(x) (C)j-l (7)
~. Iff: x -> 5x - 7, find

(a)f(2) (b)f-! (x) (c)f- I (3)
_Iff : x -> 2x + 3, find

(a)!"! (x) (b)!! (3) (c)f-! (2) (d) f-!(-2)
- Iff: x-> ~, find

3
(a)fl (x) (b)f-!(- 4) (c)j-! (+) (d) fI(-l)
x- 4
6_ Iff: x-> - - , fmd
3
(a)f- ' (x) (b)f-!(-4) (c)f-! (t) (d) f-I(-l)
138
x
7. Iff: x ---> -+3, find
2
(a)f-I(x) (b)f-I (2) (c)f- I (-t) (d) 1"1(- 2)
8. f: x ---> 2x + 3 and g : x ---> 2(x - 5), frod

(a)f- I (x) (b) g-I (x) (c)f- I (2)
9. Find the inverse of each of the following functions. In each case restrict the domain
such that the inverse is a function.
4 2
(a)f:x---> 2x2 (b)f:x---> -2 (c)f:x---> (x+li-4 (cf)f:x--->x-2
x
10. Copy and complete the following flow chart for a function and its inverse
Start End result
~ x~ +t I I
Function
l--r . . I"m
11. Copy and complete the following flow chart to check the results of the function and its
inverse in question 10.
Start End result
~ x-i"~~ ----'-'+j----II'----
End start
1'--- ---.. - --- ----..·. t-----II'---_--.J
5
12.f: x ---> -- ,(x *:3)
x -3
(a) frod r
l
(x) (b) solve the equationf(x) =x + 1
x -4
13. f: x ---> --, (x '* -5),
x+5
(a) frod f -I (x) andr l (t) (b) s01ve the equationf -I (x) = 2
2 x- 4
14. f: x ---> - - 3 and g : x ---> --, solve the equationf(x) = g(x)
x 3
15. Defroe the domain off in each of the following

(i)f(x) = 1 (ii) f(x) = ·J3x + 2
2x -3
139
Composite functions
If f and g are any two functions, then the composite functions off and g are fg and gf.
Letf(x) = x + 2and g(x) = x- 3, therefore
fg(x) =f (x - 3)
= (x - 3) + 2 (by replacing x by x - 3 in the functionf )
=x-1
and gf(x) = g (x + 1)
= (x + 1) - 3 (by replacing x by x + 1 in the functioJg )
=x-2
Note:fg means do g flfstfollowed by fand gfmeans doffirst followed by g as illustrated in the
diagram below..
Thus, iffmaps a to b and g maps b

b to c then the composite function gf
maps a directly to c.
gf
Example 1. Iff(x) = 2x + 5 andg(x) = x + 2 fmd

(a)f(1) (b)g(7) (c)gf(x) (d) gf(l)
Solution: (a)f(x) = 2x + 5 (b) g(7) =7 + 2

:·f(1) = 1 =2
(c ) gf(x) = g (2x + 5) (d)gf(1)=2xl+7
= (2x + 5) + 2 =2+7
= 2 +7 =.-2.
1) g(7)
Note thatfmaps 1 to 7 and g maps
7 to 9 and the composite function
gfmaps 1 directly to 9.
gf(l)
Example 2. Iff(x) = x + 5 andg(x) = 2x + 2 fmd

(a)f(3) (b) g(8) (c) gr(x) (d) gf(3)
olution: (a)f(x)= x +5 (b) g(x) = 2x + 2

f(3) = a g (8) = 18
(c) gf(x) =g(x, + 5) (d) gf(x) =2x+ 12

= 2(x + 5) + 2 gf(3)=2 x 3+ 12
= 2x + 12 =1&
140
Example 3: If j(x) = X2 - 1 andg(x) = x + I, frodjg(x). Hence solve the equationjg(x).= 0
Solution:jg(x) = j(x + 1)
=(}.+U2 - 1
jg(x) = 0
=> (x + li - 1=0
(x + 1) 2 = I
x+l= ±.Ji
:.x =- I ± I
~:..x = 0 Qr-Z.
Exercise 17c
1..Ifj:x->2-x andg :x->x+3frod
(a)j(-l) (b) g(3) (c) gJ(x) (d)gf(-l) (e)jg(x) (f)jg (3)
2.lfj: x-> 2x +7 and g: x-> x-4 frod

(a)j(-2) (b) g(3) (c) gJ(x) (d) gf(-2) (e)jg (x) (f)jg (3)
3. Ifj: x-> 4x-9

(a)j(2) (b)j(1) (c)jf(x) (d)jf(2) (e)jf(1)
4.lfj: x-> x-3

(a)FI(x) (b)j-I(2) (C)jf-l(X) (d)jf-l(2)
2
5. j(x) = 2 - x and g(x) = X + 2, frod
(a)j(2) (b) g(-2) (c) gJ(x) (d)jg (x) (e) gJ(2) (f)jg (-2)
6. Ifj (x) = x2 - 16 and g(x) = x- 2,

(a) Show thatjg(x) = x2 - 4x - 12
(b) Solve the equationjg (x) = 0
7.j(x) = 2x + 3 andg(x) = x- I,-find

(a)j(1) (b) g(3) (c)g j(1) (d) j6<3)
8. Three mappingsJ, g and h are such thatj(x) = 2x- 3, g(x) = x + 7 andh(x) = gf (x). frod
(a) the function h(x) in its simplest form
(b) h(2) and h( 1)
(c) h(x + I)
(d) the values of x for whichh(x + I) = X2 + X
3
9. Ifflx) = and g(x) = 2 - x, fmd
ax -2
(a) the value ofa given thatj(l) = 1
(b) the values of x for which j (x) = g(x)
(c) the composite function gf(x) in its simplest form.
141
18. VARIATION
Direct variation. A quantity y is said to vary directly as another quantity x if the ratio
y to x is always constant. Ifthis is the case then y is said to be directly proportional
to x. The symbol oc denotes 'proportional to'. Thus the statement y is proportional to x
is expressed mathematically as ycxx
To fmd the equation connecting x and y, we introduce a constant of proportionality k, say.
Hence the equation connecting y and x is
2'.=k or y = kx
x
For example the area, A of a circle is directly proportional to the square of the radius r.is
expressed as
Aoc r 2
or ~ = k, where k is a constant
r
tu d les ~ any CITC

· have s h own that ,or . Ie, t h e ratIo
. 2A = TT h
were 22, approxtrnate
1f = - . Iy.
r 7
Examplel. If y varies directly as x and y = 10 when x = 2, fmd

(a ) the equation connecting y and x
(b ) the value of y ifx = 4
(c) the value of x when y = 12
Solution: (a) ycx x (b) Y = Sx
If x=4then
:.L = k, where k is a constant y= 5 . 4
x
Since y = 10 when x = 2 then :. = Q
10 (c) If Y = 12 then
-" =k=>k=S
2 12 = Sx
. 12
:. L=s .. x = -
x 5
or E Slds the equation connecting y and x J=2A
Example 2. If Y varies directly as the square of x and y = 12 when x = 2, fmd

(a) the equation connecting y and x
(b) the value of y if x = 3
(c) the values of x when y = 12
olution: (a) y cxx2 => L2 = k 2
x (c)y=3x
Y = 12 when x = 2 If Y =12 then
12 = 3x 2
:.12=k~k=3
2 . 2 12
2 .. x = -
2
Hepce y = 3x iUke-ill!afuLI!.J&Iillectmg y and x. 3
:.x =±J4
Cb) y = 3,t :. =+ 2
Ih = 3 then
y = 3. 32
=27
142
Example 3. V is directly proportional to the cube root,of t and V = 6 when t = 8, fmd
the equation linking V to t
Solution: V =Vt
... ,~. = k, k being a constant of proportionality
~t
V = 6. when t = 8, therefore
6 '
,/0 = k::::} k = 3
~8
. V 3
. ·Vt =
:. V = 3 x Vt is the required equation
~~
Exercise 18a
I. Write the following in words
(a) y =.[;. Cb) P =m3 Cc) V=Vt Cd) y =v;!
2. If Y varies directly as x and y = 6 when x =·2, fmd
Ca) the equation connecting y and x
Cb) the value of y if x = 4'
Cc) the value of x when y = 9
3. If Yvaries directly as the square of x and y = 18 when x = 3, fmd

Ca) the equation connecting y and x
(b) the value of y ifx = 1
(c) the values of x when y = 32
4. If Y varies directly as the cube root of x and y = 4 when x = 8, find

(a) the equation connecting y and x
Cb) the value of y if x = 27
(c) the value of x when y =8
5. If P varies directly as fourth root of n and p = 27 when n = 81, fmd

(a) the equation connecting p and n
(b) the value ofp ifn= 16
(c) the value of n when p= 18
6. If S varies directly as cube of t and S = 20 when t =Q , fmd

(a) the value of Sift = 4
(b) the value oft when S = 67.5
7. Find Y in termsof x if
(a) y =x, y = 5 when x = 2t
2
(b) y =x , y= 16whenx=4
Cc) y cc),j;, y= 5 when x = 125
143
If :h; = k, where k is a constant and ~ = la when n = 4, find
(a) the value ofk
(b) the value of ill when n =-1
16
(c) the value of n when ill = 125
. If y varies directly as x and the ratio y to x is ~, find

12
Ca) y when x = 24
5
(b) x when y = -
6
. For the data given in the table, y is directly proportional to x, find the equation
connecting y and x
CilIT4l6l
Cill::illIill
. For the data given in the table below, L = k, (k constant), find
x
(a) the value of k
(b) the values of the constants a, b and c
x 4 b 16 21
Y a 2 513 c
__ For the data given in the table below, it is believed that x =L, determine whether the
25
the equation is true or false. If the equation is true, fmd the values of the constants a, b c
and c. If the equation is false fmd the correct ffjuation and use it to find the values of a,
band c.
X 1
"5
2 b 8
Y a 50 100 c
.). For the following table y = 3xn , find

(a) the value of n
X 1.
9
9 81 (b) y when x =1
Y I 9 27 (c) x when y = 2
verse variation
quantity y varies inversely as another quantity x if the product xy is constant for all pairs
X,y). Consider the following example; a boys buys an orange and soon he is joined by friends
-ho want tot have a share. The following table shows the situation.
144
)lumber of boys (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fraction each boy recives (p) 1 .1
2
.1
3
.1
4
.1
5
.1
6
Product n x p 1 1 1 1 1 1
~tice that if the boy was alone he would have the whole orange to himself. If they are 2, each
uld eat ~of it and if they are 3 each of them has ~ and so on. Notice also that the product
2 3
- P remains constant at 1 throughout.
tatement y varies inversely as x is written as y o:~ and the formul<r- linking y and x is
x
= k where k is a constant.
x
Example 1 If Y varies inversely as x and y = 2 when x = 3, fmd

(a) the equation connecting x and y
(b ) the value of y when x = 2
(c) the value of x when y = 1.5
lntion: (a) y o:~
x
... y= -k were
h k'IS a constant
x
".xy = k
y= 2 when x = 3
".k=2x 3
".k=6
.'. y= ~ is the equation connecting x and y
x
6
(b) y= -
x
Ifx = 2
. 6
.. y= -
2
".y= 3
6
(c) y= -
x
If y = 1.5 then
6
1.5 = - => 1.5x = 6
x .....
'-.x=4
..
145
Example 2: If y varies inversely as the square root of x and y = 2 when x = 4, fmd
(i) y in terms ofx
(ii) x when y = 4
I
Solution: (i) y <x-_
~
. = ~
..y k were
h k'IS a constant
y= 2 when x = 4
..'2 = J4
k
:.4= k
4
: . y= -~ is theequation connecting x and y
(ii) y= 4
~
If y = 4 then
4= -±-
~
.'.4 x ~ = 4 (by cross multiplying)
: . ~ = 1 (by dividing both sides by 4)
:. x =1
Example 3: For the table below, p varies inversely as v, fmd

(i) the equation connecting p and v
~ (ii) fmd the values of a and b
~
1
Solution: (i) p <X-
v
.'. p = k, (k constant)
v
From the table when p = 3, v = 0.4
:.3=~
0.4
:.k =3 x 0.4
= 1.2
: . p= -1.2.IS th ' connectmg
e equatIon . p and v
v
(ii) To find the value of a, we put p = a and v = 1.2 in the above equation
:.a = 1.2 = 1
1.2
To find the value of b we put p = 5 and v = b and solve the resulting equation
:. b=0.24
146
Exercise ISb
1. Find a formula for y in terms ofx in each of the following cases

I 1
Ca) y =-, y = 10 when x =-
x 2
1 1
Cb) Y =-3' Y= - when x = 2
x 8
I
(c) Y = j;.' y = I when x = 4
I
Cd) Y = .r ' y = 2 when x = 81
\Ix
2. If Y =j;.I and y =10 when x = 49, fmd a formula for x in terms y and use it to find
Ca) x when y = 5
Cb) y when x = 0.25
3. If Yvaries inversely as the cube of x and y =1 when x = 10, find

Ca) y when x = 2
Cb) x when y = 1000
4. If Y varies inversely as the cube root of x and y = 2 when x = 8, find

Ca) a formula connecting x and y
(b) y when x =27
(c) x when y= 8
5. If V varies inversely as P and V = 12 when P = 0.5, fmd

Ca) a formula connecting V and P
Cb) V when P = 1
Cc) Pwhen V = 6
6. The density CD kg/m3) of a body varies inversely as the volume (Vm3) and D = 0.5 when
V = 6, find
Ca) a formula connecting V and D
(b) D when V = 10
(c) V when D = 0.6
7. Under certain conditions, the volume V of a fixed mass of gas varies inversely as
its absolute pressure P. Given that P == 140 when V = 0.05, fmd
Ca) a formula for V in terms of P
(b) the value of V when P = 280
Cc) the value ofP when V = 0.014
8. The time (t hours) taken to plough a piece of land is inversely proportional to the number
of tractors engaged. Given that 1 tractor takes 12 hours, fmd
(a) an equation for t in terms of n
(b) the time taken by 4 tractors if they all work at the same rate.
(c) the number of tractors required to do the work in 2 hours.
147
. The current (I amps) flowing in a wire varies inversely as the resistance (R ohms) of
the wire. Given that I = 3 when R = 9, fmd
(a) the relationship between I and R
Cb) the value of! if R = 10
(c) the value of R when I = 8.
O. For the following table, y = ~, fmd

x"
waI2T4l (a) the value of n
~ (b) the values of a
(c) the value ofb
l. For the following table, y = 1, where k is aconstant, find
ffiEj4
a 13.5 tE
9
(a) the value ofk
(b) the value of a
(c) the value of b
]Ioint variation
I
the formula for the volume of a cone, V = - nrh , the value of V depends upon the values
3
r and h, ( n is a constant). In this case we say the volume of a cone varies jointly as the
3
ight and the square ofthe radius i.e. V =r2 h or V = kr2 h, where k = n.
3
the formula s transposed for h in terms of V, r andIT we get h = ~~ ; in this case we say the
ight of a cone varies directly as the volume and inversely as the square of the radius.: (l
n
ing constant). This is another example of joint variation.
Example: IfP =Vr2 and P = 60, r = 2 when V = 5, find

(i) the formula for P in terrns of V and r
(ii)V ifP=30andr=10
Solution (i) P=Vr2
P = kVr, k constant
P = 60, r = 2 when V = 5
".60=kx2 2 x5
".k= 3
Hence P - 3Vr2 i~Lthe required formula
2
(ii) P = 3Vr : IfP = 30 and r = 10 then
30= 3 x 102 X V
. V= -
.. I
10
148
Variation by parts
The relationship y = 2 + 3x is a function in which y depends the sum of two parts; a constan~
2 and a variable, x. In this case we say y is partly constant and partly varies as x.
If y = 2x + ~ we say ypartly varies directly as x and partly inver~ely as x.
x
Example 1. The velocity vrnls of a body moving with constant acceleration is given by
v = u + at where t seconds is the time the body is in motion and u and a are
constants. If v = 30 when t = 10 and v = 40 when t = 15, fmd the ;values of u a nd a.
Solution: v = u + at
v = 30 wh en t = 10.
:.30 = u + lOa ~ 1
v = 40 when t = 15
: .40 = u + 15a ~ 2
Rearranging equations 1 and 2 we have
u + lOa = 30
u + 15a = 40
Solving these equations simultaneously we get
1I = 2~d u-=.lQ
Example 2: The resistance (R Newtons) to the motion of a motor vehicle is partly constant and
partly varies directly as the square of the velocity (v rnls) . Write down a formula
for R interms of V.
Solution: If the constant part is a. we can write the variable part as bv". Thus the required
formula can be wr itten as R = a + bv", a and b being constants.
Exercise 1Sc
1. Express the following in words
m
(a) V= r2h (b) P = T Cc) y = ax + b Cd) S =-2
V v
2. Express the following in words
1 - I 2
(a) y = rnx + c (b) S = ut + -at' (c) C = 2x + - (d) y =3-!X + c
2 x vX
3. If P varies directly as the square root of x and inversely as y and P = 15 when x = 25 and
y=3;fmd . - -
(a) y when p = 3 and x = 9.
(b) x when p = 12 and y = 6
4. If Y varies directly as the square of x and inversely as z; fmd

(a) a formula for y in tenns of x and z, given that y = 2- and x = 2when z = 2
Cb) x when z = 3 and y = 27
5. Ify is directly proportional to the square ofx and inversely proportional to the cube
root of p , fmd
(a) a formula for y in terms of and p given that y = 3, x = 9 when p = 27
Cb) p when x = 9 and y = 27
149
6. If Yvaries directly as x and inversely as the square root of z fmd the values of a, b and
c in the table.
x 1 4 c 10
V 2 b 75 5
z a 4 -'
625
1
.
-, If y = a + bx and y = 5 when x = 1 and y =9 when x = 3, fmd the constants a and.b
'
. The cost (c Kwacha) of running a machine is partly constant and partly varies as directly
as the time (t hours) it is in operation. Taking a as the constant part and b as the other
constant to be used, write down an equation for c in terms t.
If c = 70 000 when t = 30 and c = 90 000 when t = 40, fmd
(a) the values ofthe constants a and b
(b) t whenc = 120000
Under certain conditions, the velocity (v m/s) of a body thrown downwards from a height IS
partly constant and partly varies as time (t seconds) it is in flight. Write down an equation
for v in terms of t taking u as the constant part and g as the other constant to be used
Given that v = 20 when t = I and v = 40 when t = ~ fmd
(a) the values of u and g
(b) v when t = 5.
150
)9. GRAPHS
The x y plane
The x y plane consists of two perpendicular axes a vertical axis known as the y axis and
the horizontal x axis as shown in the diagram below The point of interse«tion of the axes is
known as the origin 0 (0, 0). Numbers
Y on the x axis to the left of 0 are
assigned a negative sign and those to
4
the right of 0 are assigned a positive
A ~. 3)
3 SIgn.
2 Points in the x y plane

1 The position of a point in the x y plane
is given according to the number of
0 x units it is away from 0 along the axes
3 2 - 0 ~ 3 ~ e.g. in the diagram A(2, 3) means the
-I
point A is 2 units from 0 along the x-
-2 axis and 3 units from 0 up in the
direction of the y axis. The pair (2, 3)
-3
are known as coordinates of A and
-4 should be written with the x coordinate
first after the opening bracket. The
Range of values
Most function are continuous so their graphs continue indefinitely. For this reason, a range of
values of the variable e.g. x, for which the graph is to be plotted should be given. The rangeis
given either in words or in the form of an inequality e.g. - 4 ";;x ";;4, which means the graph
should be plotted for values of x from -4 to 4 inclusive.
Scale
Most graphs incorporate a scale. The scale shows how many units of length must be used for
one unit on each of the axes. A scale if I: I (I to I) on both axes means thata unit measure of
the function is represented by I unit on the axes; a scale of 2: I on both axes means 2 unit
measures of the function are represented I unit on the axes etc.
Straight line graphs

All straight lines parallel to the x axis have equations of the form y = k, k constant and lines
parallel to the yaxis has equations of the form x = k where k is a constant.
x =- 5 x = -2 y X= X= 5
v=5
5 .
3 y=3 The x axis is the line y = O.
") v- 2 The y axis is the line x = 0
y=o
-5 - 0 5 X
y =-3
-3
151
Straight line graphs with equatios of the form v = mx + c
The graph of a function with equa tion of the form y = mx + c is a straight line with m as .
the gradient and c as the intercept on the y axis. For example, a straight line with equation
y = 2x- 3 has gradient 2 and cuts the y axis at the point where y =- 3
Example 1: Draw the graph of y = 2x- 4 for values 0 ~x ~,

Solution: We fIrst draw a table of values of x and y corresponding to the given range. The
values of y are found by substituting for x in the function; e.g. the value of y
corresponding to x = 0 is found by putting x = 0 in Y= 2x- 4 ,thus
Y= 2 x 0 - 4 = -4 and for x = 1, Y= 2 x 1 - 4 = -2 etc. The complete table of
x and y is as shown below.
x 0 1 2 3 4
Y -4 -2 0 2 4
These pairs of values of x and y are then plotted in the xy plane and joined together
to show the graph of the function y = 2x-4
4 /
3 / -- x-
2 /
1 /
/ ,
- 3 ~ -I 0 8 X
-I /
_C 1/
-3 /
-~
V'
raphical solutions of simultaneous equations

ample: On the same axes, draw the graphs of y = 4 - x and y = x + 2. Hence solve the
simultaneous equationS x + y = 4
-x + Y = 2
lution: We draw the graphs of y = 4- x and y = x + 2 by taking x = -1, 0 and 2. The values
y. x = -1, 0 and 2 are arbitrarily chosen.
:~ ~ =X 2
~y=4-X
l',,- / GIlliJ.U
2V
I~ I"" I~ =4 -x
x
Y
-I
I
0
2
2
4
y=x+2
/
4 :;/2 1 0
-'
i"" ~15
X The so lution to the equations are the
values of x and y at the point of
intersection of the two graphs
".x=landy=3
152
Gradient of a straight line
To work out the gradient or sbpe of a straight line we need to know the coordinates of any two
points on the line. Let A(XIo yd and B(X2, Y2) be the two points. The gradient of the line AB in
the diagram below is given by the ratio NB = Yz - YI
AN X z -Xl
Y----------------------------B,, X2, 2)
The gradient m of the straight line AB is
,
given by:
6', 2- Yl)
m= Yz -YI
Y -------A:(XI:y~)-----------~ 1 •
X 2 -Xl
A horizontal line has gradient zero

,1.
,
(X2 - XI)--+..:, • A vertical line has infinite gradient
,, ,,,
Example: Find the gradients of the lines I1 and 12 in the diagram below.
,
I~ Jl
V
3"'"[X /'
"
V
I""
~
V
V
~ V 2 - (
I" lz I x
Solution: We pick any two points on each of the lines \\hose coordinates are well defined.
On 11 we pick the points (I, 2) and (4, 4)
Gradient = Y2-YI
x2 -XI
4-2
m= - -
4-1
. t h e grad·lent 0 f I·me I1·IS -2
= -2 ..
3 3
On lz we pick the points (4, 0) and (0, 4)

Gradient = Yz - Y,
X 2 -Xl
4-0
m=--
0-4
= - 1 : .the gradient of line 12 is-I
153
ercise 19a
Write down the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J shown in the plane
below.
y
4 F
C 3
2 A
1 B
0 H
3 I'- - n 3 4 5 6 7 8 ·X
.I -I
-? .r
F -3
-4 ~G
Write down the equation of the horizontal lines HI, Hz, H3, Rt, Hs and the vertical lines
VI, V z, V3, V4, Vs in the plane below.
Y H,
Vs v. " V3 v, rl
1 H,
?
H3
1
H,
3 12 n 3 4 5 6 7
-I
-? HI
-3
-4
On the same axes and for the range- 2 ,,;;; x ,,;;; 4, draw and label the lines i l, iz, i3, i4, and is,
where;
(a)/]isy=x (b)izisy=2x (c)i 3 isy.=x+2 (d)i4isy=3--1x (e) is isy=3-- x
- On the same axes and for the range- 2 ,,;;; x ,,;;; 4, draw and label the lines y = 2x + 3 and
y = 6- x. Hence write down the solution to the simultaneous equations
y-2x = 3
y+x=6
On the same axes and for the range- 2 ,,;;; x ,,;;; 4, draw and label the lines y = x + 2 and
y = 6- x. Hence write down the solution to the simultaneous equations
y-x=2
y+x=6
154
6. Find the gradient of each of the linesL I, L2, L3, L4, andLs in the diagram below.
y
......... 4~
'--...
~ L1
1/~ ......... '--...
f,
...><.-
'>-
!/ l~V '-0
/' "-
/ V ~
- Px
4
V j,/ tJ
- Q
Graphs of quadratic functions

The graph of any function of the form y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are constants and
. a *0 is a u shaped curve called a parabola. If a> 0 the curve is upright and if a < 0 the
curve is inverted.
a > 0, the curve a < 0, the curve

is upright is inverted
Example: Draw the curve y = x2 - 4 for the range -3 « "'3.

Solution: We first draw a table of values of x and y for the given range
.'-"
x
I.
QTIITffiTIillJ
Y ..:..:_====~~
\
5
2
4 y= x _ 4
~ I
\ 2 / .
\ \
1 I
x
~
j Ij 1
4
-1 I
\ -2 /
\ -3
/
\.4 /
155
rnphical solution of equations
•
y =! (x) is any curve, the equation! (x) = 0 is satisfied by the values of x at thepoints where
curve crosses or touches the x axis (y = 0). If however,f (x) = 0 arises from a surrunation of
'0 functions then the solutions to! (x) = 0 are the values of x at the point of intersection of
two curves.
Example 1: On the same axes draw the graphs of y = x2 + X - 2 for the range - 3 < x <2 and
y =-x - 2 for the range x =-3, 0, 2. Hence solve the following equations
(i) x 2 + X - 2 = 0 (ii) x2 + 2x = 0
lution: We fIrst prepare a table of values of x and y for each function in the given range
as shown below.
Table for y = x' + x - 2 Table for y = -x - 2
x -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 Cil:IIJC[D
Y 4 0 -2 -2 0 4 ~
The graphs of y = Jt + x - 2 and y = -x - 2

5 are as shown in the diagram.
2
(I) The solution to the equation x + x - 2 = 0
are given by the x coordinates at the
, I points of intersection of the curve
\ 2 / y = .; + x - 2 and the line y = 0 (x axis)
".x2 + x- 2 =0
\ 1 /y =.; f-t-x 2 => x =-2 or 12
~
/ (ii) The equation x + 2x = 0 arises from
1 3 X .
equatmg x2 + x- 2 to -x - 2'I.e.
~
3 2 4
-1 / 2
x +x-2=-x-2
\ .~ 1/ => x2 + 2x = 0
'----"
The solution to this equation are the
-3
-4
'" "'z =-x f-2
values of x at the point of intersection of the
two graphs ... x2 + 2x = 0
=> x = -2 or 0
mple 2: On the same aXes draw the graphs of y = x2 - 2x and y = 4 - x2 . Hence

~ (a) solve the equation x2 - x - 2 = 0
y= XL 2~ (b) state the minimum value of x 2 - 2x
\ 5 I
(c) state the maximum value of 4- x2
\ rna imun /
Solution: The graphs are as shwn in the
\/, '\ 1/ diagram
(a) The equation'; - x - 2 = 0
I
\ 2 \ / .
arIses fr om equatmg
. x2 - 2 x to 4 - x2
/ \J \
\ / and simplifying the result. The solutions
to the given equation are the values of x
1/ \ / at the point of intersection of the two graphs
3 Il 1 3 4 ~
/ J\ /
mInI mum
".x=-lor2
(b) the minimum value of x2 - 2x is the
,
/ -2
,
2
\
least value of y on the graph of y = x2 - 2x.
Therefore the minimum value of .; - 2x is - I
-3 y 4- x (c) The maximum value of 4 _x2 is given
by the greatest value of y on the graph of
y=4_x2 i.e. 4
156
Graphs of cubic functions.
The cubic has equation of the form y = aXJ + bx2 + cx + d where a, b, c and d are constants and
a ,t{). The graph of the cubic function has any of the following shapes depending on the sign of a.
y, Y.
3
y = ax
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d a>O
a>O
x o x
y y
y =ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
a<O
x x
3
y= ax
a<O
Example: On the same axes draw the graphs of y = x3 + sx2 + 7x + 3 for the range - 4 ";;;X q
and y = 8x + 8 for x =- 2, 0, 1. Take a scale of 2 : 1 on the x axis and 1 : 2 on the yaxis.
Hence fmd
(a) the roots of tbe equation x3 + sx2 + 7x + 3 = 8x + 8
(b) the range of values of x in the interval- 2 ,,;;; x";;; 1 for which ~+ 5; + 7x + 3 < 8x +
(c) the gradient of the curve y = x3 + sx2 + 7x + 3 'at the point (-3, 0)
Solution: We fust prepare table of values of x and y for eacIDf the graphs for the given range
as shown below.
T aeory=x+
bl £ 3 5x2 + 7x+ 3
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 I
y -9 0 1 0 3 16
v'+
Id /
I~ I
Id //
tal
2
0 1/ v' >:''1- x + x 3
d. 1
/ 1/4 1/
an; en H ~ I 2
I1 '0
. 3
.
/
l.,t-:
I1
I ."
.
/ / / .f
I1 I1 .5
/ ~: + ~,~
.d
157
a) The solution to the equation ;: + 5x2 + 7x + 3 = 8x + 8 are the valuesof x at the
point of intersection of the two graphs;
:. x - -I or 1
2
) The range of values of x for which ,( + 5x + 7x + 3 < 8x + 8 is the set of values of x
for which the graph of y =;: + 5x + 7x + 3 lies below the graph ofy = 8x + 8 in the
2
given range. The solution to the inequality is therefore

-1 < x < 1
c) To find the gradient of the curve at the point where x =- 3 we draw a tangent to the curve
at x = - 3; the gradient of the tangent is the gradient of the curve at the point. The tangent
to the curve at x =-3 passes through the points (-3, 0) and (-2,4). The gradient of the
0-4
curve at x =- 3 is therefore =4
-3-(-2)
mphs of functions of the form
8
Example Draw the graph ofy = - for x =-4, -3, -2, -1,1,2,3,4. and y = 2x for
x
x = - 2, 0, 2. Use your graphs to solve the equation 1: = 4
lution: The tables of values for both graphs are as shown below. The graph ofy =~ does
x
not exist at x =0 so this value ofx has been excluded from the domain.
x
Y
-4
-2
Table for y = -
-3
-2.7
8
-2
-4
-1
-8
y
1
8
2
4
3
2.7
4
2 I
\Tabror 2j
x
y
-2
-4
r
0
0
2
4
l
8 The solutions to the equation
7 I"
x2 = 4 are given by the x
£ \" x /
coordinates at the points of
5 1/
4 1\ 1/ y eL intersection of the of the two
3
1/
1/ f'..-.
F::
graphs. At these points ! = 2x
0 x
/ which when simplified gives
1/ x2 = 4. Hence" --2 or 2
tr 0
r-::<I - 1I B 14" X are the solutions to the given
1/ o· equation.
F:::; 17 03
~ ,~
f\ f7 -
-;
1/ 1\ -'
1/ \ -
D -
\ -'
158
Exponential graphs
These are graphs with equations of the formy =a' where a is a constant. Example of
exponential functions are 2" 3', I.SX+2, 3" etc.
Example: The graph shows the growth in the population of bacteria over a period of time.
The growth is observed to obey the rule P = 2' where P is the population in millions
and t is time of observation in days. FlOm the graph find approximations for
(a) the number of bacteria at the start of the observation
(b) the increase in the bacteria between the 4 1b and the Sib day.
(c) the rate at which the bacteria is increasing on the 41b day.
Population P/millions
f,tf
f,n
,I h -2'
<1 1
"-'
".
IAr /
3( I1
I~o
12:
2 1/
Ion
1~ V
10 /
,
V
I
- 2
V
3 4 5 6 7
Time t1days
Solution: (a) the number of bacteria at the start of the observation is the value on the vertical
axis corresponding to t = 0 ie Lmillion
(b) The increase in the bacteria between the 4 th and the Sth day is given by the
difference between the numbers of bacteria between t = Sand t = 4 ie
32 - 16 = 16 million
(c) the rate at which the bacteria is increasing on the 4th day is given by the gradient
of the graph at t = 4. The gradient of the tangent drawn to the curve at t = 4 is
28 - 0 = II appr~ximately. The rate of increase of the bacteria at t = 4 is therefore

S - 2.S .
approximately lLmiI!iolld1er~.
Exercise 19b
1. Each of the following equations defmes one of the graphs A to H below,
(a)y=';-I (b)y=';+2x-IS (c)y=4_x2 (d)y='?-3x
(e) y = 8- x3 (f) Y =~ (g) Y = ,; (h) y = 3'
x
IS9
Relate each equation to its graph
A B. y C. y D. y
y
0
L 0 X
\
X X
E F. y G. y
.H y
\ X
:. Fig.a shows the graphs of y = x2 - 4 and y = - 3 and y = 5.

(a) Use the graphs to solve the equations
'<' v 5
(i) x 2 - 4 = 0
, (ii) x2 - 9 = 0
\ I y x -4
(iii) x 2 - I = 0
\ 0 t (b) State the coordinates of the minimum
\ I
point on the graph of y = l- - 4
- - .~ X
\ - /
\ - v -3
,\.' /
Fig.a
- _The diagram shows the graphs of y =4x - x2 and y = 4 - x.
(a) Use the graphs to solve the equations

(i) 4x - x2 = 0
,~
v= - ,"d. (ii) x2 - 5x + 4 = 0
,~ / '\ v 4 -x (iii) 4x- x2 = 3
ry /
""- (b) State the coordinates of the maximum
point on the graph of y = 4x - x 2
/ ""- "-\\
- - - .'l
l?
." ""- X
t- \ "-
-
160
4. The diagram shows the graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x). (a) Find the values of x for which
y (i) f(x) = 0
16 (ii) f(x) = g(x)
14 (iii) f(x) = 4
1," (b) Find the range of values of x
10 / for which
0 y~ (x (i) f(x) > 0
r--... / '"
4 17
(ii) f(x) > g(x)
(c) State the maximum and
/ "- \ 0 /
1/ ~\ r 1/ minimum value of f(x)
. , . -f\.- ." ) 3 "'x in the interval- 3 < x < I.
17 ~
~ J I':
_0 r--... y~ (x
7 _Tt
L,o '"
5. The diagram below shows the graphs of two cultured bacteria. One is made to increase
exponentially according to therule P = 2 I and the other decreases according to the rule
P = 48 - 3.2t, where P is the population in millions and t is the time in days. Find
(a) the initial population of the decreasing bacteria
(b) the initial population of the increasing bacteria
(c) the value oft for which the two cultures have equal populations
and state this population
(d) the rate at which the decreasing bacteria is decreasing
(e) the difference in the populations of the two cultures when t = 3-.5
(f) the time taken, in days, for the population ofthe decreasing bacteria to decrease
to zero if it continues to decrease at this constant rate.
Population P/millions
£
I"r ID -'
1« I
.-" I1
IAO
IA i---..
IAr I---- I
36 " l---.. 7
he t-----.
28 " f-....., AO , t
24 1/
hr ,
I" 1/
I"
1
A V
Time t/days
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
161
=..
w the gIlxph 01 'j l - l 101 -3 <;;; 'Jt <;;; 3. \3se 'jOU! gral'h to sO\'1e the eC\\l.at\on 'J..2 - l =()
"B'j mawmg a tangent to \he cU!'1e at \he IJOmt'J.. = l fmu tne grauient 01 tne CUI'Ie at tills point
7. On the same axes draw the graphs of y = x2 + x- 1 and y = 4 - 2x for- 5 < x < 3.
(a) Use your graphs to solve the equation x 2 + 3x- 5 = O.
(b) Find the gradient of the curve y = .; + x-I at the point (l, 1)
8. On the same axes draw the graphs ofy = x2 + 2x - 3 for-2 <;;; x <;;; 3 and y = x2 - X - 2 for
-2 ,;;:; x ,;;:; 3. Use your graphs to solve the following equations
(a) x2 + 2x- 3 = 0
(b) x2 - x - 2 = 0
(c) x2 + 2x- 3 = x2_ x-2
9. On the same axes draw the graphs of y = tx2 and y = -i x + 3for the range - 4';;:; X ,;;:; 4,
and the line y = 2. Use your graphs to solve the equations
(a)t x2 =2
(b)t x2 =-i x + 3
(c) -ix+3=2
Show that the values of x at the points of intersection of the graphs of y = t x 2 and
y= -i x + 3 satisfies the equation x2 - x - 6 = O.
10. Draw the graph of y = x2 - 3x + 2 for the range - 3 ,;;:; x ,;;:; 5. On the same axes and for the
same range draw the graph of the straight line y = 8- 2x .
The x coordinates of the points of intersection of the two graphs satisfy an equation of the
form ax2 + bx + C =0, fmd the equation and state the values of the constants a, band c.
11. On the same axes, draw the graphs of y = X' + x2 - 2x and y = 2x + 4. Use a scale of
2cm to 1unit on the x axis and a range of- 4 ,;;:; x ,;;:; 4 and Icm to 2 units on the yaxis
and a range of - 12';;:; Y ,;;:; 30
Use your graphs to solve the equation x3 + x2- 4x - 4 = 0
12. Draw the graph of y = x2 - 3 for values of x from-3 to 3 inclusive. State the additional
graphs you would draw in each case to solve the following equations
(a) x 2 - 2 = 0 Cb) x 2 .= 0 -
2
Cc)x -x-3=0 ...
13. Ca) The following is an incomplete table of values for the graph of y = 1 + 2x - x2. Copy
and complete
I t he t able.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3" 4
Y -7 1 -2
(b) Taking a scale of2cm to 1 unit on the x axis and lcm to I uniton the y axis draw the
graph of y = 1 + 2x - x2
(c) From your graph write down
(i) the roots of the equation 1 + 2x - x2 = 0 correct to 1 decimal place.
(ii) the coordinates of the maximum point of the graph.
(d) Using the same axes draw the graph of y = x-5 and hence write down the values of x
which satisfy the equation 6 + x - x2 = 0
162
6
14. (a) The following is an incomplete table of values for the graph ofy = 4 + -. Copy
x
and complete the table.
x -4 -3 -2 -1.5 -I -0.5 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6

y 2 16 10
Taking a scale of lcm to 1 unit on the axes and letting the y axis to vary from- 8 to 16,
6
draw the graph of y = 4 + -
x
(b) On the same axes draw the graph of y = 2x + 3 using the values x = -3,0, 3.
(c) Show that the x coordinates of the points of intersection ofthe two graphs satisfy the
equation 2x 2- x - 6 = 0 and write down these values of x.
(d) By drawing a tangent to the curve y = 4 + ~ at the point where x = 2, fmd the gradient
x
of the curve at this point.
IS. A body is projected vertically upwards and moves according to the rule h = 40t - 5t 2,
where h is the height (in meters) of the body t seconds after projection. Taking values
of t from 0 to 8, draw a graph of h against t, taking a scale of 2cm to 1 unit of time on the
horizontal axis and2crn to 10 units of height onlhe vertical axis.
Use your graph to fmd;
(a) the maximum height attained by the body
(b) the times when the body is 75 meters above the point of projection
(c) the range ofvahes oft for which the body is 60 metres or more above the point
of projection
(d) the gradient of the curve at the point where t = 3 and state what it represents.
16. Studying the effectiveness of a vaccine a researcher observes that the number
n (in millions) of bacteria in a medium at any time t (in minutes) decreases according
to the rule n = 30. The table shows values of t and some of the corresponding values
t
of n. Copy and complete the table giving your answers correct to one decimal place where
applicable.
t (minutes) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 9

n (millions) 30 10 7.5
(a) Using a scale of2cm to represent lunit Qn the horizontal axis and 2cm to represent
5 units on the vertical axis, draw the graph of n against t for 0 ",;; t"';; 10 and 0 ",;; n ",;;
(b) By drawing a tangent to your curve at the point where t = 2, fmd the gradient of the
the curve at this point and state what the gradient represents.
(c) From your graph decide whether the number of bacteria present is directly proportional
or inversely proportional to time. Explain your answer.
(d) In another medium, the bacteria is observed to increase according to the rule n = 2t + 4.
On the same axes draw the graph of n = 2t + 4. Use this graph to fmd:
(i) the initial number of bacteria in the medium
(ii) the time at which the bacteria in the two media are equal
163
20. COORDINATE GEOMETRY
radient. This has already been discussed in chapter 19. For the sake of examples and
rxercises that follow, we repeat the defmition of gradient. Referring to the diagram below.
gradient of the line AB is given by the ratio BN , or m = yz - y, where m denotes
AN x 2 -x,
~dient.
B(X2, Y2)
y; ---------------------------~-.-
, The gradient m of the straight line AB is
,,
given by:
dy 2- YI)
m= Yz-Y,
Yl ------- ------------------d,:N1
A:(x), Yl)
,
x 2 -XI
,,:4 (X2-Xl~: ,
,
,
o Xl
Example 1: Find the gradient of the line AB where

(i) Ais (2,4) andB is (6,10) (ii) A is (-2, -5) andB is(-I, 4)
Solution: We consider the given coordinates as A(Xl, Yl) and B02, yz)
(i)m= Yz-Y,
Xl -Xl
10-4
=
6-2
=.L.5.
(ii) m= Yz -Y,
Xl -Xl
4 - (-5)
=
-1-(-2)
=2
Example 2: A straight line of gradient 2 passes through the points (k, 4) and (6, 2k), find
the value of k.
olution: m = Yz - Y,
Xl -Xl
:.2= 2k-4
6-k
2k-4= l2-2k
4k = 16
..",j<; = 4
164
Mid point of a line.
The coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment is found by taking half the sum of the x
coordinates of the endpoints and half the sum of the Ycoordinates of the end points. Hence in
the diagram below the coordinates of the midpoint M of AB are Xl; X2 , ( Yl ; Y2 )
Y ]3(xz, yz)
The coordinates of the midpoint M of
M the straight line AB are:
Xl +X 2 Yl+Y2
X= 2 ' y= 2
Y -------A:(xI, Yl)
,,
,,,
x x
Example 1: Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment AB if A is (3, 7) and
B is (5, 11)
.' . 'd: .. b Xl + x 2 3+ 5 4
So Iu ti on: The Xcoor mate IS given Y X = = -- =
2 2
The Ycoordinate is given by Y= Yt + Y2 = 7 + 11 = 9
2 2
TherITQre the coord inates oLthe midpoint of AB are (4. 9)
Example 2: The endpoints of a line segment AB :re A(m, n- 2) and B(m + 2, n ). Given that
tIe midpoint M of AB has coordinates (4, - 6), fmd the values of m and n
Solution: X = Xl + x 2
2
:.4= m+(m+2)
2
:.4 = 2m+2
2
:.2m+2 = 8
=
y= Yl+Y2
2
_6 = (n -2) + n
2
:.{i = 2n -2
2
".2n-2=-12
~n=-5
165
dtgth of a line segment
find the length C of the line segment AB in the diagram below, we use Pythagoras' theorem
right an¥led triangle ABC i.e.
AB = Ac! + BCz
2 z
C2 = (X2 - XI) + (Y2 - YI)
:. C = ~(x, - XI)' + (Y, - YI)'
y
Y2 !3 Xz yz)
,,
, The length C of the straight line AB is
given by:
C : (YZ-YI)
C = ~(x, - XI)' + (Y, - YI)'
YI ------- ------------------d 1
A:(XI, YI)
,
:c
,
by applying Pythagoras' Theorem in
triangle ABC.
:4 (XZ - XI)---.:,,
,,, ,
, ~
o XI Xz X
pIe 1 Find the length of the straight line AB if A is (-2, 5) and B is (6, -I)
non: C =~(X'-XI)'+(Y'-YI)'
= .J(6-(-2)2 +(-1-5)'
= .J8 2 + 6'
= .J100
=10
Th~gth of the line AB is therefore IQnnits
ua:mple 2; The length of the line segment joining the points A(m, 0) to B(4, 3m + 1 ) i.~
5 units, find the possible values of ill.
tion: C = ~(x, -XI)' +(Y, - YI)'

:.5 = ~(4 - m)' +«3m+l) -w
:.5 = .J16-8m+in' ~9m' +6m+1
:.25 = 10m2 - 2m + 17
:.101-1 2m- 8 = 0
2
... 10m -lOm + 8m- 8 = 0
:.lOm(m-I)+8(m-I)=0
:.(lOm + 8)(m- I) = 0
:.m-I orm- 415
166
Equation of a straight line.
• Given the gradient and a point on the line.
The equation of the straight line of gradient m passing through the point (x" Yl) is
• Given two points on the line.

The equation of the straight line passing through the points (~, Yl) and (X2, Y2) is
Example 1: Find the equation of a straight line

(i) of gradient 2 passing through the pint (-2, 5)
(ii) passing through the points (-1, -3) and (5, 9)
Solution: (i) The equation of the line is of the form Y- Yl = m(x - Xl where
m = 2, XI = -2 and Yl = 5
:.y-5 =2(x-(-2))
:.y-5=2x+4
:. V- 2x + 9 is theequation ofthe liru;
(ii) The equation of the line is of the form Y- YI = Y, - YI (x - XI)

x, -XI
We take x I = -1, Yl = -3, X2 = 5 and Y2 = 9
Y -Y
Y-YI=' I(X-X)
X 2 -Xl
:.y-(-3)= 9-(-3)(x_(_1))
5 - (-1)
:.y+3= l2(x+l)
6
:. = 2 - LiUhe lItion of the lin-e
Example 2; The point (2, k) lies on the line Y= 3k- 5, fmd the value of k
Solution: Sinee the point (2, k) lies on the line Y= 31<- 5, X= 2 and Y= k should satisfy the
equation Y= 3x - 5
:.k=3· 2-5
:.k = 1
Intercepts on the axes

The straight line Y= rnx + c crosses the Xaxis at the point where Y= 0
:.rnx+c=O
c
=>x= - -
Tn
167
line y = fiX + C crosses the y axis at the point where x = 0
:.y=m· O+c
:::} y=c
y
. . c
y=mx+c x mtercept IS --
m
y intercept is c
y intercept:;:: c
To fmd x intercept put y = 0 in Y = fiX +c
To fmd y intercept put x = 0 in y = fiX +C
o x
.
x mtercept= - .,<
mple 1. For the straight line y = 2x - 6 fmd

(i) the x intercept (ii) the y intercept
lution: Comparing the given equation with y = fiX + C we note that m = 2 and c = - 6
therefore (i) x intercept = -..:...
m
-6
2
=3
(ii) Y intercept = c
= -6
.........Ullple 2. The line e shown in the diagram below passes through the point (2. 6)
and has gradient - 2, find
y (i) the equation of the line
(ii) the values of h and k, the intercepts on the axes
h
2,6)
o e X
ution: (i) The equation of the line is of the form y - YI = m(x - XI)
:.y-6=-2(x-2)
:.y = ! 0 - 2x is the e mlliQ!! Qf!heJine
(ii) h is the y intercept of the line y = 10 - 2x

:. h = 10
To fmd the value of k we put y = 0 in Y = 10 - 2x
:.2x-1O = 0
:.x= 5
Hence the value of k is 5
168
Exercise 20
1. Find the gradient of the line segment AB if

a. A is (2, 2) and B is (6, 6) b. A is (1,5) and B is (3, 9)
c. A is (0, 2) and B is (3,8) d. A is (5, 2) and B is (7, 4)
e. A is (-2, -3) and B is (6, 7) f. A is (-2, -2) and B is (-6, 10)
g. A is (-2a, 5a) and B is (0, -5a) h. A is (12a, -2a) and B is (6a, lOa)
i.Ais(1t,2t)andBis(2t,6) j. Ais(2t,-4)andB is(-6t, 14)
2. Find the midpoint of the line segment AB if

a. A is (2, 2) and B is (6, 6) b. A is (5, 2) and B is (1, 2)
c. A is (-2, 3) and B is (10, 7) d. A is (3, - 7) and B is (-1, -1)
e. A is (0, 2) and B is (-6, -4) f. A is (0, 2) and B is (6, 0)
g. A is (2, -5) and B is (-6, -3) h. A is (2t, 2) and B is (-It, 3)
i. A is (2.5, -2) and B is (6.5, 6.2) j. A is (2.8, 5.3) an dB is (4.2, 6.7)
3. Find the length of the line segment AB if

c. A is (6, 2) and B is (3, - 2) d. A is (0, 3) and B is (12, 8)
e. A is (9,- 2) and B is (1, 6) f. A is ( -6, -2) and B is (0, 6)
g. A is (-3, -12) and B is (6, -6) h. A is (-ll, -2) and B is (-4, -10)
i. A is (2.4, 2) and B is (4.8, 3.8) j. A is (6.4, 0) and B is (0, 4.8)
4. Find the equation of the straight line of gradient m passing through the point A if
a. m = 1 and A is (3, 4) b. m = 2 and A is (2, 5)
c. m=3 and A is (1,1) d. m= 2 and A is (-3,7)
e. m=-3 and A is (-I, -3) f. m"" 4 and A is (0, 0)
g. m = t and A is (2, -1) h. m =-It and A is (-1, 5)
5. Find the equation of the straight line through A and B if

c. A is (0, 2) and B is (3,8) d. A is (5, 2) and B is (7, 4)
e. A is (4, -3) and B is (6, 7) f. A is (-3, -2) and B is (-6, 10)
g. A is (2, -5) and B is (0, -5) h. A is (12, - 2) and B is (6, 10)
i. A is (0, 2) and B is (2, 0) j. A is (2, 0) and B is (0, 6)
6. Find the gradient m and the y intercept c of each of the following straight lines
a. y- 3x + 4 = 0 b. y - 4x - 7 = 0 c. 2y - 4x - 8 = 0
d 3y+6x- 12=0 e.x+y-5= 0 f. fy+x-2=0
l2x+5
g. y= h . .i4 x +l.2 y =1 i. ax + by + C = 0
2
7. Find the equation of the straight linee in each of the following;

y
a Y b
e
Y- c
8 -----,
e d
,,,, 3 ------- ,,
•, ,
-3 6 -2 6
169
Fmd the values of h and k in each of the following cases
y. y.
a Y b c d
-----, y = 2x + 8
,,
,, =4-x
= 4-x ,,
-1 0 4
A straight line passes through the points A(2, 5) and B(6, -3), fmd
(a) the gradient of AB
(b) the midpoint of AB
(c) the equation of the line through A and B
(d) the equation of the straight line of gradient 2 passing through the midpoint of AB .
. The diagram shows the lines y = 2x - 3 and y = 6 - x , fmd

y. (a) the coordinates of Hand K
= 6 _ x y = 2x _ 3 (b) the coordinates of the points A, B and C
(c) the length of AC
B
(d) the length of BD, the altitude o~ ABC
(e) the area of LlABC
D c x (f) the area of the quadrilateral HCAK
.. The diagram shows two straight lines L 1 and L 2 • Answer the following questions
based on the diagram.
(a) Write down the coordinates of the point of intersection of L 1 and L 2
(b) Find the equations of the lines L 1 and L2 in the form y = rnx + c where m and c are
constants.
(c) Calculate the area enclosed by L j , L 2 and the yaxis.
(d) Write down the equation ofthestraight line L 3 which divides the area in (c) in two
identical parts.
y
8 I" /'
7 I'-- /'
I' V
6
5 " /' .
V I"
4 i'..:
3
V "-
/'
2 ~,
o 1 2 34 5 67 8X
170
21 TRAVEL GRAPHS
Di~tance time graphs.
The gradient of a distance time graph is the velocity or speed of the body.
If the gradient is positive the body is moving away from a fixed or reference point.
Ifthe gradient is zero the body is at rest (not moving).
If the !ITadient is neaative the bod is movina towards a fixed oint.
The diagram below shows a distance time graph of a car.
Distance
(km/h)
400
B C
------------r--------------~
D
Time/holITs
• Outward speed of the car = gradient of the line AB = 400 = 200km/h.

2
• The gradient of the line BC is zero so the car was at rest for 3 hoursat a distance of 400km
from its starting point.
• Gradient of CD = - 400 = - 100. So the car travelled at 100km/h on its return journey.
4
Velocity time graphs.
1.The slope or gradient of a velocity time graph is the acceleration of the body.
• A positive s ope sows increasing velocity (acceleration)
• Zero slope shows the body is moving with constant velocity
• If the slope is negative the body is slowing down (decelerating) i.e. velocity is decreasin_
2. The area below a velocity time graph is the distance travelled by the body.
The diagram below shows a velocity time graph of a body.
,.=--=------'-----------.,.----,
Velocity • S lope of AB is the aCGcleration 0 f the !;lo
m/s . . 90 2
.. aGceleratlon = = 9m/s
90 .6 C 10
• Slope of BC is zero so the body was movi
with a constant velocity of 90m/s for 5 sec
i.e. from IOta J 5 seconds.
• The magnitude of the slope of CD is the
deceleration of the body. Slope of CD is
· / d _90=-15.:.deceleration=15m/z
T nne secon s 6
The area below the graph is the distance travelled by the body in the 21 seconds of motion.
Area of the trapezium ABCD = distance travelled by the body.
= 1x BE(AD+ BC)
= t x 90(21 + 5) = .illQm.
171
ercise 21
. The following are distance time graphs of a body. For each graph fmd
(i) the outward speed (ii) the time at rest (iii) thereturn speed
Dim D/km D Dim
a) (b) (c) (d)
40 ---. 9
24-----
o 5 10 12 T/s o 2 5 6 10 14 T/h 0 4 10 T/s
:.. The diagram shows a distance time graph of a body which travelled from A to B then back
to A. Answer the folbwing questions based on the graph.
. tancelkilometres (a) What is the distance from A to B?
(b) What was the speed of the body as it travelled
100 ---------.,....---..". from A to B?
(c) For how long was the body at rest at B?
(d) What was the speed of the body as it travelled
from B back to A?
(e) How long did the body take to travel from B
to A? /
AOf---*--301------7-;T'''= .. e/hours
The diagram shows a distance time graph of a car. The car started from A travelled to B
then to C. Answer the following questions based on the graph
(a) What is the distance from A to B?
Distancelkilometres (b) What was the speed of the car as it travelled
300 C -..--_'" from A to B?
,,
240 13______ __~ ~ _ (c) For how long was the car at rest at B?
,, ,, ,, (d) What is the distance from B to C?
,, ,, ,,
,, ,, (e) How long did the car take to travel from B to C?
,, ,,, ,,
,, (f) What was the speed of the car as it travelled
,, , ,,
fromB to C?
3 7 8 10 12 (g) How far from A was the car after 10 hours?
Time/hours (h) What was the sEeed of the car between the
10 th and the 12 hour?
(i) How fqr from A was the car after 12 hours?
-. The distance time graph shows aman's journey. Answer the following questions based on
the graph. (a) What is the distance AC?
(b) What is the distance BC?
,, (c) At what time did he leave A?
,, (d) At what time did he arrive at C?
,,
,, (e) Between which times was he at rest?
,, (f) By how much does his speed in the fIrst
,, two hours differ from his speed in the
,,, last four hours of his journey?
, ,,
A ,
1000 1200 1400 1600 Time/hours
172
5.The diagram shows the journeys of two men. One started from A towards B and the other
started from B towards A. Use the graphs to answer the questions that follow.
D'lsta celkm
64
60 R
56 "- V
,? '\.... V
4R I'\.... V
44 "- /
40 "- 1/
36 / "-
'"
~?
28 '\....
24 / '\....
20 "-
16 / I'\....
12 / "-
~ "-
4 / "-
~
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7T'une/hours
(a) How far from A did the man from B start his journey?
(b) How far apart were they after 1 hour?
Cc) At what speed was the man from B traveling?
Cd) How fur from B and after what time did the men meet?
Ce) How far from A wa!the man from B after 4 hours?
Ct) At what speed did the man from Acornplete his journey?
6. The following table shows values of distance against time for a body travelling between two
points..
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance/m 0 4 8 12 12 12 12 8 4 0
By drawing a graph of distance against time on a graph paper (scale 1: 1 on both axes), [md:
Ca) the outward speed .
Cb) how long the body was at rest
Cc) the return speed
Cd) the times when the body was 68 metres from its starting point
7. The following are velocity time graphs Of a body. For each graph [md;
Ci) the acceleration Cii) the total distance travelled (iii) the deceleration where applicable
V (rnls) V (rnls) V (rnls) v (rnls)
Ca) Cb) Cc) Cd)
10 ---.-----;
, ,
,, ,, 12 --.---,
54 --------r,-,
,,
,, ,,, , ,,
,, ,, ,,
,, ,, , ,
o 5 10 T/s o 2 5 7 T/s 0 6 LO
173
The following are velocity time graphs of a body. The total distance travelled by the body in
each case has been given. In each case fInd
(i) the value of v
(ii) the acceleration of the body where applicable
(iii) the deceleration of the body where applicable
V (m1s) V (m1s) V s) V (m1s)
a) (b) (c) (d) v+2 _
v
,, - - ,, v -----
,,,
-------
,, ,,, ,,
,,
30m( 14~m ,,: 142m
, ,,, ,, ,
: 14 T/s 0 4
0 5 10 T/s 0 2 5 8 T/s 0 6 10 10 T/s
_The following is a velocity time graph of a body. The bodystarted from rest, accelerated
uniformly for 30 seconds, then travelled at a constant speed for a while then decelerated
to rest. Use the graph to fmd (a) the acceleration of the body
Velocity (m1s) (b) the time it travelled at constant velocity
(c) the deceleration of the body
(d) the total distance travelled by the body in the 120 seconds
(e) the average speed of the body in the 120 seconds of motion.
o 30 60 120 imels
. Two toy cars A and B start off from the same place at
same time. The diagram shows velocity time graphs of the cars. Use
V (m1s) the graphs to fmd
1r (a) how far apart the cars are after 2 seconds
(b) how far apart the cars are after 3 seconds
(c) which car went further than the other
C' F and by how much
C ,r V
6 (d) the difference in deceleration between
/ V \ \. the cars between the times t = 4 and
1/ / t = 4.5 seconds.
4
/ / \ \
1/ V 1\
2 /V ,\
~ '\ .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 T Is
174
22. GRAPHICAL INEQUALITIES AND LINEAR
PROGRAMMING
Graphical inequalities
The symbols <, >, <: and;;;' have already been explainedin chapter 13. Here, we concern
ourselves with shading regions of the xy plane defined by given inequalities.
The diagram shows the regions defmed by the inequalities x <: 1 and y < 2. Note that
we shade the area not defmed by the inequality and that the line y = 2 is not part of the
solution to the inequality y < 2, hence it is shown dotted.
Y x= I
~-------_. ---_.- \"=2

------------"'---.
\ ~n /
( x
The diagram below shows tre inequal ity defined by the inequality· 2 < x ,:::; 1Notice tha!
the line x = ·2 is shown dotted showing that it is not patt of the required region.
x =-2 ); x-I
·
I
·
I
I
I
·
I
I
I
·~2 -I 0 x
I
·
·I
I
·,
I
I
I
The diagram below shows the region defined by the inequality 0 < Y <--2. Note that
the x axis (y = 0) is not part ofthe defined region.
Y
I
- .-.. - - - --- - - - -- --0 _ . - - - - ~-=_o..~X
175
bample 1. Draw the straight lines y = x + 2 and y = 4 -x. Hence show by shading, the
region defined by the inequalities y < x + 2 and y < 4- x.
. .Icti·on: We draw the lines y = x + 2 and y = 4 - x as shown in the diagram below. The
shaded area which can be divided into regions A, Band C is such that
• A contains points which do not satisfy the inequality y < x + 2 e.g.(-2, 2)::} 2 <-2 + 2
or 2 < 0 which is false.
B contains points which do not satisfy both inequalities e.g. (1,4)::} 4 < 1 + 2 or
4 < 3 which is false and 4 < 1-1 or 4 < 0 which is also false
• C contains points which do not satisfy the inequality y > 4 - x e.g. (3, 4 ) ::} 4 < 4 - 3
or 4 < I which is false
-ote that we shade the region in which the points give a false result
y
A C
pie 2. Find the area of the region defined by the inequalities

y ~t
y < tx+ 2
and y < 4-tx
.1Itti" on: The region defined by the inequalities is a triangle ABC shown in the diagram below
y.
AC = 2.5 - (-3) = 5.5
Altitude h = 2.1-.1
2 2
=2
Area of a triangle = t bh
".A= txACxh
= tx5.5x2
= i.5_units:
1--.j......~~+-+-+--I--I--I--I-...p++~++-lv=.12
176
Maximum and minimum values
The maximum or minimum value of a linearly defined region occurs at the vertex i.e. at
the point of intersection of two straight lines or along a boundary line For example, for the
region shown below the maximum or minimum value oCaJrs at one ofthe vertices P, Q, R 0
If say the maximum and minimum value of x + y in the region
y. is required then we add the x and the y coordinates of
each of the vertices P, Q, Rand S and draw a conclusion
from the results. Thus
r /' at P(O, 3), x + y = 0 + 3 = 3
V
at Q(4, 6), x + Y = 4 + 6 = 10
V at R(4, 2), x + Y = 4 + 2 = 6
1"- at S(2, 1), x + Y = 2 + I = 3
"-
..-'" From these results we conclude that the maximum value
1"\
1-1: I" 7( of x + y occurs at Q and this maximum value is 10.
The minimum value of x + y is 3 and occurs along the
boundary line PS. AB points along the fine PS satisfy
x+ y = 3.
Exercise 22a
1. Write down the inequality or inequalities defining theunshaded region of thexy plane.
(a) (b) Y. (c) y (d) y
•,,
,
,,,
,,,I ;;-----2+---,
,,
,, -I
~ o
X
1, X
(e) Y- (t) Y (g) y. (h) y,

1 ,,
,
f,
,,
_____ .Z -~ ,,
,,,
,
0 X 0 X ~, ~ X ------" -
I
J :
(i)
y.
U) (k) (I)
,-. y
----- --2 ------
177
~'N 'o'j,:,>'o:il.umg, -me !eg)~ns oe'imeo 'b)l -me 'io\\ow'mg 'mequa\\tles
(a) x > 3 (b) x < - 1 Cc) 2 ,,;;; x ,,;;; 4 Cd) -2 < x";;; 3 (e)y < 3
Ct) -2 < Y < 2 (g) x < 2, Y < x + 3 (h) y > -2, y < x- 2 Ci) y < x + 3, x >-1 , Y < 3 - x
U) x < 2, y > 0, Y< x + 2 , y ";;;-3x. Ck) y > 0, x + Y < 2, y -x ,,;;; 2
e diagram shows the region R bounded by the x axis and the straight lines e, I £2 and the
y e vertical line e3, Find
ID / Ca) the equations of the lines e" e2
(
and e3
~ ~ e Cb) the coordinates of A, B, C and D
!". V , Cc) the minimum value of x + y in
~ Lt the region R
i , ; 1'<-
Cd) the maximum value of x + y in R
1"'-
,
c E ~
/ "'-
/ n "-
- - ,/ - - - C 6 J-.". x
/
0
, ,
he diagram shows a region R bounded by the straight lines e" e2 and e3. Ca) Write down
y.
ea the coordinates of A, B and C,
[J 10 the points of intersection of the
1"- ( lines e" e2 and 6,
"- , Cb) Write down the incquations
1'<; defming the region R
i'\ / ' e,
Cc) Find the area of region R
< 1"- Cd) Find minimum and maximum
R
V3
/-
'" values of x + y in the region R

~
A /'
V
'/'
'" i'\
i'\ e2
- - - -l/- - - l ~ 17'. x
V _0
-,
178
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear programming is a branch of mathematics used in industry (Agriculture, commerce
etc) to make decisions regarding investments. It is the objective of all industrialists to
minimize costs and maximize profits. Linear programming enables industrialists achieve t
objectives to some extent.
Tenninology associated with linear programming

Constraints: When undertaking an investment or a project, issues of capital, materials, space
time etc are taken into account. The size or magnitude of any investments are determined by
such factors and hence they are called constraints. Thus any investment is constrained or
limited by the available resources. -
Objective function: this is a mathematically designed rule used to determine the feasibility
of an investment e.g. 2x + 3y in exampe I below
Feasible region: This is the region of the xy plane where the objective function holds good.
i.e. a region where all the inequalities (constraints) defming the region are satisfied.
Feasible points: These are points, usually whole number values of the variables lying in the
the feasible region. In the diagram below the dots (e) show the feasible points.of region R
, ,
--., ..--.- ,
_..~.._..._ +---+ Feasible region
- :
--r-"1
..
, , ,
,, ,,
I
--.-
I
-
6 7 x
Example 1. Given the following constraints

x ;;;, 0, y ;;;, 0, y <;;; 3, y <;;; x + 2 , -yx<;;; 6
fmd the maximun value of 2x + 3y
Solution: The region defmed by the constraints (the feasible region) is as show!! in the di ~
below. To fmd the maximum value of 2x + 3y we substitute the coordinates of
the vertices into this function. Thus; at A(O, 0), 2x + 3y = 0 + 0 = 0
. at B(O, 2), 2x + 3y =0 + 6 = 6
...---,,;Y
cf at C(I, 3), 2x + 3y = 2 + 9 = II
at D(2, 3), 2x + 3y = 4 + 9 = 13
at E(6, 0), 2x + 3y = 12 + 0 = 12
From these results we conclude that the ma.me:ll.
)' = x + 2 value of 2x + 3y is 13 and it occurs at D.
3
2 1
179
The alternative method of determining the maximum value of2x + 3y is to let V = 2x + 3y
where V is a constant. V = 2x + 3y => Y = t V - t x : the line has gradient - t . So we draw
parallel lines of gradient - t across the feasible region. V is maximum when the lime
y = t V -tx .is furthest from the origin but within the feasible region. At this point the line
just passes through the vertex having the maximum value of V .
Note: in a more general case the furthest line from the origin passes through the vertex
containing the maximum value or coincides with boundary line containing the maximum
value in which case there is more than one point giving the maximum vahe.
Example 2. A boy buys sweets and sells them to his friends at school. He buys two types of.
sweet, type A and type B. Type A sweets cost K200 each and type B sweets cost
IGoo each.
He has IG 000 to spend 0 n sweets
His sweet pouch can carry up to 12 sweets
He decides to buy at least 3 of each type of sweet
He makes K 50 profit on type A sweets and K60 on type B .
(a) If he buys x type A and y type B sweets write down four inequalities defqling his
possibilities
(b) Write dow n the objective (profit) function P
(c) Graph the inequalities and hence determine how the boy can maximize the profit.
Solution: (a) He has K3 000 to spend on sweets and he buys x sweets at K200 and y type B
at IGOO. The total cost offhe sweets is therefore 200x +300y and this cost must
not exceed IG 000 he nce 200x + 300y <K3000. This inequality reduces to
2x + 3y 30 - I
His sweet pouch can carry up to 12 sweets so x + y must not exceed 12, ie
x+y< 12 -2
He decides to buy at least 3 of each type of sweet therefore

x;;;' 3 ~ 3
andy;;;'3 ~4
These are the required inequalities.
180
(b) He makes KSO profit on type A sweets and K60 on type B therefore if all the
sweets are sold, the tot~ profit he makes is 5 Ox + 60y. Therefore the profit or
objective function is
P =50x +60y
(c) The diagram shows the region defming the possibilities.

y.
12
11 "'-
IQ
9
8
~ I'-..
J' ..,
"" '"
:I~
.., .
..... ;; .....
~"'Z
1= 12 -x
..
,0; ...........
I.-~~ :; ......
I :I .., :; .., . ~~.~
~~ ~
7 t" ..........
tJ;;,
6 ..... ...
:I .., .
:; "JI' :J. 'i :I .
.......
.......... . "-
~ 6:-
..
'," loo.
;;'".1 ;; .....
".1':1 :;~"I ;; :;
-.
~ ..... :; .
.. .
I""
~
4
5 - -............
;;-;
..,
:; ..... :I~ ~ .. loo.
I""
la • ~~
~~ ~ I ' , I""
~
..• . .. • ~
~-,
..,." .., .....
-;.., ;; ...... ~A
~
3
= "' ~
2
I
y F 10 2
r"'- ~
"-
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IQ I1
"'-
12 13
~
14 IS 16 x
There are 25 possible combinations of sweets which the boy can buy. These
are shown dotted and the coordinates (x, y) give these combinations.
The shaded region is a quadrilateral with vertices A, B, C, and D. The maximum
profit is therefore expected to occur at one of these vertices or on one of the
boundary lines. We therefore lesl for the value of P = 50x + 60y at these points
At A(3, 3), P = 50 x 3 + 60 x 3 = K3:D
At B(3, 8), P = 50 x 3 + 60 x 8 = K6:D
At C(6, 6), P = 50 x 6+ 60 x 6 = K660
At D(9, 3), P = 50 x 9 + 60 x 3 = K630
Therefore he maximizes profit if he buys 6 of each type of sweet. Note that all
points within the feasible region represent options that would ensure that he
makes a profit but in each case the profit is less than the maximum at C(6, 6).
Exercise 22b
I. Given the following constraints
x ;;. 0, 0 ,,;; y ,,;; Ay ,,;; x + 3, y < 6x
fmd the maximum value of the function 2x + 3y
181
2. Letting the x axis vary from 0 to 10 andthe y axis from 0 to 8, and taking a scale of 1cm to I
unit on both axes, graphthe following inequalities by shading the unwanted regions.
x ;;;. 0, y;;;' 0, x + y <'7, 2y + x <, 10
Hence find (a) the minimum value of x + y
(b) the maximum value of x + y
3. Letting the axes vary from 0 to 10 and taking a scale of Icm to I unit on both axes, graph
the following inequalities by shading the unwanted regions.
x ;;;. 0, y;;;' 0, 2x + Y <, 10, 3x-2y <, 6
Hence (a) write down thenumber feasible points given that x, yEN
(b) [md the minimum value of2x + y
(c) [md the maximum value of x + y
4. Letting the axes vary from 0 to 12and taking a scale of I cm to I unit on both axes, show
the regions defined by the following constraints
2 <, x <, 8, y <, 8, 2y + x ;;;. 12, x + Y ;;;. 8
Ifx, yEN, [md
(a) the number of feasible points in the region
(b) the minimum value of 2x + 3Y
(c) the maximum value of2x + 3y
5. Given the fa Uowing constraints

x;;;. 2, y;;;' 2, 5y;;;' 3x, x + Y <, 9
show the region defined by the constraints and hence given that x, yEN, find
(a) the minimum value of x + 2y
(b) the maximum value of x + 2y
6. The diagram shows the region R bounded by the x axis and the straight
y
Q tT
I
,
0
~ '« /
1/
,
h ~3
"- /
" /
, / I,
"~
/,
R
" "- t2
/
- - - -
/
-s/, - 0 3
I
"'" ·x
.1
-"
-,
lines tT, t2, t3 and £4. (a) Write down the four constraints that define the region R
(b) Find the number of feasible points in R giverthat x, yEN
(c) Find the minimum value of 3x + 2y
(d) Find the maximum value of 3x + 2y
182
7. A marketer buys and sells lemons and oranges. A lemon costs K300 and an orange
costs K600. If she has KI2 000 to spend and she buys x lemons and yoranges;
(a) write down, in its simplest form, an inequality expressing this restriction.
(b) To attract customers at her stall, she arranges the lemons and the oranges side by
side in rows. If a lemon occupies 12cm2 of space and an orange occupies 16cm2
and she has at least 240cm2 of space available, write down in its simplest
form, an inequality expressing this restriction.
(c) If she has to buy at least 10 lemons and at least 5 oranges, write down two inequalitie
expressing these restrictions.
(d) The point (x, y) represents x lemons and y oranges. Using a scale of 2cm to represent
10 units ofthese items (for 0 ';;;x <40 and O';;;y .;;; 40), show by shading the unwanted
areas, the region for which these inequalities ho Id.
(e) Given that she sells the lemons and oranges at KSOO and K800 each respectively fmd
the number of lemons and oranges she should buy in order to make maximum use of
her resources.
183
23. ANGLES AND POLYGONS
Angles are formed if straight lines meet at a point. Consider the straight lines OA and OB
hown in the diagram below. These lines meet at 0 and form acute LAOB and reflex
LAOB.
A
Tvpes of angle
Suppose that in diagram (a) below, OA is free to rotate about 0 to produce angle AOB = x
and that OB is fixed.
a A b A
OF--'-'-x-+.-------;oc
B o B
0
If 0 < x < 90 then x If x = 90' then x is a
is an acute angle right angle
d
c
A~~X
o B A o B
If 900 < x < 1800 then If x = 1800 then x
x is an obtuse angle is a straight angle
e f
W'-----oB (
~ 0 0 - A,B
A
If 1800 < x < 3600 then If x = 360" then x
x is a reflex angle is a point angle
184
Complementary angles
These are any two angles whose sum is 90° e.g. 30° and 60°, 40° and 50°, 1° and S9° etc.
In the diagram below, x and y are complementary angles.
x
y
Supplementary angles
These are any two angles whose sum is lS0° e.g. SO° and 100°, 30° and 150°, 124° and 56°
In the diagram below, x and yaresupp1ementary angles.
x+y=lS0°
Verticallv opposite angles

Two intersecting lines form two pairs of vertically opposite angles. Vertically oppos ite an
are equal.
In the diagram below, x and z are a pair of vertically opposite angles therefore x = z
w and y are another pair of vertically opposite angles therefore w = y.
x=z
w=y
Example 1: Find the value of x in each of the folbwing
a b c d.
x
2x ~x x
3x 4x
7x
Solutions:
(a) Complementary angles add up to 90°. (b) Supplementary angles add up to ISO·
2x + x = 9(f' .".x + 3x = ISO°
3x = 90 ° 4Ji = ISO °
90° lS0°
X= - .". X=--
3 4
~ 0° -"-,JI = 45°
lS5
(c) Angles at a point add up to 360° (d) Supplementary angles add up to 1800
:. 4x + x + 3x + 7x = 3600 •
..X+ 1 + 22"x-
'2"x 1 - 1800
15x = 360°
5x = 1800
360
x=- 180
0
15 x=-~
:.x -24° 5
:.x = 36°
Exercise 233
I For the following set of angles state
(a) the acute angles
(b) the obtuse angles
(c) the reflex angles
{2°, 120°,93°,190°,333°,12°,150°,271°,181°, 54°}
_. Find the complement of (a) 22° (b) 53 0 (c) 89° (d) 900 (e) 33.5 (t) XO
. Find the supplement of (a) 145° (b) 66° (c) 90° (d) 180° (e) 133t" (t) nO
-. The angles (x + 24)" and (2x + 30)" are complementary, [md the value of x
~ The angles (3x + 115)" and (2x + 45)° are supplementary, [md the value of x
Find the value of x in eaclDf the following

(a) (b) (c)
110°
x
43°
j. 150°------
x
d) (e) (f)
~ 2.~--'----
100°
- Find the value of y in each of the following
(a) (b) (c)
~y
y
y y
186
(d) (e) (t)
2y 3y
~
5y 3y
y 108°
150°
8. Find the values of x, y and z in each of the following

(a) (b)
x
Y 30°
z
(c) (d)
x
Y
3x 120°
z z
9. One revolution of the minute hand of a clock is equivalent to 60 minutes. Considering

one revolution is equivalent to 360°, fmd
(a) how many degrees are equivalent to 1 minute
(b) how many minutes are equivalent to 1 degree
10. Use your results in question 9 (a) to fmd the number of degrees equivalent to
(a) 5 minutes (b) 11 minutes (c) 25 minutes (d) 12+ minutes
11. Use you results in question 9 (b) to find the number of minutes equivalent to
(a) 15° (b) 60° (c) 180° (d) 324°
12. Find the number of degrees between 1200 hours and 1245 hours as ~escribed by
(a) the minute hand (b) the hour hand
ParaDellines
Parallel lines have the same direction and hence they do not meet no matter how long the.
extended in treir direction. Arrows impressed on the lines indicate the lines are parallel.
A transversal is a straight line crossing two or more parallel lines.
_ _ _-+-"--7L:.~~=Transversal
~ Parallel lines
-~'-----i -'---
187
gle properties of pamllellines
a transversal crosses two or more parallel lines then
• corres onding ang':;~~hs:..:ar=e..:oe=Qlua::;l~:p_ _~_ _~ --.
Pairs of corresponding angles
c aande :.a=e
band f:. b=f
U
candg :.c=g
b
dandh :.d=h
• Alternate angles are e ual
d c Pairs of alternate angles are

fandd :.f=d
eandc:.e=c
• Interior angles are su lement~
d c Pairs of interior angles are

d and e :. d + e = 180°
candf :.c+f=1800
l.%ample . Find the values of x and y in each of the diagrams below
(a) (b)
o
0°
y
tion: (a) x-124° (corresponding angles)

y = x (alternate angles)
:.y - 1240
(b) x - 200 (alternate angles)
y + 40 = 180 0 (interior angles are supplementary)
:. y= 180°-40°
:.y= 14{t
ise 23b
each of the following diagrams [md, with reasons, the values of a, band c
(a) (b) (c)
• b~
122° c 4 ~c
188
(d) (e) (f)
a a c
14 °
37° 120°
c
2. Find x, Yand z in each of the following

(~ ~) (c)
x
(d) (e) (f)
40
x
The triangle
A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight lines. The notatior0. denotes triangl
Types of triangle
Acute angled triangle - all Right angled triangle - one angle is

three angles are less than 90° 90°. The side opposite the right
angle is called the hypotenuse.
Obtuse angled triangle - one Isosceles triangle - has two sides

angle is greater than 90° and two angles equal. The equal
angles are called base angles.
189
60.
Equilateral triangle - has all three Scalene triangle - all three sides
sides equal and the angles are all are of different lengths.
60°.
Angle properties of a triangle

• The sum of angles of a triangle is 180°. Thus in i\ABC below; a + b + C = 180°
A
a
b c
B C
To prove that the sum of angles of a triangle is 180°.

A To prove that in 6.ABC, a + b + C = 180°
a ,... At C draw a parallel to AB as shown in the diagram.
, Proof: a = y (alternate angles)
,
,
, b = x (corresponding angles)
,
c 'x :. a + b + C = x + y + c but x + Y+ C = 180°
C D :. a + b + C = 180°
• The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the opposite interior angles
Exte ior angle To prove that in the diagram, x + y = a + b

A
a .Proof:: it has already been shown in the above proof
, that a=y
,
,, and b = x
Hencex+y-a+b
b Therefore the exterior angle is equal to the sum of
B D
the opposite interior angles.
Example 1. The three angles of a triangle are xo, 2xo and 3xo, fmd the value of x.
Solution: Xo + 2xo + 3xo = 180° (sum of angles of a triangle is 180°)

6x ° = 180°
. ° 180°
.. x = - -
6
:.x = 30
190
Example 2: Find the values of w and x inLl ABC below.
A
Solution: x = 62° (base angles of an isosceles Ll are equal)

w = x + 62° (exterior angle equals sum of opposite interior angles)
w = 62° + 62°
=~
Exercise 23c
1. The following are three angles of a triangle. State the type of triangle in each case
(a) 20°, 80°, 80° (b) 45°, 65°, 70° (c) 90°, 45°, 45° (d) 60°, 60°, 60°
(a) (b) (c) G

2. Copy the following triangles and fill in the remaining angles
(d)
L\, ~
3. Find the value of x in each of the following
(a) (b) (c) (d)
"
"
2" "
(e) (t) (g) (h)

x
"3
3"
191
5. The angles of a triangle are (x + 35)", (2x + 45;" and (3x + lO)~ find the value of x.
e angles ofa triangle are (3y + 5)", (Sy + 25)° and (y + 15)°, fmd the value ofy.
- The following are angles of a triangle (x + 30)°, (2x + 10)° and pO, express p in tenns of x.
. The following are angles of a triangle (3x + 15)", (2x + 28)" and so, express s in terms of x
.;)nadrilaterals.
quadrilateral is aJ'lane figure bounded by four straight lines. The sum of angles of a
drilateral is 360 .
:mecial quadrilaterals
adrilateral Pro erties Dia ram
All sides are equal
Sides meet at tight angles
are Diagonals bisect each other
Diagonals intersect at right
angles.
Opposite sides are equal and

parallel
Sides meet at right angles
ectangle Diagonals bisect each other
Opposite sides are equal and

Parallel
llelogram Diagonals bisect each other
All sides are equal

Opposite sides are parallel
ombus Diagonals bisect each other
angles
Adjacent sides are equal

angles.
Two opposite sides are
I :~
paralleL
Trapezium
192
Example: The angles of a quadrilateral are (x - 30)°, (x + 40t, (2x _10)° and 2xo. Find x.
Solution: (x - 30t+ (x + 40)°+ (2x -lOt + 2xo = 360° (Angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360°)
:.6xo = 360°
:.x = 60
Polygons
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by many sides. Poly means many. A three sided polyg
is called a triangle, a four sided polygon is called a quadrilateral etc. The table below shows
some special polygons and the sum of their interior angles.
Polygon Number of sides . Sum of interior angles.

Triangle 3 180°
Quadrilateral 4 360°
Pentagon 5 540°
Hexaaon 6 720°
Heptagon 7 900°
Octaaon 8 1080°
Nonagon 9 1260°
Decagon 10 1440°
Classification of polygons
Polygons are classified as regnlar or irregnlar. A regnlar polygon has all sides equal and
interior angles are equal too. The sides of an irregular polygon are unequal and so are the
interior angles.
~ +-__~i~~ _
A regnlar polygon - all sides are equal An irregular polygon - sides are
and the interior angles are equal. unequal the interior angles are
i = interior angle e = exterior angle unequaL
Notice that the sum of the exterior angle and the interior angle is 180° i.e.
e + i = 180°
Sum of interior angles of a polygon

The sum of interior angles of a polygon is found by dividing the polygon into tr iangles and
multiplying the number of triangles formed by 180°, the angle sum of a triangle.
193
/
/
/
,/
/
/
/
/
---------------------
Quadrilateral (4 sides). 2 triangles formed Pentagon (5 sides). 3 triangles formed

:.sum of interior angles = 2x 180°= 360° .' .sum of interior angles = 3 x 180° = 540°
Hexagon (6 sides) x 4 triangles formed

...sum of interior angles = 4 x 180° = 720"
. otice that a 4 sided polygon forms (4 - 2) = 2 triangles

a 5 sided polygon forms (5 - 2) = 3 triangles
a 6 sided polygon forms (6 - 2) = 4 triangles
Therefore an n sided polygon forms (n· 2) triangles
Therefore the sum S of interior angles of a polygon with n sides is given by
S = lS0·(n - 2)
Examplel: The following are interior angles of a 7 sided polygon (heptagon) 4xo,2xo,
(2x + 10)ox3x·, 6x·, (2x + 30°) and (x + 20)". Find the value ofx.
Solution: The heptagon can be divided into (7 - 2) = 5 triangles.

.' . sum of interior angles = 5 x 180° = 900°
".4xo + 2xo + (2x + 10)" + 3xo + 6xo + (2x + 30°) + (x + 20)° = 900°
.'. 20x· + 60· = 900°
:. 20xo = 840°
.~2
Example 2: A polygon has n sides and the sum of its interior angles is 1260', find the
value of n
Solution: Sum of interior angles of a polygon with n sides is 180'(n - 2) ie

1800 (n - 2) = S
:.180o(n-2) = 1260
n-2=7
:.n= 9
IhcrdureJhe PQlygollJla~kles
194
of exterior angles of a polygon
If the sides of apoly~on are produced as shown in the diagram below, the sum of exterior
angles formed is 360 . Thus, a + b + c + d + e + f = 360°. If the polygon is regular then
a = b = c = d = e = f, so for a regular polygon, the exteriorangle is found by dividing 360 0 b_
the number of sides. The number of exterior angles is equal to the number of sides.
Thus, for a regular polygon with n sides

e-
- 36cf
(\ and n=-
- 36_cf
e
where e = exterior angle
n = number of sides
Now,e+i=180°
:.i = 180°- e
:. i = 180°- 36cf, this gives the size of
n
the interior angle of a regular polygon with n sides.
Example 1. Find the exterior angle of regular hexagon
Solution: A hexagon has 6 sides and therefore has 6 exterior angles.
e =36cf
--
n
. 360°
.. e = - -
6
:. e =60
IheillQIe~a<;;h exterior angle Qf'a n;gull!Lhe1\agQI1-.is (ill~
Example 2: A regular polygon has an interior angle of 156°, find

(i) the exterior angle
(ii) the number of sides of the polygon.
Solution: (i) e + i = 180°

:. e= 180°-156°
:.e=24°
Then;fore..-e3ch exterIDLangl~ theJ2olYgon is 24°
(ii) n= 3~cf
360·
=
24°
= 15
Therefore the__ROlygonhau5 ide
195
Example 3: Find the interior angle of a regular polygon with 12 sides
Solution: i = 180' _ 360', n = 12

n
. . _ 180'
. .I -
360·
-
12
= 180'- 300
= 1500
Therefore a 12 sided regl1!aLJlQ!YZQn has inteUQUillgle 15~
Exercise 23d
I. Find how many triangles (all sillring one vertex of the polygon) can be drawn in a
polygon with the following number of sides.
(a) 10 (b) 17 (c) 20 (d) 33 (e) 50 (t) 100
_. Find the sum of interior angles of a polygon with the following number of sides
(a) 3 (b) 8 (c) 12 (d) 24 (e) 35 (t) 40
3. Find the number of sides of a polygon with the following sum of interior angles
(a) 540° (b) 1 620° (c) 2 340° (d) 3600° (e) 6480° (t) 2 700°
4. Find the number of sides of a regular polygon with the following ex terior angle
(a) 20° (b) 30° (c) 45° (d) 22+ ° (e) 72° (t) 8°
-. Find the number of sides of a regular polygon with the following interior angle
0
(a) 175° (b) 170° (c) 1650 (d) 1500 (e) 120° (t) 90
6. In a quadrilateral, one angle is 102° and the remaining angles are equal, fmd the size of each
of the remaining angles.
-. The following are incomplete regular polygons with number of sides n. Find n in each case
(a) (b)
~~_o_J ~ _ ~-------
~
o
In a hexagon, one angle is X and the remaining angles are each 24° greater, find the value
ofx.
9. A quadrilateral has angles (x- 30)°, (x + 10)°, (x + 20)" and (2x + 35)°, fmd the value ofx.
10. A Pentagon has mgles (x - 19)°, (x + 10)°, (2x - 20)°, (x + 25)° and (x + 10)", fmd the
value of x.
196 ,
11. In the diagram ABCDE is a pentagon, fmd the size of the angle marked x.
A B
12. In the diagram, ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, fmd the size of the angles
marked a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j and k . What follows for
Ca) L'>ABC and L'>AFE
Cb) L'>ACD and L'>AED
13.
H
G rA..o....-_-,D
F
B C
E
In the diagram, ABCD is a square and ABEFGH is a regular hexagon, fmd
Ca) the size of angle BAD
Cb) the size of angle BAH
Cc) the size of the obtuse angle HAD
Cd) the number of sides of the regular polygon which shares the sides HA and
AD with the hexagon and the square respectively.
14. In the diagram below, ABCDEFGH and GHIJKL are regular polygons. Calculate
9----<.:A Ca) the size of angle AHG
I Cb) the size of angle GHI
C J Cc) the size of angle AHI
(d) the size of angle COD
Given that the area of L'> COD = 35.4cm 2 fmd
D K (e) the area of the polygon ABCDEFGH
G
L (f) the length of OC
E F (g) the length of sides of the polygons.
197
24. SIMILARITY AND CON.GRUENCE
. ilar triangles
riangles are similar if they are exactly alike in every respect except for size. This may be
ened to a man and his photograph being alike except that they differ in size. Mathematically
gles are similar if
• the corresponding sides are in the same ratio.
• they are equiangular
• one angle of the one is equal to one angle of the other and the sides that form the equal
angles are proportional.
e following diagrams illustrate the above three conditions. It must be pointed out however
t once one of the above conditions is satisfied for any pair oftriangles, the other two
_ nditions are true for the same pair
~C is similar to L'.PQR: the ratio of corresponding
sides is the same ie
8 to AB = ~ = 2 BC = 6 = 2 AC = 10 = 2
PQ 4 ' QR 3 ' PR 5
All three sides are in the same ratio.
BL--;c----"C
6
B
LlABC is similar to LlPQR: they are equiangular le
Q LA = LP, LE = LQ, Lc = LR
~
40 ~
C P R
6 Q LlABC is similar to LlPQR: one angle of the one is
~R
equal to one angle of the other and the sides that
40°
A 15 C form the equal angles are proportional
LA = LP AB = ~ = 3 AC = ~ = 3
, PQ 2 ' PR 5
Example 1: In the diagram below, prove that triangle ACD is similar to triangle ABE. Hence
[md the length of AB given that AC = 9cm, BE = 3cm, and CD = 6cm
A
cm
:-<---+-----"D
cm
Since the triangles are similar then

Solution: LACD = LABE (corresponding angles) AB BE
-=-
LMX= LABB (corresponding angles) AC CD
LCAD is common to both triangles AB 3cm
LIs ABE and ACD are equiangular and 9cm
= 6cm
hence s i m i l a r . - - - - - - - - - - - I :·AB =4.5cm
198
Similar solids
If two solids are similar then
(a) corresponding sides are in the same ratio
(b) ratio oftheir surface areas = (ratio of corresponding sidesi
(c) ratio of their volumes = (ratio of corresponding sides t..
The diagram shows two similar cuboids:
G H
B ,.e-_.+--....::C,..... P
A . . , .. ",,~
I
I:_U~ ------
IDem
E J@W°'K
., .......
2cm
w------
M
4cm
15cm D I 6cm L
AD DE DC
- -- =- =-5 i.e. ratio of corresponding sides = 5 : 2.
IL LM LK 2
.' .Ratio of their surface areas = ( %) = 25 : 4

Ratio of their volumes r
=( % =125 : 8.
Example: The cylinders X and Y below are similar, [md:

(a) the ratio oftheir radii
(b) the ratio of their curved surface areas
(c) the volume of Y given that X has volume 621cm
X
,----~,l
18cm
lYj}
Solution:(a) Ratio of heights = ~ = 3: 2 :. RI : R 2 = 3-..:....b
12 --
(b) Ratio.oftheir curved surface areas:: ( %) 2 =W

(c) Volume of Y =( 2)3 =8
Volume of X 3 27
:.VolumeofY = ~xVolumeof
27 .
X
= ~X621
27
= 18~
199
ercise 24a
. The following pair of triangles are similar, find the value of k.
,B
~ ~R
A 4 C V~
_ In the diagram, ~ABC is similar to ~CDE. Find the value of x.

D
5
x
12 C
E
5
In the diagram, ~ABE is similar to MCD. Find the value of x.
5 6
C.L----"Ix----~D
- In the diagram, MBE is similar to MCD. Find the length of BC
A
9
BV--~=---",!E
15
C"-----_--------""D
25
- In the diagram, MBD is similar to ~CD. Find the length of BC.
A
E
42cm
28c
B C 48cm'D
The diagram shows a cone of radius 20cm, height 30cm, containing water to a depth of 9cm.
Calculate the value of r, the radius of the water surface.
20cm
200
7. In the diagram,K is a kite tied to a horizontal the ground at G by a rope GK. The rope just
passes over a vertical pole PR of height 4.2m. Given that the kite is h metres vertically abo
E, GE = 12.6m and GP = 7cm, fmd the value of h.
K
h
4.2m
7 P
G 12.6m E
8. Two of the following cones are similar, which ones are they?
9. Which two of the following cylinders are similar?

D
A
C
24 36
16
,_-----0--_
.... .0 _
.-
10. In the diagram below, the diameter of cone A is l~ of the diameter of cone B. Given that
the cones are similar answer the follwing questions.
(a) If the diameter of cone A is 5cm, fmd the diameter of cone
(b) If the radius of cone A is 12crri what is the radius of cone
/\ (c) If the surface area of cone B is 200cm2 , fmd the area of
~ (d) If the volume of cone A is 1000cm3 , find the volume of
Cone A ConeB
11. KOOL drink is a drink powder sold in large anq small packets shown below. The packet
are similar. Find (a) the ratio of corresponding sides
(b) the ratio of their surface areas
/ / . (c) the ratio of their volumes
KOOL Given that the volume of the large packet is
Drink 1728cm3 , fmd
KOOL (d) the volume of the small packet
Drink
Given further that the total surface area of the
small packet is 488cm2 , find
1/ 8em (e) the surface area of the large packet.
12en
201
_. The diagram shows a plane and its model.The ratio, length of plane to length of the model
is 80: 1. calculate; (a) the length of the model in metres given that the length
plane of the plane is 32m
<;; --. -~.. ~ (b) the ratio of their surface areas
00 (c) the volume of space in the model if the plane has
~~---- 32m volume 640m 3 •
~~;Jg--
• 00
ongruent triangles
riangles are congruent if they are exactly alike in every respect. This may be likened to a
:nan and his image in a plane mirror. Mathematically triangles are congruent if
• each of the three sides of one is equal to each of the three sides of the other (SSS)
• two sides and included angle of one are equal to two sides and included angle of the
other (SAS)
• two angles and a side of one are equal to two angles and a corresponding side of the
other (AAS)
the hypotenuse and a side of a right angled triangle are equal to the hypotenuse and a
side of the other (RHS)
Howing diagrams illustrate the above three conditions.

- Side - Side (SSS)
In the diagram:
AB = PQ, BC = QR and A€ = PR
So the triangles are congruent (SSS)
B '----1t---~C R
_ Side - Angle - Side (SAS)
~p~
In the diagram:
AB = PQ, LA = LP and AC = PR
So the triangles are congruent (SAS)
B C Q R
3. Angle - Angle - corresponding side (AAS)

A P.
In the diagram:
LE = LQ, Lc = LR and AC = PR
So the triangles are congruent (AAS)
Q R
202
4. Right angle - Hypotenuse - Side (RHS)
p.
In the diagram:
LE = LQ = 90°, AC ~ PR and BC-
So the triangles are congruent (~
B C Q
.. R
Example 1: In the diagram below, AB = AD and BC = CD, prove that LABc = LAne
B D
A
,
Proof: In triangles ABC and ADC
AB = AD (Given)
BC = CD (Given)
AC is a common side
:.MABC is congruent to MDC (SSS)
Hence /ABc = LADC
Example 2: In the figure ABCDE, AB = DE and L BAC = LCDE. Prove that triangles
ABc-and DEC are congruent.
B D
A E
Proof: In triangles ABC andDEC

AB = DE (Given)
" LIBAC = LCDE (Given)
=
LIBCA LDCE (Vertically opposite angles)
.". t1ABC is congruent to t1DEC (AAS)
203
ercise 24b
_The following pairs of triangles are congruent, state the property (SSS, AAS etc) that makes
them congruent.. •
(a) 6.ABD and6.BCD (b) 6.ABC and6.DEF
A D~-+.---.J
B B F
(d) 6.ABC and 6.ADC
_ Below are four pairs of congruent triangles, identify the pairs.
A C 4 D
~ 4 ~
E="...,-= F G H
In the diagram below prove that6.ABC imd 6.DEC are congruent. Hence prove that
~ACD and 6.BCE are also congruent.
------------------------- D
C
B ------------------------ E
204
4. In the diagram below, prove that AD = BC.
A.. . - - - - - - - 7 1 D
B""-------.L..J
C
5. In the diagram below, ACD is an equilateral triangle and BC = DE, prove that
~ACB and ~ADE are congruent.
B E
A
6. In the diagram below, ABCD ia rectangle, BM = MC, DC = CN,M is the midpoint

of AN and DCN is a straight line (a) Prove that the following triangles are congruent
N
(i) ~MCN and ~MBA
(ii) ~ABC and ~ADC
(iii) ~AMC and ~BMN
(iv) ~ACN and ~ABN
M
Br"'-_-+--cr-_+-----7l C (b) What kind of quadrilateral is ABNC?
(c) Given that AD = l2cm and DC = 5cm, find
(i) the length of AC
(ii) the length of AN
A=--------"D (iii? the length of AM
7. In the diagram, PQRS is a rectangle. Given that LR = PN and RM = KP prove that

"T- --:::~L"-+-,R that ~KQL is congruent to ~MSN. Hence
(a) state the length of MS given that KQ = 6cm
M
(b) find the length of NS given further that KL = IOc
K
(c) find the area of the figure PKLRMN given that the
area of the rectangle is l32cm 2
P '--+--N''--------ls
205
25. PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM
Pythagoras' theorem states that in a right angled triangle the area ofthe square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides.
The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle and it is the longest side of the triang'le.
"
We use the triangle notation where the side
opposite angle A is marked a, the side opposite
angle B is marked b and the side opposite angle C
is marked c. Now, from the diagram, considering
c areas AI, A2 and A3 we have
2
AI = a x a= a
By Pythagoras Theorem: Al + A z = A 3
... a Z+ b 2 = c2
Proof of Pythagoras' theorem
~
AI~ N c ~IB
the above diagram, triangles ABC, ACN and CBN are similar. From triangle
-.BC and ACN
AC AB
-=-
AN AC
b x +y
-=--
x b
2
".b = x(x + y)
... b2 = xc (since x + y = c) ~ 1
m triangles ABC and CBN
BC AB
-=-
NB BC
. a x+y
-=--
y a
2
... a =y(x+y)
".a = yc (since x + y = c) ---~ 2
2
dding equations 1 and 2 we have

2 2
a + b = yc + xc
a + b2 = c(y + x)
2
~L+_b~ c2 (Proved}
206
Example 1: Find the length of the side marked c in the triangle ABC below.
A
c
4
C L...L--,3,------~·B
Solution: Here a = 3, b = 4 and we are required to find c. Applying Pythagoras theorem in

triangle ABC we have
2 2
a + b = c2
:.3 +4 =C2
2 2
:. c2 = 25
:. c=.J2S
:.c =5
Example 2 A ladder placed Srn from C, the base of a vertical wall, meets the wall at
point A 12m from the base of the wall. Calculate the length of the ladder.
T
12m
\
l~ C Srn B
Solution: Here, BC = Srn, AC = 12m and we are required to [md AB, the length of the
ladder. Using Pythagoras' theorem in triangle ABC we have
AB2=A~+BC2
AB 2 = 122 + 52
= 144+25
= 169
:.AB = ,1169
:.AB = 13m
Th~gth of theJa . therclore l.Jm
Example 3: In the diagram below, ABCDEFGH is a cube of side 7.2cm, calculate

(i) the length of AE (ii) the length of AF
G F
Br=----+-'r--:::/ 7.2cm
::::?-T=:::::::;:~E
A ~:::::::==--J--- 7.2cm
7.2cm D
207
Solution: (i) In the diagram, L'.ADE is right angled at D. Using Pythagoras' theorem inL'. ADE
we have
2 2 2
AE = AD + DE
AE 2 = 7.22 + 7.22
~:
"
= 51.84+51.84
= 103.68
A 7.2cm D
:.AE = .JI03.68
:.AE = 1O.18cm
Thur,;ngth of AE is therefore 1O.2cm correct to I <Lp.
(ii) L'.AEF is right angled at E. Using Pythagoras' theorem in L'.AEF we have

AF2 = AE2 + EF2
= 10.22 + 7.22 F
= 104.04 + 51.84
= 155.88
E
:.AF = .,)155.88
:.AF = 12.49 !\.
length of AF is therefore 12.5clll correctJg 2 d.p.
Exercise 25
1. Determine which of the following are dimensions of a right angled triangle
(a) 3cm, 4cm, 5cm (b) 3cm, 5cm, 7cm (c) 12m, 5m, 13m
(d) 7.5cm, 1Ocm, 5.2m (e) 0.6m, 1 m, 0.8m CD 14m, 24m, 27m
2. The following are dimensions of the three sides of a right angled triangle. The side marked
e is the hypotenuse. Find the value of e in each case.
(a) 40cm, 30cm, ecm, (b) 14m, 1O.5m, em (c) 6cm, 14.4cm, ecm (d) 8cm, 15cm, ecm
3. The following are dimensions of the three sides of a right angled triangle. The side marked
e is not ahypotenuse. Find the value of e in each case.
(a) Im, 3m, e m, (b) 4m, tmt m (c) 6cm, 4.4cmt cm (d) 8cm, 15cm, ecm
4. For each of the following triangles fmd the length ofthe side marked x
(a) B (b) R (c) (d)
x 8
4 .13
10
A P x
A
p~g)
(e) (t) x (h) A
L ,,
1. 2.4 4 10 20 G x ,,
5:,
M ,
R x Q N,
E 24...:-J e
208
5. A ladder is placed against a wall of height 20m (fig. 1). Use the given information in the
diagram to fmd the length of the portion LT of the wall.
W2
.,
20m
4m
M 8m N
Fig. 1 Fig.2
6. Fig. 2 shows two walls, W 1 and W2 4m apart. A ladder of length 7.Sm is placed in such a
way that it touches the top of the two walls. Given that W I is 4m high, find the height of
7. In fig. 1 below, PQ is a vertical mast of height 4CAn. M is l2m due east ofP and N is Srn
due South of P. Given that triangle PMN is in a horizontal plane, calculate the Lengths of
(a) QM (b) QN (c) MN
Srn 2m
.Sm
12m
P W X
Fig.2
8. In fig2 above, two ropes oflengths 8.Sm and l2mattached to the ground at W and X
respectively are used to support a vertical pole PQ of length Srn. Given that PWX is a
straight line, find the lengths of
(a) PX (b) PW (c) WX
9. A rope WQX. of length l metres. is used to support a vertical pole PQ of length 6m as

shown in the diagram below. The ropes are attached to the ground at W and X. Given that
WP = 8.2m. PX = l2Am and WPX is a straight line, fmde correct to the nearest metre.
Q
6m
W 8.2m P 12Am X
209
10. The diagram shows a pyramid on a square base of side 10cm. The vertex V is 12cm
vertically above M, the centre of the of the square. Find the length of
v (a) AC
(b) AM
(c) AV
(d) MN, where N is the midpoint of AD
Ht----:::;:::::;;i'.C (e) VN
A ~:::::::::_y lOm
lOm B
.'
11. In the diagram below, ABCDEFGH is a cube of side 7.2cm, calculate

G F (a) the length of AE
B (b) the length of AF
6cm (c) the length of BD
E
8cm
C I
12. The diagram shows the side view of a wall ABCDE of a house. BC = CD. Calculate
(a) the vertical distance of C from BD
(b) the length of t he diagonal AD
(c) the length of AC
B D (d) the length of BC
4.2m
A 6m E
210
26. SINE. COSINE AND TANGENT
Here we shall concern ourselves with the ratios as applied in a right angled triangle
A .
Let LE =8. AB = c is the hypotenuse,
AC = b is theopposite side to angle 8
BC = a is the adjacent side to angle 8.
c
b
Sin8 = opposite = .!:.

8
C u---:a---l---"B hypotenuse c
Cos8 = adjacent =~
hypotenuse c
Tan8 = opposite b
adjacent a
We use the mnemonic SOH CAR TOA for easy recall, where
SOH stands for Sine is Opposite over Hypotenuse
CAR stands for Cosine is Adjacent over Hypotenuse
TOA stands for Tangent is Opposite over Adjacent
Applications
The sine, cosine and tangent ratios enable us to fmd sides and angles of a right angled
triangle.
Use of SOH
SOH is used to fmd
• the Opposite side given the angle and the hypotenuse
• the Hypotenuse given an angle and the opposite side to the angle
• the angle given the opposite side to the required angle and the hypotenuse
Example 1: In the diagram below fmd the side marked a

A
CaB
Solution: Here, the Hypotenuse is given," we are required to fmd a theOppsite side to
the given angle 30'.
sine = Opposite
Hypotenuse
:.sin30o = ~
6
:.a = 6sin30o
:.a = 3
Therefore the sideJllilIkedJUs oflen,gthJ unit:>
211
Example 2. Find the length of the side marked c in the diagram below.
C B
12.4 c
Solution: Here, the angle and the Opposite side to the angle is given and we are required to
fmd the length of theH ypotenuse
. 9 Opposite
srn = ---'--'----
Hypotenuse
. 630 =12.4
srn --
c
c sin63° = 12.4
:.c= -12.4--
sin 63°
:.c = 13.9
Tllerefill1Uhe i<kunarked c is-cllep,gth 3.~nits
ample 3. In the diagram below, PQ = 1.8 units QR = 2.5 units, find the size of the angle
marked 9.
p
1.
9 R
Q 2.5
Solution: The hypotenuse and opposite to the required angle is given. We are required to find 9
'9 Opposite
srn =---'--'----
Hypotenuse
. 9 =1.8
srn -
2.5
9 =' sin -I (M)
2.5
:.9=46 0
~ize of the..Ieguired angle is therefore 46°
'se ofCAH
AH is used to fmd
• the Adjacent side given the angle and the hypotenuse
• the Hypotenuse given an angle and the adjacent side to the given angle
• the angle given the adjacent side to the required angle and the hypotenuse
212
Example 1: In the diagram below, fmd the length of theside marked q.
p
q
~5
L_~~\5.o----R
Q 15
Solution: Here, we are given the length of the hypotenuse and an angle: we are required to
the adjacent to the given angle
Adjacent
cos S = ---"----
Hypotenuse
cos 55° = --'L
15
:.q= 15cos55°
:.q = 8.6
Th~uhuideJl)arked q is ofJwj!,thJi.6-linjts
Example 2: In the diagram below, find the length of the side marked r .
p
Solution: The side marked r is the hypotenuse and we are required to find the length of
hypotenuse given an angle and the adjacent to the angle.
Adjacent
cosS = --'"----
Hypotenuse
0 5.3
cos42 = -
r
:.r cos42° = 5.3
5.3
..r = --..,.-
cos 42°
:.r = 7.1
There~he side marked r is of length 7.1 units.
Example 3: In triangle PQR, LQRP = 90°, q = 14cm and r = 17cm, fmd the size of LQPR
Solution: We fIrst draw triangle PQR, as shown below. The hypotenuse and the
adjacent to the required angle is given. Let the required angle be S.
p
213
cos8 = Adjacent
Hypotenuse
l4cm
cos8 =
l7cm
.'.8 = cos -I (:~) (note that the centimeters cancel)
:.8 = 34.6°
Ther\;foKJhe size of LOPR is 34.6°
'se of TOA
OA is used to fmd
• the Opposite side given the angle and the adjacent

• the Adjacent side given an angle and the opposite side to the given angle
• the angle given the adjacent side to the required angle and, the opposite
mple 1: In the diagram below fmd the side marked a
32c
CaB
lution: (a) Here we are required to find the opposite side given the angle and the adjacent.
Opposite •
tan8 = ----'~-
Adjacent
. 370 = a-
..tan
32
:.a = 32tan37°
:.a=24.l
Th\;refore.lhe side marked a is of!\;Il$th 21.1cm
mple 2. Find the length of the side marked n in the diagram below.
M n L
lution: Here, we are required to fmd opposite given an angle and theadjacent to the angle.
Opposite
tan8 = ----'~--
Adjacent
tatli4' = ~
16
.' .n = 16 tan54'
:.n= 22
Th\;r\;fQr\;j;he~jde marked n.· _01 kncrlh 22_uuits
214
Example 3. In the diagram below, PQRSTUVW is a cuboid of length 24cm, breadth 18cm
and height l3cm. Calculate
(i) PV (ii) Lupv
T U
l3cm
S
e\- 24cm
18cm Q
Solution: (i) We use Pythagoras theorem in tJ>QV to calculate PV. Thus

PV2 = P Q2 + QV2
= 18 2 + 242
=900 ,
:.PV = .J900
:.PV = 30cm
(ii) Let LupV = e. ~UPV is right angled at V therefore

Opposite
tane = -"~-
Adjacent
tane = _UV_
PV
Bcrn
= --
30cm
.e- -I (.'l.)
.. -tanJO
:.e - 23,4 0
:. tl.IE.-V-==-2l.£'
Exercise 26a
1. In each of the following fmd, as fractions in their lowest terms, the values of sine, cose
tane. (Do not evaluate e)
(a) (b) Q (c) (d)

e
24 10 e
8 6 17cm
C 12.5
A P 7.5 P
A
2. In each of the following fmd the length of th6;ide marked x
(a) (d)
P~(')
C (b) A
x G
A 25
R x Q
E t4---x_
215
(e) (t) (g) B (h)
.. .-----,Q
7.3
c
x 2
A p
A
Q
3. Find the angle marked e

(a) B (c) (d)
24 3.8
6
e C
L.L--"---"A p 4.5 e
A
(e) (t) (g) (h) rr-----'X'-----_-,Q

C
4
A e
17 Q
E
A. A ladder is placed against a wall as shown in the diagram below. The ladder touches the wall
at the point G where FG = 8.5m, F being the foot of the wall Find
(a) the size of LFHG (b) the length ofFH (c) the tangent of LFGH
8.5m
F H
-. Calculate the perimeter of the quadrilateral ABCD below.

A
20cm ......... --- <fo

0
5
............
--
D.t..--:::-=---- - - - - - - ' - " C
---
216
6. In the quadrilateral PQRS, calculate
12.6em S (a) lJ'sQ
(b) LI'QS
!le . (c) the length of SR
R (d) the length of QS
-.
L<::::::..-o~-r.14em
Q
7. In the diagram below, AB and CD are two vertical pillars and AED is horizontal Use the
C
,,, given information to fmd
, (a) the distance AE
,, (b) the height of pillar CD
B,
,, , '\5 (c) the di.stance BC.
,
,,,
20" , ,
Sm ,, ,,,
,, ,
\/3m
A E D
8. The diagram below shows two walls, W J and W 2 • Given that W J is 5m high, the ladder is of
length7.5rn and it makes an angle of 35° with the horizontal, fmd
(a) the distance between the walls (b) the height ofW2
9. In the diagram QRST is a rectangle. The point V is vertically above P, where P is the
geometrical centre of the rectangle. Given that PV = 4cm, QR = 6cm, QT = 8cm
and U is the midpoint of QT, calculate;
(a) the lengths of VU and QS

(b) the length of VQ correct to one decimal place
(c) LUVQ correct to one decimal place
(d) LQVT correct to the nearest degree
(e) the angle between the planes QRST and VQT
(f) the angle between the planes VQT and VRS
to the nearest degree.
217
The ratios and Pythagoras' theorem •
Example: In a right angled triangle ABC, where Lc = 90" sinA = ~ fmd the value of
17
(i) cosA (ii) tanA (iii) cosB
Solution: We first draw the triangle as shown below and then use Pythagoras' theorem
to find AC" Thus
C
~ 8 B
AC2 = AB 2 _ BC2
= 172 _ 82
= 289- 64
=225
AC = .,)225
= 15
BC
Hence: (i) cos A = AC (
"")
11
.A
taJlr' = -BC (iii) cosB =
AB AC AB
15 8 8
= =- =
17 15 17
ine and cosine of complementary angkes

Consider t.ABC below:
A LA + LE = 90" (:.A and B are complementary angles)
SinA = ~
c
b c
a
CosB = -
c
B :. SinA = CosB
Hence the sine of an acute angle is equal to the cosine of its complement
Thus: sin200 = cos(90"- 20") = cos70o

Sin45 ° = cos(90° - 45°) = cos45°
Sin600 = cos(90° - 60") = cos30°
.n general: sine = cos(90° - 8)

and cos 8 = sin(90 0 - 8)
218
Sine, cosine and tangent of supplementarv angles.
Consider the diagrams below. In fig 1, the ratios of a i.e. sina, cos a and tana are positive
90· If a is obtuse, (fig. 2) its supplement, a is acute and the ratios

Y are:
sma BC, wh'IC h'IS pOSItIve
· =- ..
AB
180·+---.offi'--"----ll-.!.>.<...-l+ O· AC,
cosa = - W h'IC h'IS ..
negatIve smce AC'IS negatIve
.
X AB
tan a = BC, which is negative for the above reason
AC
Fig. 1 But since these ratios are numerically the same as those
obtained when a is acute, save for the sign in the case of the
90· cosine and tangent, then
• the sine of an obtuse angle equals the sine of its
supplement
• the cosine of an obtuse angle equals the negative
cosine of its supplement
1801"J--,,I;..L---=~1-r---'----+. O·
X • the tangent of an obtuse angle equals the negatM
tangent of its supplement
Fig. 2
In general, if a and a are supplementary angles where a is obtuse and a is acute then
sin a = sin(l800- a) = sina e.g. sin150° = sin(180° - 150") = sin300

cos a = -cos(180° - a) = -cosa e.g. cos1400= -cos(l80° - 140°) = -cos40°
tan a = -tan(l80o - a) = -tana e.g. tan120° = -tan(l80° -120°) = -tan 60°
Example 1: Find the angles lying between 0 and 180' which satisfy the following equations
(i) sina = 0.5 (ii) cosa = 0.7071 (iii) tana = 1.732
Solutions: (i) We are required to fmd the values of a whose sine is 0.5
sina = 0.5
=> a = sin· 10.5
:.a = 30° or 180°- 30°
:.a - 30° or 150°
Note that the sine of an obtuse angle equals the sine of its supplement(sinI50° = sin3
(ii) cos a = 0.7071

=> a = cos .10.7071
:.a=4°
This is the only possible solution in tlie given range since cos(l800- 45°) = cos13:l
is negative.
(iii) tana = 1.732

=> a = tanh.732
:. a- 60°
This is the only possible solution in the given range since tan(l800- 60°) = tan120"
is negative.
219
Example 2: Solve the following equations for 0';;; x';;; 180°
(i) cosx = -0.1246 (ii) tanx = -1.3350
Solution: (i) The acute angle whose cosine is 0.1246 is 62.8° but since we are required to
find the angle whose cosine is - 0.1246, which is negative, the solution is
therefore the supplement of 62.8° i.e. 117.2. Thus
...cosx ='-0.1246
::::} x = 180°- 62.8°
".x - 11.1.2°
(ii) The acute angle whose tangent is 0.3350 is 18.5 0 but since we are required to
fmd the angle whose tangent is -0.3350 the solution is thesupplementof 18.5°
i.e. 161.5°. Thus
tan. = -0.3350
::::} x = 180°- 18.5°
... =1 .~
Exercise 26b
1. Given that e is an acute angle, fmd the values of e such that
(a) sin e = cos45° (b) sin e = cos70° (c) sin 10° = cos e (d) cos50° = sin e
(e) sin34° = cos e (f) cos e = sin22° (g) sin e = cos90° (h) cos e = sin2°
_. In a right angled triangle ABC, where Lc = 90°, sinA = 4 , fmd the value of
5
(a) cosA (b) tanA (c) sinB (d) cosB (e) tanE
(f) 2sinAcosA (g) sinAcosB (h) cosAtanA (i) sinBtanB (j) sinA
cosA
'. In a right angled triangle ABC, where LA = 9rJ', cosB = 0.6, find
(a) sinB (b) tanC (c) sinC (d) cosC
~. If x is an acute angle solve the followirig equations

(a) sinx = 0.7071 (b) cosx = 0.5 (c) tanx = 1 (d) cosx = 0.6704
-. If x is an obtuse angle solve the following equations

(a) sinx = 0.3214 (b) cosx = -0.5 (c) tanx = -2 (d) 2sinx - 1 = 0
. Solve the following equations for 0 ,;;; x';;; 180°

(a) sinx = 0.5 (b) sinx = 0.2 (c) cosx = 0.359 (d) tanx = -0.25
(e) cos x = -0.9021 (f) sinx = 0:6530 (g) cosx = 0.48 (h) tanx =-5
... In the diagram below, BeD is a straight line, fmd the following
(a) the length of AC
A
(b)tana (c)tane
(d) sina (e) sin e
(f) cosa (g) cose
15
(h) angle a (i) angle e
BL.....L-,,-I--=-*----'---D"
220
27. ANGLES OF ELEVATION, DEPRESSION AND
BEARINGS
The diagram below shows twoangles e and 13. e is an angle of elevation andl3 is an angle
of depression.
Angle f elevation
~o
-~
--:0 Plane
8 = angle of elevation
13 = angle of depression
Note that both angles are me
from the horizontal.
Angle of depression
Plant
To focus on the plane above the eye leve\ the eye level is raised (elevated) through angle O.
hence e is an angle of elevation. To focus on the plant below the eye level the eye level is
lowered (depressed) through an angle 13, so 13 is an angle of depression. Note that both ang
measured from the horizontal.
For any two points P and Q, which are at different altitudes, the angle of elevation of P fro
Q is equal to the angle of depression of Q from P.
p _ ~¥~!~:~~ E
e In the diagram, PE is parallel to RQ
Hence LQPE = LRQP =e
Thus, the angle of elevation of P from
Q is equal to the angle of depression
e ofQ from P
R LL.------>.-""---"'-J
Q
Example 1 A monkey on top of avertical pole IOm high observes an approaching dog.
the instant when the angle of depression of the dog is 28, fmd the distance
tie dog from the foot of the pole.
Solution: We fIrst sketch the diagram as shown below. The angle of depression of the do"
28° means that to focus on the dog, the monkey lowers its line of vision b~8 0.
M is the position of the monkey, D is the position of the dog and F is the foot
the pole. Noe that the eye level ME is parallel to FD so LMDF = 28°.
We are here required to fmd the distance FD.
M .!O..Y.."_~"_"_eL E
28°
lOm
F'L-JL------'--=--'"r,
221
MF
Now, tanD=-
FD
tan2S'= 10
FD
10
:.FD=--
tan 28°
:.FD = 18.8
The dog is therefore 18.8m fromJhe foot of tuuolc
Example 2. The diagram shows the angles of elevation of the tops P and T of two walls
of heights 12m and Srn respectively. The angleof elevation of P from S is 68°
and the angle of elevation of T from S is 41 ~ Calculate the distance between
the two walls.
12m
olution: The distance between the walls is AB. We consider AB as the sum of AS and SB.
In ~ASP, tan68 0 = AP In ~BST, tan41 0 = BT
AS BS
12 S
= =
AS BS
:.AS= ·12 S
:.BS= - -
tan 68° tan41°
:. AS -4.8m :.BS -S.8m
Now, AB = /is + BS
= 4.8m+S.8m
= 1O.6m
The diS1anc.e between the.walls is thmforelO.6m
222
Exercise 27a
1. (a) If the angle of elevation of P from Q is 40, what is the angle of depression ofQ from P?
(b) If the angle of depression of A from B is 54°, what is the angle of elevation of B from A_
2. Calculate the angle of elevation of P from Q in each of the following

(a) (b)
24m 5
R 20m Q R 30m Q
(,) A'.6ill (b) 3:L

3. Calculate the angle of depression ofB from A in each of the following
n------.J........I.C C B
7Am x
4. The angle of elevation of the top of tall building is 7Cf'. If the observer is standing 18m
from the foot of the building, fmd the height of the building. (Neglect height of observer)
5. The angle of depression of a stone from the top of a vertical tower 19m high is 43°, how
far is the stone from the foot of the tower?
6.
,,
,,
,
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
In the diagram, a man standing on a bridge at D is observing two stationary fishing boats
A and B. From D, the angle of depression of A is 50° and the angle of depression of B is
30°. Given that the height of the bridge is 34m,calculate
(a) the distance of A from the-bridge
(b) the distance of B from the bridge
(c) the distance AB
An eagle E hovering over the fishermen is 50m vertically above\, calculate
(d) the angle of elevation of E from D (e) the angle of elevation of E from B
7. From a vertical observation post 0, (see diagram below), the angle of depression ofS w
is to the east of 0 is 36° and the angle of depression of B which is west of 0 is 25". If M .
the foot of the post, OM = 44m and BMS is horizontal, fmd;
~
o (a) the distance MS
(b) the distance MB
44 (c) the distance BS
B... -"M .s (d) the size of LBOS.
223
EARINGS
Bearings are used to find direction in places where there are no roads e.g. at sea, in the air and
. the jungle. Bearings are usually measured from the north in the clockwise direction using
ee digit notation. So the rnrth is taken as the bearing 000 0.
The diagram below shows two bearings; the bearing of B from A, 070° and the bearing of A
mB,250°.
The north at A and the north at B are puallel directions
N
North :. 70°+ x = 180° (interior angles)
000° :.x=110°
The bearing of A from B is therefore 360° - 110° = 250°
In general, if the bearing of B from A is 9 then the
bearing of A from B is 180° + 9. If this exceeds 360°
subtract 360° from the result.
,\nother way of giving beanigs is to measure the angle from the north or south depending
whether or not the angle is in the first, second, third or fourth quarter of the compass.
e diagrams below illustrate this way of giving bearings
N N N
115°
w----I""---E W----'1I----E W------l<,------E W-----,/----E
o
S S S·
N~E N~W S5ifE S400W
• 60° E is read as 'north 60° east' and S 50° E is read as 'south 50° east' etc.
mple 1.The diagram below shows three points P, Q and Ron a map. Given that the
bearing of Q from Pis 035 0, the bearing of R from Q is 110° and LQRP = 33°,
N [md (a) the bearing ofP from Q
(b) the bearing of Q from R
N (c) the bearing ofP from R
Q 110° (d) the bearing of R from P
N
R
35° v
P
Iution: (a) To determine the bearing ofP from Q weneed to know the angles x and y
A north at P and a north at Q are parallel directions, therefore
x = 35° (alternate angles)
Alternatively, the bearing of Q from P is
y + 110° = 180° 035°, therefore the bearing of Q from P
:.y = 180° _110° 0
is 180° + 035 = 215 0
:.y=7(f
The bearing ofP from Q = x + y + 110°
= 35° + 70° + 110°
= 2.15°
224
( b) A north at Q and a north at R are parallel directions, therefore
110° + w = 180° (interior angles)
:.w = 180° - 110° Alternatively, the bearing of R from Q = 110'
Therefore the bearing of Q from R
= 70° = 180°+ 110°
The bearing of Q from R = 360° _ 70° =2900
=290~
(c) The bearing of P from R = 360° - (70° + 33°) (since w = 70°)

=257°
(d) A north at P and a north at R are parallel directions, therefore

(35° + v) + (33° + w) = 180° (interior angles)
:.v = 180° - (350 + 33° + 70°) Alternatively, the bearing of P from R = 257'
:.v = 42° Therefore the bearing ofR from P = 1800+2~
43
The bearing ofR from P= 35° + 42 = . th bear· f R fr P _ 437 0 =3 60:
_ 07.70 .. e mg 0 om - -
- ~ =Q77'
Note: a bearing of 437' is the same as 077°
Example 2. A man starts from A and cycles for 54km on a bearing of 060° to B, fmd
(i) how far north of A he is
(ii) how far east ofA he is.
Solution: The diagram below shows the mar! s route
N
P ---------------- ,B .
54k ,,:
60° :
*-----'-~Q-
... E
(i) AP is the distance he is north of A (ii) AQ is the distance he is east of

In triangle APB In i1AQB, LBAQ = 9rJ' - 60°
AP = 30°
cos 60°= -
AB Cos30 0 = AQ
0.5 = AP AB
54 :.0.8660 = AQ
:.AP = 54· 0.5 54
:.AP = 27 :. AQ = 54· 0.8660
Therefore he is 27km north of A :.AQ =46.8
Therefore he is 46.8km east of A
Example 2: A ship sails from P to Q on a bearing of 055°. At Q it changes course and sails
oR on a bearing of 123". Given that PQ= 160km and QR = 140km, fmd
(a) how far R is east of P
(b) how far R is north of P
(c) the distance PR
225
Solution: We fIrst draw the diagram showing the ship's journey as shown below.
N
,
55':,57' 140km
,,
N 160km ,
P ~5~50~~::::::::~U~~:- -:'=--~-~-'='-~-:--:-:--~-1_
-:- ;_
(a) We are ultimately required to find PR and to do this, we work out PT and TS
and then use Pythagoras' theorem in ~PSR to work out this distance.
In ~PQT, PT = I60sin55°
:. PT = 131km
In ~QUR, UR = 140sin57°
:. UR = 117.4km
:. TS = 117.4km (:. UR = TS)
Now,PS=PT +TS
= 131 + 117.4
= 248.4km
IheITfQre R, is 248.4km east of P
(b) The distance UT or RS gives us how far R is north of P

Now in~PQT, QT2 = PQ2 - PT2
l2
= 1602 - 13
= 8439
:. QT= .)8439
:.QT = 91.9km
In ~QUR, QU2 = QR2 - UR2
QU2 = 1402 -117.42
= 5817
QU = .J5817
.·.QU =76.3
Now DT= QT- QU
= 91.9- 76.3
= 15.6
Ther.efore R is l:iNm nQrth oLP
(c) Now, PR2 = PS 2 + SR2

= 248.4 2 + 15.62
:.PS = .J61945.92
= 248.9
IheB~fQIT The distance PR is 248.9km
226
Exercise 27b
1. Calculate the bearing of A from B if the bearing of B from A is
(a) 100° (b) 014°
(c) 170° (d) 243°
(e) 290° (f) 300°
(g) 350° (h) 270°
2. From the diagram, fmd the following bearings

N N (a) the bearing ofC from A
C (b) the bearing of A from C
(c) the bearingofC fromB
A (d) the bearing ofB from C
(e) the bearing ofB from A
B
3. In the diagram, lhe bearing ofQ from P is 074° and the bearing of R from Qis 156°.
N Given that PQ = QR, fmd;
N (a) the bearing ofP from Q
(b) the bearing ofQ fromR
(c) the bearing ofR from P
N (d) the bearing ofP fromR
4. Use the given information in the diagram to determine, using three digit notatio,n
N (a) the bearing of R from Q
N (b) the bearing of Q from R
(c) the bearing ofP from Q
~:--------'--:-::68O:-0 -.,!R (d) the bearing of Q from P
N
(e) the bearing ofP from R
(f) the bearing of R from P
Q
5. A and B are two towns 200km apart as shown in the diagram below. Determine
N (a) the bearing of A from B
N (b) the bearingofB from A
A (c) how far A is west ofB
OOkm (d) how far A is north of B
63°
B
6. The diagram shows three landmarks, M, Nand O. Given that M is 40km due north
M 30km N and N is 30km due east of M, calculate
(a) the bearing of M from N
(b) the size of L:MON to the nearest degree
40km (c) the bearing ofN from 0
(d) the bearing of M from 0
o (e) the bearing of 0 from M
(f) the distance ON
227
-. A woman starts from town A, drives 500km to town B on a bearing of 234°. Calculate
(a) the distance by whichB is west of A
(b) the distance bywhich B is south of A
(c) the bearing of A from B
A, B and C shown below are three points on a map. The bearing of B from A is 050°. Find
No (a) the bearing of A from B
N rib (b) the bearing ofC fromB
(c) the bearing ofC from A
(d) the bearing of A from C
(e) the distance BC.
. The diagram shows three points, P, Q and R on a map. Given that PQ= 50km, QR = 130km,
PR = 120km and the bearing of Q from Pis 032°,
N (a) show that M'QR is right angled at P and
hence fmd;
N
(b) the bearing of R from P
(c) the bearing of P from R
(d) the size of LPQR to the nearest degree
130km
N
(e) the bearing ofR from Q
(t) the bearing ofQ from R
120km
10. In the diagram, P, Q, Rand S are the corners of a rectangular field. The bearing of Q
from P is 06(1'. The field is of length 4km and breadth 3km. Calculate
N N (a) the bearing of S from P
(b) the bearing of R from Q
(c) the bearing of S from R
R (d) the distance QS.
(e) the size of LRQS to the nearest degree
s (t) the bearing of S from Q
(g) the bearing of Q from S
(h) the bearing of R from P.
228
28. SINE AND COSl~JE RULES.
AREA OF A TRIANGLE
SINE RULE
The sine rule states that in any triangle ABC
a b c
= =
sinA sinB sinC
The sine rule is used to solve triangles.
Proof of the sine rule: consider AABC below.
C
,,
,
b :h a
,,
,
A D B
I~ c ~I
InAADC;
sinA =h :.h = bsinA ~ 1
b
InA BDC
sinB =.!: :.h asinB = ~2
a
From equations 1 and 2
asinB = bsinA ( each side equals h)
Dividing both sides of the above equation by sinA sinB we get
a b
=
sinA sinB
b c
Similarly, it can be.proved that each of _a_ and - - equals - -
a 0
Hence _ _ = _ _ = _ _ c .
SIll
A sinB sinC
sinA sinB sinC
sinA
. ",orm -
The aItematJve sinB
- =- - =- - IS use ful w hen fimd·mg an angIe.
sinC.
a b c
To solve any triangle using the sine rule, only two of the ratios are used at a rime, this
depending on the given information.
Finding a side
Example 1 Find the length of the side marked b in the diagram below:
~
Pi. b C
229
lution: Here, a = 12, LA = 64°, LE = 83° and we are required to fmd b
a b
=
sin A sinB
..' 12 = -b- -
sin 64° sin 83°
: .bsin64° = 12sin83°
:.b = 12sin83°
sin 64°
:.b = 13.3
T.he side_marked b is oJ!~n~h 13.3 units
ample 2; In Ll.ABC, c = IOcm, A = 60° and C = 110°, find

(i) a (ii) B (iii) b
lution: We first sketch the triangle and fill in the given information as shown below
C
b~a
~
(i) Now, _a_ = _c _ (Note that we write th~ formula that suits the given information)
sinA sinC
a 10
sin 60° sin 110°
. IOsin60°
.. a = - - - -
sinllO°
:.a=9.2
Therefore the side m<\rked <\ has length 9,2em
(ii) From the diagram,

0
A + B + C = 180
60 + B + 110° = 1800
0
:.B= 180°-170°
:.B =.100
(iii) b = c
sinB sinC
b 10
--=---
sin I 0° sin 110°
:.b = 10sinlO°
sinllO°
:.b = 1.8cm
So the length of_the-"!ide marked b is 1,8em
230
:Finding an angle
When fmding an angleit is more convenient to state the formula in the reciprocal form viz:
sinA sinB sine
=--=--
a b c
Example 1 In toPQR, p = 7.2cm, q = 4.3cm and P = 50°, fmd

(i) Q (ii) R (ill) r
Solution: We first sketch toPQR as shown below

P
50
4.3cm
r
Q'------=-:c---"-R
7.2cm
(i) As already said we state the formula in the reciprocal form;

sinQ sinP
thus - - --
q p
sinQ sin 50°
4.3
= 7.2
. . Q _4_.3_sin_5_0_0
.. sm =
7.2
:.sinQ =0.4575
:.0 = sin- 10.4575
:.Q=27.2° or 180°- 27.2°
= 27.2° or 152.8°
The solution 152.8° is not acceptable since 50° + 152.8° exceeds 180°
Ih~size of angle 0 is therefore 27.2°
(ii) P + Q + R = 180'
50° + 27.i + R = 180°
R = 180°- 77.2
:. R = 102.8°
sin102.8
= sin 50°
7.2sin102.8°
:.r
sin 50°
:.r = 9.2
Therefore the ide~arked r ha Jength~ll)
231
Example 3: In LlABC, A = 40", a = 5cm and b = 7.1cm. Find B
lution: The triangle is as shown in the diagram below.
5cm
7.1c
B
sinA sinB
--=--
a b
sin 40 sinB
5 7.1
:. sinE = 7.1sin40°
5
= 0.9128
:.B = sin· 10.9128
:.B = 65.9° or 180°_ 65.9°
= 6.5.9~1 4 °
Now, 40° + 114.9° < 180°, therefore both solutions are acceptable. This result shows
that there are two different triangles which can drawn using the given information.
This is an ambiguous case.
e sine rule and bearings

e sine rule is sometimes used to solve problems on bearings. The following example
ustrates this.
Example: A motorist starts fromtown X an d drives for 54km on a bearing of 220° to town Y.
She leaves town Yand drives for 63km on a bearing of 300° to Z. Given that the
bearing of town Z from X is 264°, calculate
(a) the size of L YXZ
(b) the size of L XYZ
(c) the distance XZ
Solution: We fIrst draw the diagram showing the motorist's journey
N .
N WLYXZ=~-~
=:140
zL-----.---'/1
b) L XYZ = 40° + 60°
63 =lOO~
XZ 63
(c) Now = ------,,-
sin 100° sin 44°
XZ= 63 sin 100°
sin 44°
.·.XZ=89~1km
232
Exercise 28a
1. Find angle e and the sides marked with smallltiters. (Do not use the sine rule to fmd 9).
(a) A (b) M 12cm (c) Q (d)
~ 60 25~r
5cm \750 L 2.5cm
780 ID
o° e 105° 35 X.L.246,,-°--:cc---"-"'-->
Ba C N R q p Y
3. The information below relates to triangle ABC.

(a) A = 45°, B = 68°, b = 5cm, calculate a
(b) a = 8.4cm, b = 6cm, A = 48°, calculate B
(c) A = 112°, a = 18cm, c = lOcm, calculate C
(d) b =7.2cm, B = 75°, C = 94°, find c
4. The information below relates to triangle PQR

(a) P = 63°, p = 19cm, q = 17cm, find: (i) Q (ii) R (iii) r
(b) P = 104°, Q = 23° , q = 8cm, fmd: (i) p (ii) R (iii) r
(c) Q = 83°, r = 7m, R = 35°, fmd: (i) q (ii) P (iii) P
(d) P = 55°, p = 20cm, r = 22cm, fIf1d: (i) R (ii) Q (iii) q
5. The information below relates to triangle ABC

(a) A = 89°, B = 45°, c = 7cm, fmd (i) C (ii) a (iii) b
(b) B = 143°, b = 25cm, c = 14cm, fmd (i) C (ii) A (iii) a
(c) C = 14<1', c = lOcm, b = 3cm, fmd (i) B (ii) A (iii) a
(d) A =70°, a = 6.9cm, b = 5.8cm, fmd (i) B (ii) C (iii) c
6. To a boy standing on an anthill, the angle of elevation of the top of a vertical pole is 53'
and the angle of depression of the foot of the pole is 20°. If his distance from the top
and the foot of the pole is 12m and 7.7m respectively, neglecting the height of the boy,
calculate the height of the pole
7. A man leaves town A and drives for 22km in the eastern direction to town B. He leaves
town B on a bearing of 126' for town C 14km away. If the bearing ofC from A is 104°
calculate (i) the distance between A andC
(ii) the bearing of A from C
233
S. In triangle ABC, a = x, b =(x + 1) A =4So and B = 63°. Find the value of x to the
nearest centimetre.
9. The bearings of two villages A and B from town C are 250° and 303° OS' respectively.
Ifthe distance AB = 40km, AC =50km and BC =30km, calculate
(a) LARc to the nearest degree
(b) the bearing ofB from A
10. A parallelogram ABCD has sides AB =5cm, BC = Scm and LBAC =6So. Calculate
(a) the size of LACB
(b) the length of AC
11. In the diagram below, ABCD is a trapezium, use the information in the diagram to fmd
l.8rn (a) the size of LARD
(b) the length of AB
(c) the size of obtuse LBCD
1.7rn
B c
12. Fromtown A, town B is due south and town C is 20krn away on a bearing of 200°.
Given that BC = 12krn, calculate
(a) the size of obtuse LABC to the nearest degree.
(b) the distance AB
(c) the bearing of B from C
13. In the diagram, the bearing of M from Lis 21So and the bearing ofN from Lis 23So.
North Given that LN = 653krn and NM = 351km,
calculate
L
(a) the size of LMLN
653km (b) the size of obtuse LLMN
North (c) the size of LLNM
(d) the bearing of M from N
M
N L.--o:::::--;;3~51;-;km- (e) the distance LM
234
COSINERVLE
The cosine rule states that in any triangle ABC, the following relationships are true
B
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bccosA
c a b2 = a2 + c2 - 2accosB
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2abcosC
A.L------~ C
b
The above rules are convenient when used to [md a side, if an angle is required the rules
expressed as as shown below.
-1 b 2 +c-a
2 2
A =Cos 2bc
a +c 2 - b2
-I
2
B = Cos
2ac
2
-I a +
b2 -c 2
C =Cos
2ab
Proof of the cosine rule

Consider triangle ABC below.
C
,,
,,,
, a
b :h
,
,,
c-x
A
I_
D
c ---...l
Using Pytha¥oras' theorem in~CAD we have
h 2 =b_x2 ~l
Again using Pythagoras' theorem in ~CDB we have
h 2 =a2 _(c_xi ~ 2
From equations I and 2
a2 _ (c _ X)2 = b2 _ x2 (:.each side equals h2)
a _ (c - 2cx + x2) = b2 _ x2
2 2
a2 _ c2 + 2cx _ x2 = b2 _ x2
:. a 2 =b2 + c2 -2cx ~ 3
x
From ~CAD, cosA = -
b
:.x = bcosA
Substitutin this value of x in equation 3 we have
~b_ f c2 _2 cc A
In a similar manner we can prove that
b 2 = a2 + c2 _ 2accosB
c 2 = a2 + b2_ 2abcosC
235
e cosine rule holds for both acute and obtuse angled triangles. The following is the proof for
case where the triangle is obtuse angled.
onsider L-.ABC below. The triangle is obtuse angled at A and the side AC is produced at A to
t the perpendicular from B at D
B
,,
,
,
a c J :h
C
..c::c_ _--:-_ _{'-"l
b A
~Q:-=x_~ ~D
mt-.ADB,
h2 = c2_ x 2 - - - -... 1
omL-.CDB
2 2
h = a - Cb + xi • 2
m equations 1 and 2
2
a2 _ Cb + xi = c2 - x (:. each side equals h2)
a2 _ (b2 + 2bx + Xl) = c2 _ x2
a 2 - b2 _ 2bx _ x2 = c2_ x2
:.a2 =b2 +c2 +2bx .3
omL-.ABD,
cos(180° - A) = ~
c
:.x = ccos(l80° - A)
.·.x = -ccosA (the cosine of an obtuse angle equals the negative cosine of its supplement)
bstituting this value of x in equation 3 we have
Jt
~2 = + c2 - 2b\;£QsA
. proves the cosine rule for an obtuse angled triangle
cosine rule is used to [md (i) the third side if two sides and the included angle are given
(ii) an angle if all three sides are given.
mding aside
Example 1: Find the length of the side marked a in the diagram below
B
~ a C
Solution: Here, two sides and the included angle are given, b = 8cm, c = 7cm, A = 78°
a 2 = b2 + c2 - 2bccosA
=8 2 +72 _2 x 8x7cos78°
= 113 -23.286
= 89.714
:. a = .J89.714 = 9~icm
236
F"mding an angle
The cosine rule is used to fmd an angle if all three sides are given
Example 1: Find the angle marked e in the diagram below.

A
B
~ 15 C
Solution: Here, a = 15, b = 12, c = 10 and we are required to fmd angle A = e

b2 2 2
A = Cos· 1 + C - a (by making A the subject of the formula a 2 = b2 + c2 - 2bccosA
2bc
12 + 102 -15 2
2
=Cos.,-----
2x12xlO
=Cos·'~
240
:.A = 85.5°
IhU-ize oLLngle e is 85.5 °
Example 2: Calculate the size of LLMN
~N
L 12 M
Solution: Here, 1= 10, m = 19, n = 12 and we are required to fmd the size of LLMN
From m2 = e+ n 2
2lncosM, we make M the subject to get
-
l'+n -m22
M =Cos·,-----
21n
10 + 122 -19 2
2
= Cos· 1 - - - - -
2xl0x12
·1 -117
= Cos - -
240
= Cos'l( - 0.4875)
The negative shows tint M is an obtuse angle (see page 219). The acute angle whose
inverse sign is 0.4875 is 60.8°
:.M = 180° - 60.8°
= 119.2°
Ih.erefQfe.Jhe..size..olLLMN is 119.2~
237
e cosine rule used in conjunction with the sine rule
Example: In triangle ABC, A = 5(1', b = 6cm and c = 8cm, fmd

(i) a (ii) B (iii) C
Solution: We first draw the triangle in question.
c
6cm a
50'
p;,L..:.'""--,;S"'cm=----"'B
(i) a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bccosA
2
= 6 + 82 _ 2 x 6 x 8cosSO°
= 100 - 61.718
= 38 .292
:. a = ..)38.292
:.a - 6.19cm
(ii) The length of the third side has been found, it is now easier to fmd the size of
angle B by using the sine rule. We calculate the smallest angle first, to avoid
puzzling over two possible angles (the ambiguous case). The smallest angle
is one opposite the short est side. Thus
sinB sinA
=
b a
sinB sin 50°
=
6 6.19
SinE = 6sinSO°
6.19
= 0.7425
B = 47.9 ° or 132.1°
:.B - 47.9°
132.1° is not acceptable since the smallest angle of a triangle can never be obtuse.
(iii) A + B + C =:' 180°

50° + 47.9° + C = 180°
C = 180° - 97.9°
:. C = 82.1°
e cosine rule and bearings

Some problems involving bearings are easily solved by using the cosine rule. The following
example illustrates this.
238
Example: A motorist starts fromtown A and drives for 75km on a bearing 222 ° to town B.
He leaves B and drives 90km on a bearing of 300° to town C. Calculate
(i) the size of LABc
(ii) the distance AC
(iii) the bearing of A from C
Solution: The diagram shows the motorist's journey.
N N
cl-----N-::---/?1
y
90km
(i) LABc = x + Y
= (222° - 180°) + (360° - 300°)
=42° + 60°
= 102°
The iz~of~..c i_therefore 102°
(ii) To work out the distance AC we use the cosine rule inl>ABC, thus
AC 2 = AB2 + BC2 - 2 x AB x BC cos LABc
= 75 2 + 902- 2 x 75 x 90cos102°
= 13 725 + 2806.808
= 16531.808
AC = .J16531.808
:.AC = 128.6
The diSlllilce AC is therefor 122k.m ~Qn:ect tQ.Jhe I!@est kilQlJ©re,
(iii) To work out the bearing of A from C we first work outL ACB
sinC sinB
=
c b
sin C sin 102
75
= 128.6
. C 75sin102
srn = - - - -
128.6
=0.5705
:.C = 34.8°
L ACB+ Y= 34.8° + 60°

= 94.8°
180° - 94.8° = 85.2°
The bearin~f.Aj[Qm C.is therefore 085 °CDITecUOth~nearest degre.e.,
239
Exercise 28b
1. Find the length of the side marked with a small letter.
(a) (b) p (c) B (d) Q

15cm B
A r
88'
C
Bc a Q
C R R P
A
X 16cm (g) (h
(e)M (f) Z B ) N
97'
14c 3.
n x Dm
12 l' 57
132' A 4.7 I.; 12cm M
N 12 0 Y
_ Find the angle marked 9.

(a) C 12cm (b) (c) (d)
B Q
9
10 IO.5cm B
15cm
A R Q
8.5cm
A P
(e) (f) (g) B (h)
N 14cm z N
~
9
M 25 L
y
25cm
A M
~ 28cm L
7. The following information relates to triangle ABC, find the indicated quantity in each case
(a) A = 29°, b = 3cm, c = 4cm; a
(b) a = 4cm, b = 3cm, C = 120°; c
(c) a = 6m, b =9m, c = 12m; B
(d) A = 120°, b = 2cm, c = 2.5cm; a
-. The following information relates to triangle FQR,

(a) p =7cm, q = IOcm, r = 12cm, fmd (i) R (ii) Q (iii) P
(b) P = 122°, q = 14cm, r = lOcm; find (i) P (ii) Q (iii) R
(c) P = 80", q = Srn, r = 4m, find (i) p (ii) Q (iii) R
(d) P = 11m, q =9m, r =7m, fInd (i) P (ii) Q (iii) R
In a parallelogram ABCD, AB = 3.scm. BC = 9.8cm and LBCD = 115°, calculate

(a) the length ofBD
(b) the size of LADB
(c) the size of LABD
240
6. In the diagram, ABCD is a parallelogram. Given that AB = IScm, BC = 12cm and
A 18em B LADC = 60", fmd
/
/0/\ /12cm
I (i) the size of LDCB
(ll) the length of the diagonal BD
D C
7. To a boy B seated on the 3rd floor of a multi- storey building, the angle of depression of the
top T of a tree is 25°. To a man M seated on the Sth floor vertically above the of the boy, the
angle of depression of the top ofthe tree is B. IfBT = ISm and BM = 16m ,calculate
(a) L MBf (b) MT
(c) B
(d) the horizontal distance of the top ofthe tree from the building.
S. A cyclist leaves village P and cycles for 25km on a bearing of 240° to village Q. He leaves Q
and cycles for 32km on a bearing of 140° to village R. Calculate
(a) the size of LPQR
(b) the distance PR
(c) the bearing ofR from P to the nearest degree.
9. In the diagram, P, Q and R are three towns on a map. Q is SOOkm from P on a bearing of
230°. R is lOOOkm from Q on a bearing of330 Calculate
Q
N W~s~~LP~
(b) the distance PR
R
(c) the size of LRPQ to the nearest d
N
(d) the bearing ofP from R
At OS 45 hours a plane leaves P for Q at a
1000km speed of 400kmlh. It stays at Q for 2~ ho
leaves for R at a speed of 400kmlh. Find;
(e) the time it leaves Q
(f) the time it arrives at R.
IO*.A small aircraft pilotA sights a landing strip S. At the same time he sights a relay station
on the peak of a hill. Given that the aircraft, the landing strip and the relay station all
lie in the same vertical plane and thatAS = 2km, SR = 0.6km and AR = 2.4km, calculate
(i) L ASR (ii) LARS
11. The diagram shows four places on a map. D is to the south of B and the bearing of B fro
North North C is 060°. Given that AC = 120km, BC = 200km,
North
BD = 230km and LCAD = 22°, Calculate
B
200k
. (a) the bearing of C from B
(b) the bearing of A from D
(c) the shortest distance from A to B
230km (d) the distance from C to D
(e) the shortest distance from C to BD.
D
'" Quc!>tion slightly modified by proof reader of original manuscript
241
12. During an army exercise, platoons A and Bare maneuvering towards a town T. The
bearings ofplatoons A and B from Tare 092 ° and 210° respectively. If at a certain time
A and B are respectively 25km and 33km from T, calculate at this time;
(i) the distance, to the nearest kilometere between the two platoons.
(ii) the bearing, to the nearest degree of platoon A from platoon B
13. In the diagram, P, Q and R are three ports on Mercy Sea. Given that the bearing of Q
from P is 0600 LQPR is 80°, PQ = 300km and PR = 500km, find:
(a) the bearing ofP from Q
(b) the bearing of R from P
(c) the bearing ofP from R
(d) the distance QR to the nearest lOkm
(e) LPQR correct to the nearest degree
(t) the bearing ofR from Q.
i4. In the diagram, PQRS is a plantation. It is gven that the bearing of Q from R is l~o, the
N bearing of S from R is 236°, LPQR = 90°, RS = 79km,
SP =98km and RQ =66km. A road SQ links the
corners S and Q of the plantation. Calculate
N 79km (a) the bearing of R from Q
(b) the bearing ofR from S
s ~::::::::-----'::61 Q (c) the bearing ofP fromQ
(d) the length of SQ
98kn1
(e) the size of LRQS
p
(t) the size of LPQS
(g) the size of obtuse LQPS
242
AREA OF A TRIANGLE
To prove that the area of any triangle ABC is tabsinC. Consider the diagram below.
A Proof:
,,, Area of 6.ABC = t x base x height
,
,, =.Lxaxh ~l
, c
2
:h In 6.ACD, sinC = ~
:.h = bsin C ~ 2
C B Substituting for h in equation 1 we have
~I.-- a ---+l~1 Area of L\.ABC = tabsin C
Example 1 In triangle ABC, a = 1O.2cm, b = 9cm and C =45°, fmd the area of the triangle.
Solution: We first draw a sketch of the triangle as shown below
A
C 1O.2cm B
Area of 6.ABC = tabsin C

= txlO.2x9sin45°
2
= .3Z,5C!I1
Example 2 In triangle PQR, p = 8 cm, q = 9cm and R = 30°, calculate

(i) the area of the triangle
(ii) the shortest distance from P to QR
Solution: A sketch of 6.PQR is as shown below.
p
,,,
,
:h
,,
R 8cm Q
(i) In this case area of6.PQR = tpqsinR

= tx 8x 9sin30°
= 18Cnl
(ii) The shortest distance from a point to a straight line is the perpendicular dista
so we are required to fmd the altitude h of6.PQR
Area of 6.PQR = t x base x height
:.18=fx8xh
:. h = 4.5cm
The h..ill1est distance from P to QRjsJ:h~refu&4..5-Cill
243
E.'l:ercise 28c
. Calculate the area of each of the following triangles
Ca) M Cb) X llem Z Cc) B Cd)
N
~
120'
.2em~
6e 77' gem
14cm
lOS' 27'
N L AL...--"2.'4e-m--=-=-:";C M 28em L
y
.:.. Find the area and hence the altitude h of each of the following triangles.
(a) Cb)
z X
Cc) Cd)
,, B N
M
A~m
,,, 14m '''',h
,, 3.
hi,12 35' 20m
21' // h 57
CL- 132' 0 Y
A 1.: 12em M
12
The following information relates to triangle ABC. Find the area ofLl ABC in each case.
Ca) a = IOcm, b = l4cm and C = 40°
Cb) a = 3crn, b = 2.8cm and C = 60°
Cc) a = 5.7cm, c = 5.4cm and B =113°
Cd) b = 13crn, c = 6cm and A = 126°
- A parallelogram ABCD has AB = 9cm, BC = l2cm and LABC = 120°. Considering that
a parallelogram consists of two congruent triangles, calculate the area of the parallelogram.
- In triangle PQR, p = 3.5cm, q = 4.2cm and r = 5cm. Calculate

(a) the size of angle R
Cb) the area of the triangle.
Triangle ABC has a = 8cm, b = 5cm and area IOcm2 , find

Ca) the size of angle C
(b) the altitude through A.
- In the diagram below, ABCD is a trapezium. Calculate

A B Ca) the length of AC
"~
~ (b)theareaofMBC
Se 8em Cc) the area of the trapezium
D 12em C
The diagram below shows the remainder of parallelogram ABCD after the triangular portion
MCN has been removed. Calculate the area of the remainder.
'r--~~~--------'C
", ,, , ,
ge " , ,,
, 'N
3em
'-='-------,-1"'3e=m=--------J,D
244
29. CIRCLE THEOREMS
Tangent properties
A tangent is a straight line from an external point which touches a circle at one
point. The point where the tangent touches the circle is called the point of contact.
In the diagram, A TB is a tangent to the

o circle and T is the point of contact
•
B
Theorem 1: At the point of contact, the tangent is perpendicular to the radius.
OT is the radius. By the above theorem

OT is perpendicular to AB.
o
:. LATO = LOTB = 90°
A T B
Theorem 2: Tangents drawn from a common point to a circle are equal in length.
In the diagram, PT and PQ are tangents to
the circle at T and Q respectively. By the
above theorem: PT = PQ.
Proof: In~PQO and ~PTO
LPTo = LPQO = 90°
OP is a common side
T OT = OQ (radii ofthe same circle)
.'.@QO and ~PTO are congruent (RHS)
: .PT = P (Proved)
Example: A circle has radius 5cm. A tangent is drawn to the circle from a point l3cm
from its centre. Find the length of the tangent.
Solution: We first draw the diagram of the situation as shown below. We are required to
the length of PT
T
5cm
o 13cm P
Using Pythagoras' theorem in~PTO we have

PT2=0p2-0~
:.PT = ..)13 2 - 52
:.PT= 12cm
The~lllrth.QfJhtlangentisJ:W<:fur~J2cm
245
ord properties
chord is a straight line joining two points on the circumference of a circle. The longest
chord in a circle is the diameter.
Chord
eorem 1: a straight line drawn from the centre of a circle to the midpoint of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord
Given a chord AB drawn in a circle with centre O. To prove
that OM is perpendicular to AB
Proof: In L'. OMA and L'.OMB
AM = MB (given that M is the midpoint of AB)
A B OA = OB (radii of the same circle)
OM is a common side
:.L'.OMA andL'.OMB are congruent (SSS)
MA = OM.B = 0 (Proved)
Theorem 2: A perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects thechord.
This is a converse to theorem 1.
o OM is perpendicular to AB, therefore from

theorem 1: AM = MB
A B
Example 1: A chordis drawn 6cm from the centre of a circle of radius IDem. Calculate the
length of the chord
lution: Let AB be the chord. OM = 6cm and OA = IDem. We are required to fmd AB
Using Pythagoras' theorem inL'.OMA we have

:. AM 2 = OA2 - OM2
:.AM = .J10 2 -6 2
=8cm
Now AB = 2 x AM = 16cm (.'. a perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord)
TheJen th--oLthe..d1~rd i therefore 16cffi '
246
Example 2: A chord of length IOcm is drawn in a circle of radius 13cm Calculate the dist
of the chord from the centre of the circle.
Solution: Referring to the diagram below, OA = i3crn, AB = IOcm. We are required to fInd
the perpendicular distance OM
Using Pythagoras' theorem in 6.0MA we have

OM 2 = OA2 - AM2
:.OM = ~i32 - 52
= 12cm
Ihe~ OrvLiLtherefo£e llim
Theorem 3: Chords which are equal in length are equidistant from the center of a circ
To prove that OM = ON
Proof: From the diagram,
D N c AM = tAB (from theorem 2)
DN = t DC (from.theorem 2)
But AB =CD:. AM=DN
A M In 6. OMA and6.0ND
LOMA = LOND = 900
OA = OD (radii of the same circle)
AM = DN (already proved)
.'. L'OMA and 6.0ND are congruent (RRS)
:.0.1\1 = ON (Proved)
Theorem 4. Chords which are equidistant from the center of a circle are equal in len
B .
Theorem 4 is converse to theorem 3. Proving the congruency of:,. OMA and 6.0ND
leads to the conclusion and hence the proof thatAB = CD
247
seeting chords
rem 5. If two chords intersect inside or outside the circle then the product ot the
parts of one is equal to the product of the parts of the other.
-=~1~: Chords intersecting inside a circle

In the diagram AC and DE are chords intersecting
c inside the circle at B. AE and DC are constructed
to enable us prove the theorem.
x We are required to prove that AB x BC = DB x BE
y
Proof: In L\ABE and b.DBC
Pi.
x = y (vertically opposite angles)
a = d (angles in the same segment)
c = e (angles in the same segment)
:.L\ABE andb.DBC are similar, hence
AB BE
-=-
DB BC
:. AB x BC - DB x BE (Proved)
...-ouuple: In the diagram below, AC and DE intersect inside the circle at B. Given that
BC = Scm, DB = 4cm and BE = 6cm, calculate AB.
c
o <km 5cm
B
6cm
tion: AB x BC = DB x BE
:.ABxS=4x6
:.AB = 24 =4.8cm
S
The length of AB is...-therefQre 4.8cm
""",,,,e:..:2,,,,: Chords intersecting outside a circle
In the diagram AC and EC are chords intersecting

outside the circle at C. Lines AD and EB are
constructed to enable us prove the theorem.
We are required to prove that AC x BC = EC x DC
Bya similar method as above we prove that b.ADC
is similar to 8.EBC
E . AC DC
-=-
EC BC
:. A.C..2s. BC - EC x DC. (Proved)
248
Intersection of a chord and a tangent
In the diagram below, the tangentT C meets the chord AC at C
A ,---- To prove that TC2 = AC· BC

,,
,, Consider L'>.ATC and L'>. TBC
.., , B
LCTB = LTAB (alternate segment theorem)
.., , ' LAcr is common to both triangles
··, -' -'
,,
:. LATC = LTBC
.'. M TC and L'>. TBC are equiangular and
--~~:..'~------.........:::,..C
similar. Hence
. TC BC
-=-
AC TC
:. TC2 - AC x BC (proved)
Example: In the diagram below, TC is a tangent to the circle at T. Given that CD = 8cm,
ED = IOcm and BC = IOcm, find the length of
(i) AB (ii) TC
Solution: (i) AC x BC = EC x DC
(AB + 10) xl0=(l0+8)x 8
lOAB + 100 = 144
lOAB =44
:.AB - 4.4cm
(ii) TC2 = EC x DC
:.TC = ~(1O+8)x 8
= .J144
.'.I.C..=.-lkm
Exercise 29a
1. In each of the following TC is a tangent to the circle at T and 0 is the centre of the circle.
Find the length of the side marked y.
(a) T (b)
o ~--+:-------=:::,.. C 19.5cm
C 18cm
249
2. In each of the following, AB is a chord and OA is the radius, find x, the distance of the
chord from the centre of the circle.
(a) (b) (c) B -_ (d)
o
5e x
A:-E'---'-S"'e'=m=----/,B
A
3. In each of the following AB is a chord and OA is the radius, OM is the distance of the chord
from the centre of the circle. Find the length ofAB.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
A B
B
lOc
(e) (t) B (g) (h)
A 50em 0
M B
-. In the diagrams below, AB and CD are parallel chords and OA is the radius. Find the
distance between the chords in each case.
(a) C (b) (c) (d)
B-->:-
16em '-1-_---'1"'6""em-'-'-_~C
o o
6em Sem o A f - - - - - - - tB
20em
5em
''<--.,...,,----,1DI
A A B
D
~. Find the value of y in each of the following

(a) (b) E (c)
20
250
6. Find the value of y in each of the following
(a) (b) (c) (d)
D
·-,-.__ 8cm 4c
B2cm
C y 5cm
B·l'---,ti
E 4cm
y
c c
7. Calculate the perimeter of triangle BCG in the diagram below.
F E
2 2
G
8. The spherical container shown below contains two immiscible liquids A and B.Given that
the radius of the sphere is 20cm, the diameter of the surface of liquid A is 32cm andthat
of B is 24cm, calculate
(a) the depth of liquid A
(b) the depth of liquid B
(c) the volume of liquid B
(d) the volume of liquid A
The volume of a hemispherical cup of radius r and
2
depth h is given by V = TTh (3r - h)
3
9. From a thin di sc of radius !Cm a portion shown shaded in the diagram is cut off. Given t
AB = 8cm and CD = 2cm, fmd
(a) the length of BC
(b) the length of OC in terms ofr
(c) the value of r
(d) the size of angle AOB
(e) the area of the portion cut off
A~/
(t) the perimeter of the portion cut off.
D
251
eorems associated with arcs
:he defmition of anarc has already been given on page 90.

eorem: The angle which an arc subtends at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at
the remaining part of the circumference.
B
B
LAOC = e is the angle at the centre. Reflex LAOC = e is the angle at the centre.
LABC = te
at thecircumference LABC = te
at the circumference
- prove that the angle at the centre is twice the angle at the remaining part of the
umference.
Given that AOC is the angle at the centre and ABC is the
angle at the remaining part of the circumference.
To prove that LAOC = 2 x LABC
Proof: a = 2x (ext. Lilo sum of opp. into Ls) _ _ 1
b = 2y (same reason as above}---+ 2
From equations I and 2 we have
a + b = 2(x + y)
: ..LAOC - 2 x aBC (Proved)
examples below further illustrate the above theorem.
Ifthe angle at the centre is 120° then Angle at the centre is 180° so the
any angle formed at the remaining' angle at the remaining part of the
part of the circumference is 60°. circumference is 90°. Thus angle in
a semi circle is 90°
Consider the diagram on the left:

LAOC = 100° :,LABC = ..!.xI00° = 50°
2
Reflex L IAOC = 260° :. LADc = ..!. x 260° = 1300
A 2
252
Segments
A chord divides the circle into two parts called segments. The larger is called the major
segment and the smaller is the minor segment. The diameter divides the circle into two
equal segments.
". ". ".
Major segment
r---<o""-Minor segment
Theorem 1: Angles in the same segment are equal.

This theorem may also be stated as follows: angles standing on the same arc and on the
same side of circumference are equal.
F
F C
Figure 1 Figure 2
In figure 1, AE is a chord and In figure 2 , AE is a chord and
LABE = LACE = LADE =e are angles LABE = LACE = LADE =a
in the major segment. These angles can also be considered to
These angles can also be considered to be equal on the basis that they stand on
be equal on the basis that they stand on the same arc AFE
the same arc AFE
To prove that angles in the same segment are equal. Consider the diagram belcw.
To prove that in the diagram; LABD = LACD.

We consider that these angles are in the same segment
formed by the chord AD.
Let 0 be the centre of the circle so that LAOD is an
angle at the centre
Proof: a = 2b (by a previous theorem)
2c
.".2b = 2c ( each side equals a)
.".b=c
Hence /ABO - /ACD (proved)
253
Theorem 2: Angle between tangent and chord is equal to the angle in the alternate
segment. This is called the alternate segment theorem.
In the diagram, RST is a tangent to the circle at S.

We seek to prove that LEST = LEAS or x =a
C
We consider two angles made between the tangent,
and the chords AS and BS. By the alternate segment
theorem:
LEST = LEAS and LASR = LABS
The lines CS and BC are construction lines to enable us
prove the theorem. 0 is the centre of the circle
Proof: InllSBC, LSBC = 90° (LIln a semi circle)
:.b"+ y = 90° _I
R x + Y = 90° (L between tangent and radius) _ _ 2
From equations I and 2
x + Y = b + Y(each side equals 90°)
:.x= b
But b = a (Ls in the same segment)
:.x - a (Proved)
Example: In the diagram below, RST is a tangent to the circle at S, calculate

(i) LRSA (ii) LACS (iii) LBAS (iv) LCAS
R T
52°
lution: (i) LRSA = LABS (alternate segment theorem)

= 52°
(ii) LACS = LABS (angles in the same segment)

= 52°
(iii) Here, the angle made between the chord SB and the tangent is (43° + 39° ) = 82°
:. LEAS = LEST (alternate segment theorem)
= 8.2°
(iv) LCAS = LCST (alternate segment theorem)

= 39°
254
'\
The cvclic quadrilateral C-
A quadrilateral is cyclic if its opposite angles add up to 1800 • If this is the case, then it is
possible to draw a circle passing through the four vertices of the quadrilateral.
Theorem 1: The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
Given that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. To prove that

a + b = 180·
Let 0 be the centre of the circle.
Proof: x = 2a (L lilt centre = 2 x L lilt circumference)
y = 2b (LlilJ.t centre = 2 x LlilJ.t circumference)
:.x + y= 2a + 2b
= 2(a+ b)
+
But x y = 3600 (angles at a point)
:.2(a+ b) = 3600
:.a + b - ]800 (proved)
Example: In the diagram below, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilatera~ [md

(a) the value of x
(b) the value of y
(c) the size of L ABC
C
Solution: (a) x + 1050 = 1800 (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary)
:.x = 1800 _105 0
:.x = 7:f
(b) Y+ 2y'= 180 0 (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary)
3y= 180·
:.y-6ff'
(c) LABc = 2y
= 2 x 60·
=120·
255
eorem 2: The exterior angle of a cyclic qua(l.rilateral is equal to:the opposite interior
angle.
Given that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral and the side AD is produced

to E.
To prove that x b =
=
Proof: x + y 1800 (Ls on a straight line)
b + Y = 180° (opp. .is of a cyclic quad. are supplementary)
:.x + y =b + Y (each side = 180)
:.x - b
This proves that the exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral equals the
opposite interior angle.
Example 1: Find the size of LCDE in the diagram below
Solution: 2xo + 3xo = 1800 (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary)
=
5xo 180°
x=36
LCDE= 2xo (exterior angle = opposite interior angle)

= 2 x 36°
= 72°
256
,-
~.
Exercise 29b
1. In each of the following, fmd the vallies of x and y giving reasons for your answers. Where
the dot (e) occurs it shows the centre of the circle.
(a)
(e)
(i)
(m) (n)
2. In each of the following fmd the values of x, yand z giving reasons for your answers.
(a) . (b) (c) (d)
66
257
,-
3. In the diagram ABEF is a cyclic quadrilateraL ABD and EDC are straight lines.
Find, with reasons: (a) LIFAB ~ (b) LIBCD (c) LIEBD (d) LIEFA.
!J<----------¥==--.---+-----,/'D
4. In the diagram, BC is the diameter ofthe circle and AED is a tangent to the circle at E.
A E D
(a) Given thll't LBAE = 30", fmd the size of
(i) LAEB (ii)L ABE (iii) LBEC
(iv) LCED (v) L EDC (vi) LECD
(b) What type of triangle is
(i) MBE (ii) lIECD (iii) lIBEC (iv) lIAEC
(c) Explain \}'hy AE = EC
(d) If AE = 2.5cm, calculate the length of;
(i) BE (ii) AC.
5. In the diagram, BE is the diameter ofthe circle and AC is a tangent to the circle at B.
Find with reasons; (a) LABD
(b)LDBE
(c) LCBF
(d) LDFE
A E
258
6. In the diagram below, 0 is the centre of the circle and L AOD = 110°, calculate
(a) LABD (b) LACD (c) LAED (d) LlmC
B
7. In the diagram, the sides of triangle ABC are tangent to the circle centre O. The line BC·
horizontal and AC is vertical. /
I
A
(a) State the size of LACB.

(b) Given that LRTM = 60° and LMOP = 148°, find the angles marked a, b, C, d, e and
(c) Given further that CM = 7cm, MB = 25cm and AP = l3cm calculate the perimeter :
triangle ABC giving a reason for your answer.
(d) Without making any further calculations deduce the radius of the circle.
8. In the diagram, EDF is a tangent to the circle at D and AB is the diameter of the circle.
E F ABC is a straight line and BC = BD = 1
(a) Given that LBAD = 500 calculate the s·
(i) LBDF (ii) LCBD (iii) LBDC
(iv) LABD (v) LAnE (vi) LD
(b) Calculate (i) the length of CD
(ii) the area of triangle CBD.
P C
259
30. GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION AND LOCI
Geometrical construction
For the sake of brevity we use the following and other similar notations
• at denotes arc 1, a2 denotes arc 2 etc
• ata2 denotes the point of intersection of arcs 1 and 2
• atAB denotes the point of iItersection of arc 1 and the line AB
To construct a 90° angle at B
• produce the line AB at B to C say.

• Set the compass to any length less than AB and BC
• With center B strike an arc at across AB and BC
• With centre alAB strike arc a2
• With centre atBC strike arc a3
• Joining B to a2a3 makes LABD = 9(f where D is a2a3
A
o construct a tiO°angle
C
• With base line AB and centre A strike arc at

• Without changing the radius, centre atAB strike arc a2
• Drawing a straight line AC through llta2 makes
LBAC =60°
o construct a 300 angle

.0 construct a 3(f angle we bisect a 60° angle. To bisect means to divide into two equal parts.
"0 do this we first drawa 60° angle following the above procedure. This done, we proceed as
!lows;
c
• With center at a2 strike an arc a3
a D
• Without changing the radius, centre atAB strike arc 14
• Drawing a straight line AD through aa14 makes
LBAD = 3(f
o bisect any angle ABC

C • Draw LABC according to required specification
D
• With centre B strike arc a\
• With centre a\AB strike arc a2
• With centre atBC strike arc a3
• A straight line BD through aza3 bisects LABC;
i.e. LABD = LDBC.
A
260
To construct the perpendicular bisector of a line
al a3
• Draw the line AB according to specification
• Set the compass to any length greater than half of AB
• With centre A strike arcs a\ and az on both sides of AB
• With centre B strike arcs a3 and '4 on both sides of AB
A B • The line joining aj a3 to az'4 is the perpendicular
bisector of AB.
•
To construct a perpendicular to a line from a point/

To construct a perpendicular from P to a line AB
• Draw thl'}'t:e AB and locate P according to given

specifications
• Set the compass at P such that an arc al intersect AB at
two diffetent points
A B • With centres alAB strike arcs a2 and a3 on the opposit
side of AB as P
• The straight line joining P to ~a3 is the perpendicular
from P to AB.
To construct a triangle given three sides

The following procedure can be used to draw any triangle ABC given the threesides.
To construct a triangle ABC where AB = 8cm, AC = 7cm,BC = 6cm and C is above AB
• Draw AB 8cm long

• Set the compass to 7cm and with centre A strike an
arc aj
• Set the compass to 6cm and with centre B strike an
arc a2
• aja2 is the point C, join AC and BC
A B
To construct a triangle given two sides and the angle between the given sides
The following example can be used to draw any triangle ABC given two sides and the
included angle. To construct a triangle ABC where AB =7cm,AC = 5 cm, .LBAC =45°
and C is above AB:
• Draw AB 7cm long
• Bisect a 90° angle constructed at A
• Draw a ruled line from A through a2a3 5cm long.
a2
end point of this line is C
• Join BC
261
To draw an inscribed circle to any triangle ABC
To construct a circle passing through the vertices of triangle ABC.
• Draw triangle ABC according to specification

• Bisect AB
• Bisect BC
• With centre 0 as the point of intersection of the
bisectors of AB and BC and radius OA or OB or OC,
draw the inscribed circle to L'.ABC.
/
/
. ote: Ifthe triangle is right angled, it suffices to onfy bisect the hypotenuse. The point of
intersection of the hypotenuse and the bisector is the centre of the inscribed circle.This is
because every hypotenuse is a diameter of a circle \ angle in a semi circle is a right angle.
o draw a circumscribed circle to any triangle ABC
c
• Draw triangle ABC according to specification
• Bisect any two of the three angles BAC and ABC say
• The bisectors meet at the centre I of the circumcircle.
• From I draw a perpendicular ID to AB.
o With radius ID draw the circumcircle toL'.ABC
I is called the incentre to triangle ABC
B
o construct a quadrilateral given a side and two interior angles

To construct a quadrilateral ABCD given that AB = Scm, AD = 7cm, BC = 6cm
BAD = 105°, and LABC = 100°.
r----_______
\ C
.
o Draw the line AB Scm long
By using a protractor or compasses construct
LEAD = 105°.
o Draw the line AD 7cm long
o Using a protractor draw LABc = 100°
• Draw the line BC 6cm long
• Join CD.
105° 100°
A B
262
To construct a quadrilateral ABCD given four sides and an iuterior sngle
To construct a quadrilateral ABCD given that AB =6cm, BC =7cm, CD = 8cm
AD = 5cm and LABc = 105° .
\ • Draw the line AB 6cm long

\ • By using a protractor or compasses
construct LABc = 105°.
\"\ •
•
Draw the line BC 7cm long
Set the compass to 5cm and with centre A
strike an arc al
• Set the compass to 8cm and with centre C
105°
strike an arc a2
B
• a1a2 is the point D.
Exercise 30a
1. Construct the following angles
(a) 60° (b) 90° (c) 30° (d) 45° (e) 120° (t) 105° (g) 15°
2. Construct triangle ABC where AB = 8cm, LBAC = 60°, BC =7.6cm and C is above
the line AB. Measure and write down
(a) the length of AC
(b) the size of LABC
(c) the size of LACB
3. Construct triangle ABC, where AB =5cm, BC = 6cm, AC =7cm and C is above AB.
From C, construct a perpendicular to meet AB at D.
(a) Measure and write down
(i) the sizes ofLBAC and LABC.
(ii) the length of CD
(b) Calculate the area of ~ABC
4. Construct triangle PQR, where ~ =7cm, LQPR =45°, LPQR =600 and R is above
PQ. From R draw a perpendicular to meet PQ in S.
(a) Calculate the size of LPRQ
(b) Measure and Write down the length of RS
(c) Calculate the area of ~PQR
5. Construct triangle PQR, PQ =6.4cm, QR =7.2cm, PR =5cm and R is above PQ.

From R draw a perpendicular RS to PQ.
(a) Draw the circumscribed circle to ~PQR
(b) Measure and write down the radius of the circumscribed circle
(c) Measure and write down the size of LQPR
(d) Calculate the area of the circle
(e) Calculate the area of ~PQR
(f) Find the area inside ~PQR but outside the circle.
263
6. Construct triangle ABC, where AB = 60mm, BC = 72mm, AC = 68mm, and C is below AB.
Construct the bisectors of LBAC and LABC to meet at I. From I construct a perpendicular
ID to AB. With I as centre draw the circumcircle of ~ABC.· Measure and write down the
length of ID.
\
7. Construct a triangle ABC in 'which AB = 8cm, LABc = 75°, AC =9cm, where C is above
AB. Construct a perpendicul~ from C to AB at D.Bisect AC and BC
(a) Measure and write down the length of CD
(b) Draw the inscribed cfrde of ~ABC. Cc) Write down the radius of the circle.
Cd) Calculate the area lying iQside the circle but outside~ ABC.
8. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD where AB = 60mm, LABC = 90°, BC = 82mm,

AD = 75mm, LBAD = 115°, C and D being above the AB. Measure and write down
Ca) the length of CD
(b) the size of LBCD and LAnc
(c) the lengths of the diagonals AC and BD.
Construct a quadrilateral PQRS in whichPQ = lOcm, L QPS = 120°, PS = 8.4cm,

QR = 7.8cm andS R = 9cm.
\a) Measure ami wri.te uown
(i) the sizes of L PQR and LPSR
(ii) the length of the diagonal PR
(b) By considering the area of the quadrilateral as the sum ofthe areas oftwo triangles, fmd
the area of the quadrilateral PQRS.
Loci
The locus of a point is the path traced by the point. Here we consider loci in a plane or two
dimensional space. Loci is plural for locus.
1. The locus of a point which moves in such a way that it is always equidistant from a
fixed point.
The locus is a circle centre O. All points on the

circumference of the circle lie on this locus.
2. The locus of a point which moves in such a way that it is always less than distance d from
a fixed point
The locus is a set of points lying in the area
shown shaded in the diagram. d is the radius of
the circle. Note that the points lying on the
circumference are excluded from this locus. This
is the reason for showing the circumference of the
circle dotted.
264
3. The locus of a point which moves in such a way that is always equidistant from a
straight line f considered indefinitely long.
----_\~ The locus are two straight lines

parallel to f as shown in the
diagram
4. The locus of a point a point whicb moves in sucb a way that it is always equidistant from
a straigbt line f of fIxed lengtb.
The locus is a as shown in the

f diagram, where f is a lineof
fixed length.
5. Tbe locus of a point which moves in such a way that it is always equidistant from two
fIxed points A and B.
The locus is the perpendicular

bisector of the straight line joining
AandB.
6. The locus of a point P which moves in sucb a way that LAPB = 90· wbere P is above tb
straigbt line AB.
~
The locus is a semi circle with diameter AB.
Every point on the arc AB satisfies this
locus.
A B
265
7. The locus of a point P which moves in such a way that LAPB is a constant.
p The locus is the major ar~PB.

Any point
P lying on this locus m~:'~B constant.
See example 2 on page 267.
A~----"'"
8. The locus of a point equidistant from two concurrent straight lines.

B
AB and AC are the two concurrent lines.
D The locus is the bisector AD of LBAC.
A C
9. The locus of a point P such that the area of triangle A PB is a constant.
P R
The locus is a straight line through the points

Q, P and R parallel to AB
A"----------'B
Example 1. Construct the following loci:

(i) The locus of a point which moves in such a way that it is always 3cm from
a fixed po int O.
(ii) The locus of a point which moves in such a way that it is always 3cm from
a line 4cm long
Solution: (i) Set the compass to 3cm and with centre 0 draw a circle with radius 3cm. This is
the required locus.
(ii)
• Draw a straight line 4cm long.
• Select any two points on the line and set the compass to 3cm.
266
• With these points as centres strike two ar)com each point on.both
sides ofthe line.
• Draw tangents 4cm long to these arcs
• With the compass set to 3cm and the endpoints?f the line as centres, draw
semicircular arcs on both ends of the originallme. This completes the locus
as shown in the diagram below (
I
• •
Example 2. Construct the locus of a point P which is such that LAPB = 45°.
Solution: • Draw a line AB and construct its perpendicular

bisector
• At B construct a line CBD such that LCBA = 4-
• At B construct a perpendicular to CD to intersect
the bisector of AB at O.
• With centre 0 and radius OB draw arc BPA on
D AB. This is the required locus.
Note that this is the alternate segment theorem wh~
CBD is a tangent at B and AB is a chord. See the
alternate segment theorem on page 254.
Example 3: Construct a triangle ABC for which AB = 84mm, AC = 75mm, L BAC = 40" and
C is above AB.
(a) On the same diagram
(i) draw the locus of points equidistant from A and B
(ii) draw the locus of points equidistant from AB and AC
(b) Locate the point X which lies on both loci (i) and (ii)
Solution: We draw the triangle according to the given specifications as shown below
C (a) (i) the locus is the perpendicular bisector
of the side AB
(ii) the locus is the bisector of LBAC
(b) X is the point of intersection of the bisector

of AB and the bisector of LBAC
A B
267
Exercise 30b
1. Draw the following loci \
(a) the locus of a point 4cm from a fIxed point
(b) the locus of a point 4cm from a line indefInitely long .
(c) the locus of a point 3.5cm from a line 5cm long
(d) the locus of a point less than 4cm from a fIxed point I
(e) the locus of a point equidistant from PQ and PR where LQPR = ~Oo
(f) the locus ofa point such that LABC = 90°
(g) the locus of a point equidistant from A and B where AB = 5cm
2
(h) the locus of a point such that the area of L'1ABC = 12cm and AB = 6cm long.
2.. Construct triangle PQR with R above PQ where PQ = 8cm, LQPR = 60° and PR = 5cm
(a) Construct (i) the perpendicular bisector of PR
(ii) the bisector of LPRQ
(b) Show by shading, the region which contains points nearer to R than to P and nearer
to PR than to QR,
3. Construct triangle ABC with base AB where AB = 8.5cm, LBAC = 45°, LABc = 60°
and C is above AB.
(a) Measure and write down the lengths of AC and BC
(b) Construct
(i) the locus of a point within L'1ABC which are equidistant from AB and BC
(ii) the locus ofa point within L'1ABC which are 3cm from B
(c) Show by shading, the region which contains points less than 3cm from Band
nearer to BC than to BA.
4. Construct triangle PQR with base PQwhere PQ = 6.5cIIl, PR = 10cm, QR = 5cm and R is
below PQ.
(a) Construct
(i) the locus ofa point within MQR which are 2.5cm from Q
(ii) the locus ofa point within MQR which are equidistant from QR andQ P
(b) Mark the point X whi:h lies on loci (i) and (ii)
5. (a) Show that a triangle with sides AC = lOcIIl, BC = 6cm and AB = 8cm contains a
right angle.
(b) With base AC and B above AC, constructtl. ABC with specification in (a)
(c) Construct the locus of a point P such thalL' APC = 9(f with P on the same side of
AC as B .
(d) Shade the region bounded by the locus ofP and the lines AB and BC.
(e) Calculate the area shaded region in (d)
6. Construct a triangle ABC of which AB = 6cm, LBAC = 60°, LABC = 45° and C is above
AB. Measure and write down the length of; (a) AC (b) BC.
(c) From C construct a perpendicular to meet AB in D. Measure and write down the length
of CD
(d) Draw the circumcircle of triangle ABC. Measure and write down the radius of the circle
giving your answers correct to one decimal place.
268
31 MATRICES
339 I
line form a row and numbers in the same vertical line form acolumn. Thu(' the above matrix
has 3 rows and 3 columns. The matrix (~ / f) has 2 rows and 3 columns. Each member
of the array is called an element. .
Matrices (plural for matrix) are used to store or display information. The information could
represent items on the shelves of a shope.g. :
32 tablets of 15 rolls of 17 tins of

bath soap toilet paper Baby milk
14 jars of 13 tins of 22 tins of
Vaseline shoe polish Baked beans
18 packets of 12 bottles of 14 tins of
soap powder sauce dOl! food
~~ ~~)
32
The matrix corresponding to the above information is 14
(
18 12 14
Order of a matrix
The number of rows of a matrix followed by the numberof columns gives the order of the
matrix. For example
~ ) has 2 rows and I column so it is a 2 x I matrix (x is read as by)
i -1) has 2 rows and 2 columns; it is a 2 matrix x
6 _~ ~ )has 2 rows and 3 columns; it is a 2 x matrix

A row matrix has 1 row e.g. (5 4)
A column matrix has I column e.g. (~ )

A matrix with the same number of rows as columns is called a square matrix e.g.
(j i) is a2 x 2 square matrix
(: 5
0 ;) ;" 3 , 3
3
,,"= rn,tri,
269
..,
The zero matrix.
The zero matrix has all elements zero e.g.
Multiplying a matrix by a zero matrix gives a zero matrix.
The identity matrix.
The identity matrix has 1 as elements of the leading diagonal and the rest are zeros e.g. (~
"'" G: n Muttiplymg " ""'ri. by"" i_'y -~ 1,,= ilie -~~""'g'"

The transpose matrix
A transpose matrix of any matrix A, denoted by AT is the matrix obtained by interchanging
the row(s7an: co~\mns. F:r ex(a;p~):
If A = 4 1 5) then A = ~ J
Addition and subtraction of matrices
Matrices can be added or subtracted if they are of the same order. To do this, we add or subtract
corresponding elements..
Example: If A = (16 ~) and B = (~ ~) fmd

(i) A +B (ii) A - B
Solution: (i) A +B =f 16 n+( ~ n

4+2 6+3)
- 10+6 1+5
(6 9\
-~
(ii)A-B=
=
16 n- (~ ~)
4-2 6-3)
10-6 1-5 .
= 2 -43)
4
Equal matrices
Matrices are equal if corresponding elements are equal. fur example, if A =
B=O 6)thenA=B.But(~ z) *~~ 6)
270
Example: If P =( ~x-5~) and Q = (~2 Ig), fInd the values ofx and y)(j~iCh P = Q
SOlution:p=Q::}Ux _ 5y6) =(~21g) \

Equating corresponding elements we have l
2x=12 and -5y=1O
T.herefore x - 6 and V- 2
Multiplying a matrix by a scalar

To multiply a matrix by a ocalar (number) multiply every element of the matrix by the
scalar.
Example: If A = ~ l fmd (i) 2A (ii) tA
Solution: (i) 2A = 2 (~ l)
2X4 2X3)
= ( 2x7 2x8
(8 6\
=~
(. ).lA- .l(4 3)
11 2 -
278
= (t~; t:~)
_( 2 It \
-~ ~
Exercise 31a
1. Write down the order of each of the following matrices
~) ~
3
(a) (-;) (b) (1~ 1~) (c) (4
o 2
-1
(d) (4 7) (e) ( 1
0 r)
-7) (8 29)-'
5
2.IfA=(: -6 ,B= 3 -14 andC= 12 C 3
12 \) ,fmd
-2
(a) AT (b) BT (c) CT
3. Simplify the following.
(a) (-;) +( \2) (b) (~ -5)

10 +(47 -~) (c) (~ -5
-5)
10 -4 +(22 1 0
7 2
I
271
-5) _( 17 -3) (2 7 5) - 18)
10 7 13 (f) 4 10 4 - - 2 5
(i)-2(=~ ~) . (2 -2)
U)3 3 -2 +"3 12
I 3 -6)9
4. If A = (8 ~) and B = (~O -~), fmd the following
(a) A + B (b) A - B (c) 3A (d) 2B (e) 3A + 2B (f) 3A - 2B
-
). If A = 8 2 (4 0) and B = (315 -69) ,fmd
(a)A+B (b)A-B (c)tA (d) 2(A + B) (e) 3(A- B) (f) tA + B
6. If A = (~ ~) andB=(~ -63) find

(a) 2A (b) t B (c) 2A + tB (d)2A - tB
7. Solve t(h~:Oll~)Wing(~qu~t)ions for x n(d Y

5
(a) 5 2y = 5 2 (b) x + 2 ty)
2 -_(55 7)
2
. Solve the following equations for a, b, c and d
(a) (ac db) + (53)

3 8 =(72 -2)
8 (a db) - (94)
(b) c 2 0 = (-4
2 -2) 10
9. Find x, y and z in each of the following
SOI;~ th(~:O~OWin; e~ua~io(~ fO~)X ~:)Y(2X + y

~) = (~ ~)
10.
4 2x - y) 4 3 3x - Y
Matrix multiplication.
Matrices can be multiplied together if the number of columns of the fIrst matrix is equal to the
number of rows of the second. This giveR, we multiply rows by columns.
Example 1: If A = (b ~) and B = (; :) fmd the matrix product AB
SOlution:AB=(a c) (w x) =(axw+cx y axx+cxz) =(aw+cy ax+cz)

b d Y z b x w + dx y b xx + dx z bw + dy bx + dz
272
Example 2: If A = (~ ~) and B = U~) ,fmd (i) AB (ii) BA \
\
Solution: (i) AB = (~ ~) (~ 6) =
8
(I2X5+4x7
X X X X
5+3 7 l 6+3 8)=(26
2x6+4x8 38
~~~
X
(ii)BA=(5 86) (21 3)= (5 l+6X2 5X3+6X4) =(17 39)
7 4 7x 1+8x2 7x3+8 x 4 23 53
Note that AB *BA; this is usually the case because matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Example 3. If A = [~) and B= (4 - 3) fmd (i) AB (ii) BA
Solution: (i) AB = (:~) (4 -3)=(;g -~5)
(ii) BA = (4 -3) (-~) = (4 x-2 +-3 x 5) = -23.
Example 4: Find the product( 8 ~) (~ ~)

X
(5 3+ lx6 5x5+ lX9) 21
~ ~)
5 1)
Solution: 6 4 ( = 6 x 3 + 4 x6 6x5+4x9 = 42 34)
66
( ( 12 18
o 2 OX3+2x6 Ox5+2 x 9
The size of the matrix obtained when two matrices are multiplied together is determined as
follows:
(my)~
'Xi bY(U .
gives . e.g. (36 5\
a 2 x 2 matrIX 9) (12 43) = (13 29)
24 54
(j)by 2
x2~ gives a 3 x 2 matrix e.g. (8 ~) (~ 5)9 =(211242 34)
66
18
(2)by L
xl b)(D gives a 2 x 2 matrix e.g. (~) (9 5) = (45 25)
18 10
x ~ gives a 1 x 1 matrix e.g. (2 3 5) (D= 53
273
Multiplication by an identity matrix
Multiplying a matrix by an identity matrix (unit matrix) leaves the matrix unchanged.
The identity matrix has the same multiplicative property as 1 i.e. when a number is multiplied
by 1 the result is the same number.
Example: (~ - ~) (~ ~ ) = (~ - ~ )
and (~ ~ )(~ -~) = (~ -~)
Exercise 31b
1. State the order of each of the following matrices
(a) (4 3) (b) (8 2 1) (C)O) (d) 0) 31 06)

o 1
ind the following matrix products
__ (3 4)(~) 3. (7 4)(~) 4. (-1 3) (_~) 5. (10 -2) (=1)
6. (~) (7 4) 7. (2~) (2 7) S. (150) (-7 -5) 9. (_~) (-I -4)
10. (~ ~) (~ i) 11. (~ ~) (6 g) 13. (~ ~) (6 ~)

14.(1 l) (fo i8) -8
16. ( -1 ~~)( i i) 17. i i) (;)
ls·(i J) (_j -~) 19 G) (8 2 1) 20.(~ ~)(i ~?) 2'(! {(i)
~ f)
22. If M = (- (i ~), and N = fmd the following
(a) MN (b) NM (c) M 2 (d) N2 (e) M 2 + N2
23.IfP=(~ l) andQ=(~ ~),findthefOUOWing

(a) PQ (b) QP (c) P 2 (d) Q2 (e) p2 + Q2
24.IfM=(P~2 ~)andN=(5 ~)',soIVetheeqUationMN= (-1~ __ ~)

25. Solve the following equation for x and y
(~ -f)(~)=(n
274
Determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix
If A =( ~ ~) then the determinant of A, denoted by IAI or det.A is given by
IAI = I~ ~l = ad - be
Example 1: Find the determinants of the following matrices

(i) (~~ (ii) (j -~)
Solution: (i) I~ ~I = 5 x 2 - 2 x 2 = 2,
(ii) Ij -~I =4x2-(-2x3)=H
Example 2 The determinant of the matrix ~ ; 1 i is 12, fmd the possible values of k
Solution: k_ -1
2 31k = 12
I
~ (k-l)k- 3x (-2) = 12
:.k2 -k+6=12
:k2 -k-6=O
(k + 2)(k - 3) = 0 (
:.k=-2or3
J:he..,.possjbje values of k are th~ore - 2~
Ad joint of a 2 x 2 matrix.
The ad joint of a matrix A, denoted byadj.A, is the matrix formed by interchanging the
elements of the leading diagonal and changing the signs of the elements of the trailing
diagonal.
IfA=(: :) then adj.A = (-cd-b)a

Example: If A = (~ -2)7 then adj.A = (7
-4
Inverse of a matrix
Two numbers x and y are each others inverse if the product xy is unity ie xy = 1. For example
7x ~= 1, s07 and ~are each others inverse.
7 7
In the same way, two matrices A and B are each other's inverse ifthe product AB = I where
I =( ~ ~) is the identity or unit matrix.
275
The inverse of any matrix A say, denoted by A-I, is given by
A -I = _1_ x adj.A
det.A
Example 1: If A = (f j) and B = (_{ -g) show that A and B are each others inverse.
Solution: If A is the inverse of B and vice versa then we are required to show that AB =I
AB=U j) (-{ -g)
= ( 2 x 3 + 5 x (-1) 2 x (-5) + 5 x 2)
1x 3 + 3 x (-1) 1x (-5) + 3 x 2
= (~ ~)
AlsoBA= (-{ -g)U j)
= (3 x 2 + (-5) x 1 3 x 5 + (-5) x 3)
-Ix 2+2x 1 (-lx5)+2x3
= (~ ~)
Example 2: .If A = (ci ~) fmd the inverse of A.

Solution: Del. A = 4 x 5 - 3 x 6 = 2
Adj.A . = (5 -3)
-6 4
A -1= 1
--xa~.A
d·
det.A
=~ (
2 -6 4
5-3)
- 21-2 -11-)
2
- (-3 2
Singular matrix
A matrix is singular if its determinant· is zero. In this case the inverse of the matrix does
not exist.
Examplel: Show that the matrix to ; is singular.
Solution: 1;0 ~I = 4 x 5 - 2 x 10 = Q.
The determinanLQJ.1he..lllll.trix is zero h@ce it is singular
276
1
Example 2 Find the values of p for which the matrix (P 2 5 ~) is singular.
Solution: If tlie matrix is singular then det. (p 5" 2 ~) = 0

det. (p; 2 ~) = (p _ 2)p - 3 x 5
:.p2- 2p - 15 =0
(p - 5)(P + 3) = 0
:.p = 5 or-3
The possible vl\!ues of p artlhercl'Q[e.5~~3.
SoIYing simultaneous equations hv a matrix method

By matrix multiplication we know that
U~)(~) =(~~~~)
Hence, multiplying the left hand side and equating corresponding elements gives a pair of
simultaneous equations. For example, if
U ~) (~) = VI) then

2x + y =7
x + 3y= 11
Now, to solve (f ~) (~) = (?I) ,we premultiply both sides of this equation by the ad joim
of U ~)- Thus,
(-f -~) U ~) (~) = (-f -~) (17~

Simplifying both sides of the above equation gives
(g g) (~) = (~g)
:·O~) - (~~
:.sx = 10 and 5y = IS
:.x - 2 and V- 3
Exercise 3lc
I. Find the determinant of each of the following matrices
(a)(f j) (b)(~ . ~) (c) (~ 1) (d) (= ~
(e)( -~ -i) (t) (~~ -~) (g) (=~ --j) (h) ( _10
2. Find the ad joint of each of the following matrices
(a)(?~) (b)(j i) (c) (~ 6) (d) (_ ~
277
(e) (=l -;) (t) (-4-5 -2)
3 (g) (-3-5 -9-1)
3. Show that the matrices A and B are each other's inverse ie show that AB = (~ ~), if
(a) A= nl)andB=(_~ (b)A=(~ ~)andB=(_i -~t)

(c) A = (~ 7)
5\ andB=
(-73 (d)A=(_\ -g:~)andB=(~ l)
4. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices
(a) 0 l) (b) (~O (c) (~ i) (d) (=~ j)

-3
(e) ( 5
-2)
3 (t)
(-3 -5)
-2 -4 (g)
(-3
-5 -3 -1) (h) (-105-1)4
5. The following matrices are singular, [md the values of x in each case
(a) (~ ~). (b) (-; -;i) (c) (X;2~) (d)(~ 8
X
6)
6. If A = (j ;) and B = (~ 2
13) , [md
(a) A-I (b) B- 1 (c) AA -I (d) BB- 1
7.IfM=(~ i) andN=(~ n [md

(a) MM-I (b) MM-IN (c) NN- 1 (d) NN"IM
What do you notice about your results in (b) and (d)?
8. If P is a 2 x 2 matrix [md-the matrix product pp-l (~ l)

9. Solve the following simultaneous equations by using a matrix method
(a)2x+3y=5 (b)2x-y=5 (c)5x+3y=4 (d) x+4y=3
x+2y=3 3x+2y=4 3x+2y=2 2x+y=-1
10. A street vendor had the following items in his display tray
22 boxes of 80 bubble
matches gums
(a) Display the above information by means of a 1x 3 matrix M

(b) If the selling price for these items were K200 for a box of matches, KSOO for a packet
of munchos and K200 for a bubble gum; show these prices by means of a 3 x 1
matrix P
(c) Find the matrix product MP and state what it represents.
278
..U
11. On 291h August 1989 the Chipolopolo boys (the Zambia National football team) played the
Tunisia national football team in the final round ofthe World Cup qualifiers. Twelve days
before this encounter, the Zambia Daily Mail published the following information about
the standings of the two teams
Played Won Drawn Lost

Zambia 5 3 o 2
Tunisia 5 2 1,- 2
In the encounter, zambia lost 1 - 0 to Tunisia

(a) If Fifa awards 2 points for a win, 1 point for a draw and no point for a draw, write down
in the given order, a column matrix P showing th is allocation of points by Fifa
(b) Write down a similar table as one shown above showing the standing of the two teams
after this match.
(c) Write down a 2 x 3 matrix M, under the headings Won, Drawn, Lost, Slowing the
information you have given in (b)
(d) Find the matrix product MP and state the difference in points between the two teams at
this stage.
12. The set S is the set of all non singular matrices of the form (~ ~) with c = b and
d = a+ b.
(a) Write down the matrix M which is a member of S with a = 0 and b = I
2
(b) Show that M = 0- ~)
(c) Calculate the matrices (i) M 3 (ii) MS
(d) Given that M" = 3 (1 ii)

8
where n is an integer, fmd the value of n.
The matrix A =(; i) is a member of S

(e) Show that the determinant of A can be written in the form r + pq _ q2
(t) When q = 7, the value of the determinant is 11. Find the corresponding positive
value of p.
LONDON
279
32. SYMMETRY
1. Line symmetry. A plane figure has line symmetry if it can be folded along that line and flt
exactly on ilie oilier side. The diagrams below show some plane figures and
their lines of symmetry.
,, ,
'r.---+---,f'
,
Square: 4 lines of
"
, I
,' "
-- ------~------ symmetry
, ," '",
I " ,
, ,/ I
, "
,
,/ I ",
Isosceles triangle
1 line of symmetry
,,
,
--- Regular hexagon

6 lines of symmetry
Rotational symmetry.
Fig. 1 shows a plane figure with rotational symmetry of order 4. Every 9Cf' rotation leaves
the figure looking exactly the same. In fig. 2 the diagram has rotational symmetry of order 3 i.e.
the figure looks exactly the same once rotated through 1200 about its centre.
Order of rotational Order of rotational
360 0 360"
symmetry= - - =4 symmetry= - - =3
90 0 120 0
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
360 0
Tote: Order of rotational symmetry = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
smallest angle of rotation to obtain symmetry.
280
Exercise 32
1. Write down the number of lines ofsymmetry of the following letters
(a) M, N, 5, T, X '
(b) U, V, W, D, E
(c) H, Y, Z, 0, L
(,). Q (b) 0
2. Write down the number of lines of symmetry of the following figures
(c) I \
(d) (e) (f)
Rhombus
(g) . . , - - - - , . . . , (h) (i)

,-' L
r-
(k) ~ ~(l)
3. Write down the order of rotational symnetry for the following

(a) S (b) Z (c) 1 (d) 8
4. Write down the order of rotational symmetry for the following figures
(a) (b) (c) (d)
281
33. VECTORS
.ector quantity
vector is a quantity with magnitude and direction. Example of vectors include displacement,
locity, acceleration, force etc. If say a car is traveling at 1Om! s in the southern direction, then
Om!s defmes the magnitude of the velocity and the south representing the bearing 1800
presents the direction of the vector.
lar quantity
scalar is defmed as a quantity with magnitude only. Example of scalars include mass, speed,
mperature etc.
otation: the magnitude of a vector is represented by a straight line of given length. The length
f the line represents the magnitude ofthe vector. For example a vector of magnitude S units
be represented by a straight line of lengthS units on a scale of 1: 1. _
arrow impressed upon the line indicates the sense of the vector. For example, AB denotes a
tor in the sense A to B.
sentation of Cartesian vectors.

Cartesian vectors are vectors in the xy plane. In the Cartesian system a vector is presented in
y of the following ways;
• in column form e.g. At = C) or a;" (~) as shown in the diagram below. Here, x and y
defme the number of units in the direction of the X and Y axis respectively.
Y
~~J
,
~:...-
,,
"'
x----"":,
,
o X
• in terms of unit \eCtors i anw unit vectors in the direction of the x and y axis respectively.
Thus in the diagram above = xi + yj, means that the vector AP is x units in the direction
of the X axis and y units in the direction of the Y axis.
agnitude of a vector. .
The magnitude or modulus of a vectorM, del}0ted by IA~ as already said, is the length of
line segment representing the vector.
Y
IfAP= C) then
lAP I=~X2 + y2 (By applying Pythagoras' theorem
in i1APN)
o X
282
Direction of a vector.
The direction of a vector is given by the angle which the vector makes with the positive direct"
of the x axis. So in the diagram above, the direction of the vector AP is e where
e = tan- t
1'.
x
Multiplying a vector by a scalar

Multiplying a vector by a scalar produces any of the following effects
• increase in magnitude
• decrease of magnitude
• reversal of direction
• a combination of 1 and 3 or 2 and 3
2a~ .Lb
2
Increase in magnitude after Decrease in magnitude after Reversal of direction after
multiplying vector a by 2
to get 2a
multiplying vector b by t multiplying vector c by -I
to get-c.
to get tb
Example 1: If at = (~) , find
(i) IO~, the magnitude of oF
(ii) the direction of the OP
----.
(ill) the magnitude of2mt
Solution: (i) Here x = 3 and y = 4

----.
IOpl = ~X2 +l
= ·h +4
2 2
= 5 units --+
The-IDagnitude o~iUherefore 5 unit:>-
(ii) We draw a diagram to show the vector OP. Direction is given by angle e
y
4 ------- P
e = tan·! (:) = 53.1°
Th~ectiQILQfJ:he vector is therefore 53.1°

e
o 3 x
283
(iii) 2ffi> = 2 (~)
6
= 8 (
120 P[ = .)6 2
+ 82
= 10 units
The mjjgnitude of 2aP is therefore 10 units (twice the magnitude of@)
blIllple 2. If m =7i + 3j and n = Si + 2j fmd the following

(i) m + n
(ii) m - n
(iii) Im+ nl
(iv) the direction of the vector m + n
.:r
Vectors m and n are given in the form xi yj. To add or subtract vectors
given in this form we add or subtract components in like direction
(i) m + n = (7i + 3j) + (Si + 2j)
= ( 7 + S)i + (3 + 2)j
= 12i + Sj
(ii) m - m = (7 + 3)i - (3 + 2)j

= (7 - S)i + (3 - 2)j
= 2i+ j
(iii) m + n = 12i + Sj :.x = 12 and y =S

Im+ nl = .)12 2
+ S2
= ..)169
= liunit£
(iv) We draw a diagram to show the vector m + n = 12i + Sj. Direction is
given by angle 8. x = 12, Y = S
y
o 12 x
=22.6°
The direction of the~ctQr 12i + Sj is therefore 22.6"
284
Example 3. In the diagram, write the following as column vectors
(i) AP
(ii) PQ
(iii) MR
(iv) MA (
Hence fmd 1"1PI and ~
A R
Solution: We consider each square as I unit by I unit. Going vertically upwards is considered
positive and downwards is negative. Going right is positive and left is negative.
(i) At= (;) (4 units rightwards and 3 units upwards)
---.. (4)
(ii) PQ =
-3
(4 units rightwards and 3 units downwards)
---.. =
(iii) MR (-_7) (7 units leftwards and 4 units downwards)
4
(iv) --+
MA = (-35\3J
lAP[ = ~X2 + y2
2
=.J4 2 +3
= .fi5
=5
.:JiAfi = 5 units
fMAI = ~X2 + y2
= ~(-5)2 + 32
= .J34
---.. = 5.8
~MAL-=5.8 units
285
Triangle rule of addition for vectors.
~ At= A!.Iit.
This is the triangle rule of addition for vectors
Pi. C
The polygon of vectors.

B
D E
Position vectors.
The position vector of a poin~ relation to the origin 0 isOA = a and the position
vector of B in relation to 0 is OB =b as shown in the diagram.
A
Alt = At> + 00 ( the triangle rule of addition for vectors)
6
=- a+ b
=b-a
.'. At = position vector of B - position vector of A
o b B =b-a
Example: If A, B and Care three points in the xy plane and A is (-1, 0), B is (2, 4) and C is
(3, -2), fm~e follow~ as colu~ vectors_ _
(i) OA (ii) OB (iii) OC (iv) AB (v) BC
Solution: We fust draw a sketch showing the points A, B and C, with 0 as the point (0, 0).
~ m__ 6A = (-6) o~ = (~) oc = (-i)
- --
(i) (ii) (iii)
(iv) AB = AO + OB
(-6)
. =- + (~) (Note:AO=-:oA)
= (~)+(1) = W
1 2 3,
,,
,,
-2 ------------- C
286
Exercise 33a
1. Find the magnitude of each of the following vectors
(a) AB= (~) (b) a = (f~ (c) BC= (~) (d) b = (b:~)
(e)r= (=i) (f)AB=(-O (g)ot=(g) (h)PQ = (i)
2. Find the angle between the given vector and the positive direction of the x axis.
(a)At=O) (b)a=(g) (C)BC=(6) (d) b= (-i)

(e)r= (=~ (t)AB=(-t) (g)oP= (-:) (h)PQ=(i)
3. Write down the inverse (opposite) of each o~e following vectors.

(a) a (b) 3a (c) OP (d) -4b (e)-PO
(t) -AB (g) a - b (h) b - a (i) 3a + b (j) a - b - c
4. Ifa =U), b= (-f) andc= (=~) ,fmd the following as colunm vectors
(a) -a (b) 2a (c) -2c (d) tb (e) a - 2c
(t)tb-a (g)t b - 2c (hHb - (a - 2c) (i) (a - 2c) +tb
5. If At = (i) andBC = (g) ,express the following as colunm vectors

, (a)M.' BC
+ (b) AC (c) AB-BC (d) BC+ BA
(e) CB+ BC (t) Bl-BC (g) BC+ 2AB (h) 2AB-- BC
6. If At = ( i ), fmd the value of k for which

(a)kAS=(i) (b)kAiL (-_It) (c) kAB =(f)
7. Relative to the origin 0(0, 0), three points A, B and C have coordinates (I, 3), (4, 7)
and (5, 5) respectively.
(a) Find the fOllOW? as colunm vectors
(i) at (ii) 0 (iii) -oc
(iv) ~ (v)Et (vi)cA
(b) Find also [PlI
8. rfm = 2i + j and n= 3i-4j (a) fmd the following in terms ofi and j
(i) m + n (ii) m - n (iij n-m (iv)2m-4n
(b) Also fmd (i) Im- nl (ii) 12m - 4nl
9. If O~ = (i) ,oQ = (l) ,oR = (_~) andOS = (=~) fmd the following
(a) PQ and 1PQ1 (b)pt and fpS[ (c) Qit and IQRi (d) SItand ISRi
What geometrical figure is PQRS?
287
10. In the dia~m,D = 1 unit, write the fOllOWinMS column ve~ors
(a) AI' (b) QP (c) Km (d) (e~ (t) SIt
Hence find rAPI and 1KaJ
P
IS
A
IR
- (4) - (6)
11. OP = 2 ' OQ = 9 ' M and N are points such that OM= -OP and ON = -OQ,
__ ~
1-
~
1
3
find as column vectors; (a) PO (b) PQ (c) MN (d) Nt'
12. (a) If X = 4i + 3j and Y = Si - 4j, express the following in terms ofi and j
(i) 3X + 2Y (ii) 4X - SY
(b) Given that 0 is the origin, and P, Q and R are points such that at> i~), ~ ={ ~)
and oR = ( :). On a graph paper show the vectors dp, oQ and oR taking lcm to
represent 1 unitJn both axes. Hence express the following as column vectors:
(i) P (ii) pt (iii) QIf.
Also find: (iv) PQ (v) the acute angle which PR
makes with the x-axis.
S is a point on QR such that QS = SR; show the point S on your diagram, hence
express as columns the vectors:
(vi) at (vii)"$ (viii) PS.
13. In the diagram, 0 is the point (0, 0), (a) Express the following as column vectors
., ,y
(i)
(ii) OB
O!
r
(iii) Ot:
(iv) BC
(v) cl
(vi) i5t
A (b) fmd
(i) ~
r
(ii) I~
•
Ir-
(iii) Iocr
. -. - 1 , , x (iv) I~
-,
'B
288
Free vectors
In almost all of the previous section we have been dealing with vectors given in terms of x
and y i.e. Cartesian vectors. This means that almost all vectors discussed have some referenoc
to some origin. Free vectors are vectors independent of the Cartesian system.
-+ --+
Example 1 In triangle ABC below, D is the midpoint of AC. Given that AB = a, ,BC = b,
fmd the following in terms ofa and b;
(i) At: (ii) fill (iii) 00
c
A a
Solution: (i) Using the triangle rule of addition for vectors in L'.ABC we have
AC=AB+OC
=a+b
(ii) D is the midpoint of AC

:.AD=t~
= tea + b)
(iii) Us~the tr~an~le of addition for vectors inL'.ADB we have

DB=DA+ ----. ----.
= -tea + b)+ a (Notice that DA =-AD)
= -.la-.1b+a
2 2
= tea-b)
Example 2. In the diagram below AB =a, BC =b, AP: AC = 1: 3 and BP: BD = 1: 3.

Find in Ifrms of a and b
C.,-- -;»D (a) AC
(b)~
(c)~
(d) BD
b p
(e) m
BIL...-~a---"A'
Solution: (a) Usin~th~angle.rule in MBC we have

AC=AB +BC
=a+b
289
9
(b) It is given that AP : AC = I : 3

AP I
or-=-
~3
:.AP= tAt
=t(a+b)
(c) Us~trianljleBP~
we have
BP=BA+AP
= -a+t(a+b)
=-a+!a+!b
3 3
= Hb-2a)
(d) It is given that BP : BD = I: 3

BP I
or - = -
BD 3
~=31W
:.BD=3x t(b-2a)
= b 2a
(e) us~trianfe Bcrf we have

CD=C +B
=-b+b-2a
==::2a
Parallel lines.
A • B
-
Two straight lines AB and CD are parallel if AB = ~
fitD where fi is a number.
- C
AB = ."..
• D
fiCD has two geometrical meanings:

• AB is parallel to CD
• the length of AB is fi times the le~th of CD. (note the vectors AB and DC in
example 2 above viz. ~ = a and OC = 2a ~ DC = 2AB and DC is parallel to AB)
Collinear points.
--
These are points lying in a straight line: Points A, B and C are collinear if AB =fiBC
where fi is a number
A
--
AB = fiBC
B C
~ = hBC implies that the lines AB and BC are parallel but since both lines pass through B
then A, B and C are collinear, with the length of AB being h times the length of BC.
290
Example]; In the diagram, M and N are midpoints ofAB and BC respectively. rill =a
B and AJ'!"= b, fmd in terms of a and b the vectors
(i) BC -ili) EN
Hence prove that MN = kAC and state; '-
(iii) the value of k
(iv) two geometrical relationships between MN
andAC.
Solution: (i) Fro~C, ~
:BC=BA+AC
= -a+b
= b-a
(ii) BN = t BC (given)
.. - = 2(b-a)
.BN I
In tri\ngle BMN
MN=MB+B~
= ta+t(b-a)
= .l2 b
:.MN = t pt: (since b = At:)
(iii) MN - ~ ::::} k = t
~
(iv) For k = ,
1' ,
MN = 1. AC means that
• MN is parallel to AC
• the length of MN ist the length ofAC.
Example 2. In the quadrilateral ABCD below, Ait=a, Art=b ,~= 2b and AE: AC = 1:_
Find in!S!DS of a and b the vectors
C (i) AC (ii) ~ (iii) BE (iv) BD
Hence sh<:w that the points B, E and D
are collinear.
D
2b
b
A B
Solution: (i) From D-ABC
~=Ait+BC
=a+2b
(ii) At= t AC (given)

= t(a+2b)
(iii) Fr~D-ABl
BE =B +AE
291
= -a +t(a +2b)
=t(b-a)
-- -
(iv) BD = BA + AD
=-a+b
=b-a
BE_ l{b-.:-1i)
lill- ( jl-4)
:.-a 2Et 3
This shows tha: B, E and D are collinear points with the length of BE being
2
- the length of BD.
3
Theorem: The straight lines joining the midpoints of any quadrilateral form a
Parallelogram.
r--_ _-7R~---:'\B
a P
Let OABC be a quadrilateral aIJ4. P, Q, R and S be the midpoints 00 A, AB, BC and

CO respectively. Let M= a, OB = b and 6C = c.
We seek to prove that PQRS is a parallelogram.
FrOI!!A.OABt> - -
AB=A +OB
=-a+b
=b-a
AQ= tAB
:.AQ = t(b - a)
From LlPAQ
~=pt+AQ
=ta+t(b-a)
= lb ~ 1
2
Fro~LlO~ _
CB =CO+OB
= -c+b
=b-c
CR= tCB
292
:.at =t(b - c)
Fro~SQt ~
SR=SC+CK
=tc+t(b-c)
= tb ,2
----
From results 1 and 2 above
PQ=SR= tb
Therefore PQ is parallel to SRand are equal in length.
lllan be proved simil!!I!y that SP is equal aniParallelto RO. hence PORS is a pamllrngram.
Theorem: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other

Let ABCD be a parallelogram with diagonals AC and BD intersecting at X.
l>sl
A a B
To prove that AX = t AC and BX ,,;, t BD
Let At. a and AD=4
Now ~C =a + b and BD = b - a
Let~=~ '1
and 1 = kED , 2 so that
=h(a+b) , 3
and B = k(b - a) • 4
subtracting luation 4 from equation 3 we get
&C-B =h(a+b)-k(b-a)
AX + XB = ha + hb - kb + ka (Note that ~BX = Xit)
a =ha+hb-kb+ka (Note:AX+xB=a)
kb -hb=ha+ka-a
(k-h)b=(h+k-l)a
Now (k - h)b = (h + k- l)a implies that a and b are parallel vectors or
they are collinear, but since they are neither parallel nor collinear then
k-h=O ' 5
andh+k-l=O '6
Solving equations 5 and 6 simultaneously we get
h= ~andk=~
2 2
Hence AX = ~ AC and BX = ~ BD by substituting for h and k in
2 2
equations 1 and 2.
This proves that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
293
Exercise 33b --.--.
1. In triangle OAB below, OA '3, OB = b, M and N are points onOA and OB respectively.
Given that OM = !OA and ON = !OB , fmd
3 3
(a) Ai! (b) MN(c) the ratio MN
AB
A State two geometrical relationships betwem MN and AB.
2. In triangle OAB below, M =a, Oit= b, M and N are points on OA and OB such that
OM = ±OA
5
and ON = ±OB
5 '
fmd
a b MN
(a) :;ill (b) ~ (c) the ratio
M,.L- -".N AB
State two geometrical relationships between MN and AB.
A B
-+ -+
3. In the diagram below, OA =a, OB = b, M is the midpoint of OA and N is a point on AB
A such that AN: NB = 3 : I, fmd, in terms ofa and/or b
(a) O~ (b);m: (c) Mt (d) NB
M (e) 00 (t)
4. In th~agram, ~ and N are midpoints of OA, OB and AB respectively. Given

that OA = a and OB = b, fmd (a) in terms of a and/or b
o (i) (ii) AI!
(iii) AN
(iv) L~ (v) LM MN
a b (b) the ratio LM
L AN
(c) the ratio LA
A B MN
What can you say about, the quadrilateral ALMN?
5. In rectangle ABCD, AD = a and AB = b and M is a point onBC such that BC : BM = 4 : 3,

A b Find in terms of a and/or b --.
(a)Bt1 (b)~ (c)AM (d)DM
a
D
,L======::JCM
6. The following are five pairs o&,arallel vectors not given in order. Identify each pair
(a)~=a+b (b)B =3b-2a (c~=a-2b (d)Rt=3a-6b
-11 -32 -32 ~
(e)RT=-a+-b (t)PT=-a--b (g)XY=-a--b (h)AB=2a+3b
22 _23 23
(i) oN= 6a + 9b G) CD = 9b-6a
294
-- --
7. In the diagram, AC = a, AB = b, M is the midpoint of AC and X is the midpoint of
MN and BC.
(a) Expr~in te~of a an~or b -+ -+
(i) (ii) BC (iii) MX (iv) MN (v) c;-.;
(b) What can you say about
(i) AB andMN
(ii) MB and CN?
8. In triangle ABC, AC= a and AB= b. M is the midpoint of AC and CN~ CB = 2: 3
The straight lines AN and BM intersect at X.
(a) Express the following in terms ofa ~or b,
at
(i) ~) at AFt
(iii) (iv).AM (v) ME.
(b) If M5t= hMB and AX = kMt,. here h and k are
numbers, show that
A=---,l------~B 2k - 3h = 0 and 2k + 3h = 3.
Solve these equations simultaneously to fmd h and k.
-+ -+ -+
9. In the diagram, AB =a, BC = 2b and AD = b.
C (a) Express ACand BD in terms of a and b.
The f0int of intersection P of AC and BD is such that
D AP = mA~ andW ~ nBIt where m and n are num
2 P (b) Express ~ and Min terms ofa, b, m and n
b (c) Find the vector sum""At +Pit and hence show that
B A
m + n = 1 and 2m- n = 0
a Solve these equations simultaneously for m and n
10. In the diagram. 'AD = 3a, AB = 2b, AJ = mAC and Ht= nEt,
and n being numbers. ID
2a (a) Find the ~llOWing in terms ofa and b

B C (i) A (ii)lID (iii) ill
(b) Express .
2 (i)M
in terms of a, b and m
(ii) in terms of a, b and n BP
A=-------:ta--------~D (c) By considering the vector sum""AJ+Pit
show that m + n 1 and 2m- 3n = 0 =
(d) Solve the above equations simultaneous _
and hence fmd the following ratios
(1.) AP
-
(..)
11-
BP
PC PD
11. In the diagram, PQRS is a quadrilateral. The points J, K, L and M are midpoints of PS, SR
a RQ and QP respectively. If pt = a,PQ= b and PR = c,
p·...".._--.,.J'-::-------r S show that the quadrilateral JKLM is a parallelogram.
c -- ............
K
~ ------- ..........
R
L
Q
295
12.
KR = ~SR
3
-- -- --
In the diagram, PQ =a, PS
NR = l.QR
and 3
=b
__
and PR = c. Given that MP = tQP, LP = l.SP
3 '
(a) Expressiand~ in terms ofa and b

(b) Express R and ~ in terms of a and c
(c) Express Rand RK in terms of b an.s!.s.
(d) Find and simplify an expression for KN
(e) State two geometrical relationships between KN and LM
(f) Describe the quadrilateral KLMN
LONDON
296
34. TRANSFORMATIONS
A transformation can be defined as a change of position, size or shape of an object following
the application of a geometrical operation. The geometrical operation may be a reflection,
rotation, enlargement, shear, stretch or any combination of these. The object that results from_
transformation is known as the image.
Translation
In a translation, an object is moved in a fIxed direction. The aIRQunt of translation being definrL
by the column vector (~) , where x and y define the number of units movect in the direction of
the X and Y axis respectively.
In the diagram below, triangle ABlC I is the image of triangle ABC following a transformaf
.., defmed by th~ column vector (~) . By
this transformation, A(l, 1) is mapped
ID
~ to A I(3, 4), B(l, 2) is mapped to B I(3, -
/f'I>..
:. rJ:' ~ r. and C(2, 1) is mapped to C I(4, 4). Hencr
,, , iL·
~
,,
, ,
for the transformation vector T = (~) :
~
, ,,
~ ID'
, ,, ,, A T AI B T B.
, lA ~:), r (0 + W= W, (~) + W= (~,

C T Cl
u ( :x (i) +m = (:).
Notice that in transforming A to A I we add the coordinates of A to the translation vector T all:!
the same applies to the other points B and C.
Reflection
In a reflection an object is reflected in a line called a mirror line In the diagramL'>. AIBlC I is
M
Image of ~ABC after a reflection in the mirror line
MM I. In a refection transformation
~L---H--~ _~l ~ • the object and the image are equidistant from
LJ+.:~
the mirror line. Hence AR = AJR, BP = BIP
CR= CIR.
• any straight line joining a point on the object
Cl AI RAC
the corresponding point on the image is
NI' perpendicular to the mirror line. Thus in fIg. 1
Fig. 1 LARM = LAIRM = 90° and
M
LBPM = L BPM = 90°.
• any point of the object on the mirror line re
invariant. In fIg 2, C is the invariant point of'
transformation for which~AIBIC is the im
~C after reflection in MM I.
A I ------ ----- 'A
Fig. 2
297
Example 1: Find the image ofL'.ABC, where A is (3, 3), B is (5, 3) and C is(4, 5), after
reflection (i) in the x axis (ii) in the yaxis
Solution: (i) In the diagram, M\B\C 1 is the image of L'.ABC after reflection in the x axis.
'i Note that the distances of corresponding
points from the x axis are equal.
,
~,
,'f\.
, If!! 'iil (ii) MzBzC z is the image of L'.ABC after
D
reflection in the y axis. Notice again that
the distances of corresponding points
from the y axis are equal.
- -. - - - -1 C X
ro
B,
't'
-
Example 2: Find the image ofL'.PQR, where Pis (0, 4), Q is-(3, 4) and R is (3, 7), after
reflection in the line y = x.
Solution: L'.P\Q\R 1 is the image ofL'.PQR after reflection in the line y = x. Note that straight
y;t. lines joining corresponding points are
1
perpendicular to the line y = x which is
,, the mirror line in this case.
! /
1/ ',V
,
y x
1/ / ,,
I 1 I", ~ It, ,,
,
,,V I~' / K,
/ " 1/
1/ lp, V
- - ,~ - - -1--<:
1/ -
/
Rotations
In a rotation an object is rotated about a point, in a specified direction ( clockwise or anticlockwise)
through a specified angle called the angle of rotation.
In the diagramL'. Q is the image ofL'.P following an anticlockwise rotation of 180· about the
point A(O. 1)
- - - I
~
- I
,
A rotation is completely defmed if the
following are stated:
Q~, 2,f<-. 1::-", .. ,
I" • direction of rotation
-- 1A
•, • angle of rotation
-- ~' FJ""l,
, • centre of rotation
Note that all three are given when
r- ..:c - .
- - u
-1!
2
" defming the ttransformation which
[ ..... - !
l-
t maps L'.P to L'.Q.
298
Finding the centre and angle of rotation given the object and its image
i1A I B lC 1 is the image of i1ABC following a rotation. To fmd the centre of rotation proceed as
follows
• Join AA] and bisect it
• Join BB l and bisect it
A The point where these bisectors meet is
the centre of rotation. So M is the centre
of rotation.
Bl To fmd the angle of rotation, produce

corresponding sides e.g. AC and AlC],
the angle made by.these produced sides
at the point of intersection is the angle of
rotation. So 8 is the angle of rotation.
Note: In all the three types of transformation above b~,shapeand area remain unchanged
after transformation.
Exercise 34a
1. In the diagram below, &scribe fully the transformation which maps
1; (a) M' onto i1Q
, (b) i1R onto M'
(c) M' onto i1S
, /
.'"
1/ 1 1"-
(d) L1R onto i1S
-v-
/ ~
- - "<
/..
5 6
/
'"
~ "\.
~
g x
-
-" ~ o( /
- I"'" /
-
2. In the diagram below, &scribe fully the transformation which maps
y (a) M' onto i1Q
, (b) L1R onto M'
I)" .A (c) i1Q onto i1S
I"" 10 1""- / D (d) L1R onto L1S
ID 1"-
c "- (e) i1U onto i1T
-
~ Iv
["\,
y
/
."
1/ n T I::"
;1\1
.'\ 8 '" x
(t) i1V onto i1W
(g) i1S onto i1W
-~
- - 15 6 ~ (h) i1U onto i1V
V w -ry ~. I"" (i) i1M onto M'
-~
-
-
299
3. In the diagram, (a) M'IQIRI is the image of ~PQR after a transformation L, describe fully
the transformation L.
(b) M'zQzR z is the image of ~PQR after
a transformation M, describe the
transformation M
(c) M'3Q3R3 is the image of~PQR after
a transformation N, describe the
X transformati9n N
(d) M'4Q~ is the image of ~PQR after
a transformation 0, describe the
transformation 0
4. On squared paper draw the diagram below. (a) Draw and label rectangle Q the image of
.,Y re,stangle P under a translation (= ~)
I
p (b) Rectangle S is the image of rectangle
i R under a 90 0 clockwise rotation about
c
. (0, 0). Draw and label rectangle S.
- - - - - -~ - (
8 - Xreflected in the line y = x
it to obtain rectangle T. Draw and label
- (i) the line y = x
-
(ii) rectangle T
-~
5. With the aid of a sketch on squared paper, find the image of the pointA (3, 0) under an
anticlockwise rotation of
(a) 900 about the origin and label it B
(b) 1800 about the point (1, 0) and label it C
(c) 3600 about the origin and label it D
(d) 1800 about the origin and label it E
6. On squared paper, using a scale of 1: 1 on both axes, find the centre and angle of rotation
for which
(a) MIBIC I is the image of~ABC where
A is (2,- 2), B is (0, -4), C is (4, -4) and
A I is (0, -2), B l is (-2, 0), Cl is (-2, -4).
(b) square A~BICIDI is the image of square ABCD where
A is (2, 3), B is (2, 5), C is (4, 5), D is (4, 3)
Al is (0, I)B I is (2,1), Cl is (2, -1), D l is (0, -1)
7. Find the image of each of the follow~g points under the translation (~)
(a) A(O, -1) (b) B(O, -2) (c) C(I, -2) (d) D(I, -1)
8. On a squared paper draw the coordinate axes numbered from -5 to +5 on the y axis and
-8 to 8 on the x axis. On your axes draw rectangleABCD where A is (-6, -2), B is (-6, -4)
C is (-3, -4) and D is (-3, -2).
300
(a) Rectangle ABCD is translated by the vector (160) to get rectangle A,BtCtD t . draw and
label rectangle A,BtCtD t .

(b) Rectangle A,BtCtD 1 is reflected in the line x = 3+
to get rectangle A28 2C2D2. Draw and
label rectangle A 2B2C2D2.
(c) Rectangle A2B2C2D2 is rotated 90° about the origin in the anticlockwise direction to get
rectangle A383C3D3. Draw and label rectangle A3B3C3D3.
(d) Rectangle A3B3C3D3 is refected in the line y = x to give rectangle ~B4C4D4' Draw and
label rectangle A4B4C~4.
(e) State fully a single transformation which maps ~B4C~4 back to ABCD such that ~---7A..
9. On a graph paper draw the coordinate axes and label them from- 3 to + 3. Draw t.ABC
with vertex coordinates A(I, I), B(l, 2) and C(2, I) and the line y =-x on the same axes.
(a) Draw and labelt. AIB,C, the image of t.ABC under reflection in the line y = -x.
(b) Draw and labelt. A282C2 the image of ti. A,B,C, under reflection in the x axis.
(c) Describe fully the transformation which mapsti. A2B 2C2
(i) back ontoti.ABC with A2 ---7 A, 82 ---7 C and C 2 ---7 B.
(ii) onto t.HKL with coordinates H(l, -I), K(l, -2) and L(2, -I), where A2 ---7 R
B 2---7 L and C2 ---7 K
ID. On a graph paper, using the same scale on the axes, copy and label the figure A8CDE.
y
l
1
A b
~ - - 1 ( 3 'lx
-
r--
"
"I"1
1/
/
-'
-
(a) Find and label A'B'C'D'E' the image.ofthe figure ABCDE under an anticlockwise rotar
of 90° about the point (l, I)
(b) Find and label A"B"C''D''E'' the image of A'B'C'D' E under reflection in the line y =-x
(c) By a translation, the figure A''B''C''D''E'' syrrimetrically maps onto the original figure,
state (i) the column vector of the translation
(ii) the mapping of each of the coordinates A", B", C", D", and E" under the
transformation in c(i).
301
Enlargements
Unlike the transformations discussed above, where both shape and size remain the same; in an
enlargement the shape of the object remains the same but the size changes. In other words
an enlargements produces similar figures. This means that for the object and its image,
• the ratio of corresponding sides is the same
• corresponding angles are equal.
In the diagram belowA A'B'C' is the image ofLl.ABC after enlargement centre O.
'_--- The two triangles in the diagram are similar,
-- -- length of a side of image
therefore: - - - = - - - - - - - - " ' - - constant
~
------ corresponding length on object
-------------
~=:------1l __ ,_ _ . A'B' B'C' A'C'
I.e. - - = - - = - - =k
~ ........... _- ......... AB BC AC
C-- _ OAf OB' OC'
or - - = - - = - - = k
......... OA OB OC
The value of the constant, k is the scale factor of

enlargement. An enlargement is fully defined if the
fo1I0wing are stated;
• the scale factor
• the center of enlargement.
Properties of enlargements
For any given enlargement, the value of the scale factor k shows;
• how enlarged or diminished an image is in relation to the object
• the location of the image in relation to the object
• the location of object and image relative to the centre of enlargement
The following, illustrate these points

• For k > I, the image is greater in size than the object.
--- --- M'B'C' is the image of Ll.ABC after

enlargement center O. The image is
Pc
--------t -----------
O~~~:::~~~~~~~ ------------
larger than the object.
-"- ... _- Note that both image and object are

--- on the same side of the centre of
enlargement.
• For 0 < k < I, the image is smaller in size than the object.
Pc -"----- M'B'C' is the image of Ll.ABC after

A' __ --------- --- enlargement center O. The image is
--- --- smaller than the object.
O~~_::~::------ -,-----------
--- c'---.. -- __ Note that both image and object are
--- -c ----_. on the same side ofthe re ntre of
enlargement.
302
°
If k < then the image and the object are on o:pposite sides of the centre of enlargement.
• For -1 < k < 0, the image is smaller than the object.
A _----
6.A'B'C' is the image of 6.ABC after
smaller than the object.
Note that object and image are on

opposite sides of the cntre of
--- enlargement.
------~~
• For k = -1, object and image are equal in size but are on opposite sides of the centre of
enlargement.
- c' A- ---------
6.A'B'C' is the image of 6.ABC after
""" .. , .. , ,,;,;
B'------- -:::::::::::,'Qc~:::::~:_::::_-------- the same size as the object.
This is equivalent to a rotation of the

__--A' C -_ object through 1800 about O.
.-,'- ' .......
• For k < -1 the image is on the opposite side of the centre of enlargement and is larger
than the object.
Example 1 The points A( 1, 1), B(2, 0 and CCl, 2) are vertices of MBC. Find the image of
the triangle under enlargement centre 0, scale factor 2.
Solution: We multiply the coordinates of6.ABC by the scale factor to fmd the corresponding
image points. Thus A(l, 1) maps to A'(2, 2), B(2, 1) maps to B'(4, 2) and CCl, 2)
maps to C '(2,4).
The diagram below shows6. ABC and its image6. A'B'C' under this transformation.
303
.
il"..
, ".. ,
, "..
:" .'
ri
,
,, ,
, , "
,
,, ,
t~/, ~
,
k,
, , ."
,
,
· . 0 2 3 4 5 6 X
.'
Example 2: In the diagram below, t,. P'Q'R' is the image of t,.PQR under enlargement. Find
(i) the centre of enlargement
(ii) the scale factoL
,
11
I"
I" 1'-
~
• "
"-
~
"'-
1"'-
n ",,- ~
p
f'\.
Q'
I" R'
· 12 4 6 8 I( 12 x
.1
Solution: (i) To find the centre of enlargement we draw lines through corresponding
points of object and image as
... shown in the diagram. The
I.,
centre of enlargement is thus
il!'\.
,, found to be (0, 0).
I"
, ,
,
'" '"' ,
(ii) The scale factor ofthe
,, '" I"- transformation is found by
i
, "
I,
finding the ratio of any two
,, I" , corresponding sides i.e,
, , '1>.
1 ' ,
, " Q'R' P'Q' P'R'
,1\ , ,
, ~-or---or---. The
, , QR PQ PR
" I..;t" 1"- .
,:_" . ' . '"

, ,
scale factor is therefore±

· 4 6 8 I( 12 x
.
304
Area and enlargements
If the scale factor of an enlargement is k, the area scale factor is 0. Hence if the area of the
object is IOcm2 and the scale factor of the enlargement is 2 then the area of the image
is 22 . 10 = 40cm2. The following example illustrates this.
Example: The coordinates of square ABCD are A(l, I), B(l, 2), C(2, 2) and D(2, I). Find
(i) the image of ABCD under an enlargement scale factor -2.
..) h . _ar_e_a_o_f_o__b~je_c_t
( 11 t e ratio
area of image
Solution: (i) To find the coordinates of the image we multiply the coordinates of the object
by -2. Thus, A(l, I) maps to A'(-2, -2), B(I, 2) maps to B'(-2, -4), C(2, 2) maps
to C'(-4, -4) and D(2, l)maps to D'(-4, -2). The diagram shows the object and
y its image under this transformation.
,; 2 I c-
,, F
1
(ii) area of object = ~ = 4 : I
2
i area of image 2
This shows that the area of the image
- - - - 0 3 IX is (_2)2 = 4 times the area ofthe object.
D A'! .
- ,, , ~, ..
[
! -'
!
5
.<1
c P
.~
Shears
The diagram below show object P and its image Q before and after shear. Notice that P is
rectartgular in shape whereas Q is a parallelogram. Thebase line and height of object of both
----j---/uuu Q / object and image remain unchanged. Th
_ _...I
P
O h under this kind of transformation, the
shape changes but the area remains the
same.
In the diagram below, the square OABC is mapped onto parallelogram OABlC l under shear.
The base line OA is' common to both the object and the irrnge. This means that the line OA
y remains invariant under this transformatioIL
In a shear transformation, the distance a po-
moves from its original pa;ition on the ob'
Ct-- ~~----------C~------~,JBl
,, to the [mal position m the image is
,, proportional to its distance from the inv .
,,
,, Compare the distances, BBt, RR l and PP l .
, the diagram. This shows that the further a
o A D M a point is from the invariant line the more'
moves after transformation.
305
The ratl·o·. - - - -dis
- -tance
- - -moved
- - - -by
' -a-point
- ' - - - - - = k ,a const ant . The const ant (k) IS
.
distance of the point from the invariant ,
known as the shear constant or shear factor.
. CC BB
In the dIagram above, shear factor k = __1 = __1
CO BA
I fA shear ~s o0mJ;lleteJly <defiNed ~f the fo110wing are stated:

• the shear factor
• fhe in\\ar~aJ1lt line
• the dITeot~Qn of shear.
Example: A rectangle OABC has coordinates 0(0. 0), A(O, 2), B(3, 2) and C(3, 0). Findthe
image of the of the rectangle after a shear of scale factor 2 with the x axis invariant
Solution: The y coordinates of each point does not change since the shear is in the direction
of the x axis, so we consider only the x coordinates. Consider the x coordinate of A.
Let this coordinate move a distance d under the transformation:
dis tan ce moved by a po int I f
- - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - ' - - - - - = sca e actor
k
dis tance of the point from the in variant
... .<! = 2
2
".d=4
The distance moved by the x coordinate of A is therefore 4 units
Similarly, B being the same distance as A from the invariant, moves 4 units parallel
to the x axis.
Hence the coordinates of the image are A'(4, 2), B'O, 2), C(3, 0) and 0(0. 0)
Note that the coordinates of 0 and C remain unchanged on account of lying on the
invariant line. The diagram below illustrates this transformation.
21J:A>-- --,B ;;A-.-'_-----'-_ _-----,,"'B'
3 4 7 x
306
Shear parallel to the x axis with the x axis as the invariant
Consider the diagram below. Distance BB I = Xz - Xl and distance OC = BA = y- 0
y
BB
Shear factor = I
y~ ~a ~C"~~~",BI
,, BA
,,, k= x 2 -XI
,, y-O
,,
o .'.k =
y
Shear parallel to the V axis with the V axis as the invariant

In the diagram above, distance BB I = Yz - YI and distance OC = AB =X
BB
Shear factor = I
BA
k = Y2 - YI
x-o
Y2 -YI
.' .k = -=--"--~
X
x X
Example Find the shear factor in each of the following diagrams where OABIC I is the
image of rectangle OABC after shear.
(a)
y
(b)
:L BI
4l--- ---- Cl
f--------_+'_ - - - - - - - - - -C-;>., "?"l,B I
,,
,,
,,
,,
,
5 7 2
Solution: (a) This is a shear parallel to the X axis (b) This is a shear parallel to the Y axis
with the x axis invariant with the Y axis invariant
BB BB
Shear factor = I Shear factor = ----,
AB AB
k= Y2-Y,
k=
X
Y
.'.k= 7- 2 .'.k = 6- 2
4 2
.'.k = 1± .'.k= 2
307
Example 2: A(2, 0), B(4, 0) and C(4, 3) are the coordinates of the vertices of triangle ABC.
Find the image of triangle ABC folbwing a shear of scale factor -2 with the
x axis invariant.
Solution: The x axis is the invariant line so the points on the x axis remain unchanged Of the
Y given points, the only point which
will vary is the x coordinate of the
3 -----------------
point C(4, 3) since the shear is parallel
to the x axis. Let Xt = 4 and Y2 = 3 and
we have to fInd X2.
- ~ - ~ we have
<> k -
Usina
x Y
~-4
-2=--
Y 3
Cl -------3 ----------------- C
~-6 = X2-4
~ X2 =-2
The x CQQrdinJlkci-.thcimage is - 2
Triangle ABC 1 is the image of

B triangle ABC after the given
-2 o 2 4 x transformation; C(4, 3)_C 1(-2,3)
Shears with the invariant line other than the axes

Consider a shear parallel to the x axis where the x axis is not the invariant line. Lety =1
be the invariant line as shown in the diagram below, where L'.ABC is mapped onto M 1B 1C 1
Y Since the shear is parallel to the x axis the y
. B B coordinates do not change.
y --;7\~-~:4 I Shear factor k = :~~

,: :'- :.k=x2 -x1
y-I
Expressing I in terms of the other letters in
o X, X
the equation above we g>,,;e..;,t_..
1= ky+xl -~
k
This gives the value ofl for which y =I IS
the equation of the invariant line.
Example. A shear parallel to the x axis of scale factor 3 maps the point P(2, 2+) to point
Q( 8, 2+) find the equation of the invariant line.
Solution: Let the equation of the invariant line be y =1. Now

ky+x -x 3· 21-+2-8 I
1= 1 2= 2 =_
k 3 2
The equation of the invariant line is therefore y = +
308
Example 2 In the diagram below M'Q'R' is the image of MQR after a shear parallel to the
x axis, fmd (i) the equation of the invariant line
(ii) the scale factor of the transformation.
y,
2 ----PI,
,,
,,
,,
p4
' ,,
,,
,
,,,
,, ,
0 I 2 3 4 X
Solution:(i) Since the shear is parallel to the x axis the invariant line is of the form y =l
Now P(3, 2) -> p' (I, 2)
and Q(4, 3) -> Q'(O, 3)
k= X 2 -XI
Y -[
Using the mapping P to P' we have
1-3
k= -
2-[
-2
=>k=-- ~I
2 -[
Using the mapping Q to Q' we have
0-4
k= - -
3 -[
=> k -4= ~ 2
3-[
From equations 1 and 2
-2 -4
- - =- - ( each side equals k)
2-[ 3-[
Solving this equation gives [ = 1

The equation of the invariant lin~therefore v-I
(ii) k = x 2 - XI
Y -[
1-3
---
2-1
= -2
-Therefore the scale factor of thuransfurlIl-'ltion is -2
309
Consider the diagram below. Rectangle ABCD is transformed to triangle A'B'C'D' by a shear
parallel to the y axis. Let x = m be the equation of the invariant line.
Since the shear is parallel to the y axis the x
y, x =m
C' coordinates do not change.
yz -- ----------------
CC'
Shear factor k = - -
B'
,'D' x-m
,,, :. k= Yz -Y,
,,
,, x-m
Expressing m in terms of the other letters in
the above equation we get
kx+ Y, - Y z
m = ---'--'------'--=-
k
o m x This gives the value ofm for which x =m
is the equation of the invariant line.
Example: A shear transformation of scale factor 3 maps the point P(2, 3) to P'(2, 6), find
(i) the equation of the invariant line
(ii) the image of the point (3, 2) under this transformation
Solution: (i) The shear is parallel to the to the yaxis since the x coordinates of P and P' are the
same. Let the equation of the invariant line be x = m
m= kx+y, -yz
k
= 3· (2)+3-6 =1
3
The equation of the invariant line is th~ore x-I
( ii) k = Yz - Y,
x-m
3 = Yz -2
3 -1
6 = Yz - 2 => Y2 = 8
Ih-cre(QIe theJ)oinLG. 21 maps to C3, 8)
Stretches
Under stretch, an object is enlarged in one or more directions. Thus a stretch is an enlargement
either parallel to the x axis or parallel to the y' axis or bothThe magnitude of stretch depends
on the scale factor'. In a stretch, points of the object are moved in a fixed direction relative to a
fixed line called the invariant.
y The diagram shows rectangle OAB I Cl the
Af-----------,r"'R-- - __ ,B,
image of rectangle OABC after stretch with
,, the line OA invariant
,,
,, The ratio QC, or AB, is the scale factor of the
,, QC AB
c C 'C stretch.
o The scale factor is also given by the ratio
area of AB,Cp
area of ABCO
310
1:
Al-- --,B, The diagram shows the image OABIC I of the
square OABC under a two way stretch one
Af-----ofB----- B , parallel to the x axis with the y axis invariant an
the other parallel to the y axis with the x axis
invariant.
,
c Ir I" In this case there are two stretch factors OA
o x OA
,
along the y axis and AB along the x axis.
_ _ _ _..:.AB
To defme a stretch the following should be stated:

the scale factor
the direction of stretch
the invariant line.
Example: Triangle OAB has vertices: 0(0,0), A(2, 0) and B(2, 2). Find the image of the
triangle under a stretch of scale factor 2 parallel to the x axis.
Solution: Let A and B' be the images of A and B respectively. Now
ON
oA = k, the scale factor of the transformation
Of{
--=2
2- 0
:.OJ( =4
Hence the x coordinate off{ is 4. The y coordinate does not change because the
stretch is parallel to the x axis
Similarly the x coordinate of B is 4 but the y coordinate is still 2.
Thus the coordinates of the image are 0(0, 0), A(4, 0) and B (4, 2). Note that 0 is
the invariant point of the transformation.
Example 2: (a) In the diagram, describe fully the transformation which mapsL'>P onto L'>Q
y. . d h . _ar_ea_o_fL'>_P
(b) Fm t e ratIo
area of L'>Q
I
I Solution: (a)The transformation whi

I mapsL'>P ontoL'>Q is a stretch parallel
I \ the y axis scale factor 3 with the x a: -
\ as the invariant line.
'Q'-
~.
(b) area of L'>Q = ~ = 3

~
~
area ofL'>P I
~
I
, ;;;- "-
Note that 3 is the scale factor of
I stretch
0 2 4 x
311
Stretch with a negative scale factor
If the scale factor of a stretch is negative then the object and the image are on opposite sides
of the invariant line
T
-
J
r, n' '} r: C
,
B' A' A B
- 5 -4 - - - 0 5 x
-
In the diagram, rectangle A'B 'CD' is the image of rectangle ABeD after stretch parallel to the
x axis, scale factor -2 with the y axis invariant. Notice that the object and the image are on
opposite sides of the invariant line, the yaxis.
~ distance of image from the invariant 4 2 b 'd' h
A sach eck : scaIe .actor = - = , y conSl ermg t e
distance of object from the invariant 2
distances of A and N from the invariant. The same result is obtained if distances of B and B'
from the y axis are considered.
The same result is obtained if we consider the ratio of area of image to area of oject, thus
scale factor = area of image = 2x I = 2
area of object IX I
Since object and image are on opposite sides of the invariant line, the scale factor is -2.
In the diagram below, MQR is the image of LiP'Q'R' after a stretch of scale factor -3 with the
x axis invariant.
y
Note that to obtain the coordinates of the
image, the y coordinates of the object are
~ ~ multiplied by -3 while the x coordinates
~
remain invariant.
. Thus, A(I, 1) -> N(I, -3)
i
B(3, I) -> B'(3, -3)
- - 0 15 ~ C(3. 2) -> C(3, -6)
-
-
" A iJ>'
-
~
~
-
312
Exercise 34b
1. In the diagram, describe fully the transformation which maps
y (a)~P onto~Q
5 (b)~Q onto~R
(c)~Q onto~S
/1 ~ '{;j
1.6' IJJ IU ~ i> (d)~P onto~S
" ~ (e)~Ronto~T
(f)~S onto~U
- - -' -3 -2- 19 - X
I "
"'- s"J ~,
0
'" IT"
2. In the diagram below, describe fully the transformation which maps
y. (a)~S onto~ T
5 (b)~S ontMP
I A [l (c)~P ontMQ
3 7 17
(d)~TontMR
7 n --.; 1l:
T7
Vs
- -
-" 11- -2 - IItj
J
- IP
X
-; '\
3. On a squared paper, draw and label the square PQRS below. (a) A transformation L maps
PQRS onto p' Q R S'. Describe the
Y. transformation L.
; ID"le
, (b) A transformation M maps PQRS
5 onto P " Q" R" S" . Descnbe. the
0' " transformation M.
,3 "
~ LP (c) A transformation N maps PQRS
"'~ I-
I- onto P'" Q'" R'" S'" . D escn·be th e
P S- '" transformation N.
- -J -' -3 -2- 0 ,
pt", [~ X (d) A transformation 0 maps PQRS
""
-I -1 onot Pm, Q"" R'''' S'", . Descn·be
1 the transformation o.
Iiffli
Cl"
4. Describe fully the transformations shcwn in the diagrams below. The images are shown
in other colour than grey/black.
W ~ W
y. y.
, n'
B A,, B' 3 ------ A
--------- '
,,,
0
,, ,,
_ A , ,
,, ,, I D ,,,c
,,, ,, 1 - D:
: ~
,,
B
o 2 4 6 X o 2A 5 X I 2 4 X
313
(d) (e)
v, v,
~
..
< r <'
r' r r R1 D
, , II
r- '--- I"- 1 V
~ DC
t->
A -- I'~
l"-
"- r ~,
v -, • .'!. IR'
- ) -' - - - ( f x - 12 1 ki x I~
,
- - D
-
-
5. On graph or squared paper draw a square ABCD with vertex coordinates A(O, 0), B(2, 0),
C(2, 2) and D(O, 2). Take a scale of I to 1 on both axes and let the axes vary from 0 to 7.
(a) Draw and label ABC'D'. the image of ABCD under a stretch of scale factor It
with the line AB invariant.
(b) Draw and label AB" C" D" , the image of ABCD under enlargement of scale
factor 3 with centre as the origin.
f AB"C"D
(c) Find the ratio area 0 "CD' What can you say about tbis ratio?
area of AB
6. On graph or squared paper, taking a scale of 2cm to represent I unit on both axes and letting
the axes vary from -6 to 6 draw triangle ABC with vertices A( -2, 1), B(-2, 3) and C(O, I)
(a) Find the image of~ABC under an enlargement of scale factor -2 with centre as the
origin and label it AB'C :
(b) Find the image of~ ABC under a stretch of scale factor I parallel to the x axis. t
and label it A B" c" .
. area of A B C
(c) Fmd the ratio f" " ."What do you notice about tbis ratio?
~areao AB C
7. A square ABCD has coordinates A(O, I), B(2, I), C(2, 3) and D(O, 3). On squared paper
draw separate sketches of the object and image of the square under the following
transformations
(a) an enlargement centre (0, 0) scale factor-l
(b) a shear wbich maps C onto C (3, 3) with AB invariant. State the scale factor of
this transformation.
(c) A stretch of scale factor 2 parallel to the x axis with the line AD invariant.
8. A shear transformation of scale factor 2 maps the point P(4,4) to P'(O, 4), find
(i) the equation of the invariant line
(ii) the image of the point (2, 2) under this transformation
9. In the dia am, A'B'C'D" th e Image

. 0 f ABCD after transformation T. Describe fully the
~
IS
transformation T.
D'
2
r
0
~ B <" ,
....X
-1
314
10. The points 0, B and C have coordinates (0, 0), (1, 2) and (3, 0) respectively.
(a) Using graph paper, place the y axis 3cm from the left edge and the x axis 1cm from
the bottom edge of the paper.
(b) Using a scale of Icm to represent one unit on each axis drawLl.OBC.
With 0 as centre of enlargement,Ll.PQR is the enlargement with scale factor 2 of
Ll.OBC.
(c) Find the coordinates ofP, Q and R and draw Ll.PQR .
Ll.P'Q'R' is the result oftranslatingL\.PQR through the displacement (j)
(d) Find the coordinates ofP', Q' and R' and drawLl.P'Q'R'.
Ll.P' Q R is reflected in the line y = 8 and the resulting image Ll.P' Q' R , is then.
reflected in the line x = 4 to give L\.LMN
(e) DrawLl.P"Q"R" andLl.LMN
(t) Mark clearly the centre of rotation which would mapLl.LMN toLl.P' OR and state
the angle of this rotation.
LONDO
35. MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS
Translation
The column matrix (1) represents the point with coordinates (4, 3). lfwe add (~) to (1)
we get (~) which is the point with coordinates (6, 4). Thus the point (4, 3) undergoes a
translation of6 units in the direction of the x axis and 4 units in the direction of the y axis
under the transformation (n.
Example. A square OABC has coordinates 0(0, 0), A (0, 2), B(2, 2) and C(2, 0). Find the
image of the square under the transformation given by T = ( :)
Solution: The matrix T represents a translation of 4 units parallel to each axis. So we apply
matrix T to each of the coordinates of the square as follows
0 T 0'
,,
(~) +(:) =(:)
,, A T A
,, ,,
(~) +(:)= (~)
B T B'
(~)+ (:)= (~)

,,
,,
,,
,, C T C'
X m+ (:)= (:)
Thus the square OABC maps to square dAB c' under the transformation T as shown in
the diagram above.The transformation in the above example can be expressed generally as
T: (:) - (~ :) meaning that the transformation T is such that a point (x, y) is mapped to
the point (x + 4, y + 4). This is true for any point in the x y plane, e.g. (0, 2) maps to
(0 + 4, 2 + 4) which are the coordinates of A in the above example.
Matrices of Reflection
Consider the effect of the matrix T = (g ~) on a square whose vertices are A(l, I), B(l, 2),
C(2, 2) and D(2, I). We premultiply the coordinates of the object by the transformation matrix
T as follows;
Matrix Square Image

T ABCD AB'CD'
(6 ~) C~ ~ ~)- el ~2 -~ ~l)
316
The diagram below shows the effect ofT on the squareABCD.
y.
i
r
"
A 1)
- - 0 x
-
-,
-
From the diagram it is clear that the transformation T is a reflection in the x axis. It should
be noted however that reflection occurs in any suitably chosen line. With this in mind the
following matrices should be noted:
01) This produces reflection in the x axis as shown in the example above. Note that
this matrix has the effect of changing the sign of the y coordinates while the x
coordinates remain unchanged
This produces reflection in the y axis. This matrix has the effect of changing the
sign of the x coordinates while the y coordinates remain unchanged
This matrix produces reflection in the line y = x. The matrix has the effect of
interchanging the coordinates i.e. the x coordinate of the object becomes the y
coordinate of the image and the y coordinate of the object becomes the x
coordinate of the image
0 -1\ This matrix produces reflection in the line y = -x. The matrix has the effect of
(-1 0) interchanging the coordinates i.e. the x coordinate becomes the y coordinate and
the y coordinate becomes the x coordinate and they both have a sign change.
Matrices of Rotation.
The matrix T =( ~ .~) has the effect of rotating an object through +90 about the origin.
0
Consider its effect on triangle ABC where A is (I, I) B is (2, 1) and C is (2, 3).
Matrix Triangle Image

TAB C 1\ B' c'
( 10 -1)(1 2 2)= (-I1 -12 -3)2

°1I3
317
The diagram shows the effect of matrix T on triangle ABC.
y
~ c
/ c'
C' B' , !::..A B is the image of!::..ABC under the
--..... r--..
-...... r--.. /
/ transformation given by T = (? -ci)
1
A A B
. . . 0 X
X
.
. ,
An object can be rotated though several different angles either in the clockwise direction
(considered as negative) or in the anticlockwise direction (considered as positive) but here
we highlight matrices that produce rotations of i90° and 180°. Rotations of + 180° and
-180° give the same result. A rotation of ±360° maps object back to itself.
The following are matrices of rotation about the origin.
(~ -;) gives an anticlockwise rotation of 90° about the origin.
(? ci) gives a clockwise rotation of 90° about the origin.
(- ci _~) gives a rotation of 180° about the origin.
Matrices of Stretch
In the diagram below, !::..AB C' is the image of!::..ABC under the transformation given by
T= (20
t 0). The transformation
1 -
T is a stretch of scale factor 2*with the x a'{is invariant
"I::
....-----------.....,
The following arc matrices of stretch.
2 0\ Stretch ofscale factor 2
X
( ° I) with the y a'{is im'ariant
3 10\StrGtch of scale factor 3

2 R 0'
(0 ) with the y axis invariant
J V
Stretch of scale factor It
(~ I~)
1/ /'
J / with the x axis invariant
AIY r r'
X
- 0 4 Stretch of scale factor -+
X
- with the x axis invariant
318
Matrices of Enlargement.
Consider the effect of the matrix T=( ~ ~) on the square with vertices A(l, 1), B(l, 2),
C(2, 2) and D(2, 1). Again we pre-multiply the coordinates of the square by the matrix to
find the coordinates of the image.
Matrix Square lmage

T A B C D A B' C' D'
(~ 0\ (1 1 2
2) 1 2 2
2) = (2 2 4
1 2 4 4 i)
The diagram shows the effect of the matrix T on the square ABCD. A B' CD' is the image of
ABCD after the transformation given by T. Evidently, the transformation is an enlargement of
scale factor 2 with centre as the origin.
¥,
+-+oot--+-+--t-+-+-r+-+-+-t-~x
X
The following are some matrices of enlargement centred at the origin.
(01- 10)t
2[ This produces an enlargement of scale factor 1 t
(6 ~) This produces an enlargement of scale factor 3
(-10)
o- 1
This prcduces an enlargement of scale factor -I. Note that this is identical to
a rotation of 1800 about the. origin.
~ 2 1) This produces an enlargement of scale factor -2

\° - 2
319
Matrices of shear
Matrices of the form (~ ;) produce shear parallel to the x axis. k is the scale factor ofthe
shear (x axis invariant). Matrices of the form

.
(1k 0) produce shear parallel to the y axis.
I
Example: In the diagram OAB is the image of",,"OAB after shear. Find the matrix for this
transformation.
4 ----. B
o 3 9 x
Solution: Shear factor = :~ = ~ = 11. The matrix for the transformation is therefore (~ ~ 1)
The following table gives some matrices and the associated transformations.
-'latriX Transformation Transformation produced
(~ -?)
(x, y) -+ (x, -y). The x coordinate remains
unchanged and the y coordinate has a sign Reflection in the x axis.
change.
(- ~ ~) (x, y) -+ (-x, y). The x coordinate has a sign

change but the y coordinate remains unchanged Reflection in the y axis.
(x, y) -+ (y, x). The x and y coordinates are

~)
( 0
interchanged e.g. (2, 3) becomes (3, 2) under Reflection in the line y = x.
I this transformation.
(x, y) -+ (-y, x). The x coordinate is changed to Clockwise rotation of 90° about
C? 6) y coordinate and the y coordinate to x coordinate

with sign change. E.g. (4, 2) -+ (-2,4)
the origin.
(x, y) -+ (-y, x). The x coordinate is changed to anticlockwise rotation of 90°

(~ -;) y coordinate and the y coordinate to x coordinate
with sign change E.g. (4, 2) -+ (-2 4).
about the origin.
(x, y) -+ (-x, -y). The x and y coordinates have

(- 1
o - 0)
1 sign change. Rotation of 1800 about the origin.
(x, y) -+ ((la:, Icy). Both coordinates are Enlargement scale factor k with
(~ ~) multiplied by k. centre as the origin.
(x, y) -+ (x, y + kx). The x coordinate remains Shear parallel to the y axis scale
( ~)1
k
unchanged but the y coordinate is increased or
decreased by kx.
factor k.
(x. y) -+ (kx. v). the x coordinate is changed bv Stretch parallel to the x axis
( ~)k
0
. a factor k and the y coordinate remains unchanged scale factor k.
320
Exercise 35a
1. In each of the following write down the matrix for the transformation which maps Pto Q
(a) y (b) Y (c) Y
3 ,
2 JP'''--,,
2k-----.
2 Q
I ,,'
p 4 X
o -1: : x
2 4 6 X
-2 -i§7' p
'---'1-2
(d) y (e)y (t) y

4 --------------,
,, 4
,,
2 - - - - - ->"I,c----;'---'t
I -- , Q
o 2 3 4 6 X X 0 I 2 3 6
2. On a squared paper draw rectangle OABC with vertices 0(0, 0), A(O, 2), B(3, 2) and C(3
Make separate sketches showing the effect ofthe following matrices on therectang le
(i) (5 p) (ii) (~ ~)
Compare your results and comment.
3. On squared paper draw separate sketches showing the effect of the fa llowing matrices
square OABC where 0 is (0, 0), A is (-2,0), B is (-2, 2) and C is (0, 2):
(i) (~i) (ii) (1 ?)

Compare your results and comment.
~)
-1
4. Find the image of each of the following points under the transformation ( 0
(a) (-1,1) (b) (1,1) (c) (-1, -1)

If the points (a) to (c) above are the vertices of triangle ABC respectively, state the effect
the matrix on the triangle.
5. Find the numbers a, b, c, d, e and f for which
Matrix Object Image

0(10)(12-2)=(ac.e)
I 0 -1 1 3 1 b d f
Matrix Object Image

(.)(0 -1) (0 3 1) (a c e)
"10124-bdf
Sketch the object and image. Hence state the effect of each matrix on the object.
321
6. (a) A transformation F is defIned by F: (~) -----+- (~ : ~) . Find the image of each of the
following points under the transformation F; (i) P( -3, 1) (ii) Q(-I, 1) (iii) R(O, 3)
(b) On a squared paper, letting the x axis vary form- 6 to 2 and the y axisto vary from
° to 7, draw Ll.PQR and its image Ll.P'Q'R' and state the transformation F.
7. AtransformationTisdefmedbyT: (~)-(t ~) (~)

(a) Ifk = 2, fmdLl.A'B'C', the image of Ll.ABC under the transformation T, given
that A is (1, I), B is (1, -I) and C is(2, I).
(b) Sketch the triangles ABC and A'B'C' and fully describe the transformation T.
8. If R= (-6 _?) and M = 0l ; i) .

(a) fInd the product RM (b) draw and label the quadrilateral M
(c) draw and label M' the image of M under the transformation given by R
(d) describe fully the transformation defIned by the product RM.
9. A quadrilateral has vertices 0(0, 0), A(O, 2), B(l, 2), C(I, 0). Draw the quadrilateral OABC
(a) The quadrilateral is reflected in the line y =- x, draw and label EFGH the image of
OABC under this transformation. Hence
(i) state the matrix for the transformation
(ii) the invariant point of the transformation
(b) J(-3, 4), K(-5, 4), L(-5, 3) and M(-3, 3) are the images ofE, F, G and H ffllpectively
after a transformation T.
(i) draw and label the quadrilateral JKLM
(ii) write down the matrix fortransformation T.
(c) The quadrilateral JKLM is reflected in the line y = x to J'K'L'M' by transformation R.
(i) draw and label the quadrilateral J .'K'L'M'
(ii) state the matrix R
10. (a) In the diagram, describe fully the transformation which maps (i) Ll.P onto Ll.Q
y (ii) Ll.P onto Ll.R
(iii) Ll.P onto LI.V
I, ~
I'lo..
(iv) LI.V onto Ll.S
I"
,"I; 5
(v) Ll.V onto Ll.T
r\ "'"
(vi) LI.V onto LI. U
( b) Write down the matrix which
maps (i) LI. R onto L\.P
I, 1\ If i'-
R 1'\ (ii) Ll.Q onto L\.P
I, (iii) LI.T onto LI.W
I ... '" (ll,.

r-.. ,
p ....
- - x
I.¥' 1'<1;
S 1"".1 I'li "T
r7 - l'li
322
Finding the matrix of a given transformation
We know from the previous section that (matrix) x (object matrix) = (image matrix).
suppose that we need to find the transformation T = (~ ~) such that
(~ ~)(~ ~ J) = (f ~ g)
. Multiplying the matrices on the left hand side ofthis equation we get
a + b 3a + b 2a + 4b) = (2 4
( c+d 3c+d 2c+4d
6)
1 5 0
Equating corresponding element we get
a+b=2 c+d=1
3a + b = 4 3c + d = 5
Solving these pairs of simultaneous equations gives a = I, b = I, c = 2 and d =- r
Hence T = (i _~). As a check, note that
(i -~)( ~ ~ J) - (f ~ g)
Inverse transformations.
If matrix T maps an object 0 to image I then the inverse matrix of T, denoted by T' maps
the image back to object. This is an example of an inverse transformation.
T
T maps object 0 to image I and yl, the inverse of matrix T

o I maps image back to object. The object here refers to a point or
any geometrical figure like a triangle, a quadrilateral etc.
Example: 1fT = (~ ~) and 0 = (~), fmd

(i) I the image of 0 under the transformation given byT
(ii) T l the inverse of matrix T .
(iii) TlI and comment on your answer.
Solution: (i) I = TO
= (~ ~) (~) = (~I) Hence the image ofO is I = (~I)
(ii) Det.T = 8- 6 =2
:.T =
l
t (_~ :j = (_~ -~t)
(iii) TlI = -I
( I -1.1)(11)
2
2
6 = (2)
l
1 . T maps I back to 0
This shows thatT- l maps I (image) back to 0 (object)
323
Combining transfonnations
If M and N are two matrices and M maps an object 0 to 0 1 and N maps 0, to O2 the composite
matrix NM (M followed by N) maps 0 directly to O:z
M N
Cemsider rt\il effec! of the slltlar matrix M = (~ ~) 0 the triangle wlWSiil veFttif€S are giveTh
by the Hi!a1lri~ 0 = (} ; 1)
M <El
MO = (l 2) t] 2 3);; (Cl wb:ere 0, is ~he image of 0 under M

\0 I \X l 4 1
Consider again !he effeGt of the enlargement ma1lJ;ii'l 'N => (~

Ni (ll 02
NO ' (=(2 0)(3 4U) =(6 8
IJ'2ru142'2
Now, NM= (5 ~) (~ i) (5 i)=

NM 0 Oz
'N"Qw (NM) 0 = 2 41) (ill
(° 2. U
:2
1
J (6=
2
8 22) --=-3
2 8
N0tice than; M maps O!(i) 0, .1

M maps 01 to O 2 ~2
and NM m~ws () dire0tly UQ OZ - - : ' l
It should be pointed out here that the order in which thetransforming matrices M and N are
multiplied is important. NM means the transformation M is performed fIrst followed by N.
MN is the opposite of NM.
Exercise 35b
1. Solve the following matrix equations
(a) (6 g)(n = (~~) (b) (~ 2)(a

-1 d
b
e
c) (4 6
f - 1 3 &)
(c)(~ ~)O 3
1 J) (f =
4
5 g) (d) (f f) 0 J) 3
1 = (~ b
e n
324
2. The matrix M = (~ ~) maps P to Q, fnd the matrix which maps Q back to P.
3. Matrix N = (~ ~) maps P to PI, fmd the matrix which maps PI back to P.
4.IfM=(~ i) andP=(-~) fmd

(i) the matrix Q such that Q = MP
(ii) a 2 x 2 matrix N sucp that NQ = P
(0 -1)0 maps the point P(3, 2) to PI and the matrix (10

5. The matrix 1
Find: (i) the points PI and Pz

(ii) the matrix which maps P directly to Pz
6. The matrix M = (~ ~) maps the point P(4, -2) to h Find

(i) the coordinates of PI
(ii) the matrix which maps PI back to P.
7. The matrix M = (~ 1) maps the point P(4, 4) to point PI. A second matrix
N = ( 0.8 - 0.2) maps PI to Pz,

-0.6 0.4
(i) find the points P I and Pz
(ii) from your results in (i) what can you say about the matrices M and N?
8. Matrix M maps P(-2, -2) to Pi and matrix N maps PI to Pz. Given that M = (i -t)
andN=(_~ ~),find
(i) the points PI and Pz
(ii) the matrix which maps P directly to Pz
(iii) the matrix which maps Pz back to P
9. Apply the matrix T = (- 6_~) to thy triangle whose vertex coordinates are A(I, I), B(4,
and C(2, 3). (a) Find /::,.A'B'C' , the image of /::,.ABC under T.
(b) Apply the matrix U = (-~ _?) to M'B'C' and find /::,. A''B''C'' , the ima",
of M 'B'C' under U.
(c) Find the single matrix which maps/::,. ABC to /::,. A''B''C''
(d) Find the single matrix which maps/::,. A''B''C'' back to /::,.ABC.
325
10. Triangle ABC is mapped to triangle EFG by the matrix M = (0 1). Triangle EFG
-1 °
is mapped to IJK by the matrix N = (6 g). Given that A is (0, 1), B is (0, 3) and C is
(2, 1), plot the points A, Band C on a sheet of graph paper taking -1 < x < 7 and -5 < Y < 4
then draw and label triangle ABC.
(a) Find the coordinates ofE, F and G the images of A, B and.C under M
(b) Draw and label triangle EFG and state the transformation given by M
(c) Find the coordinates of I, J and K the images of E, F and G under N
(d) Draw and label triangle IJK and state the transformation given by N .
(e) Find the matrix product NM (~ ~ ~) and state what the matrix NM represents.
•
11. On a sheet of graph paper, using a scale of lcm to one unit on both axes, draw axes for
-6 < x < 6 and -8 <y < 8. The coordinates of 0, A, Band Care (0, 0), 0, 0), (1,1) and
(0, 1) respectively.
(a) Draw and label the square OABC
(b) Calculate the matrix product (i -1) (g 6 l ~ )

The image of OABC under the transformation given by the matrix M = (i -3)4 is PQRS.
(c) Draw and label PQRS.
This transformation is equivalent to an enlargement, centre the origin with scale factor k, and
an anticlockwise rotation centre the origin through an angle a.
(d) From your diagram, determine the value of k
(e) Calculate the value of a to the nearest tenth of a degree.
PQRS is mapped to WXYZ by the tran~formation defined by the matrix N = ( _ ~'.~ -0.8)
-0.4
(f) Calculate the coordinates ofW, X, Y andZ
(g) Draw and label WXYZ
(h) Find the matrix which maps OABC directly to WXYZ.
LONDON
326
36 STATISTICS
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with
• collection of data
• organizing and analyzing collected data
• interpreting data
• making decisions based on the interpretation of data.
Statistics is carried out at all levels of society. Most decisions we make in our day to day life at
family level say, are based on some statistics which we may have carried out consciously or
unconsciously. The amount of food required, the quantity of groceries required per month etc
are based on some carried out statistics.
At national level statistics tells us the rate of population growth, how many homes have a
television set, the average income per person etc. Such information is important for Executives
to make decisions on behalf of the Nation.
At this level of the study of statistics we shall concern ourselves mainly with organizing,
analyzing and presenting statistical data.
Organising and presenting statistical data
1. Frequency distributions
Consider the following set of measures
{2,2, 1,3, 1, 1, 2, 3,2, 1, 1, 1, 1,3,2,4,2, 3)
The same set of measures can be presented as follows
Measure 1 2 3 4
Frequencv 7 6 4 1
This is known as frequency distribution and it is an easier and more comprehensive way of
presenting data. Note that the data readily shows us how many times each measure occurs
e.g. 1 occurs 7 times, 2 occurs 6 times and so on.
2. frequency table
T he table below shows how theabove data is p resented by a frequency table.
Measure Tally Frequency
I -I+!t 11 7
2 +Hr I 6
3 IIII 4
4 I 1
Note that the number of tallies in each row correspond to the frequency in that row Every fifth
tally of each measure' closes the gate. The sixth tally starts a new gate and the tenth againcloses
the second gate and so on.
3. Bar charts
The d' gram below shows how the data in the frequency distribution above can be diplayed
by means of a bar chart. Spaces between the bars
>. 6
~ 5
show that the measures have no common boundary ie
~ 4 the measures are not on a continuous scale. Ifthe scale
~ 3 is continuous the bars are constructed in such a way
'" 2
1
that they have a common boundary and the resulting
chart is known as a histogram.
2 3 4
Measure
327
4. Histograms
Sometimes statistical data is large so it cannot be easily pre;ented unless it is arranged in
groups or classes. Consider the following marks scored by 40 pupils in a test marked out of 30.
15,15, 14,30, 15, 10,8, 10,25,9
17,22,4, 7, 18, 16, 13, 15, 19,9
28,3, 12,8, 18,6, 26, 17, 16,24
20, IS, 13,21,2, 14, 19, 12,22, 14
To make the data presentable, we arrange it in groups called class intervals. The size of the
class interval chosen depends on the range of the data. The above data ranges from 1 to 3050 a
class of 5 is suitable. For a range of I to 100 a suitable class size would be say 10. The diagram
below shows the frequency distribution corresponding to the above data.
Marks Tally Frequency (NQofpupils)

1-5 III 3
6-10 ./+It-1I1 8
11- 15 ./+It--!tit 11 12
16 -20 .wtllll 9
21 -25 -l+tt 5
26 -30 III 3
The distribution shows that there are 3 scores in the interval - 5, 8 scores in the interval
6-10 and so on. The information in the frequency distribution is then illustrated by meansof
a histogram as shown below. Notice that grouping the data reduces the length of the horizontal
axis, this depending on the class interval chosen.
13
12 r-- The bars are of uniform (equal) width. The length

11 of each bar equals the frequency of its class eg the
IC length for the bar 1- 5 is 3 and the length for the
;., 9 I--
bar corresponding to the class 6- 10 is 8 and so on.
"~ 8 r--
g. 7
:=6
~ 5 f--
4
3- I--
2
1
1-5 61011 1516-20212526 30

Marks
Class intervals and class boundaries.
In the above distribution, 1- 5, 6 - 10, 11 - 15 etc are classes. The class boundaries for the interval
1- 5 are 0.5 and 5.5, the class boundaries for the interval6 - 10 are 5.5 and 10.5 and so on. For
Lower class Upper class the class 1 - 5, 0.5 is the lower class
b":",,dary bo'4 dary boundary and 5.5 is the upper class
1 : I 1 I 1 I , 61 boundary. For the class 6- 10, the
0, : 1 2 3 4 5 :, l o w e r class boundary is 5.5 and the
I Class interval '
! 4 .. upper class boundary is 10.5
Class width.
Class width = Upper class boundary- Lower class boundary.
The class width for the class 1 - 5 is therefore 5.5 - 0.5 = 5
328
5. Histograms with unequal class width
In such histograms the area of each bar is proportional to the frequency. In drawing a histogram
the class width is plotted against the frequency density (frequency per class width) where:
class frequency
Frequency density =
class width
"Example 1. Draw a histogram for the information given in the table below;
Massofparcel(mkg) 0<m<5 5<m<;;1.O 10<m<20 20<m<40 40<m<55 55<m<85

Number of arcels 20 35 45 50 15 15
Solution: We add a third row to the above table to accommodate the frequency density as
shown below.
Mass of parcel (m kg) 0<m<5 5< m<1 1O<m<20 20< m<40 40<m<5 55<m<85
Number of arcels 20 35 45 50 15 15
Frequency density 1Q.=4 :&=7 &=45 50 = 2 5 l.2. = I ~=0.5
5 5 10 • 20 . 15
Plotting frequency density against mass of parcels gives the histogram shown below.
o 5 10 b - -,5 60 65 70 75 80 85
Example 2.The following histogram shows the time taken by athletes to complete a race. se
the histogram to calculate:
(i) the number of athletes who completed the race within 2 minut es
(ii) the number of athletes who took 10 minutes or less to complete the race
o 2 4 10 20
Time taken (minutes)
329
Solution (i) Here we are required to fmd the frequency (number of athletes)
. frequency
Frequency density = = area of first bar
class width
I = frequency
2
...frequency = 2
Hence the numQeLQ[athletes whQJWIl[>l~il the race within 2 minutes is 2
(ii) Number of athletes who took 10 minutes or less to complete the race
= 2 x I + 2 x 2.5 + 6 x 4 (Note that we consider the area of the bars)
= 31
6. Frequency polygon
In some cases statistical data is presented by means of a frequency polygon. A frequency
polygon has an advantage over the histogram in that more than one frequency polygon can be
drawn on the same diagram. This is not pmsible in the case of histograms.
Example: The following table shows the marks scored by students in a test.
(i) How many students sat for the test?
(ii) Display the information by means of a frequency polygon.
Score 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency 0 2 4 3 5 7 5 2 I 1 0
Solution: (i) The number of students who sat for the test is given by the total frequency.
Total frequency = 30
Then:fQre3!l..studepts Sat for the t~t.
(ii) The frequency polygon is as shown below.
7
Frequency
6
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score
330
7. Cumulative frequency diagrams
Example: The table below shows the sizes of shoes worn by 40 students in a class.
Shoe size ~
I~F~r=eg=u=e=n=cy===~~
Construct a cumulative frequency table and draw a cumulative frequency curve for this data.
Solution: The diagram below shows the cumulative frequency table. The cumulative
frequency is found by adding together all the frequencies up to a particular
shoe size. Note that total cumulative frequency is 40 ie corresponding to 40 students.
Shoe size Frequency cumulative frequency

4 1 1
5 4 1+4 = 5
6 10 1+4+10 = 15
7 16 1 +4+ 10+ 16 = 31
8 5 1 +4+ 10+ 16+5 = 36
9 3 1 + 4 + 10 + 16 + 5 + 3 = 39
10 1 1 + 4 + 10 + 16 + 5 + 3 + 1 =40
We then plot shoe size against cumulative frequency ie (4. 1). (5. 5), (6. 15) etc. The DOints are
then joined to form the required
curve. The cumulative frequency
40 curve is as shwn in the diagram.
35
/'
i/
/
/
5
1f / .
5 1/
o
/\V V4 5 6 7 8 9 1
Shoe size
331
•
Exercise 36a
1. A group of 40 students were asked to write a number between 1 and 6 inclusive. The
fo 1I0wing information was obtained
;r,~,-r,~ 2, 6,5,4, 2,13,5,4,2,2,5,2,3,4,3
5, 2, 5, 4, 1, 3, 5, 5, 4, 2, 2, :\ 2,4,5,2,5,5,2,5
The following is an incomplete frequency distribution for the above information. Tallies
for the first four measures have
Number Tall already been entered. Copy and
1 1111 complete the table.
2 .fltt .fltt I
3 .fltt
4 .fltt I
5 .fltt .fltt 11
6 11
Total frequency =
2. The following are masses of athletes given to the nearest kilogram

,M,.J8:J(l", 58, 73, 61, 55, 72, 74,80,79,53,64,76,71
76,72,84,59,64,68,67,62,58,64,65,71,52,69,60
The table below relates to the above information Copy and complete the table.
Mass Tally Fre uency

50 - 54 11
55 - 59 1111
60 - 64 .fltt I
65 - 69 .fltt
70 -74 .fltt 11
75 -79 1111
80 - 84 11
Total frequency =
Hence (i) write down the number of athletes in the survey

(ii) the number of athletes with mass between 60 and 74 inclusive.
3. 24 pupils were asked about the number of siblings they have. The following are their
responses.
46134426
75375352
5 4 2 4 5 3 6 I'
For this data construct a frequency table and illustrate the data by a bar chart.
4. The following frequency distribution shows the marks scored by students in a test
Marks 10 - 19 20 - 29 30 - 39 40 -49 50 - 59 60 - 69
Frequenc 2 5 II 14 9 3
From the information in the table fmd
(a) the number of students tested
332
(b) the lower and upper class boundaries of the class 30 - 39.
(c) the class width ofthe class 30 - 39.
(d) the number of students who passed if the pass mark was 40
(e) the percentage of students who passed the test.
5. The following, histogram illustrates the distribution of marks scored b)' ~u~ils in a test.
(a) Write downtheimerval where
(i) the highest mark lies
10 11 t he lowest mark lies
C)
(iii) the majority of the marks lie
9 (b) Find the tot al number of students who sat for the
test.
8 (c) If the pass mark was 16,
(i) ho w many pupils passed?
7 (ii) what percentage of pupils failed.
0-5 6--10 11-15 16-2021-2526-3031-3536-40

Marks
6. In a shooting exercise involving 50 recruits each recruit was given 10 rounds of ammuni .
and a target. The following are their scores after the exercise
83642611007
4 2 4 7 256 506
8352713674
3 509 5 2 4 546
7 5 9 3 637 488
Construct a cumulative frequency table and draw a cumulative frequency curve
7. The following frequency distribution shows the times ( t minutes) taken by pupils to
complete an exercise.
15< t .;; 20 20< t .;; 25 25< t .;; 30 30< t .;; 35 35< t .;;;
3 5 8 10 3 I
(a) Use the information in the table to find

(i) the total number of pupils involved in the exercise
333
(ii) the number of pupils who took more than 25 minutes to complete the exercise
(b) Copy and complete the following table based on the above frequency distribution
Time (t minutes) Cumulative frequency

.;;; 15
.;;; 20
.;;; 25
.;;; 30
.;;; 35
.;;; 40
(c) Taking a scale of2cm to represent 5 minutes on the horizontal axis and lcm to
represent 5 pupils on the vertical axisdraw a cumulative frequency curve for
the above data.
8. The cumulative frequency curve shows the distribution of marks for a number of pupils.
12 Use the given information to fmd
11 (a) the number of pupils who sat for
n. the test.
(b) the total mark for the test
90
(c) the number of pupils who scored
8 35 marks or less.
7 (d) the number of pupils who scored
6 between 30 and 60 marks.
(e) the number of pupils who scored
50
more than 85 marks.
40
30
2
10
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
9. The following table shows marks scored by students in a test
Draw a cumulative frequency table and state the number of students who sat for the test.
10. (a)The following table shows the number of tonnes of maize praluced by farmer A over a
period of 6 years.
Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

NQ of tonnes 90 64 80 75 95 100
Illustrate this data by means of a frequency polygon.
334
(b) Another farmer B had the following results over the same period
Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

NQ of tonnes 94 71 80 74 97 90
On the same axes as (a) above, using dotted lines or otherwise draw another frequency
polygon and state which farmer did better over the years.
11. The histogram shows the distribution of ages in a community

Given that there are 125 people
in the age group 0 to 10 years,
calculate
(a) the number of people aged
20 between 20 and 40 years.
15 (b) the total number of people
in the community.
10 (c) the percentage of people aged
5 40 and above.
I 2 4h 7( 9( 1O'i
Age (years)
12 The table shows the distribution of masses of 400 college students.
Mass x (kg) 30 < x -<40 40<x <50 50<x <60 60<x ";;70 70 < x ";;;;80 80<x ";;;90
Number of students 20 60 140 120 50 IQ
(a) Copy and complete the following cumulative frequency table.

Mass x (kg) <:;;;30 <40 ";;;50 <60 <70 0:.;;;80 <90
Cumulative
freuuencv 0 20 80 220 340 390 400
(b) Using a scale of2cm to represent IOkg on the horizontal axis and 2cm to represent
50 students on the vertical axis, show the above information by means of a cumulative
frequency curve.
13. The following table shows the distribution of masses ofl450 students in a college
Mass x (k a ) 45 < x <; 5 50 < x <; 6 100 < x <;130

NQ of students 100 300 120
(a) Coov and comolete the table

Mass x (kg) 45 <' <; Sf 50 < x <; 6 60<,<;75 75 < x <; 9 90<x < 100 100<x <; 13
NQ of students 100 300 480 300 150 120
Frequency
density 20
(b) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 5kg draw a horizontal axis for 45 <;; x <;; 130
Using a scale of I cm to represent 5 units of frequency density on the vertical axis, draw a
a histogram for this data.
335
Pie charts
In a pie chart we consider the whole data to be equivalent to 360°. Each section of the data
depending on its size is represented by a fraction of 360°.
Example: The following table shows the number of goals scored by a football team
over a period of 5 seasons. Present he data by means of a pie chart.
Season 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

NQ of goals 10 40 50 30 20
Solution: We consider the whole of the given data to be equivalent to 360 0 • Thus, 150 goals
are represented by 360° i.e.
150 • 360 °
3600
:.1 goal = - -
ISO
= 2.4 0
So each goal is represented by 2.4 0
Now each of the 5 seasons is represented as follows
2001: 10 x 2.40 = 240
2002: 40 x 2.4° = 96°
2003: 50 x 2.4° = 120°
2004: 30 x 2.4° =72°
2005: 20 x 2.40 = 48°
Total- 360°
The complete pie chart is as shown in below
Pictographs
In a pictograph the data is presented by means of pictures. Each picture represents a portion of
the data. A scale is given to show how much of the data each picture represents. For example,
the data in the above example can be presented as follows.
.
2001 @
2002
@@@@
2003 Scale: @ = 10 goals
@@@@@
2004
@@@
2005
@@
336
Exercise 36b
1. The pie chart shows the means by which pupils travel to school.If 32 pupils travel by bus
fmd (a) the number who walk
(b) the number who bike
(c) the number of degrees representing those who travel by car
(d) the total number of pupils in the surve)l
2. A school has 400 pupils. Over a long week end some pupils decided to go to a Zoo. The
pie chart shows the pupils who went l> the Zoo over the four days. 96 pupils went to the
zoo on Saturday and equal numbers of pupils visited
Tuesday
Zoo over the next three days. Find
(a) the angle representing those who went to the Zoo on Sunday.
0
120 (b) the number of pupils who visited the Zoo on Sunday.
(c) the number of pupils who didn't visit the Zoo given that
the pupils were allowed only one visit.
(d) the percentage of pupils who visited the Zoo on monday.
3. 120 people were asked about their shoe size. The pie chart shows the information
obtained. If 6 people wear size 9, fmd;
(a) how many people wear size 6
(b) how many people wear size 8
(c) the percentage of people who wear size 8
Size 7 (d) the angle of the sector representing size 7
24~ize 8
0
(e) the number of people who wear size 7
96
(f) the probability that a person chosen a random
Size 6 from the group wears size 6.
ize
4. A farmer has 900 hectares of land. He uses 25% of it to grow beans. The pie chart
shows how he uses the land. Given that he uses all the hectares. find
(a) the angle representing beans
Beans
(b) the angle representing maize
(c) how many hectares are used for beans
(d) how many hectares are used for other crops
(e) the fraction of the land used for nuts
5. The following table shows the number of hours lelita allocates to studies in a week.
Subiect Mathematics History Geography Commerce English

Hours 6 4 8 10 8
(a) Find the number of degrees representing 1 hour of her weekly study time.
(b) Present the data by means of a pie chart
337
6. Five boys were asked about the number of sisters they have. Thefollowing pie chart
shows part of the information obtained.If Peter has 6 sisters, fmd
(a) how many degrees represent 1 sister
Pashane Pete (b) how many sisters Bobo and Zengo have altogether
(c) how many sisters John has given that Pashane has 3
times as many sisters as John.
(d) the probability that a girl randomly chosen from these
girls is Zengo's sister.
Zengo
7. The following table shows the number of goals scored by five football teams in a certain
season.
Team Nkana wanderers Warriors Buffaloes Arrows

NQ of aoals 150 180 190 120 80
Illustrate this data by a pie chart.
8.The pie chart hows the files on a Flash drive. Use the given information to answer the
following questions:
(a) (i) What size of angle represents Notes?
(ii) What fraction of the total capacity of the Flash represents
letters?
(b) The total capacity of the Flash is 90 000 000 bytes:
Tests Letters
(i) what capacity in bytes is used for notes?
(ii) what capacity in bytes is used for notes and letters
combined?
(c) The user decides to delete a quarter of each file to create
some space for a new ftle~
(i) what angle represents the new file?
(ii) what is the capacity of the new file?
(iii) what capacity is used for tests after the creation of
the new file?
(d) With the creation of the new file what is the mean capacity
per file?
9 The pie chart shows the number of goals scored by five football teams in a season.
If Nkana football club scored a total of i80 goals, calculate:
(a) the number of goals representing one degree
Cb) the total number of goals scored by Celtic
Arrows (c) the total number of goals scored by Arrows
(d) the average number of goals per team.
65'
Nkana
Celtic
338
10. The pictograph shows the number of bulbs made by a company over the years starting in
1995.
i [1995 ~~~
-
1996 ,-
~~~~
1997 _
9~~~~9~~
If oif
The company continues to make bulbs in this pattern in the subsequent years.
represents 1000 bulbs [md
(a) the number of bulbs produced in 1995
(b) the number of bulbs produced in 1997
(c) the number of bulbs produced in 2000
11. In the following pictograph A;L represents 120 computers. The information relates to the
number of computers in 6 districts of a country. Use the given information to find
(a) the number of computers in district A
(b) the number of computers in district E
A ~J;l~~,g (c) how many more computers has district
B thanD
B ~J;J. ~ ~~~~~ (d) the number of computers left in distr-
B after giving away 10% of its
C ~~~ computers
D
~
E ~.,I;l.Q~~~
12. Five pupils were involved in a shooting competition. Altogether the pupils hit the target
20 times. The table below show the number of times each pupil hit the target. If the
information is presented by means of a pie chart, [md
(a) the number of times C hit the target
Pupil Tally Frequency (b) the angle representing the score for C
A ...wt 11 7 x 18 (c) the angle representing the score for A
B +tttl 6 x 18 (d) the angle representing the score for E
C 4 x 18
D I 1 x 18 Complete the table and present the
E II 2 x 18 information in the table by a pie chart.
339
37. MODE, MEDIAN AND MEAN
When we calculate the mode median or mean of a set of data we attempt to fmd a single value
that is representative of the data. The calculated representative value is called the average of the
data. It is for this reason that the mode, median and mean are called the averages or the
measures of central tendency.
The mode
The mode of a set of measures is the most occurring or most frequent measure of the set.
For example, the set 2,5,0,3,7,4, 4, 1,3,6,0,2,4 has 4 as the mode, this is for the
reason that it occurs more times than any of the measures in the set.
The median
The median of a set of measures arranged in order of size is the middle measure. If the ordered
set has n members, the median has position t (n + 1).
Case (a): n is odd
If the number n of terms in the set is odd then there is an obvious middle term.
Example: Find the median of the following set, (2, 5,4,7, 8, 3, 3,6, I}
Solution: We flIst arrange the numbers of the set according to size, thus {I, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
t t
There are 9 measures in the set i.e. n = 9. The median has position (n + 1) = (9 + 1) = 5.
The median of the set {l, 2, 3, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8} is the 5 th item which is4~
Case (b): n is even

Example: Find the median of the set {1O, 13, 18, 14, 20,15,26,17,18, 19,}
SOlution: Again we arrange the numbers in order of size i.e. {IO, 13, 14, 15,17,18, 18, 19,20,26
t
There are 10 measures in the set, i.e. n = 10. The median has position (l0 + 1) = 5.5
There are two middle numbers i.e. 17 and 18, the median is therefore the average
of 17andI8.:.median= 17+18 =11.5
2
The mean.
The mean of a set of measures is the average found by adding up all the items in the set and
dividing the result by the total number of measures in the set. If each measure of the set is
denoted by x and there are~n
such;asures in the set then the I:l:ean, denoted by X, is given by
X=-
n •
Example: Find the mean of the set {2, 5, 6, 8, 12, 17, 19, 25}
Solution: n = 8, Ex = 2+5+ 6+8+12+17 +19+25 =94
- U
X=-
n
94
=
8
= 11.75
The mean ofthe set is therefore 11.75
340
Mode and Median of a frequency distribution.
The mode of a frequency distribution is the measure with thdlighest frequency .
The position of the median of a frequency distribution is t (n + 1) where n = total frequency.
Consider the following frequency distribution
Measnrex ~ ~ 9 _
I Frequency f ~,---,=,2_
The highest frequency is 7 and the corresponding measure is 5, so 5 is the mode of the
distribution. In the distribution the total frequencysi32, so the position of the me dian is
t(32 + 1) = 16.5. The 16th measure is 5 and the 17th measure is 5 so the median is 5 + 5 = 5.
2
Mean of a frequency distribution.

The mean of a frequency distribution is given by
~
Where
L1ZJ
ll.t = sum of. (measure x . frequencyf ) and D = total frequency.
To fmd the mean of the above frequency distribution we add a third rowto the given distribuf
this consisting of the products xf as shown below.
Measure X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency( 2 3 4 4 7 4 3 3 2
Productx( 2' 6 12. 16 35 24 21 24 18
From the table Ut = 2 + 6 + 12 +16 + 35 + 24 + 21 + 24 + 18 = 158 and D = 32

. - Df
Mean X= I;f
158
=-
32
= 'l2'l:
The~~--cl!he distribution is 4.24.
Example: The following table shows the distribution of marks scored by 40 pupils in a test.
Mark x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequencv f 1 2 4' 5 m n 6 3 1 1
Given that the mean mark for the distribution is 5.4 find
(a) the values of m and n
(b ) the modal mark
(c ) the median mark
341
Solution: 40 pupils sat for the test therefore
Lf=40
.'.40=1+2 +4+5+m+n+6+3+1+1
:.m + n= 17 -I
We now modify the given table to accommodate t he row for the product xf
Mark x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency f 1 2 4 5 m n 6 3 1 1
Product xf 1 4 12 20 Srn 6n 42 24 9 10
Df = 1 + 4 + 12 + 20 + Srn + 6m + 42 + 24 + 9 + 10
= 122+5m+6n
- Df
Now, mean X = - v
:.5.4 = 122+5m+ 6n
40
:.5m+6n=94 _2
m+n=17 _I
Sm+6n=94 -2
Solving equations 1 and 2 simultaneously gives

..·m = 8 and n=JJ.
(b) The modal mark is the mark with the highest frequency
:·P1illIal mark~
(c) The median mark is the mark in position t(40+ 1) = 20.5

The 20th mark is 5 and the 21 st mark is 6; 5;6 = 5.5
.·.medi<Lll.Jnark..=c5,5
Mean and modal class of a grouped frequency distribution.

The mean of a grouped frequency distr!bution is given by
- .z=xf
x=U
where x is the midpoint of a class.For example, t he midpoint of the class 1 - 10 is 1+ 10 = 5.5.
2
The midpoint of each class is worked out in this same way.
The modal class is the class with the highest frequency
342
Example: For the following frequency distribution fmd
(i) the modal class (ii) the mean
Marks Freouencvf
1-10 4
ll- 20 5
21- 30 7
31-40 10
41- 50 13
51 - 60 15
61-70 7
71 - 80 5
81- 90 3
91 -100 1
Solution: (i) The modal class is the class with the highest frequency i.e. 51--=-6Q.
(ii) To work out the mean, we work out the midpoirt of each class so we change
the table to include the columns for the midpoint x and the product xf.
Marks Midnoinfx Freouencv f xf

1 -10 5.5 4 22
11-20 15.5 5 77.5
21 -30 25.5 7 178.5
31 -40 35.5 10 355
41 - 50 45.5 13 591.5
51- 60 55.5 15 832.5
61 -70 65.5 7 458.5
71 - 80 75.5 5 377.5
81 - 90 85.5 3 256.5
91 - 100 95.5 1 95.5
U=70 Ilt =3245
3245
= 70
= 46.4
Sillhe...mean for the distribution is 46.4
343
•
Exercise 37a
1. Find the mode, median and mean of each of the following sets of measures
(a) 2,7, 5, 5, 3,1, 6 (b) 21, 30, 27, 45, 21
(c) 18, 22, 25, 31, 25, 24,21 (d) I, 3, 0, 5, 7, 2, 3, 3, 6, 0, 8
(e) 121, 110,113,99,86, 120,110,79 (f) 0.5, 0.8,0.1,1.2,0.8,0.5,1.3,0.8
(g) 182, SS, 76, 45, 43,62,62,176,62, SS (h) 25,19,11, 16,9, 18, 14, 14,21,16
(i) -5, -1, -3, 0, -I, -3,1, -4, -3, 2,1 G) 9,11, 15, 15, 12, 11, 11, 11, 14, 13,15, 16, 13
2. Find the mode, median and mean of each of the following frequency distributions
(a)
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f 2 3 6 5 3 1
(b)
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f 3 4 5 5 2 1
(c)
x 40 41 42 43
f 4 6 8 2
3. For each ofthe following frequency distributions

(i) state the modal class
(ii) calculate the mean
(a)
Class interval 1-5 6 -10 11 -IS 16 -20
Frequency 10 15 17 8
(b)
Class interval 1-i0 11--20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51----(i0 61-70
Frequency 2 6 9 8 8 2 I
(c)
Score 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49
NQ of candidates 3 8 14 10 2
(d)
Height x (cm) NQ of Jllpils
80 < x< 90 3
90 < x < 100 7
lOO<x<110 12
110 < x < 120 15
120 < x < 130 16
130 < x < 140 10
140 < x < 150 5
150 < x < 160 2
344
4. If the mean of the numbers 46, 40, 28, x, 32, 39 and 42 is 40, find the value of x.
5. The average (mean) of a class is 16, if the total number of years for the class is576, find the
number of pupils in the class.
6. The average height of 32 pupils in class 12A is 1.2m and the average height of 40 pupils
in class 12B is lAm. Find the average height ofthe pupils in the two classes.
7. Given that x + y = 34 and the average of the numbers 16,18,17, x,2y, 19,21,15 is 19.3T_
fmd the values of x and y.
8. On a certain day, a boy wrote down the number of buses leaving the Intercity Bus Term'
every hour between 06 00 and 1200 hours. The table below shows the results.
Time 06-07 07-08 08-09 09-10 10-11 11-12

NQ of buses 6 8 x 5 x 3
If a total of 42 buses left the terminal in this tim~ fmd

(i) the value of x
(ii) the mean value of departures per hour from the terminal.
9. The following day, the boy in question 8 did the same survey and obtained the following
results
Time 06- 07- 08- 09- lO- 11- 12- 13-' 14- 15- 16- 1 -
07 08 09 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 I
NQof 4 5 6 x 6 8 8 y 8 5 5
buses
Given that 36 buses left the terminal in the fIrst 6 hours and that the mean number of
departures per hour on this day was 6, fmd the values of x and y.
10. The following table shows the distribution ofages of grade 12 pupils at a school. Find
1 o ____
(a) the modal age
1
(b) the total number of pupils involved in the survey.
1 (c) the median age
9 --------- - - - - (d) the mean age
8 --- ~
7
6
5 ---- ---- --------r--,
4
31--- --- ---- --- --- r - -
Z
15 16 17 18 19 20
Age in years
345
Measures of dispersion
Measures of dispersion give us an idea of how spread out or clustered the data is. Consider
the following sets of marks scored in a test by 10 pupils from two different classes
Class A: {I, 2, 4,5,5,6, 6, 6,7, 8)
Class B: {2,3, 3,4,5,5, 5, 6,6, 6)
At a glance it can be seen that the marks in class A are more spread out than in class B.
Here, we shall discuss the following measures of dispersion
• the range
• the interquartile range
The range
The range of a set of data arranged in order of size is the difference between the highest
and the lowest measure i.e.
Range = highest measure -lowest measure
Example 1: Find the range of the following set of data

23, 25, 10, 19, 28, 33
Solution: Though the range can be worked out without ordering the data, it is advisable to
arrange the data in order of size, thus
10, 19, 23, 25, 28, 33
Highest measure is 33 and the lowest measure is 10
Range = highest measure - lowest measure
= 33-10
=23.
Example 2: The following table shows the daily average temperature of a place over a period
of six days.
Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Temperaturef'C 0.4 1.6 0 -1.0 -2 -3.8
Calculate the temperature range over the six days.
Solution: Highest temperature = I. 6°C

Lowest temperature = - 3.8°C
Range = highest measure - lowest measure
= 1.6- (- 3.8)
= ~AoC
The quartiles
The quartiles divide data into four parts called quarters. For data arranged in order of size;
• the frrst or lower quartile (Ql) is the measure one quarter of the way up a distribution
• the second quartile (Qz) is the median
• the third or upper quartile (Q3) is the measure three quarters of the way up a distribution
346
For a set of n measures:
• the lower quartile has positi:m -:\- Cn + I)
• the upper quartile has position tCn + I)
Note: the second quartile which is the median has position iCn + I) = tCn + I)
The interguartile range (lQR)

This is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile i.e.
Interquartile range = upper quartile - lower qwutile

IQR =Q3-Q.
The interquartile range is a more reliable measure of dispersion than the range in that it doe
not take the end or extreme values into account. This is because end values tend to distort the
truth about the data. For example, a very tall boy or a very short one may distort the range of
heights of a number pupils.
Example 1: For the following data 12, 15, 23, 18, 25, 8, 16, fInd
Ca) the lower quartile
Cb) the upper quartile
Cc) the interquartile range
Solution: We fIrst arrange the measures in order of size, thus

8, 12, IS, 16, 18, 23, 25
Ca) There are 7 measures in the set so n = 7
The lower quartile has position -:\-Cn + I) = -:\-C7 + I) = 2
The 2nd measure is 12, therefore Q, - 12
(b) The upper quartile has position tCn + 1)= to + I) = 6

The 6 measure is 23, therefore~3 = 23
th
Cc) Interquartile range = upper quartile - lower quartile

= Q3-QI
= 23 - 12
=II
.The inteIQJJartile range is therefore 11
Example 2: Find the interqurtile range of the following set of data

4, 8, 12, 7, I, 9, 10: IS, 19,
Solution: Again we fIrst arrange the measures in order of size, thus
I, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, IS, 19
There are 9 items in the set therefore n = 9
The lower quartile has position -:\-Cn + 1) = -:\-C9 + I) = 2.5
The 2.5 th item lies midway between 4 and 7; 4 + 7 = 5.5

2
Therefore Q1:- 5,2
347
The upper quartile has position ten + 1)= t(9 + 1) = 7.5
The 7.5 th item lies midway between 12 and 15 = 12 + 15 13.5
2
Interquartile range = upper quartile - lower quartile

=Q3-QI
= 13.5- 5.5
=8
The interauarti!uange is therefore 8
Example 3. Find the interquartile range of the following data

45, 22, 33, 28, 26, 36, 40, 30
Solution: Arranged in order of magnitude the data is as follows

22, 26, 28, 30, 33, 36, 40, 45
There are 8 items in the set therefore n = 8
The lower quartile has position ten + 1) = t(8 + 1) = 2.25
The lower quartile lies 0.25 of the distance between 26 and 28
28 -26=2
0.25· 2= 0.5
The lower quartile is therefore 26 + 0.5 =26.5
The upper quartile has position t(n+l)= t(8+1) = 6.75

The upper quartile lies 0.75 of the distance between 36 and 40
40- 36 =4
0.75· 4 = 3
The upper quartile is therefore 36 + 3 = 3-.2...
lnterquartile range = upper quartile - lower quartile
= Q3-QI
= 39-26.5
= 12.5
Th~terguartJluange iUill:refmU2...5
Percentiles .
Percentiles divide a population into percentages. For a distribution of n measures
• the 10th percentile is the measure 10% of n up the distribution
• the 50th percentile is the median
• the 80th percentile is the measure lying 80% of n up the distribution.
348
Estimation of the median and interquartile range from a cumulative frequencv curre.
If the total cumulative frequency is N then:
• the median is the measure corresponding to N t
• t
the lower quartile, Q[ is the measure corresponding to N
• the upper quartile, Q3 is the measure corresponding to t N
Interquartile range = upper quartile- lower quartile

= Q3 -Q]
Example: Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the information given in the table below. -
your curve to estimate (i) the median
(ii) the lower and upper quartiles
(iii) the interquartile range
(iv) the 70th percentile.
Marks Frequency f
1-10 5
11 - 20 -8
21 - 30 -17
31 -40 22
41 - 50 -22
51 - 60 18
61 -70 11
71 - 80 9
81 - 90 5
91 - 100 -3
Solution: We change the table as shown below.
Marks Cumulative Frequency

<10 5
<20 13
<30 30
<40 52
<50 74
< 60 92
< 70 103
< 80 112
< 90 Jl7
<100 120
The total frequency is 120 so N = 120.

(i) The median is the measure corresponding to t N = t· 120 = 60
...the median is 43. (see the cumulative frequency curve below)
349
(ii) The lower quartile, QI is the measure corresponding to ±N = ±x 120 = 30
:·QI=30
120 The upper quartile, Q3 is the measure
corresponding to 1. N =1. x 120 =90
110
..·Q3 = 58 . 4 4
100 (iii) Interquartile range = Q3 - QI

r = 58- 30
91 7 r ti P.
80 =-28
70 th
(iv) The 70 percentile P70 is the measure
60 corresponding to l~ x 120 = 84
50 I :.P70 = 55
40
30 er u
20
10
,
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
Exercise 37b
1. Find the range of each of the following sets of measures
(a) 3, 5, 7, 2, 1, 4,7, 9 (b) 35, 34, 25, 20, 18,42, 19, 36,22
(c) 0.2, 0.8, 0.1, 0.9,0.2,1.0 (d) -24, -13, -44, 0, 12, -4, 8, 10, - 8
(e) 1.50, 3.01, 2.05, 0.95,2.99 (t) -16, -10, 0, -13, -12, -5, -11, -20
(g) 0.12, 0.22, 0.45,0, 0.21 (h) -1.2, -3.5, -2.4, 3.0, 0, -2.7, -3.6
2. For the following sets of measures [md,

(i) the lower quartile (ll) the upper quartile (iii) the interquartile range
(a) 4, 9, 6, 8, 5, 12, 9 (b) 112, 144, 133, 108, 129, 116, 130
(c) 1, 5, 3, 2,9, 6, 5, 0,1, 2,3 (d) -1, -3, -4, -7, -9, -8, -5, -6, -7, -2, -2
(e) lOO, 109, 112, 120, 115, 110, 119 (t) -1.2, -3.5, -2,4, 3.0, 0, -2.7, -3.6
(g) 31, 22, 41, 35, 33, 42, 36, 44, 32 (b) 2, 5,7,2,9, 10, 0,8,9
3. The following table shows the marks scored by students in a test
Marks I 1~1---:::8-t_9.:;--
i 10
I Frequency ----:;-1----1~L.--=2~-"---~1_ 1
For this distribution of marks [md,

(a) the lower quartile
(b) the upper quartile
(c) the interquartile range
(d) the median
(e) the mean
350
4. For each ofthe following cumulative frequency curves, fmd an estimate for
(i) the lower quartile
(a) (ii) the median
40 (iii) the upper quartile
V (iv) the interquartile range
/"
/
/
1/
1
.-
V
o ~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Measure
(b
50
./"
1/
/
/
0 /
j
0
11
0
V
V
o 1...--
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
Measure
(c)
40
I~
35
1/
0
1/
5 /
0
I1
/
5
1( /
5 1/
1/
0~4 5 6 7 8 9 1
Measure
351
5. The cumulative frequency curve shows the marks scored by students in a physics
exam. Use the diagram to find: (~the number of students who sat for the exam
(b) an approximation for the median mark
20 f-+-t--I-+-+++-1-+-+++-1f-+-+-+-bHa++--1 (c) an approximation for the lower quartile
18 f-+-t--I-+-+-++-1-+-+++-1HrH-+-f-++-+--1 (d) an approximation for the upper quartile
16~fmfmB
(e) the interquartile range
(f) the 70th percentile
14P:tt:t (g) the number of students who scored
12f-+-H-+-+++-1I-+;H+-1f-+-+-+-+-f-+++--1 more than 75 marks.
(h)le number of pupils who scored 45
'j-
marks or less
2~=nnnwmaE
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOO
Marks
6. The diagram shows a cumulative frequency curve of examination results. Use the
diagram to answer the following questions. (a) How many pupils sat for the exam?
f-+++-+-+-+-H-+-+++-1-+-+++-1f-+-+-+--1 (b) How many pupils scored 20 marks
200 or less?
180 (c) How many scores are there in the
1>' 160f-+--Hf-+--t--I-+-H-+-H""I-f-+-t--I-t-H-t--I interval 20 < x ,,;;;sO where x denotes
score?
g0"
140H--t--I-+-+-+-H-+-H-HH-+-++H-+-t--l (d) If the pass mark was ~Owhat percentage
J:l 120 of pupils passed the exam?
!! 100f-+-+-H--t--I-t--HJr++-++f-+-t--I-t--t--I-t--I (e) Pupils who scored above 80% were
.~
:; 80 awarded A*, how many pupils got A*?
E H+H--t--I-t--Y-t-t-+-++f-+-t--lH--t--I-t--I (f) Find an estimate for the interquartile
:>
u
60 range for the distribution.
4°tIt$Emmmm~
20H
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
7. The following table shows the distribution of marks scored by 50 students in a test
Marks Cum. freouencv. (a) Find how many pupils have marks in the
1-10 1 range
11-20 4 (i) 11 - 20
21 - 30 10 (ii) 41 - 70
31-40 17 (iii) 91-100
41 - 50 26 (b) Draw a cumulative frequency curve for
51 - 60 37 these scores and hence fmd an estimate for
61-70 44 (i) the 10wer quartile
71- 80 47 (ii) the median
81- 90 49 (iii) the upper quartile
91 - 100 50 (iv) the interquartile range
352
8. The following table shows the distribution of reights of plants in a garden. Taking a scale
of lcm to represent 2 plants on the vertical axis andlcm to represent a height of 5 cm
on the horizontal axis, draw a cumulative frequency curve for this distribution of heights.
Use your curve to fmd an estimate for
Hei2ht of Dlant (cm) Freouencvf (a) the median height
6 -10 1 (b) the lower quartile
11 - 15 3 (c) the upper quartile
16 - 20 7 (d) the interquartile range
21- 25 9 (e) the 80th percentile.
26 - 30 3
31 - 35 2
36 -40 1
9. The following is the distribution of heights of students at a certain college. Taking a scale
Icm to represent 10 units of measures 0
Height x (cm) N2 of students both axes draw a cumulative frequency
80 < x< 90 3 curve for this data.
90 <x < 100 7 Use your curve to fmd estimates for
100 <x < 110 12 (a) the median height
110 <x < 120 15 (b) the lower quartile
120 <x < 130 16 (c) the upper quartile
130 < x < 140 10 (d) the interquartile range.
140 < x < 150 5
150 <x < 160 2
10. Two groups, A and B, each consisting of 200 students sat for an aptitude test. The test
was marked out of 100. The following cumulative frequency curves show the results for
the groups.
(a) For each group, calculate
200 (i) the median
180 (ii) the interquartile range
(b) Comment on the spread of the mar
160
is for the two groups.
~ 140
g. - Group A
I-
--I- GroupB I- (c) If the pass mark for the test was 50.
.3 120 f..f.-f. ", .
which group performed better?
.~ 100 (d) Calculate the number of pupils who
:;; ~I= I-
scored 75% or less
] 80 f-
8 60 f.- '"
!",+ l- -;le-
'-I-
'of. (i) in group A
(ii) in group B.
p." 7 7'"~
40
20 '" vi<' '"
o '"
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-
Marks
353
38. PROBABILITY
If a sordier shoots at a target with a single shotwe expect two possible results, hit or miss.
When our National football team plays another team, we expect three possible results win, lose
or draw. In both of the abovecases, success (hit or win) is a matter of chance. The theory of
probability puts these chances in numerical terms. For example the chance ofthe soldier hitting
the target is I in 2 if the chances (hit or miss) areequaIly likely. Similarly, the chance of the
football team winning the match is I in 3 if the chances (win, lose or draw) are equaUy likely.
Terminology associated with probability.

In the above example the act of shooting at a target is called an experiment or trial. Hit or
miss are outcomes of the trial. Hitting the target is an event and missing it is another event.
The total number of possible outcomes of a trial form a sample space or possibility space
and each member (outcome) of the sample space is called asample point.
Rules:
I. If A is one possible outcome of a trial then the probability of A, denoted by peA) is given by
peA) = Number of outcomes favourable to A

Total number of possible outcomes in the trial
P ( A) - - - of
=-Number - 'sample
- - -points
' - -favourable
- - - -to-A-
or Total number of points in the sample space
2. The robability of an event A in any tria always lies between 0 and I inclusive, i.e.
0<;(> <;1
If peA) = 0 the event A is impossible e.g. choosing a boy from a group of 10 girls has
zero chance.
IfP(A) = I, the event A is obvious, e.g. probability of choosing a boy from a group of
10 boys.
3. If A and B are the only possible outcomes of a trial then
peA) + P(B) = 1.
Similarly if A, B and C are the only possible outcomes of a trial then
peA) + P(B) + P(C) = I
Example 1: In a cup [mal, the probability that Manchester United wins the cup is ~, find the
probability that Manchester United does not win the cup.
Solution: This is a cup fin~so there are only two possible outcomes win W or lose W
Now P(W) + P(W) = 1
:.~ +P(W) = I
:. peW) = 1- ~
:.P(W) =%
354
Example 2 A bag contains 10 identical balls of which6 are red and the rest are blue. If a ball
is drawn at random from the bag, fmd the probability that
(a) it is red
(b) it is bue
(c) it is yellow
Solution: There are 10 sample points in the sample space of which 6 are red and 1~ 6 = 4 are
blue. Let peR), P(B) and P(Y) denote probability of red, blue and yellow respectively.
(a) There are 6 outcomes favourable to red out of 10 possible outcomes
P(R)= number of outcomes favourable to red
total number of possible outcomes
6
= 10
3
= 5
(b) There are 4 outcomes favourable to blue out of 10 possible outcomes

P(B)= number of outcomes favourable to blue
= la4
= 52
(c) There are no yellow balls in the blue
P(Y) = number of outcomes favourable to yellow
=~
10
=Q
Playing cards
Spades
IllI2lGlI4lI5lf6lf7lf8ll9lllOlrKlfQllJl
WWWWWWWWL!JWWWL!J
Diamonds
Hearts
355
A pack of playing cards consists of 52 card of which 13 are spades , 13 are clubs, 13 are
Diamonds and 13 are hearts. Each set of 13 cards has cards numbered 1 to 10 and the
remaining three are King (K), Queen (Q) and Jack (1). Thus, a pack of playing cards has
a sample space of 52.
Example. From a well shuffled pack of cards, a card is drawn, what is the probability that
(a) it is a 7
(b) it is a king of diamonds
(c) it is not a king of diamonds
Solution: (a) The sample space consists of 52 sample points of which four are 7. Let P(7)
denote the prob ability of 7.
P(7)= number of outcomes favourable to 7
4
=
52
1
=
13
Therefore the probability that the card is a 7 is ~
13
(b) Let P(K) denote probability of king of diamonds. There is only one king of
diamonds in the sample space,
:.P(K) =_1
52
(c) Let P(K) denote the probability that the card is not a king of diamonds. There is
only one king of diamonds in the pack of 52, therefore 1 are not king of diamonds
- 51
Hence P(K) = -
52
Alternatively; P(K) + P(K) = 1

P(K) =1-
P(K)
1
=1--
52
51
=
52
51
Therefore the probability that it is not a king of diamonds is
52
Most likely event

The most likely event to occur is the one with the highest probabilily. For example if three
athletes A, B and C have chances, f, l~ and f respectively of winning a race, then B is
the most likely athlete to win. B has the highest probability of winning, followed by C.
Note: ordering of fractions is dealt with on pages 24 and 25. The greatest fraction, which gives
the greatest chance is determined by ordering
356
Mutually exclusive events
Events A and B are mutually elClusive if they cannot happen a t the same time. For example,
if a soldier shoots at a target with a single bullet, he cannot hit and miss with the same bullet
Similarly, if a coin is tossed,heads and tails cannot appear at the same time. For any two event
A and B which are mutually exclusive:
P(A or B) =P(A) + P(B)
This is called the addition rule for mutually exclusive events.
Example. In a test, the probability that Mubita is number I is I~ and the probability that John 'is
number I is t, fmd the probability that Mubitta or John is number,hssuming no tie..
Solution: The events, John or Mubita is number 1 are mutually exclusive, therefore
P(Mubita or John is number 1) = P(M) + P(])
=-'-+.1
14 5
= ~6
S!Lthe probability that Mubita or Johnis...number 1 is ~~
Independenteven~.
Events are independent if the occurrence of one does not influence the occurrence of the other
any way. For example if a coin is tossed and a die cast, the result on the coin does not influencr
the result on the die. The results occur independently. For any two events A and B which are
independent;
=
P(A and B) P(A) x P(B)
This is called the multiplication rule for independent events.
Example: A coin is tossed and a die cast, find the probability of tails on the coin and a six
onthe die.
Solution: The events tails on the coin and 6 on the die are independent.
Let PCT) = probability of tails on the coin and P(6) = probability of 6 on the die
peT) = t
P(6) = i
: .P(T and 6) = peT) x P(6)
= .Lxi
2 6
--.!..
12
Hence the probabilil.Y~!£..mLt!Jecoin..and-'UiJLQnJhe die is l~
Sample space.
A sample space is a list or a table of the possible outcomes of a trial. For example, if a die is c
sample space is: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Similarly if a coin is tossed the sample space is Heads, Tails. A
sample space resulting from two independent trials is called acomposite sample space. For e:xa:;;~·:
if a die is cast and a coin tossed the sample space may be presentedas shown below:
357
Die
1 2 3 4 5 6
H 1,H 2,H 3,H 4,H 5,H 6,H
Coin
T 1,T 2,T 3,T 4,T 5,T 6,T
Example: Show a composite sample space for the possible outcomes when a red die and
a blue die is cast. Use your results to find the probability of
(a) the same score on both dice
(b) obtaining a sum of 9 if the results are added together.
(c) obtaining a product of 36 if the results are multiplied together.
Solution: The sample space is as shown and it consists of36 possible results.
Red die
1 2 4 5
11 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6
Blue die 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6
4,1 4,2 4,3 4.4 4,5 4,6
5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6
6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6
(a) Same score on both dice are shown highlighted grey in the sample space.
Therefore: P(same score on both dice) =.!!.- =.!.
36 6
Cb) A sum of9 is obtained if the results highlighted yellow are added together
Therefore, PCobtaining a sum of 9) = ~ =.!.
36 9
Cc) The product 36 is obtained by multiplying the scores (6, 6) and this is the
only combination of results which gives this product.
Therefore P(product is 36) =~
36
Probability and sets

For any two intersecting sets A and B,n( AU B) = n(A) + n(B)- n(A nB). If the equation is
divided throughout by nC r'), the total number of members in the universal set, we get the
associated probability, ie
peA UB) = peA) + P(B) - peA nB). If events A and B are mutually exclusive, A n B = 0
... peA UB) = peA) + PCB) .
which is the addition rule for mutually exclusive events
r" ,-------------,
A and B are not mutually exclusive so A and B are mutually exclusive so

PCA UB) = peA) +P(B) - peA nB) • peA UB) = peA) + P(B)
358
Example: {x : 1 <x q 0 }, x EN, if a number is chosen at random from this set, fmd
the probability that the number is
(a) a perfect square
(b) a prime number
(c) even or odd
(d) even or prime
Solution: First we list the set x: i.e. x = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7,8,9, 10}

(a) Perfect squares in the above set are {I, 4, 9}
: .P(a perfect square) = 2.-
10
(b) Prime numbers in the set are {2, 3, 5, 7}

.' .P(prime number) = .i. = ~
10 5
(c) even and odd are mutually exclusive events since no number is both odd
and even. Thus we use the addition rule for mutually exclusive events.
The diagram below illustrates the sets 0 (odd) and E (even numbers.)
h
Q w
w
Events 0 and E are mutually exclusive so
:.P(even or odd) =P(even) + P(odd)
5 5
=-+-
10 10
=1
This is an obvious case where a number chosen from the given set is either
even or odd.
(d) Even (E) and prime (P) are not mutually exclusive since 2 is both even and
prime. The venn diagram below illustrates this.
r
E and P are not mutually exclusive events so

P(even or prime) = P(even) + P(prime) - P(even and odd)
5 4 1
=-+---
10 10 10
8 4
=-=-
10 5
359
Exercise 38a
1. (a) The probability that a football team wins a match is t,what is the probability of not
winning the match?
(b) The probability that it rains today is t, what is the probability that it does not rain?
(c) A bag contain; red and blue balls. Ifthe probability of drawing a red ball is t, what is
the probability of drawing a blue ball?
(d) If the probability of event A occurring is *' what is the probability of the event not
occurring?
2. State the probability of each of the following

(a) that when a fair coin is tossed it shows tails
(b) that when a die is cast the score is 2
(c) choosing a yellow ball from a bag containing 10 green balls.
(d) choosing a boy from a group of 15 boys.
3. A bag contains 15 identical balls of which 6 are blue, 4 are yellow and the rest are red.
If a ball is chosen at random from the bag, find the probability that
(a) it is yellow
(b) it is blue
(c) it is red
(d) it is yellow or blue
4. If a die is cast, fmd the probability that

(a) the score is less than 3
(b) the score is a prime number
(c) the score is a multiple of 2
(d) the score is 2 or 3
5. A card is drawn at random from a well shuffled pack of 52, fmd the probability that
(a) it is a queen
(b) it is a queen of diamonds
(c) it is a number card
(d) it is a number card of hearts
6. A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 30}, if a number is chosen at random from set A, fmd the

probability that
(a)itis8
(b) it is a factor of 12
(c) it is multiple of 10
(d) it is not a multiple of 10
7. A letter is chosen at random from the word MATHEMATICS, fmd the probability that it is
(a) an A
(b) a vowel
(c) a consonant
(d) anM or aT
(e) not anMor aT
360
8. On recruiting a goalkeeper for a professional stint, the Manager of a certain team
considers the probability of the goalkeeper saving a penalty. Three goalkeepers A, B
and C are on trial for the stint. Their probabilities of saving a penalty are keeper A; 2-,
15
keeper B; "" keeper C; ~~.

(a) which goalkeeper has the highest chance of selection?
(b) which goalkeeper has the least chance?
To ensure that he has made the right choice, the Team Manager tests them with 330
penalties over a period of time, neglecting all other factors
(c) fmd the number of these penalties each keeper is expected to save.
9. A box contains x green beads and y red beads. Given that the probability of choosing a gr
bead from the box is t'
(a) express x in terms of y
(b) find x ify = 2
(c) find the probability of choosing a red bead given the vabe of y in (b).
10. If W= {I, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1O}, A= {1,4,6} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Ifa number x is
chosen at random from E, fmd the probability that
(a)x EA (b) x EB (c) x E(AnB) (d) x E(AUB)
11. A soldier fIres at a target. If the probability of any of his shots hitting the target is i,
fmd the probability that
(a) his fIrst two shots hit the target
(b) his fIrst two shots miss the target
12. Two dice A and B are cast and the scores are added together. The following is an
incomplete table of the possible outcomes. Copy and complete the table.
Die B
+ I 2 3 4 5 6
I 2
2
Die A 3 7
4
5
6 8
Hence fmd the probability that

(a) the sum is 7
(b) the sum is a square number
(c) the sum is prime number
(d) the sum is a multiple of 4
361
13. In a class of 20, pupils take Physics (P), Chemistry (C) or Biology (B). The Venn diagram
illustrates this information. If a pupil is chosen at random from the class, find the probability
that the pupil
(a) takes Chemistry
p. (b) takes only Biology
5 4
(c) takes Physics and Chemistry
(d) takes Biology and Physics
(e) takes only Chemistry and Physics
(l) takes all the three subjects.
C
14. The following frequency distribution shows theages to the nearest year of 130 people
at a parttv.
Al!e Freauency Gend<l\r
1 - 10 16 10 males
11 - 20 26 15 males
21 - 30 38 16 males
31 - 40 30 14 males
41 - 50 10 6 males
51 - 60 6 2 males
61 -70 3 1 male
71 - 80 1 male
(a) ) For this distribution fmd: (i) the modal age

(ii) the mean age correct to the nearest year.
(b) If a person is chosen at random from the group what is the probability that the person is:
(i) a male
(ii) a female aged 41 or above
(c) If two people are chosen at random from the group what is the probability that:
(i) they are of the same sex
(ii) they are of different sex.
15.
5 \ 2
1
A spinner shown in the diagram above is in the shape of a regular pentagon. It is

constructed so that at the end of each spin the arrow always points to one of the numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The arrow has an equal chance of pointing to each of the five numbers. The
number determines the score. Write down the probability that after one spin the score will be
(a) 4 (b) an odd number
Two identical spinners are to be spun at the same time. Calculate the probability that
(c) each score will be 4 (d) the sum ofthe two scores will be 3
( e) the sum of the two scores will be more than 3
(f) the product ofthe scores will be 25. LONDON
362
Expected value.
If in a trial the probability of an event A is peA) and the trial is carried out N times
then the expected number of events A is given by x
Example: In a certain community, the probability that a person chosen at random is

of left handed is I~ . Find the expected number of left handed people in a
sample 2000 people randomly chosen from the community.
Solution: Expected number =N x peA)

=2000x-L10
=200
S!Lthe expectedJ)!lmber of IclUli!Ild~!Lpeopleis 200.
Sampling
Sampling is a process by which sample points in the sample are chosen. To ensure that ea
point in the sample has an equal chance of being chosen, the points are chosen at random Le.
without premeditation.
Sampling with or without replacement

If sampling is done with replacement, the total number of points in the sample space remains
constant throughout the sampling process. If however, sampling is without replacement, the
sample points decrease at each stage of selection.
Example: A box contains 8 identical beads of which 3 are red and 5 are green. The box is
well shaken and two beads are drawn at random in succession. If sampling is
without replacement find the probability that
(a) both balls are red
(b) both balls are of different colour
Solution: (a) Let R and G denote red and green respectively

P(both balls are red) = peR and R)
3 2
=-x-
8 7
3
= -28
Th~refore the probabilit.Y...that both are red is 3/28
Notice that once one red bead is drawn, there are two red beads remaining
in the box and the total number of beads in the box has decreased by one.
(b) P(both balls are of different colour) = P(red and green or green and red)
= peR and G or G and R)
3 5 5 3
=-x-+-x-
8 7 8 7
15
=
28
Therefore PCboth balls are of different colour) = ~
28
363
Probability trees.
Probability trees are used to solve problems involving a succession of trials. The following
examples illustrate the use of probability trees to solve such problems.
Example 1. A coin is tossed twice, find the probability that

(a) two heads are obtained
Cb) at least one head is obtained
(c) a tail and head are obtained.
Solution: We first draw a probability tree as shown below

st
1 toss 2nd toss Results Probabilities
HH P(HH) = .l2 x.l2 =.l4
HT P(HT) = .l2 x.l2 = .l-1.
TH P(TH) = .l2 x.l2 = .l4
TT
(a) P(two heads) =P(HH) = x = ++ +
(b) peat least one head) = P(one or more heads)
= P(HT + TH + HH) = i
(c) Pea tail and head) = P(HT or TH) = ++ += +
Example 2: A box contains 5 red balls and 7 blue balls. Three balls are dnwn in
succession at random and without replacement. Draw a probability tree
showing all the possible results.
Use your results to fmd the probability of drawing
(a) three red balls
(b) two red balls
(c) at least one blue ball.
Solution: I SI draw 2nd draw i, 3'd draw Results Probabilities

,, 3
,,
RRR
,, lO R',
-±- R: K 7 B RRB
~ B:!1.
l .1."'iO
RBR
~B
R
5 R '
~ R'<
: ,7, REB
, " R BRR
7·
:~'
I
I
i..
:
I
i .,!
,,:,
12 B:
'
:6
,,II B :,
,
'<:-
: B
R
BRE
BBR
: : : 1- B BBB
,,r ,,
,
,,
I 2
(a) P(three red balls) = P(RRR) = "2
(b) P(two red balls) = P(RRB) +P(RBR) +P(BRR) = :0 +:0 +:0 = ;2

(c) peat least one red ball) = I - P(BBB) = 1- ;,. = ~
NOTE Some of the results in the probabilities column are NOT required but have been
i neluded to help students fully comprehend the design of a J10bability tree.
364
Exercise 38b
1. 80% of the people attending a clinic in a year in a certain region are diagnosed with malaria..
Of 4400 attending a clinic in a year, how many are expected to have malaria?
2. 60% of the people in a certain community eat caterpillars. For a person randomly chosen
from the community fInd, in simplest terms, the probability that he/she
(a) eats caterpillars
(b) does not eat caterpillars
In a sample of 3 000 randomly chosen from the community, how many are expected
(c) to eat caterpillars
(d) not to eat caterpillars.
3. Of the 3 000 pupils in a school, 60 play football, 45 play tennis and 50 play basket ball. If
pupil is chosen at random from the school, [rod the probability that he/she
(a) plays football
(b) plays tennis
(c) plays basket ball
In a sample of 600 pupils drawn from the school, how many are expected to play
(d) football (e) tennis (t) basket ball
4. A die is cast twice. Copy and complete the tree diagram below
1st throw
~_----6
1
t
6----
6~
2nd throw Results Probabilities
Hence [rod the probability that on both throws the score is

(a) a 6
(b) not a 6
(c) only one 6
(d) at least one 6
5. The probability that lane goes to school on any school day is O.9The tree diagram shows
the probabilities of lane's attendance on Monday and Tuesday. If G denotes she goes to
school and G denotes she does not go to school, copy and complete the tree diagram
Monday Tuesday Results Probabilities
<==G~
G~
Hence [md the probability that
(a) she attends school on both days
(b) she does not attend school en Tuesday
(c) she does not attend school on both days
(d) she attends school only on one day
365
6. A box contains 5 red and 7 pink beads. Two beads are drawn in succession from the box
and are not replaced The tree diagram below shows the probabilities associated with the
draw. Copy and complete the diagram.
1st draw Results Probabilities
5 ~
~R ______
p~R
P
Hence [md the probability of
(a) two red beads
(b) only one red bead
(c) two pink beads
(d) at least one pink bead
7. A box contains 7 red, 11 pink and 6 yellow beads. Two beads are drawn in succession
from the box and are not replaced The tree diagram below shows the probabilities
associated with the draw. Copy and complete the diagram.
1st draw Results Probabilities
R~
-<E---P
.1
<:CC
4 Y~
23 Y
Hence find the probability of
(a) two red beads
(b) two of the same colour
(c) two of different colour
(d) at least one pink bead
8. In a penalty shootout the probabiity that a goalkeeper saves any penalty taken is i. If
two penalties are awarded draw a probability tree showing the outcomes and the
corresponding probabilities. Hence [md the-probability that
(a) he saves both
(b) he saves one
(c) he saves none
(d) he saves at least one
366
9. The probability that a maize seed germinates is J~J and if it germinates, the probability that it
survives a draught is *. Find the probability that
(a) the seed does not germinate
(b) the seed germinates and survives a draught
400 maize seeds are planted,
(c) how many are expected to germinate
(d) how many are expected to survive draught.
10. A boy either walks or bikes to school. The probability that he walks is * and the
probability that he bikes is t. If he walks, the probability that he is late for school is *' a
if he bikes the probability that he is late is _iD. By using a probability tree or otherwise find
the probability that on any school day
(a) he bikes and he is late (b) he walks and he is not late
(c) he walks and he is late
(d) he is late no matter the mode of transport .
In 300 school days how many times is he expected to be late?
11. A bag contains 5 blue, 3 green and 7 yellow balls. Three boys, Pashane, Mulola and
Chibambo are playing a game in which whoever draws a green ball wins a packet
of swects. The bag is well shaken and pashane draws a ball at random horn the bag and
replaces it and the other two boys do the same in turns. Find the probability that in this
first round of the game
(a) only Chibambo wins a pack of sweets.
(b) only Mulola and Pashane win packs of sweets.
(c) only one of the boys wins a pack.
(d) non of the boys wins a pack.
12. Each memher of a class supports one and only one of three football teams; 13 hoys
support City, 10 support Roves and 7 SUppOlt United.
(a) If a boy is to bc chosen at random, what is the probability that he will support
City?
(b) If two boys are to be chosen at random, what is the probability that they will
Support City?
Draw a tree diagram to show all possible outcomes of choosing two boys at random,
showing the probahility of each outcome. Hence find
(c) the probability that two boys chosen at random will support the same team
(d) the probabilty that the two boys chosen at random will support ditTerent tearns
LONDO.-
13.Alan and Brenda fire shots alternately at a target. Alan fires first. The probability that
will hit the target with any shot is t.
The probability that Brenda will hit the target with
any shot is t. Calculate the probability that
(a) Alan will miss the target with his fIrst shot
(b) they both hit the target with their first shot
(c) they will both miss the target with their fIrst shot
(d) Brenda, with her second shot, will be the first to hit the target
(e) Alan will hit the target at least once with his first 3 shots. LONDON
367
39. EARTH GEOMETRY
Earth geometry is for purposes of locating places on the earths' surface and determining
distances and universal time between such places.
In reality the earth is oval and its surface is uneven due tohills, valleys plateaux etc but in the
study of earth geometry we consider that
• the earth is spherical and has radius 6 370 kilometers
• the surface of the earth is even i.e. we disregard heights of mountains, plateaux, valleys,
etc.
Latitudes and longitudes

Latitudes - these are imaginary parallel lines that run from east to west on the earths' surface.
The longest of lines of latitudes is called theequator . The equator divides the earth into two
identical hemispheres. The equator is the only latitude with radius 6 370 km.
Longitudes or meridians - These are imaginary lines running round the earth through the
poles i.e. the north pole and the south poles. Each longitudlhas radius 6 370 km and divides
the earth into hemispheres. The Greenwich Meridian is the longitude from which angular
distances (in degrees) east or west are determined.
North pole
~~;;;;;;;;;......Longitudes
Greenwich --7'''--ct'---;!,~\
meridian -----j-,
,
,
-----:-,
Equator ,,,
,,, t='-'-'4=-/J~-~Latitudes
South pole
The earth's grid
The diagram shows part ofthe earth's grid. This shows how far east or west ofthe Greenwich
or how far North or south of the equator a place is. Thus, any place on earth is located by
defining its latitude and longitude. Consider the points A, B, C, D and E on the grid below.
North pole
9 60"30" 0 30" 60" 90"
A
West 0 l - 4 - - l - - l - - + - + - I 0 East
South pole
368
The location of these points representing places on earth are defmed as follows
A is 30° East and 0° North or South ie A is on a latitude 30° East and longitude 0° North
B is 60' West and 0° North or South (0° North or South means the place is located on the
equator)
C is 30' West and 30° South or we can write C is (300 W, 300 S )
D is 90° East and 60° North or D is (90"E, 600 N ).
Eis ((OOW, 900 S), note that E is located on the Greenwich Meridien (0° West or East)
Angular distance
Angular distance is the difference in latitude or difference in longitude between two places
The following examples illustrate the angular distances between places. On the above grid,
A and B lie on the same latitude; the equator. The arc AB subtends an angle = 30° + 60° = 90°
at the centre of the earth. So the angular distance between A and B is 90°.
C and F lie on latitude 30° South of the equator. Their difference in longitude is 30° + 90° =
120° ie the angular distance between C and F is 120°. 120° is the angle subtended by the arc
CF at the centre of latitude 30° South.
The difference in latitude between D and G is 60° - 30° = 30°. The difference in latitude
between H and G is 90° - 30° = 60°.
Note that
• the difference in longitude between two places on opposite sides of the Greenwich
meridian is the sum of their longitudes.
• the difference in longitude between two places on the same side of the Greenwich
meridian is the difference of their longitudes.
• the difference in latitude between two places on opposite sides of the equator is the
sum of their latitudes.
• the difference in latitude between two places on the same side ofthe equator is the
difference of their latitudes.
The earth is considered to be spherical and therefore distances are measured along arcs as in the
case of distance between A and B and betwren M and N in the diagram below.
North pole
Length of arc AB is given by
AB =~x 27TRwhere e is the difference
360
in latitude between A and B.
and R = 6 370 km is the radius of the earth.
West
Similarly, the distance MN is given by
MN = ~ x 27Trwhere CL is the differen
360
in longitude between M and N and r is the
radius of the minor circle of latitude
South pole through M and N.
369
Great and minor circles
A minor circle is considered to be a circle on the surface of the earth whose radius is less than
the radius of the earth. All latitudes except the equator are minor circles. It should be pointed
out that there are minor circles which are not latitudes.
A great circle is a circle on the surface ofthe earth whose radius is equal to the radius of the
earth. Alllongitudes are great circles. The equator has radius equal to the radius of the earth
so it is a great circle. Again there are great circles which are not longitudes.
The shortest distance between any two places on the surface of the earth is given by the
length of the arc of the great circle passing through the two places.
~_~Major circles
Minor circles
.
Determining the radius of a minor circle of latitude
Consider the diagram belo'f. Let R = ON be the radius of the earth and r = LN be the radius of
,, minor circle through M and N. Now if the circle
•, is located e degrees south of the equator then in
_______ ,r _ t,OLN. L ONL = e since OB is parallel to LN.
,,
, Now
, LN r
_--------i--------- -- case = - =- ... r = Rcose
0' OR R
This can now be used to the determine the length
of the arc MN given the LMLN = 0.
a
Length of arc MN = 360 X 2m
.' . length of arc MN = -!!...- x 2nRcose

360
Example 1. Find the radius of a circle of latitude 55° North of the equator.
Solution: In the diagram, R = 6 370 is the radius of the earth. LN = r is the required radius.
Considering t,OLN we have
Cos55° = ~
R
:. r = Rcos55°
= 6 370co s55°
=3654
The radius of the circle of latitude 55°N is 3 654km
370
Example 2. Find the circle of latitude, south of the equator whose radius is 3 185km.
Solution: consider the diagram below, herer = 3 185km. Let the latitude be 8° south.
Now, r = Rcos8
Cos8 =!-
R
3185
-- --- ---------
O~-71
=
6370
(from/),. OLN)
=0.5
8 = cos·10.5
=60
Ih~_'required latitude is ther~fuI~!atit!lde 60°
Example 3: M and N are two plac§~n latitude 30° North. M is on longitude 85° IS' West and
N is on longitude 30° West. Calculate
(i) the radius of latitude 30° North
(ii) the difference in longitude between M and N
(iii) the distance MN measured along the surface of the earth.
Solution: The diagram shows the relative positions of M and N but not to scale.
'\-+''',----- Greenwich
meridian
_-{_ _--+::::::+-fl-Equator
(i) r = Rcos30°
= 6370 x 0.8660254...
=5517
Th~.mdius of laJitude...1(f.lliJhe.n.fill:S; 5 517km
(ii) Difference in longitude between M and N = LMLN

LMLN = 85° 15 '- 30° 30'
= 54° 45'
(iii) Distance MN = length of arc MN

= 54
0
45' x2x3.142x5517 (from -x2nr)

a
0
360 360
= 5 273
The distance MN is therefore 5 273km
371
Example 4. A and B are two places on the equator. Given that A lies on longitude 3rt West of
of the Greenwich Meridian and B lies on longitude 60' East of the Greenwich
calculate the distance between A and B.
Solution: Let 0 be the center of the earth. We are required to fmd the length of the arc AB
shown in the diagram below. A and B are on opposite sides of the Greenwich
therefore LAOB = 30° + 60° = 90°
o
R
A B
Length of arc AB = - - x 2TTR

e
360
900
=--x 2 x3.142x 6370
360 0
= 10 007km
So the distance AB is 10 007km
Example 5: Calculate the distance CD given that C is on latitude 60° South of the equator and
D is on latitude 60°North of the equator as shown in the diagram above.
Solutiou: We are required to fmd the length of the arc CD. C and D on opposite sides of the
equator therefore LCOD = 60° + 60° = 120°.
D e
6370 km Length of arc CD = 360 x 2TTR
1200
o =--x2x3.142x6370
360 0
= 13 343km
.£!Uhe distance CD is 1.3 31~km
C
Example 6. Lusaka L is (28° 30' E, 15° 30'S) and Bulawayo B is (28° 30' E, 21 0 S). Taking the
radius of the earth as 6 370km, calculate the distance between the two cities as
measured along longitude 28 °30'E.
Solution: The two cities are on the same longitude i.e. 28° 30' E, but differ in latitude.
Difference in latitude = 21°- 15° 30' = 5°30.'
L e
Length of arcLB = - - x 2TTR
6370km 360
5" 30' x 2 x 3.142 x 6370
0
360
= 612km
SQ~h~distance betweenJh~cities is 612km
B
372
Example 7: Lusaka is (28° 30'E, 15° 30'S) and Cuiaba in Brazil is (56°05'W, 15° 30'S),
(i) the difference in longitude between Lusaka and Cuiaba
(ii) the distance between Lusaka and Cuiaba
Solution: (i) The two cities lie on the same latitude i.e. 1SO 30'S but differ in longitude.
Difference·in longitude = 28 °30' + 56° 05'
!: 4° ,
(ii) Radius of latitude 15° 30'S is given by r = RcosS

= 6 370cos15° 30'
=6138
a
Length of arc CL = - - x 2m
o 360°
8435'
- - x 2 x 3.142 x 6138
0
370 km 360
= 9 062km
C L SQ the distance between the two cities is 9 062km
Exercise 39a
1. The diagram shows part of the earth's grid. Use the grid to answer the questions that follow.
(i) Write down the positions in tenns of latitude
and longitude of the points A, B, C, ..... J.
O. (ii) Find the difference in latitude between

(a) A and C (b) A and I (c) C and I
A (d) I and L (e) G and M (t) Nand F
o I.....;~._+_...._ ...;..;..+~ 0
(g) B and F (h) K and F (i) K and N
(iii) Find the difference in longitude between

(a) A and B (b) D and L (c) D and N
(d) I and H (e) I and M (t) H and M
(g) E and F (h) C and P (i) Q and G
2. Find the radius of each of the following .circles of latitude
(a) 60° South (b) 45° North (c) 33.4°North (d) 0°
(e) 80° 45' South (t) 83° 53' ~outh (g) 90° North (h) 66f" North
3. Work out the distance between the following places on the grid in question 1.
(a) A and C (b) A and I (c) C and I (d) I and L (e) G and M
(t) A and B (g) D and L (h) D and N (i) I and H (j) I and M
4. Calculate the distance between the north pole and the south pole measured along the
Greenwich meridian.
5. Find a circle of latitude with (a) radius 2445km (b) circumference 21 400km
373
6. Copy the grid shown below and plot the following latitudes and longitudes:
(a) A(O"E, O"N) (b) B(30"E, 60"N)

(c) eeO"E, 300S) (d) D(30"W, 30"N)
(e) E(60"W, 300S) (f) F(900W, 300S)
(g) G(300E, 900S) (h) H(15"W, OOS)
o 0 What are the latitude and longitude of

the South pole and North Pole?
7. Town A is (56' East, 47° North) and town B is (56' West, 47° North), fmd
(a) the radius of latitude 56°
(b) the difference in longitude between latitude 56° East and latitude 56° West
(c) the distance between A ~d B measured along latitude 56°.
8. C and D are two towns lying on the same longitude. If C lies on latitude 46° 36' South and D
lies on latitude 52° 28' North. Calculate
(a) the difference in latitude between C and D
(b) the distance CD measured along the longitude through C and D.
9. P is a land llllI"k on the south pole and Q is another landmark on latitude 28° North and
longitude 30° West. Calculate
(a) the difference in latitude between P and Q
(b) the distance PQ measured along longitude 30° West
10. Ankara is (34° E, 40"N) and Beijing is (J 17"E, 40 0N). Calculate

(a) the difference in longitude between Ankara and Beijing
(b) the radius of latitude 40'
(c) the distance between Ankara and Beijing measured along latitude 40° North.
11. Town A is (46' E, 60° N) and Town B is (XO W, 60° N).. Given that A and B are
diametrically opposite, calculate
(a) the value of x (b) the radius of latitude 60°
(c) the distance between the towns measured along latitude 6rJ'.
(d) the distance between the towns measured -along the major circle through the
north pole.
12. In the diagram, A and B are towns on latitude 34° North with centre C 0 is the centre
of latitude 0' and N and S are the north and south
poles respectively. Given that ACB is a straight line,
- 340 calculate
t-...!!~::=..t=-..;,-~\ (a) AC, the radius of latitude 34°
- - -:- - - (b) the length of the arc ANB
0
i- ° (c) the distance AB measured along-latitude 34°
,,, (d) the length of OC
,, (e) the length of CN
/
S
374
The Nautical mile
Distances at sea are measured in nautical miles, thus, a nautical mile is a sea mile. A nauti
1 0
mile (run) is defined as the length of an arc subtending an angle of or I minute at the
60
centre of the earth.
LAOB = l' or (~)" :. S = I run where S is the length
of the arc AB and R is the radius of the earth.
lrun = 1.853km.
(I' )0
Note; S = ~x 2x3.142x 6370 = 1.853km
3600
The knot
The knot is a measure of speed at sea. 1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour. The knot is associat«.
with speed of vessels at sea, wind speed and speed of aircrafts.
Time
Time is measured from the Greenwich Meridian. Time measured from this Meridian is knov>
as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and is universal. This is universal time in thatime in the
world is determined from this longitude.
The earth rotates once on its axis every 24 hours. This means that every 24 hours the earth
describes an angle of 360° about its axis.
Thus; 24hours = 360°
0
. h 360
,.lour=--=15 °
24
The earth rotates from west to east, since 1 hour is equivalent to 15°, it means that for every
15° travelled eastwards an hour is gained and for every 15° travelled westwards an hour is 10
0
Zambian time is determined from longitude 3C1' East:' 30 = 2, this is the reason for Zambian
15"
time being 2 hours ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time. Thus, when the BBC says it is 1400
hours GMT then it is 1600 hours Zambian or local time.
Example 1: If the time is 1000 hours GMT, what is the time

(i) in Madras on longitude 80° east
(ii) in Galveston 95 ° west?
Solution: (i) 80° = 5-3' , this means there is a difference of 5-3' hours between Greenwich and
15"
Madras. 5t = 5 201 the time in Madras is therefore 1000 + 05 2d = 15-20 hQlill.
(ii) 95° = 6-3' = 620,' the time in Galveston is therefore IQ 00 - 06 2d = 03 40 hrs

15"
The simple rule of determining time between longitudes is: going east add and going west
subtract.
375
Example 2: Town A is on longitude 30° west and town B is on longitude 6rf east. If it 1200
hours universal time at B, what is the time at A?
Solution: Difference in longitude between the towns is 30' + 60" = 90°.

. tIme between t he towns IS -90" = 6hours
Difference m 0 0
IS"
Since A is west of B, the time at A is 6 hours behind the time at B.
Therefore time at A is 12 - 6 = 06 00 hours
Example 3: Macapa in Brazil and Libreville in Gabon lie on the equator. Macapa is on
longitude S2" west and Libreville is on longitude 10° east. A plane leaves Macapa
for Libreville at 13 4S hours and and travels at SOOkml h, find
(i) the distance between Macapa and Libreville
(ii) the time to the nearest hour taken by the plane on the trip.
(iii) the time in Libreville when the plane an·ives.
Solution: (i) Difference in longitude between the two places is S2° + 10" = 62°
Distance between Macapa and Libreville = 6370cos62°,=:2 991km
0') TO k distance travelled

( 11 Ime ta en = - - - - - - -
speed
2991
=
SOO
= 6ho!.!fs
(iii) Difference in time between Macapa and Libreville = 62 = 4 hours

IS
Time in Libreville when the plane leaves Macapa is 13 4S + 4 = 17 4S hours
Time in Libreville when the plane arrives is 17 4S + 6 = 23 45 hours
Exercise 39b
(consider all distances between places to be measured along the minor arc)
1. Two places P and Q lie on the same longitude and are 30° apart in latitude, fmd the distance
between them (a) in kilometers (b) in nautical miles
2. Two places P and Q lie on the equator and are S/ apart, calculate the distance PQ
(a) in kilometers (b) in nautical miles
3. If the time is IS 00 hours GMT find the local time at each of the following places
(a) P 4So east (b) Q 90° east (c) R 120° west (d) S 144° west
(e) Lisbon go west (t) Candala SOoEast (g) Yehsien 120° East (h) Idaho 112° west.
4. Find the difference in time between the following longitudes

(a) SO° East and 10° West (b) 20° East and SOOEast (c) 10° East and 1700 West
(d) 20° IS' East and SOO 4S'East (e) 2So 2S'West and SOo SO/East (t) 4S/ West and 2So 2S/East
376
S. For the grid shown below, fmd (a) the time at A if it is0400 hours at B
90" 60" 3D" Q 30 60" 90'"

(b) the difference in time between C and Do
(c) the time at C if it is 15 42hrs at D
(d) the difference in time between E and F
(e) the time at E when it is 0525 hrs at F
(t) the difference in time between G and F
(g) the time at G when it is 00 36 hrs at F
oI-"',--I--i~f-"--I--:I--Io (h) the time difference between J and H
(i) the time at J when it is 17 55 hrs at H
(j) the time difference between E and K
(k) the time at K when it is 17 55 hrs at E
6. On a monday at 06 40 hours a plane leaves a stationary Aircraft carrier A on (200 S, 30°

flies east at 450 knots and lands on another stationary carrier B on (200 S, 90° E), fmd
(a) the radius of latitude 20° south
(b) the distance in nautical miles between the carriers
(c) the time taken by the plane in flying from A to B
(d) the difference in time between A and B
(e) the day and time at B when the plane lands.
377
40. SEQUENCES AND SERIES
A sequence is a series of terms, numerical or algebraic, obeying a defmite rule. The following
are examples of sequences.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .
2, 4, 6, 8, 10 .
1,4, 9, 16,25, .
n, (n + 1), (n + 2), (n + 3), .
Example. Find the next three terms of each of the following sequences;
(D 1,3,5,7 .
(ii) 11,8,5,2 .
(iii) 1,8,27,64, .
(iv) 2,5, 10, 17, .
Solution: (i) Here, each term is found by adding 2 to the one before it. The next three
erms ofthe sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, ... are 7 + 2 =~, 9 + 2 =ll. and
11 +2=U
(ii) In the series 11, 8, 5, 2 ... each term is found by subtracting 3 from the
one before it. The next three terms of the sequence 11, 8, 5, 2 .
are therefore 2 - 3 = =.1., -1 - 3 = - 4 and -4 - 3 = - 7
(iii) An analysis of the sequence, 1,8,27,64, .... reveals that they are the
cubes of the frrst four positive integers i.e. 13,23,3 3, 43.The next three
terms of the sequence are 53 = 125, 63 = .216 and 7 3 = 34.3.
(iv) Again an analysis of the sequence 2,5,10, 17, ... shows that we :quare an
integer and add I to the result ie 1 2 + I = 2, 22 + 1 = 5,3 2 + I = 10 and
4 2 + 1 = 17. The next three terms of the sequence aretherefore 52 + 1 =~
2 2
6 + I = 31. and 7 + 1 = 50.
The nth tenn of a sequence

The nth term, sometimes referred to as the general term is the term that stands for any of the
terms in the sequence. The nth term may also be defined as the defmite rule which the
sequence obeys. The following are examples of-sequences and their nth term, where n E Z+
2,4,6,8,10 ., , nth term is 2n
1,4,7, 10, 13, nth.term is 3n- 2
1,3,5,7, Q ..............•......... nth term is 2n-f
0, 3, 8, 15,24 nth term is n 2 -
Consider the the nth term of the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, which is 2n. Let 1; denote nth
term so that T n = 2n. By substituting n with integer values we note that
If n = 1, T] = 2· 1 = 2 which is the frrst term of the sequence
If n = 2, T2 = 2· 2 = 4 which is the second term of the sequence.
If n = 3, T3 = 2· 3 = 6 which is the third term of the sequence
If n = 4, T4 = 2· 4 = 8 which is the fourth term of the sequence
If n = 5, Ts = 2· 5 = 10 which is the fifth term of the sequence
378
Thus, the nth term stands for any term of the sequence and can therefore be used to find any
term of the sequence. For example, to fmd the 40th term of the sequence 2,4, 6, 8, 10 .
above we put n = 40 in T n = 2n, hence T 40 = 2 x 40 = 80.
Example 1: Find the first four terms of the sequence whose nth term, Tn , is given by
T n =2n+3
Solution: We put n = I, 2, 3,4 il Tu = 2n + 3

n = I => T l = 2 x I + 3 = 5
n=2=>T 2 =2x2+3=7
n = 3 => T3 = 2 x 3 + 3 = 9
n = 4 => T 4 = 2 x 4 + 3 = 11
Therefore the first four terms of the sequence axe 5,7, 9, !!
Example 2: Find the 21 51 term of the sequence whose nth term is

(i) T n = n2 - 2 (ii) T n = 3n - 2
Solution: (i) The 21 st term of the sequence is found by putting n = 21 in

Tn = n2 _ 2
:.T21 =21 2-2
=439
(ii) Again we find the 21 51 term of the sequence by putting n = 21 in

T n =3n-2
:.T21 =3x21-2
= 61
Example 3: If Tn = n2 - 5, fmd the value of n for which Tn = 4

Solution: T n = n2 - 5 we are required to fmd the value of n for which T n = 4
:.n2 - 5 = 4 (by replacing Tn by 4)
2
n =9
n=± J9
n = ±3
The required va!ue..of n is therefore 3. -3 is not acceptable because n
stands for number of terms and therefore carmot be negative.
Example 4: The nth term of the sequence 2,5,8 98 is Tn = 3n - 1, fmd

the number of terms of the sequence.
Solution: Here, Tn = 98 and we are required to fmdn, the number of terms.
T n = 3n- 1
: .3n - 1 = 98 (by replacing T n by 98)
3n=99
:.n= 33
'Ih~umber o. nn.sjUherefQ!:~..33.
379
Exercise 40a
1. Find the next three terms in each of the following sequences
(a) 2, 7, 12, (b) 1,4,7,........ (c) 4,8, 16,..... (d) -2, -I, 0, ....
(e) -12, -8, -4 (t) 1,8,15,22, ..... (g) 1,2,6,24,.. (h) ll, lOt, 10, .
(i) O. 3, 8, 15 (j) 5, 10, 17, 26 (k) -4, -7, -10, (I) 2, 6, 12,20 .
(m) 1,2,4,7...... (n)I, 5, ll, 19,...
2. Find the first four terms of each of the following series;

(a) Tn = n + 3 (b) Tn = n- 3 (c) T n = 15- n (d) Tn = 2n + I
(e)Tn =3n-5 (t)T n =n2 +2 (g)T n =n2 +n (h) T n = (n- 1)2
i 2
(i) T n = (n + I + 3 (j) T n = 2n + 3
3. Find the 11th term of the sequence with the following as the nth term.
(a)T n =5n+3 (b)Tn =8-2n (c)T n =9- n (d) T n =(n-I)2
2
4. For the sequence I, 5, 9 237, T n = 4n- 3, fmd the number ofterms.
5. If Tn = n2 - 5n, fmd the value of n for which Tn = 50
6. For the sequence 7,12,19, ..... fInd

(a) the nth term
(b) the number of terms in the sequence 7,12,19, .... .487
7. Find the number of terms of the sequence-2, 1,4, 64
8. Find the nth term ofeach of the following sequences. For the sequences that fall in
the category of progressions the nth can be determined as discussed in sections of
the topics that follow.
(a) 2, 7, 12, . (b) 1,4,7,........ (c) 4,8,16,..... (d) -2, -1, 0, .
(e) -12, -8, -4 . (t) 2, 6, 12,20, (g) ll, lOt, 10, (h) O. 3, ~ 15 .
(i) 5, 10, 17, 26 (j) -4, -7, -10,.... (k) 0,2,6,12, (I) -1, 2, 7,14 .
Progressions
A sequence is called a progression or a series if
• the terms follow a definite or predictable pattern
• the terms are expressed as a sum
Here we shall consider the arithmetic progression (AP) and the geometric progression (GP).
Arithmetic progression (AP)

This is a series where the difference between successive terms is constant. This constant
difference is called the common difference and it is found by subtracting any term of the series
by the one immediately following it. Example of arithmetic progressions
2+4+6+ common difference d = 4- 2 = 2
-3 + -7 + -ll+ common difference d = -7 - (-3) =-4
4+ 5~ +7+ oommon difference d = 5~ - 4= I~
2 2 2
380
The general AP
The first n terms of an AP withfrrst term a and common difference d is expressed as
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + (a + 4d) + + [a + (n- l)d]
I<hus, first term, T, = a

second term, T2 = a + d
third term, Ts = a + 2d
fourth term, T4 = a + 3d
fIfth term, Ts = a + 4d
Tu ="a+(n-l)d
The term To = a + (n - l)d is called the general term, this because it stands for any of the
terms of the series eg ifn = 1 we have T, = a, ifn = 2 we have T z = a + d, ifn = 3 we have
T 3 = a + 2d and so on.
Example 1: For the AP, 2 + 5 + 8 + , find

(i) the 10 th term (ii) the 51" term (iii) the nth term
Solution: (i) In this AP, a = 2, d = 3, we are required to find the 10th term so we put
n = 10 in the general term
Tn =a+(n-l)d
TIO = 2 + (10 - 1)3
=29
So the 10thterm is 29
(ii) To fmd the 51" term we put n = 51 in the general term

:.Ts1 =2+(51-1)3
= 2 + 50·
3
= 152
SQJhe 51 sI term is 152
(iii) The nth term is found by putting a = 2, d = 3 in the general term;

To =a+(n-l)d
:. Tn = 2 + (n- 1)3
= 2 + 3n- 3
= 3n- 1
Th~n'h term is therefore 3n - I
381
Example 2: Find the number of terms in the AP; 3 + -I + -5 + + -53
Solution: Here, a = 3, d = 1 -3 = -4, Tn = -53 and we are required to [md n
Tn =a + (n- l)d
:.-53 = 3 + (n- 1)· -4
:.-53=3+4-4n
:.n = 15
SQJbe lli!mber of terrns....in.J;he series is--l5
Example 3: The 10th term of an AP is 37 and the 16th term is 61. For this AP [md;
(i) the common difference
(ii) the first term and
(iii) the 30th term
Solution: (i) Tn = a + (n- l)d (iii) T n =a+(n-1)d

T IO = a + (10- l)d T 30 = 1 + (30 - 1)4
:.37=a+9d ---~~CD = 117
116=a+(l6-1)d The 3Qtl'term is therefore 111
:.61 = a+ 15d---"~CD
a + 9d= 37
- a + 15d = 61
-6d = -24
:.d=4
(ii) a + 9· 4 = 37
:.il = 1
The arithmetic mean

If a, b and c are any three consecutive terms of an AP then
b - a = c - b ( each side = d)
2b = a + c
:.b= a+ c
2
Thus b is the arithmetic mean or average of a and c.
SumofanAP
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of an APwith first term a and common difference d.
:. Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + (a + 4d) + + [a + (n - l)d]
+Sn = [a + (n - l)d] + [a + (n - 2)d] + + (a + 4d) + (a + 3d) (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a
2S n= [2a+ (n-1)d] + [2a+(n-1)d] +[2a+(n-l)d] + + [2a+(n-l)d]
2S n= n[2a + (n - l)d]
: . S D = t [2a + (n - l)d] This is the requ ired sum. This sum can also be expressed as
Sn= t[a+l] where l= a+ (n- l)d is the last term or nth term.
382
Example 1. Insert an arithmetic mean between 7 and 17.
Solution: Let the required mean be m so that we are required to fmd the value of m for which
7 + m+ 17 + .... are three consecutive terms of an AP
:.m = 7+ 17 = 12
2
Therefore the roouired mean i~
Example 2: If the numbers 3, m, nand 18 are four consecutive terms of an AP, find the
values of m and n.
Solution: m is the arithmetic mean between 3 and n therefore

3+ n
m=--
2
:.2m-n=3 ~~
n is the arithmetic mean be ween m and 18 therefore
m+ 18
n=
2
:.2n-m=18---~~0
Solving equations 1 and 2 simultaneously gives m - 8 and n - 13
Example 3: The numbers m- 1, 4m + 1 and 5m - 1 are three consecutive of an AP, find

the numbers.
Solution: 4m + I is the arithmetic mean between m-I and 5m - I therefore

4m+ 1 = (m-l)+(5m-l)
2
:.2(4m+l)=6m-2
:.8m + 2 = 6m-2
:.2m =-4
:.m =-2
Substituting for m in the series we get -3.,~ and -11 as the numbers.
Example 4: Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the AP; 5 + 10 + 15 + .
Solution: Here, a = 5, d = 5, n = 20 and we are required to fmd S20, the sum of the
frrst 20 terms.
Sn= n[2a+(n-l)d]
2
: ,S20 = 20 [2. 5 + (20 -1)5]
2
= 10 (10 + 95)
= 1 050
S!:>jh~_SJJJ1l. c l1he frrst twentYJmn..s....Qfjh~ is 1 05Q
383
Example 5: If(m + I), (2m - 2) and 2m are the fIrst three terms of an AP, fInd
(i) the value of m
(ii) the fIrst term and the common difference
(iii) the sum of the [lIst 11 terms of the AP.
SOlution: (i) 2m- 2 is the arithmetic mean of m + 1 and 2m therefore

2m-2 = m+l+2m
2
4m -4=3m+ I
~
(ii) So the [lIst three terms of the series are 6 + 8 + 10

: ·~and"-=-2
(iii) S n = n [2a + (n -1)d]

2
11 [ 6+(11-1)2
:,SI1=-2· .]
2
= 5.5(12 + 20)
= 176
Therefore the-sum-.illJh~st 11 terms is 176
Example 6: Find the sum of the AP- 50 + -47 + -44 + + -8.

Solution: Here a = -50, d = 3 and 1= -8. First we work out the number of terms in the
series.
I = a + (n - l)d (where I denotes last term)
-8 = -50 + (n- 1)3
42 = (n- 1)3
14 = n- 1
:.n= 15
There are therefore 15 terms in the series
n
S n = -[a+l)
2
: ,S15 = ~[-50 + -8]
2
= -435
Ihuu!ILQf1he serruuherl:Jore-435
Exercise 40b
1. State which of the following series are APs and fInd the common difference of those
which are.
(a) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 . (b) 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 ..
(c)5+9+13+17 . (d)I+-I+I+-I, ..
(e) 14 + 11 + 8 + 5 . (t) - 5 + -7 + -9 + -11
1 1
(g) "2+,+.+,
1 1
. (h) .'2.. + p.2 + 2 + 2.'..2
384
2. Find the indicated tenus of the following APs.
(a) 1 +4+7 + 11 1Oth and 21 st
(b) 2 + 3 + 4 + 50th and 100th
(c) 5 + 10 + 15 + 17th and 33rd
(d) -20 + -17 + -14 + 105 th and 200th
(e) 1 + 2t + 4 + 55 th and 117th
3. Find the nth tenu of each of the following APs

(a) 2 + 4 + 6 + (b) 2 + 5 + 8 + ,
(c) 7 + 11 + 15 + . (d) 5 + 8 + 11 + .
<.e)-2+-3 +-4 <'f) 20+\6+12+ .
(g) 1 + 2t+4 + (h)2+-1 +-4+ .
4. Find the number of terms in each of the following APs

(a) 2 + 4 + 6 + + 240 (b) 5 + 10 + 15 + + 200
(c) 1 + 4 + 7 + + 247 (d) 3 + 5 + 7 + + 109
(e) 7 + 5 + 3 + + -47 (t) -12 + -9 + - 6 + + 90
(g) -3 +-5 +-7 + +-103 (h) 1 + 2t+4 + + 106
5. Find the sum to the indicated tenu of each of the following APs
(a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 50 tenus
(b) 2 + 4 + 6 + .44 terms
(c) 7 + 10 + 13 + 100terms
(d) 4 + 9 + 14 + 51 terms
(e)-I+-3+-5+ 65terms
(t) 2 + 3t +5 + 12 tenus
(g) 10 + 5 + 0 + 21 tenus
(h) x + 4x + 7x + 33 tenus
6. Find the sum of each of the following APs

(a) 1 + 3 + 5 + + 99
(b) 4 + 8 + 12 + + 48
(c) 3 + 5 + 7 + + 43
(d) 10 + 15 + 20 + + 405
(e)-12+-1O+-8+ +32
(t) -5 + 0 + 5 + + 55
7. The terms 2 + x+-8 are the the fIrst three terms of an AP, find
(a) the value of x
(b) the 17th tenu of the AP
(c) the sum ofthe first 51 terms of the AP.
8. The terms m + (2m + 1) + (4rn- 2) are three consecutive terms of an AP. Find
(a) the value of m
(b) the three terms
(c) the numerical value of the term after 4m - 2
(d) the sum of the first 20 terms of the AP.
385
9. The 4 th term of an AP is7 and the 21 st term is 41, fInd
(a) the common difference
(b) the 1st term
(c) the sum of the frrst 20 terms of the AP
10. The terms 3n- 4, 3n + 1 and 5n + 2 are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic
progression, fInd
(a) the value of n
(b) the common difference
(c) the numerical value of the 29th term given that 3n- 4 is the :;td term
(d) the sum of the frrst 30 terms the progression.
11. The terms n - 2, n + 2 and 2n are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic progression.
Find for this A.P,
(a) the value of n
(b) the common difference and
(c) the sum of the first 30 terms, given that fl- 2 is the frrst term.
This is a series of terms where there is a common factor between terms. This common factor is
called the common ratio and it is found by dividing any term of the series by
the one immediately following it. Example of Geometric progressions;
2 + 4 +8+ ,, common ratio r = .:': = 2
2
111 .111
-+-+-+ common ratio r = - 1- =-
2 6 18 6 2 3
The frrst n terms of a GP with frrst term a and common ratio r are expressed as
a+ar+ar 2 +ar3 +ar4 + +arn-I
The term ar" - 1 is the general term or nth term.
Thus, T l = a
T2=ar
T3=~
3
T 4 = ar
Tn= arn-I
Example 1: Forthe GP, 2 + 6 + 18 + , fmd;

(i) the 10th term
(ii) the 17 th term
Solution: (i) Here a = 2, r = 3, n = 10 and we are required to fInd TIO.
Tn= arn-I (ii) T 17 = 2x3 17 - 1

16
- 2x 3 10 - 1
. T 10-
•• = 2 x3
:.TIO= 39 366 = 86 093 442
SiUhdO th ternUU-2.3Mi The 17th term is therefore 86 093 4±2.
386
Example 2: The 3rd term of a GP is 9 and the 10th term is 19 683, find
(i) the common ratio
(ii) the first term
(iii) the 8 th term
Solution: (i) T 3 = ~
...ar2 =9 ---+(~ CD
T IO = ar9
:.ar9 =19683 ~G)
Dividing equation 2 by equation 1 we have
ar 9 19683
ar 2 =-9-
r 7 = 2187
:.r = V2187
:.r=3 ...) T n=arn-l
( III
SQJhe common ratio is 3 :.Ts=I X 3 7
(ii) ar 2 =9
=2187
Ih~erm.i£JheI:efure 2181
a· 3 2 = 9
".a = 1 So the firsucrm is-l.
The Geometric mean

If the terms a, band c are three consecutive terms of a GP then
b = ~ (each side equals the common ratio)
a b
... b2 = ac
... b=~
The quantity ~ is called the geometric mean between a and c.
SumofaGP
To fmd the sum of the first n terms of a GP with first term a and common ratio r
Sn= a +.at + ~+..a?'+ il1'" + +~
- rS" = fI(+¥ +.af + at+ aR-+ + arn
:. Sn - rS n = a- arn
:. Sn(l- r)= a(l- r")
n
:,Sn = a(l-r ) This is the sum of the GP.
l-r
For convenience this sum is expressed as
Sn = a(l- r") for Irl < 1 i.e. for -1 < r < 1

l-r
and Sn = a(r" -1) for Irl> 1 i.e. for r < -1 or r > 1

r-l
387
Sum to infinity of a GP
__ a(1 - r n)
Sn for -1 < r < 1
l-r
= l-r
a ar n
= l-r l-r
n
Now, ifn becomes very large i.e. n -> 00, ~ -> 0
l-r
:.Soo= _a_
l-r
Example 1: The numbers 2, x, 18 are three consecutive terms of a GP, fmd the
possible values of x.
Solution: x 2 = 2 x 18 (since x is the Geometric mean between 2 and 18)

:.x =±.,J36
:.x -±6
Example 2: If 1, x, y, t are consecutive terms of a GP, fmd the values of x and y.
Solution: x2 = Ix Y . 4
..x x
- -.- = 0
• 2 (;\
..x =y .0 x - "8')-0
. (3
..x -
i=x xi
.2_ x
..y -..
S~~~' both sides of equation
·x4
"-s
-.o. ( ... .2_-'-)
'Y-s
f2\
~v
1 we get
( X
:.x=OorJC'= t
•
.. -
x-"2I
:. X= .land
2
y=.l4
= 0 is not acceptable)
Example 3: The terms -2 + 4 + -8 + are in Geometric progression, fmd the sum

of the fIrst 10 terms of the GP.
Solution: a = -2, r =-2 andn = 10. We are required to fmd S IQ
n
Sn = a(r -1)
r -1
- 2[(-2)10 -1]
S IQ = --'-'------'------"-
-2-1
= 682
SQJhe suIIUlf.t!leSrrst 10 terms of th~G£jUi8b.
388
Example 4: Find the sum of the GP .!. +.!. + 1+ + 256
4 2
Solution: In this series a = .!., r = 2, Tn = 256. First we find the number of terms
4
in the series.
Tn=ai'-l
1
256 =.!. x 2 0
-
4
2 n-3= 256
2 n - 3 =2 8
".n- 3 = 8
".n= 11
So we have to find the sum of 11 terms of the series
O
S n= a(r -1)
r-l
11
. i(2 -1)
. ,Sl1 =-"-----
2-1
= 511.75
The required sum is therefore 511.75
Exercise 40c
1. State which ofthe following series are GPs and fmd the common ratio ofthose which are.
(a) 1+3+9+27.:........ (b)2+4+8+16 .
(c)5+9+13+17 (d)16+8+4+2, .
(e) 1+-2+4+-8....... (f)-5+-7+-9+-11.. .
(g) i+i+ t+ I~ ...•.. (h) t+ It+ 2+ 2t .
2. Find the indicated terms of the following GPs.

(a) 2 + 4 + 8 10th and 15th
(b) 2 + 6 + 18 + 8th and 12th
(c) 81 + 27 + 9 + 6 and 11 th
th
(d) 3 + -6 + 12 lOth and 16th

(e) l+i+i+t 7 th and lOth
3. Find the nth term of each of the following GPs

(a) 2 + 4 + 8 + (b) 2 + 10 + 50 + .
(c) 1 + 3 + 9 + .. (d) 1 + 2 + 4 + .
(e) 2 + -4 + 8 (f) '20 + 10 + 5 + .
(g) 1+ i + i + (h) 0.2 + 0.6 + 1. 8 + .
4. Find the number of 1erms in each of the following GPs

(a) 2 + 6 + 18 + +4 374 (b) 1 + 3 + 9 + + 6561
(c) 1 +2+4+ +4096 (d) 3 + 6 + 12+ + 3 072
(e)l+i+i+·········+sl2 (f)32+16+8+ + ~2
2 l8
(g) -3 + 6 +-12 + + -768 (h) 1 + x + x +x
389
5. Find the sum to the indicated term of each of the following GPs
(a) 1 +2+4+ 11 terms
(b) 2 + 4 + 8 + 20 terms
(c) 1 + 3 + 9 + 10 terms
(d) 3 + 12 + 48 + 8 terms
(e) 512 + 256 + 128 + " 8 terms
(f) 2 + 10 + SO 7 terms
(g) 10 + 5 + 2.5 + 10 terms
(h) 1+ t +t+ 9 terms
6. Find the sum of each of the following GPs

r
(a) 1 +2+4+ +256
(b) 4 + 8 + 16 + + 1024
(c) 1 + 3 + 9 + + 6561
(d) 2 + 4 + 8 + + 4096
(e)2+ 10+50+ +31250
(f) l+t+t+t ·+1O~4
7. The terms 3 + x + 27 are the first three terms of a GP. Find

(a) the positive value of x
(b) the 12th term
(c) the sum of the first 10 terms of the GP.
8. The terms (m - 2) + m + (4m- 3) are three consecutive terms of GP, fmd

(a) the integer value of m
(b) the numerical values of the three terms
(c) the numerical value of theterm after 4m - 3
(d) the sum ofthe first 8 terms of the series
9. The terms n, n- 2 and n- 3 are three consecutive terms of a geometric

progression, fmd
(a) the value of n
(b) the common ratio
(c) the 6lh term given that n is the fust term.
(d) the sum to infmity of the progression.
10. The 4 th term of A GP is 27 and the 6th term is 243, fmd

(a) the common ratio
(b) the 1st term
(c) the 11 th term
(d) the sum of the fust 10 terms of the GP.
390
ANSWERS
Exercise la
1. (a) True (b)True (c) False (d) False (e) False (f) False
2.29,31,37,41,43 3.71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79.
4. (a) 1,2,3,6,9, 18. (b) 1,2,5,10. (c) 1,2,4,8, 16,32 (d) 1,2,3,6,7,14 21,42
(e) 1,2,4,8,16,32,64. (f) 1,2,4,7,8,14,28,56. (g) 1,2,4,5,10,20,25,50,100.
(h) 1,5,25,125. 5. (a) 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 5. (b) 2 x 3 x 3 x 7. (c) 3 x 5 x 37.
(d)3 x 5 x 5 x 7. (e) 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 7. (f) 5 x 5 x 7. (g) 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 11.
(h) 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x7. 6.82,84,86,88. 7.49,64,81. 8.2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19.
9.101,103,105,107,109. 10. (a) 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 7 (b) 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7.
(c) 3 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 11. (d) 5 x 7 x 11 x 13. (e) 3 x 5 x 11 x 17 (f) 5 x 7 x 11 x 17.
11.23,45,73,145,501. 12. (a) 1,2,3,5,11,16,25,36. (b) 1,2,3,5,11,16,25,36
3
(c)I,2,3,-,0.5,16,5,11,25,36 (d).,J3,.j8 (e)2,3,5,11 (f)1,16,25,36.
5
13.x=2,y=3,z=2 14. 1764=22x32x72, .J1764=42
15.4356 = 22 x 32 x 11 2, .J4356 = 66
16.
Square numbers Prime numbers Odd numbers Irrational numbers
4 3 3 7t
1 5 5 .fi
16 13 13
25 23 25
81 .J4 23
29 I
41 81
29
41
Exercise lb.
1. 10,20,30,40,50. 2.32,36,40,44,48. 3.15,30,45. 4.40,80. 40
5. Factors of30; {I, 2, 3, 5, 6,15, 30}, Factors of45; {I, 3, 5, 9,15, 45}
HCF 000 and 45 is 15. 6.21,42,48 7. (a) 6 (b) 10 (c) 14 (d) 4 (e) 12 (f) 15
(g) 25 (h) 10 8.(a) 6 (b) 20 (c) 42 (d) 30 (e) 60 (f) 24 (g) 120 (h) 330
Exercise Ic
1. (a) x is greater than 1 (b) 0 is less than x or x is greater than 0 (c) -1 is greater than
x or x is less than -1 (d) x is less than or equal to -8 (e) x is greater than or equal to
12. (f) -I is less than x is less than 5 (g) 3 is less than x is less than or equal to 5.
(h) -2 is less than or equal to x is less than or equal to 4 (i) 2 is less than x is less than
or equal to 10 (j) 0 is less than x is less than 3..
2. .
, , , @ ,
(a) ,
I
!
2 3
0
4
, ,
5 • (b)
I . 2
,
3 4 5 • •
(c) '•
-2 -1 0 I
,
2 •
(d) • I
-2 -er
/
0
/
1 • (e) _I
-5
!
-4 -, -2
I I
-1
I (f)
I 2 3 4
.(g)-~ (h) .P
-I •
0 1
I !
2 •
3 4•
(i)
-2
I-----@
-1
I
0
!
1 ••
2
(j)...-...O
-3 -2 -I 0 1 2 ••
3
<01
3. (a) x is greater than I (b) x is less than -I (c) x is greater than or equal to 0
(d) x is less than or equal to 2 (e) x is greater than 12 (t) x is greater than or equal to-IO
(g) x lies between I and 3 or 1 is less than x is less than 3 (h) x lies between -2 and I
(i) x is greater than or equal to 0 but less than 2 (j) 0 is less than x is less than or equal
to I or x is greater than 0 but less than or equal to I
(k) x is greater than or equal to -11 but less than or equal to -9
(I) x is greater than or equal to - 2 but less than or equal to I
4. (a) x > -I (b) x < 0 (c) x > -2 (d) x <12 (e) x ;;;"2 (t) x >34
(g) 0 < x < 3 (h) -2 < x < I (i) -5 <x < -3 (j) -2 < x <0 (k) -5 <x <-2 (l) -2 <x <I
Exercise 2a
1. (a) {a, b, c, d, e} (b) {2, 3, 5, 7} (c) {Sunday Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
Thursday, Friday, Saturday} (d) {September, October, November, December}
2. (a) {Vowels} (b) {First four months of the year} (c) {First four even numbers or first
four multiples of 2}. (d) {Quadrilaterals}
3. (a)? (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 0 4. (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) T (e) F
5. (a) F (b) T (c) F (d) T 6. (a) {2, 5} (b) {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
7. (a){6, 7, 8, 9, IO} (b) {l, 3, 5, 7, 9, IO} (c) {2, 4} (d) {I, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ID}
(e) {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} (t) p, 9, ID} 8. M 2 = {2, 4, 6, 8,10,12,14,16 },
M 3 = {3, 6, 9,12, IS, 18}, P = {2, 3, 5, 7, Il} (a) {6, 12} (b) {3}
(c) {2, 3,4,6,8,9, ID, 12, 14,15, 16} (d) {2, 3, 4,5,6,7,8,10, 11, 12, 14, 16}
9. (a) {vegetables} (b) {Days of the week} (c) {Planets} (d) {Continents}
10. (a) {3, 7} (b) {I, 2, 4,5, 6} (c) {l. 4. 6} (d) {l, 2, 5} (e) {I}
(t) {I, 2, 3,4,5,6, 7} (g) {l}
11. (a) {2,4} (b) {2,5} (c) {2} (d) (2} (e) {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} (t) {l, 2, 3, 4,5, 7}
(g) {2, 5} (h) {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} (i) {9, ID} (j) P, 9, IO} (k) P}
12.P={2,3,5,7,II}, O={1,3,5,7,9,Il}, S={1,4,9} (a){I,4,6,8,1O,12}
(b) {2, 4, 6, 8,10, 12} (c) {3, 5, 7, Il} (d) {I, 2, 4, 6,8,9,10, 12} (e) 0
(t) {I, 2, 3, 4, ....... 12} (g) {l, 2, 3, 4,5,7,9, II} (h) {6, 8,10, 12}
(i) {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, Il} (j) {6, 8,10, 12} 13. (i) {a}, {b}, {c},{a, b}, {a, cl, {b, c}
(ii) {a, b, cl, 0 14. (a) 32 (b) 7 15. (a) 256 (b) 2 (c) 254
Exercise 2b
1. (a) {a, c, e, f, g, h, n} (b) {a, b, c, d, i, k} (c) {a, c} (d) {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, n}
(e) {b, d, i,j, le, I, m} (t) {b, d, e, f, g, h, i,j, k, I, m, n} (g) {j, I, m} (h) {b, d, i, k}
2. (a) A (b) B (c) An B (d) B' (e) A' (t) (A v By
3. (a) 11 (b) 8 (c) 3 (d) 16 (e) 6 (t) 9 (g) 14 (h) I 4. (a) 4 (b) 12 (c) 4 (d) 2
5. (a) {a, i, g, k, f, h} (b) {a, b, c, d, i, I} (c) {i, g, e, m, I} (d) {a, i}
(e) {g, i} (t) {i, I} (g) {i} (h) {a, b, c, d, f, g, h, i, k, I} (i) {g, i, I}
(j) {a, e, i, g, m, I} (k) {b, c, d} (I) {m, e} (m) {j, n} 6. (a) {2, 7, 9,11,12,13, IS}
(b) {I, 2, 5,12,13,16, 17} (c) {4, 5, 7, 8,13, 14} (d) {2, 12, 13} (e) P, 13}
(t) {5, 13} (g) {13} (h) {I,2, 5,7,9,11,12,13, IS, 16, 17} (i) {5, 7, 13}
(j) {2, 4, 5, 7, 8,12,13, 14} (k) {I, 16, 17} (I) {4, 8, 14} (m) {3, 6, ID} 7. (a) 16
(b) 17 (c) 26 (d) 2 (e) 7 (t) 5 (g) 0 (h) 31 (i) 12 (j) 28 (k) ID (I) 14 (m) 18
8. (a) 3 (b) 14 (c) 23 (d) 4 (e) 34 (t) 24
9. (a) 28 (b) 28 (c) 5 (d) 16 (e) 6 (t) 13
10. (a) IS (b) 19 (c) 4 (d) ID (e) 4 (t) 4 (g) 21 (h) 3
11. (a) 11 (b) 2 (c) 24 (d) 52 (e) 13 (t) 4
12. (a) (b) (i) 21 - x (ii) 23 - x (iii) 18 - x
F (c) (i) 8 (ii)38
c
AflB AUB B' (AflB)'
(b) (c) (d)
AflB AUB B' (AfI B)'
AflBflC (AUB)' (AUB)'fI C (AUB)'flC
C C
(AUB)'fI C (AuB)'flC
(iii)(a) (b) (c) (d)
(r-:;:::::::::::::=::::-=I ( ~~~ (,----,---,-------:,..---, (
AflBflC (AUB)' (AUB)'fI C (AUB)'flC

Exercise 3.
1. (a) 8 (b) 30 (c) 100 (d) 89 (e) 22 (f) -2 (g) -46 (h) 7 (i) -76 G) -36
2. (a) 2 (b) 21 (c) 28 (d) 18 (e) 23 (f) 4 (g) 30 (h) 1 (i) 1 (j) 24
3. (a) 210 (b) 1000 (c) 960 (d) 300 (e) 400 (f) -30 (g) 120 (h) -200
(i) 200 (j) -200 4. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 5 (d) 12 (e) 6 (f) 5 (g) 4 (h) 7
(i) 30 (j) 24 5. (a) 10 (b) 0 (c) 6 (d) 8 (e) 11 (f) 18 (g) 2 (h) 10
(i) 110 6. (a) 8 (b)3 (c) 40 (d) 96 (e) 5 (f) 10 (g) 32 (h) 0 (i) 5
(j)36 7. (a) 8 - (2 + 2) (b)(2 +2) x 4 (c) 12 - (3+ 4) (d) (8 - 4) + 2
(e)(2+2)x2 (f)(16-12)+2 (g) (10-3)+(3+4) (h)20+(8-4)
8.600m 9. 30°C 10. (i) 24°C (ii) _1°C 11. (a) 40m (b) 420m (c) 380m
Exercise 4a
1. (a) ~ (b)~ (c) % 2. (a) 2~ (b) 2 ~ (c) 6 ~ (d) 2 ~ (e) 5~ (f) 4i

3. (a) 2 (b) 149 (c) 128 (d) 79 (e) 155 (f) 201 4. (a) > (b) > (c) <
2 16 9 15 13 14
(d) = (e>
) (f) > (g < (h) = 1
5.(a)"2 (b) '5
6 (c) '35 (d) _13
35
(e) 2. (f) ~ ().!i (h) 44 6. (a) 4 (b) 15 (c) 9 (d) 36 (e) 35 (f) 200
10 9 g 21 63
132479123 4 7 9 3 5 3
7.(a)-<-<- (b)-<-<- (c)-<-<- (d)-<-<- (e)-<-<-
2 5 3 5 8 10 8 9 10 5 8 10 5 7 4
5911 577123 1 I 1 1
(f) - < - < - (g) - < - < - (h) - < - < - 8. -< -<-<-
6 10 12 8 11 10 3 5 7 8 7 6 5
Exercise 4b
1. (a) 1 (b) 1~ I
(c) 1- (d) 1~ (e) 1-
1
(f) 12.
I
(g) 3- (h) 8~
5 4 2 10 12 2 5
(i) 4~ (j) 3.!i (k) 92. (1) 5~ (m) 12-
5 (n) 7 23 (0) 11-
7
4 21 20 6 8 30 15
2 (b) _1 4 7 1
(d) 114
2. (a) -
9 12
(c) 1
15
(e)3- (f) 10 (g) - (h) 4
25 4
(i) 2. G)~ 3
3. (a) - (b) ~ (c) 1-
9
(d) I (e) 1-
1
(f) ~
12 4 4 6 10 4 4
( ) 4 37
g 84
(h) 1~ (i) 1~ (j) 3!2
20 4 . 56
Exercise 4c
1
(b) ~ 2
2
1. (a) - (c) - (d) 4 (e) 4 (f) 1~ 5
(g) 14- (h) 1~
2 10 5 8 2 8 7
(i) 16 (j)4 (k) 4 2 (I) 32 (m) 125 (n) 6
2
(0) 66-
8 3
2. (a) 2 (b) 1~ I
(c) 1- (d) 4 3
(e) 3- (f) 5~ (g) 2 (h) 24
2 3 5 8 5
0) J~ 0)6 (k) J.i (J) 2 (m) -
I
(n) -
I
(0) J9
30
7 Il J 6 12 49
Exercise 4d
3 1 6
1. (a) 1- (b) 2 (c) - (d) 5! (e) 25 (t) 3 25 ( )2.!2. (h) g
4 3 2 2 g 25 47
(i) 2.!2. G)2! (k) 8! (1) ~ 2. -
6 5
3. (a) - (b) ~ 1
(c) 2-
22 2 3 23 25 8 20 8
4. (a) 240km (b) 800m (c) 375g 5.48 6. 110 7. 14,-
2
8.~ 9.20,
5
"6
7 20
~~ ~
3 4 (d) 24 4
10. (a) 36000m (b) :5 (c) 11. (a) (b) llcm (c)- (e) -
II 55 55
Exercise 5a
1.(a)2,5 (b) 4,5,4 (c) 4, 8, 9,2 (d) 2, 8, 3, 2, 5, 0
2. (a) 428.903 (b) 2005.630 (c) 4100.281 (d) 24.030
3. (a) 5 (b) 3.31 (c) 27.04 (d) 2.00 (e) 20.823
(t) 124.962 (g) 1125.97 (h) 52.25 (i) 52.25 G) 139.15
(k) 7793.95 (1) 143.50 4. (a) 0.13 (b) 11.5 (c) 101.96
(d) 0.448 (e) 8.81 (t) 300.21 (g) 60.051 (h) 120.32
(i) 0.5 G) 106.828 (k) 0 (1) 187.21
5. (a) 24.66 (b) 4.79 (c)2.311 (d) 342.85 (e) 28.48
(t) 489.805 (g) 0.59 (h) 0.423 (i) 4.501
Exercise 5b
1. (a) 1.04 (b) 0.96 (c) 7.548 (d) 13.8 (e) 21.855 (t) 40.096
(g) 2887.5 (h) 0.0135 (i) 164.0604 G) 129.525 (k) 476.182 (1) 24.8685
2. (a) 402 (b) 3349 (c) 5.1 (d) 481230 (e) 2 (t) 1.9
(g) 6430 (h) 20480 (i) 0.45 G) 4530 (k) 0.4 (1) 40051
3. (a) 21.4 (b) 2 (c) 60 (d) 1.5 (e) 0.7 (t) 4
(g) 400 (h) 1.7 (i) 25.4 G)11.3 (k) 0.253 (1) 6.83
4. (a) 0.32 (b) 0.45 (c) 4.512 (d) 0.4622 (e) 0.10025 (t) 0.0412
(g) 2.88 (h) 3.40 (i) 0.14 G) 0.004 (k) 3.142 (1) 2.948
Exercise 5c
2
1. (a) - (b) ! (c) -
2
(d) ~ (e) -
3
5 4 25 40 4
~
1~0
29 3
(t) 100
(g) - (h) ! (i)
G)
8 2 40
1 I 3
2. (a)l- (b) 12- (c) 3- (d) 7.2- (e) 4-
2 10 4 25 4
(t) 1~ (g) 3-
I
(h) 17.!2. (i) 8~ G)3~
5 2 20 5 20
3. (a) 0.25 (b) 0.6 (c) 0.625 (d) 0.3 (e) 0.875
(t) 0.75 (g) 0.8 (h) 0.04 (i) 0.275 G) 0.3125
4. (a) 1.25 (b) 3.5 (c) 5.75 (d) 7.125 (e) 2.1
(t) 4.17 (g) 6.06 (h) 1.08 (i) 3.09 G) 11.35
5. (a) 0.16 (b) 0.2 (c) 0.4 (d) 0.407 (e) 0.09
(t) 0.36 (g) 0.18 (h) 1.5 (i) 3.6 G) 5.407
I
6. (a) -
1
(b)~ (c) -
I
(d) .!2. (e) -
2 5 50 20 4
9
(t) 10
II
(g) 250 (h) ~ (i) I! G) 4!
40 5 2
Exercise Sd
1. (a) 5x (b) ~ (c) 17y (d) Bm (e) 16x
6 2 12 30 15
(t) ~ (g) ~ (h)! (i) .2. G)~
n p y x 3y
(k) 2x+ 7 (I) 2t (m) 5m - 6 (n) 2x+ 21 (0) 4x - 3
2x P 6 12 30
(p)x+ll (q) 13x + 51 (r) 12x - 14 (s) llx + 13 (t) 23m - 1
6 28 5 21 12
2. (a) 2x + 1 (b) 3x - 7 (c) 5x+17 (d) 2y+4
(x + 2)(x - 1) (x - 3)(x - 2) (x + 4)(x + 3) y(y - 2)
(e) 5m+9 (t) 13x - 15 (g) 10y + 38 (h) 7p+6
(3- m)(5+m) x(2x - 3) (y - 5)(3y + 7) (3p - 4)(2p + 5)
(i) 5 - 6x G) _ x+ 7 (k) 14x + 2 (I) 5x - 12
(2 - x)(1 x) (x + 3)(x + 4) (2x + 5)(x - 3) 3x(x - 6)
(m) 8x - 27 (n) 3(x + y) (0) 5x+y (P) x + 4
(x - 4)(2x - 7) 2(x - y) (x + y)(x - y) 3x(x+l)
Exercise 6a
1. (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 2 (e) 2
(t) 4 (g) 1 (h) 4 (i) 3 G) 0
2. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 3 (e) 4
(t) 7 (g) 4 (h) 2 (i) 4 GP
3. (a) 14.76 (b) 0.05 (c) 121.83 (d) 0.45 (e) 0.03
(t) 4.01 (g) 24.00 (h) 200.40 (i) 2.46 G) 1.00
4. (a) 0.665 (b) 2.056 (c) 67.222 (d) 90.284 (e) 4.000
(t) 2.510 (g) 33.001 (h) 200.124 (i) 0.298 G) 456.889
5. (a) 10 (b) 400 (c) 400 (d) 100 (e) 30
(t) 300 000 (g) 20 000 (h) 90000 (i) 1 000 000 G) 0.05
6. (a) 76300 (b) 889 (c) 0.288 (d) 0.519 (e) 0.775
(t) 285 000 (g) 3 050 000 (h) 2.01 (i) 29900 000 G) 0.724
7. (a) 10km (b) lkm (c) 9km (d) 101km (e) 765km
(t) 5km (g) 10km (h) 23km (i) 2km G) 890km
8. (a) 1200 hrs (b) 09 OOhrs (c) 01 OOhrs (d) 1000hrs (e) 13 OOhrs
(t) 06 OOhrs (g) 15 OOhrs (h) 09 OOhrs (i) 24 OOhrs G) 05 oohrs
9. (a) K5 500 (b) K123 700 (c) K3 804200 (d) K395500 (e) K7 465100
(t) K233 500 (g) K225 400 (h) K496 700 (i) K5003 100 G) K566 300
10. (a) 5kg (b) 278kg (c) 6kg (d) 245kg (e) 2kg
(t) lkg (g) 12kg (h) 3kg (i) 91kg G) 113kg
11. (a) 100 (b) 200 (c) 300 (d) 3500 (e) 3 215 600
(t) 100 (g) 12500 (h) 300 (i) 100 G) 3600
12. (a) 1 028 (b) 4 (c)! (d) 9 (e) 1
(t) 30 (g) 1 (h) 2 (i) 14 G) 8
Exercise 6b
l.a,e,f
2. (a) 7.5 ,,;; 1< 8.5 (b) 0.45 ,,;; 1< 0.55 (c) 3.45 ";;1 < 3.55 (d) 13.5 ,,;; 1< 14.5
(e) 995 ";;1< 1 005 (t)49.5 ";;1<50.5 (g) 20.145 ";;1<20.155 (h) 52.5 ";;1<57.5
(i) 1 425 ";;1< 1 475 G) 0.045 ";;1< 0.055 3. (a) ll.5cm (b) 12.5cm
4. (a) O.4cm (b) 0.1 5. (a) 83.5cm (b) 84.5cm (c) 6972.25cm2 (d) 7140.25cm2
6. (a) 14.45cm, 14.55cm (b) 8.45cm, 8.55cm (c) 45.8cm (d) 46.2cm
7. (a) 58cm (b) 62cm (c) 185.25cm2 (d) 215.25cm2
8. (a) O.lcm (b) 0.00625 (c) LOO.858cm (d) 101.487cm
9. (a) 12.45 < r < 12.55 (b) 78.236 < C < 78.864 (c) 487.018 <A < 494.873
10. (a) (i)16cm2 (ii) 48cm2 (b) (i) 17.28cm2 (ii) 51.84cm2
Exercise 7a
1. (a) I : 3 (b) 1 : 6 (c) 1 : 3 (d) 3 : 7 (e) 3 : 7
(f) 1 : 3 : 6 (g) 3 : 4 : 8 (h) 3 : 6 : 11 (i) 2 : 4: 11 G) 3 : 4 : 5
2. (a) 1: 10 (b) 1 : 2 (c) 7: 11 (d) 1 : 3 (e) 1 : 50
(f) I: 1 (g) 1: 25 (h) 100: I (i) 100: 1 G) 8 : 5
3. 8 : 25 4. 2 : 1 5. A; K900 000, B; Kl 500000 6. P; 0.8kg, Q; 1.2kg, R; 2kg
7. (i) K6 000 000 (ii) K 12 000 000 (iii) 3 : 4
8. (i) K16 000 (ii) K32 000 (iii) 3 : 4 : 8
9. (a) 1 : 5 (b) 10: 1 (c) 1 : 5 (d) 4: 1 10. (i) 1 : 4 (ii) 3: 4 : 12
Exercise 7b
1. (a) K64 000 (b) 125g (c) $13 200 (d) 1 125km
(e)360 hectares (f) £2000 (g) K6LO 000 (h) $20570
2. (a) K26400 (b) 20kg (c) $5 500 (d) 46.5km
(e)6kg (f) 400 (g) K122 000 (h) $6850
3. Kl 620000 4. L02.4kg 5. 3 : 4 6.3 : 2 7.32 8. (i) 95km (ii) 0.7cm
9. (i) lkm (ii) lkm2 (iii) 1.5km 10. (i)7cm (ii)70cm (iii) 11cm
Exercise 7c
1. K360 000 2. 6.25kg 3. 75kg 4.3.2 bags 5.2.5hrs 6. 15m 7.3." ,.. t h O
( >
8. 150 OOOlitres 9.4 months 10.8.5lg
Exercise 7d
1,(a) 40kmlh (b) 10kmlh (c) 19km1h (d) 20.25km1h
2. (a) 250km (b) 704km (c) 45km (d) 1 792km
3. (a) 121hrs (b) 2%hrs (c) 3ihrs (d) 9 hrs
4.30kmlh 5.37.5km 6.4 hrs 7.70km
8. (i) 3 hrs (ii) 5ihrs (iii) 267 (, km 9. (i) 1 hr (ii) 135km1h
LO. (i) 20km, 25km, 55km (ii) 125 minutes or (2 hrs 5 mins.) 11.270
Exercise 7e
1. (a) 0.7cm (b) 1.2cm (c) 1.25cm (d) 124cm
(e) 0.04cm (f) 44.3cm (g) 34.7cm (h) 0.124cm
2. (a) O.lm (b) O.44m (c) 2m (d) 1.54m
(e) 12m (f) 5.5m (g) 43.2m (h) 0.005m
3. (a) 240cm (b) 4000crn (c) 240cm (d) 145cm
(e) 342cm (f) 5cm . (g) 25cm (h) 12cm
4. 10000 (a) 40 000cm2 (b) 30 000cm2 (c) 1 000cm2 (d) 2 500cm2
2 2 2
(e) 200 cm (f) 80 000cm "(g) 80cm (h) 25 000cm2
5. (a) 0.5 litres (b) 2 litres (c) 0.234 litres (d) 5.4 litres
(e) 4.5 litres (f) 20.455 litres (g) 0.00034 litres (h) 0.0206 litres
6. (a) 2 ha. (b) 0.54ha. (c) 0.1398ha. (d) 4.4ha.
(e) 0.02ha. (f) 12.9ha (g) 138.4ha (h) 2100ha.
7. (a) £10 (b) £3 . (c) £4.06 (d) £6.02
(e) £41.20 (f) £ 450 (g) £ 3.07 (h) £2041
8. (a) K315 000 (b) K2 380 000 (c) K 35000 (d) K878 150
(e) K14 000 000 (f) K28 700 000 (g) K13 300 000 000 (h) K280000
9. (a) $20 (b) $60 (c) $120 (d) $3
(e) $0.50 (f) $1 800 (g) $3.61 (h) $21450
10. (a) K9 000 (b) K54 000 (c) K5 400000 (d) K310 500
(e) K45 000 000 (f) K564 750 (g) K18 000 (h) K450
11. (a) 500g (b) 20 OOOg (c) 48 600g (d) 6 500g
(e) 42g (f) 1 240g (g) 990g (h) 660g
12.600kg/m3 13. 270kg/m3
Exercise Sa
1.34% 2.42%
t
3. (a) (b) t (c) ;0 (d) 1;';' (e) i
:0
(f) (g);0 (h) ~g:, (i) 1t 0) f
4. (a) 50% (b) 40% (c) 25% (d) 133t% (e)33t%
(f)62t% (g)12% (h)235% (i)18i% O)7t%
5. (a) 0.25 (b) 0.1 (c) 0.85 (d) 0.02 (e) 1.45
(f) 0.125 (g) 0.106 (h) 2.00 (i) 0.165 G) 0.404
6. (a) 60% (b) 45% (c) 120% (d) 12.5% (e) 67 %
(f) 105% (g) 314% (h) 480% (i) 2% 0)75%
7. (a) K60 000 (b) KI2 000 (c) 0.24kg (d) 13.5 (e) 16 (f) 45
(g) $99.60 (h) 18 (i) 250 000% 0) 11.78 (k) £10.10 (I) $1
8. (a) 50% (b) 25% (c) 25% (d) 10% (e) 50 % (f) 20%
(g) 8t % (h) 200% (i) 200% G) 100% (k) 2 % (I) 400%
9. (a)700 (b) 800 (c) 20 (d) 6 10.300 11. KZO 000 000 12.40%
13. K31 120 14.80% 15. (a) 315000 (b) 1; (c) 41f% (d) 33t%
Exercise Sb
1. (a) K750 000 (b) K15 600 (c) $36.12 (d) £53.50 (e) $10.40 (f) KI 285200
(g) 27kg (h) 707.2 (i) 468 G) KZ 542 500 (k) $327.60 (I) £1 353.60
2. (a) KZ 700 (b) $3.60. (c) $432 (d) 0.46 litres.
(e) K11 280000 (f) 5.76 (g) K81 840 (h) 28.8
3. K800 000 4. Kl 200000 5. KZ 000 000 6. 12.5% 7. (i) 25% (ii) 75%
8. (i) KZ 240 000 (ii) KI 339285.71 9. (i) KZ37 500 (ii) K700 000
10. (i) K880 000 (ii) K800 000 No, 32% 11. 25%, 33t%
12. (a) KZ 280 000 (b) K118 800 (c)12.5%
Exercise Sc
1. (a) KZ4 000 profit (b) K8 000 loss (c) KZ20 loss (d) K34 000 loss (e) $0.60 loss
(f) £120 profit (g) K87 000 profit (h) $10 loss (i) K116 profit G)K30 2451055
2. (a) 50% (b) 25% (c) 20% (d) 33t% (e)1O %
(f) 5% (g) 50% (h) 12 % (iy25% G) 12t %
3. (a) 20% (b) 16.7% (c) 20% (d) 2.2% (e) 4.8 %
(f)33t% (g) 60% (h)11t% (i)80% 0)20%
4. (a) KZ50 000 (b) K1 400000 (c) K740 000 (d) K416 000.
(e) $20. (f) $20.50 (g) £68.60 (h) 244.
5. (a) K15 000 (b) KZ5.44 million (c) K630 000 (d) K1 498000.
(e) $26.74. (f) $5 130 (g) £2632.50 (h) £32.40.
6. K1 024.80 7. (i) 60% (ii) K512. 50 each 8. K14 496000 (K24 160 each)
9. K8 000 loss, 4.7% 10. (i) TV; KZ 240 000, Bicycle; K864 000, Radio; KZ08 000
(ii) 10.4% 11. (a) K12 000 000 (b) K450 000 (c) K12 450 000 (d) Kl 494000
Exercise 8d
1. (a) K301 000 (b) K1 290000 (c) KZ70 000 (d) K103 800 (e) $1 125
(f) £6 957.60 (g) £3213.92 (h) £115.44 (i) KZ06 700 G) K624 000
2. (a) K6 000 000 (b) K180 000 (c) K510 000 (d) K2 755.56
3. (a)8 years (b) 4 years (c) 3 years (d) 1 year 4 months
4.(a)KI0312500 (b)KIOOI70000 (c)KI57400000 (d)$7050
5.2.5% 6. K2 720 000 7. K600 000 8. 12 years 9.2.5% 10. K2 400
Exercise 9a
1. (a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 4 (d) 3 (e) 1 (t)-I
2. (a) a (b) a (c) 3 (d) ab (e) ab (t) 3
3. (a)~ 1
(b) 2 , (c) _I (d) i (e) a2 (t) 3r3
a ab a
4. (a) m4 (b) a l2 (c) 26 (d) xV (e) p2 (t) aV
5. (a) a x a x a x a (b) c x C (c) 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 (d) 10 x 10 xlO x 10
(e) ab x ab x ab (t) xy x xy x xy x xy x xy x xy (g) x x X x X x X x X x y x Y
(h)4x4x4x3x3x3 (i) I (j) mxmxm
xyxxyxxy nxnxnxn
6 . (a) p2 (b) q4 (c) m 5 (d) / (e) r (t) a4 (g) m6 (h) b2
(i) c8 (j) p2 (k) h 2 (I) (ab)3 (m) (xYi (n) aV or (a2bi 3
(0) X y 4
7. (a) m (b) c4 (c) m2 (d) a4 (e) p (t) x4 (g) I (h) _I

a
(i)(xy)2 (j) r (k) a4 (I) m7 (m) t 6 (n) I (0) xy
8. (a) 8 (b) 9 (c) 8 (d) I (e) 36 (t) I (g) I (h) I (i) 100 (j) 12
, 2 2 4 5a I
9. (a) x (b) c (c) (ab) (d) 6a (e) 3ab (t) 2 (g) 9 (h) 2xy
10. (a) xy (b) 6 (c) 6y (d) 8ab

x
Exercise 9b
~
I
1. (a) V3I (c) W (d) W (e) (t) V3'
2 ] , 1
2. (a) a' (b)a' (c) a' (d)a2 (e)a-' (t) a- t
.(a)2 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 4 (e) 2 (t) 4
(g) 9 (h) 10 (i) 6 (j) 2.8 (k) 27 (1)1
4.(a)x= I (b)x=2 (c)x= I (d)x=-3 (e) x = 0
(t) x = I (g) x = 3 (h) x = -4 (i) x = -I (j) x = -1+
Exercise 9c
1. (a) I x 106 (b) 2.49 x 103 (c) 5.4 x 10-3 (d) 7.34 x 10-6 (e) 3.467 x 106
7 1 5 4
(t) 2.17 x 10 (g) 2.1 x 10- (h) 7.75 x 10- (i) 2.6 x 10 (j) 1.25 x 10-2
2. (a) 70 000 (b) 390 000 (c) 0.00877 (d) 0.00004 (e) 0.0456
(t) 0.00074 (g) 2 370 000 (h) 0.93 (i) 103 000000 (j) 0.0000057
3. (a) 3.56 x 10 8 (b) 2.79 x 102 (c) 4.45 x 105 (d) 2.99 x 10-5 (e) 5.6 x 10-5
(t) 4.12 x 102 (g) 4.56 x 10-6 (h) 7.0 x 10- 1 (i) 1.0 x 10 (j) 1.974 x 10-5
4. (a) 8 (b) 9 (c) 60 (d) 30 (e) I
5. (a) 30 (b) 600 (c) 1100 (d) 17 (e) 0.012
6. (a) 0.2 (b) 0.02 (c) 5 000 (d) 0.03 (e) 400
7. (a) 2.916 x 1011 (b) 5.4 x 105 (c) 2.25 x 102 (d) 6.7 x 10-2 8. (a) 100 (b) 90
9. (a) B (b)A: 1.25 x 10 12km, B: 1.27 x 101lkm, C: 3.08 x 10~ (c) 2.16 x 101~
10. (a) (i) C (ii) 4.50 x 1O-3g (iii) 3.03 x 1O-2 g (b) 1.47g \ -
Exercise lOa
1. 2x + 8 2. 3y -t 15 3.5x+5y 4. 8x + 12 5.2xy-2x
6. x2 - 3x 7.21+5y 8.2p_ p2 9.3t-r 10. 3m2 + 3mn
1I.6h2 +8h 12.3tx-3ty 13.15c~5c2 14.x2y-x/ 15.25t+5r
16. _4x2 + 6xy 17. hd3 - 3h3d 18. 2m2 - mn 19. 6x2- 3xr 20. - 8 + 4y
2
21. x - 3xy 22. 2f- 6 23. -3+ 6x 24. 2w - 2w 25. h 3 - I
26. (a) 5m+8 (b)5x-14 (c)6x+4y (d)x-3 (e)2p-16 (t)4/
(g) 2 + 12 (h) 4m - 5 (i) -x G) -6h (k) 2pq2 (1) 3m2n + mn2
1
27. (a) x +3x+2 (b)x 2 -5x+6 (c)F-f-20 (d)e2 +e-12 (e)2m2 +7m+6
(t) x2 - 25 (g) 6/- lIy + 4 (h) S2 - 9r (i) 2x2_ 3xy + / (j) 6 + t - t2
(k) 4d2 - 15de + ge2 (1) 2m2 + 10m +3mn +15n (m) -2s - 6 (n) 4h2- 6h - 21
(0) 15h - 25
28.(a)x2 +4x+4 (b)/-2y+1 (c)m2 -6m+9 (d)9-6x+x2
(e)7+ 14a (t) 18+2m2 (g) 8x2 +2/ (h) 13/-16xy+5x2
Exercise lOb
1. (a) 4 (b)l (c) 9 (d) 16 (e) 25 (t) 2t (g)t (h) I~
2. (a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) -6 (e) -2. (t) 6t
3. (a) (x + 2i (b) (x-li (c)(x + 3i (d)(x + 5)2
(e)(x - 2)2 (t) (x -1 i (g)(x-t i (h)(x- f i
4. (a) (x + 2i + 2 (b)(x+3i-1 (c)(x-li+9 (d)(x + 2)2 - 2
(e)(x-5i-21 (t) 3(x -t i + !f (g) -(x +t i + I; (h) -2(x - t i + 3i
5. 2(x + 1)2 + 5, 5 6. -2(x - 1)2 + 3, 3 7. (i) 10 (ii) x = -2 8. - 11 t, x = - f
Exercise 11a
1. 2(x + 3) 2. 4(y + 1) 3. 3(x - 2) 4. m(1 - n) 5. 2x(1 + y)
6.5(1 - 3x) 7. y(2 - 5x) 8. p(x - h) 9. n(m + 2) 10.7(7 - k) 11. ~(g - h)
12. 7x(3x + 2) 13. 3x (y + 5) 14. 2p(7p - 10) 15. mn(n + m) 16. 3x (4 - 5x)
17. xV(y - x) 18.3/(4 + 3/) 19. fg(g2 - t) 20. rs(t + s) 21. 3(x + 4y + 5)
22.5(1 - x - 3y) 23.3x(1 - 2y + 3r) 24. x(4 - y + t) 25. fer - 2 + 3g) 26. 6(2x - 4y + 5)
27. mr(1 + r - r2 ) 28. 4(2x + 3y -7) 29. 6(6p +3q + 2) 30. ~(I + ~ + r4 )
31. xY(i+x-xV) 32.9x(9-5y-6x) 33. 25r(4F-f-2) 34.lIp(1 +p+ 7p2)
35. d2e (d + e + d4 e3) 36. mn(n + m2n _ n 2)
Exercise 11b
I. (x + 3)(x - 3) 2. (y-+ 4)(y - 4) 3. (p - q)(p + q) 4. (r + t)(r - t) 5. (x + 7)(x - 7)
6. (y + 3)(y - 3) 7. (2 - x)(2 + x) 8. (5 - y)(5 + y) 9. (f + 8)(f- 8) 10. (r + I)(r- I)
11. (10-p)(10+p) 12. (l-t)(1 +t) 13. (9-y)(9+y) 14. (lI-x)(11 +x)
15. (x -7)(x + 7) 16. 2(x + 2)(x - 2) 17. 3(x + 2)(x - 2) 18.2(3 - y)(3 + y)
19.5(1 + 2p)(1 - 2p) 20. 12(s + 2w)(s - 2w) 21. (2x + 3y)(2x - 3y) 22 (lOp + 7y)(1 Op -7y)
23. [(2 + e) + x][(2 + e) -x] 24. [(m + n) + 2][(m + n)-2] 25. (x + f )(x- f)
26. (a) 140 (b) 64 (c) 26Q (d) 8 000 (e) 380 (t) 9 800
(g) 11 000 (h) 0.8 (i) 72 (j) 54 27. a = 2, b = 3, c =-3
28.x=59,y=41 29.m-2n 30.14.
Exercise 11c
1. (a) (c + d)(a + b) (b)(3+ a)(x + y) (c)(x + y)(P + h) (d) (x - y)(a + 2)
(e) (2 + y)(r - t) (t) (y + 3)(x + 3) (g)(r - 2)(3+ y) (h)(t - r)(p + t)
(i) (5n - 3)(kn - 4) (j) (h + 3)(m - 2) (k) (v + n)(v - 2) (1) (2 - x)(4 - 7y)
2. (a)(x - y)(a- b) (b)(y + 3)(r- 2) (c)(2x - 1)(8p - 4r) (d) (h - y)(4 - y)
(e)(r- x) (p + n) (t) (m - n)(m + n + 3) (g)(x - y)(y + r) (h) (p - q)(p + 4)
(i)(x + 4)(y - m) 3. (y - 2)(x + 3), (y + 5)(x + 3), Y- 2 4. Y+ 5 , y = 11
Y 5 y - 3
n- 5
5.--,n=-7 6.2
n+3
Exercise lId
1. (a) (x + I)(x + 2) (b)(x+ 1)(x+6) (c) (x + I)(x + 3) (d) (x + 4)(x + 3)
(e) (y+ 2)(y+4) (t) (m + 5)(m + 2) (g) (x + 3)(x + 6) (h) (p + 5)(P + 3)
(i~ (I + y)(2 - y) (j) (b - I)(h - 4) (k) (p + 5)(P + 4) (I) (1 + x)(3 - x)
(m) (2 + h)(l ~ h) (n)(4 + y)(3 - y) (0) (3 + p)(5 - p) (P) (t + 4)(t - 5)
(q) (c-4)(c-4) (r) (5 - x)(6 + x) (s) (x-I)(x-4) (t)(w + I )(w - 2)
2. (a) (2h - 2)(h + 3) (b) (2x - 3)(x + 2) (c)(3m-4)(m+ I) (d) (x+ 1)(2x+3)
(e) (2x-3)(x+ I) (t)(2x+3)(x-l) (g) (b + 3)(3h + 4) (h) (3 + 2h)(2 - h)
(i) (x + 1)(5x - 3) (j) (3x + 4)(x - 4) (k)(2 - 3t)(3+ 4t) (1)(5 - 2b)(2 + 3b)
(m) (3e - 5)(e - 2) (n) (5x + 4)(x - 4) (0)(5g + 3)(g + 2) (P)(3 + x)(5 - 3x)
(q) (3p + 1)(2p + 3) (r) (7x + 6)(x + I) (s)(4 + z)(3 - z) (t)(2s - 5)(s + 6)
3. (a) (x + y)(x + y) (b)(x + p)(x + 2p) (c)(y - 3x)(y ~ 2x) (d) (p + 4t) (p + 2t)
(e) (n - 7t)(n - t) (t) (m + n)(m - 2n) (g)(y + x)(2y - 3x) (h)(r - a)(r + 2a)
4. (a) x- 3 (b) x+4 (c) m- 2 (d) x+4 5.x= 2t 6.x=-4
x-2 x-I m-3 x-I
Exercise 12a
1. (a) A = 16cm 2 , P = 16cm (b) A= 252cm 2, P = 64cm (c) A = 240cm 2 (d) A = 100cm 2
(e) A = 21cm 2 , (t) 156cm2 (g) 192cm2 (h) A = 24cm 2 , P = 24cm
2
(i) A = 240cm , P = 66cm G) A = 37.5cm 2, P = 42cm (k) A = 60cm 2, P = 32cm
(I)A=76cm 2 , P=34cm
2. (a) 40cm2 (b) 7.5cm2 (c) 112.5cm2 (d) 32cm2 (e) 140cm2
(t) 72cm2 (g) 42cm2 (h) 84cm2 (i) 132cm
2
3. (i) 5cm (ii) 20cm 4.6.4cm 5.26cm 6. (i) IOcm (ii) 12.5cm (iii) 67.5cm2
7. (a) 32m (b) 24m (c) 35m2 (d) 28m2 8. (a) 30m (b) 40m (c) 30m2 (d) 90m2
Exercise 12b
1. (a) C = 88cm, A= 616cm (b) C = I76cm, A= 2 464cm 2 (c) C = 352cm, A= 9 856cm 2
(d) C = 4.4cm, A = l.54cm 2
2. (a)A= 20.lcm 2 , (b) 116.3cm2 (c) 3 128cm2 (d) 1908.8cm2
3. (a)C=88cm, A=616cm 2 (b)C=22cm,A=38.5cm 2 (c)C= 132cm,A= I 386cm 2
(d) C = 286cm,A= 6506.5cm 2 4. (a) 7.48cm (b) 47.14cm2 5. (a) 21mm (b) 1,386mm2
6. A = 784mm 2, C = 99.2mm 7. (a) 2 124cm2 , (b) 84.8cm2 (c) 655. 8cm2
2 2 2 2
8. Ca) 1193.96cm (b) 54.55cm (c) 39.03cm (d) 277.99cm (e) 625.48cm2
(t) 30.89cm2 9.47.4m2 10. (a) 308cm2 (b) 168cm2 11. (a) 14cm (b) 154 cm2
2 2
(c) 308cm (d) 154cm
12. (a) 0.3m (b) 0.14m2 (c) 0.68cm2 (d) 8.32m2
Exercise 12c
1. (a) 54cm2 (b) 2 840cm2 (c) 616cnl (d) 703.81cm2 (e) 0.24cm2 (t) 22.9cm2
2. (a) 490cm2 (b) 96cm2 (c) 62.8m2 (d) 2463cm2 (e)4536mm2 (t)2724.11cm2
2 2 2
(g) 8294.88m (h) 2073.72cm (i) 2262.24cm
3.8.2cm 4.5 280mm2 5.360cm2 6. (a) 31cm (b) 53.82cm (c) 10517.68cm2
2
7. (a) 37.18mm (b) 1.85cm (c) 6.l3mm
8. (a) 38.5cm2 (b) 176cm2 (c) 253cm 2 (d) 968
9. (a) BC = 40cm, IH = 40cm, IQ = 30cm (b) 50cm, 50cm (c) 4 800cm2
(d)
10. (a) 20cm (b) 1413.9cm2 (c) IJ 78.25cm2 (d) 2592.15cm2 (e) 5: IJ
2
11. (a) IJ3.IJcm (b) 226.22cm2
(c) 384cm2 (d) 157.78cm2
Exercise 12d
I. (a) 64cm3 (b) 350cm3 (c) 314.2m3 (d) 14 139cm3 (e) 2520cm3 (t) 240cm 3
(g) 1527.01cm3 (h) 2199.4cm3 (i) 15601.1cm3 G) 75408cm3 (k) 24 743.25cm3
(I) 268.12cm3 2.3.22cm 3. 4m3 4. (i) 10 976cm3 (ii) 519.53cm3
5. (i) IOcm (ii) Icm 6. 13.2cm 7.3.4cm 8. (a) 3.5cm (b) 88.5cm3 (c) 135cm3
2
9. (a) 26cm (b) 2 723cm3 (c) 2094.7cm3 (d) 4817.7cm3 (e) 13 : 10.
10. (a) 120 000m3 (b) 210 000m3 (c) 90 000m3
Exercise 12e
I. (a) 125 680cm3 (b) 718 471cm3 (c) 0.033m3 (d) I13.IJcm 3
3 3
(e) 15 131.87cm (t) 3 619.58mm
2. (a) 15 601.08cm3 (b) 75 408cm3 (c) 24 743.25cm3 (d) 268.12cm3
3
3.5.6cm 4.21 .5. 42cm 6.87 976cm 7. l.3m
8. (a) 7cm (b) 7cm (c) 4 312cm3 (d) 6 468cm3 (e) 2 156cm3 (t) 2: 3
3 3 3
9. (a) 0.0035m (b) 0.0118m (c) 0.0153m (d) 1.53m3
10. (a) 942.6cm3 (b) 42 417cm3 (c) 6 667sec.
11. (a) 0.05m (b) 0.848m3 (c) 1.508m3 (d) 400 (e)339.2m3 (t) 904.90m3
Exercise Ba
I.x=2 2. x= I 3. y=7 4. x=6 5. x=3 6.m=2
7. y= t 8. t = It 9. x = 1 10. x = 3t Il.x=lt 12.x=-7
13. x= 2t 14. x=-5 15. m= 7 16.n=-2 17.x=3 18. x =-2
19. x=3 20. y=- 4t 2I.x=- I~
Exercise Bb
I.n=6 2. x =20 3. x = 30 4.m=8 5. p = 12 6.m=8
7. x=7 8. t=-lt 9. f= 20 10. x=21 Il.t=-t 12. p = I
13. x=-14t 14.x=-2 15. y = 8 16. x = 5 17. x=4 18. x= 8
19. x = 3t 20. x = 1~ 2I.x=-1 22. x =-5 23.n=-15 24. t= i10.
Exercise Bc
I. x = 8 2.64 3. 15 years, 9 years 4. (a) x + 4 (b) 8 years, 12 years
5. (a) x + 12 (b) x =21 (c) 693 6. (a) x -700 (b) Kl 100, K400
7.(a)36-x (b)x=12 8. (a)(x+ 2), (x+4) (b)x=5 (c) 9
x
9. (a) 12 (c) x = 720 000 10. (a) (y + 3fC (b) 9°C (c) 12°C
11. (a) K(40x + 500 000) (b) x = 125000 (c) K8 100000
12. (a)(l) 4x (ii) 21tX (b) x = 7 (c) 22: 7
Exercise Bd
1.x>3 2.x<4 3.x<-5 4.x<5 5.x;;;'-6 6.x;;;'4
7.x>3 8.x<-4 9.x>1 lO.x<311.x;;;'5 12.x<4
13.x>O 14.x>3 15.x>3 16.y<-8 17.x>-3 18.y>2
19.x;;;'f 20.y>7t 21.-I<x<522.3<x<5 23.-4<x<-3
24. -4 < x < -3 25. x = {2, 3} 26. x = {l, 2} 27. x = {4, 5, 6, 7} 28. x = {IJ, 12, 13}
Exercise 14a
I. (a)K7x (b)K6y
(c)C=n-(7x+6y)
4000
2.(a)N=x+y (b)S=mx+ny (c)n=--
x+ y
400000
3 .(a)C=Ax+By (b)C=IOx+12y ( c ) - - -
x
4.(a)B=nx (b)D=ny (c)P=N+n(x-y)
5.(a)Q=30y (b)Q=60y (c) N=V-I440y
I x
6.(a)T=- (b)- (c) 20
x 2
I-x n 2
(c)A 2 =1(I-x)- n(1_x)2
7.(a)r=- (b)AI=-(l-x)
2 4 4
8. (a) SI = nQ (b) S2 =xR (c)A= nQ+xR
n+x
Exercise 14b
Y
I.x=--
-4
2
2. x= y-c
m
3.r=-
2n
C
4.a=--
v-u
1
5.1=~
6. a=
v2 _ u2
7.r=~ 8. r =
rv
V-:;ili 9.
s-nr'
2nn 10. a = ,/ c2 - b'
2s
11 . n = s +360 12.m= -
E
13. V = ~2mE 14. R = 1001 15. r =V
3V
180 gh PT 4n
' 3
3~ Y+2 3 3 3
16. h= 17.x=-- 18. x= ~ 19. x= m - 20. r= p-: r
nr y-I 2y-1 2 w
21 .b=,/a'-b' 22.r=~p-b
a 23.1= - u ±,/u' + 2as 24. r = - nh ±,/n'!f+ ns
a n
y p
25.(a)4t (b)x=2 +5 (c)9 26.(a)3t (b)n=2 +5 (c) -11
y-I 2p-1
27. (a) 55 (b) 1225 (c) 7 28. (a) 1800 (b) I 0800 (c) 12
29. (a) R = ~ (b) It (c) R = tr, 30. (a) 8 (b) 8 (c) 4

ft +f2
Exercise 15a
I.x=2,y=1 2.x=3,y=0 3.x=0,y=t 4.x=2,y=-3 5.a=l,b=-1
6.m=-2,n=2 7.x=l,y=2 8. p=3,q=-1 9.x=3,y=-5 10.1=I,r=1
11.a=l,b=-212.x=t,y=t 13.x=2~ It 14.x=3,y=-3
15.r=I,1=-1 16.m=-t,n=t 17.n=-8,p=15 18.x=1,y=-1
19.1=21,p=-34 20.f=l1,g=-2 2Ix=2,y=-2 22.x=t,y=-6t
23. x = 3, y = -3 24. x = 4, y = I 25. x = I, y = 2 26. x = 3, y = 0
27. x = I, y = 2 28. x = -2, y = -3 29. s = 2. t = 2 30. y = 5, h =-3
3I.x=4,y=4 32.a=8,b=-5
Exercise 15b
1. 11 and 6 2.34 and 11 3. x= 8, y= 16 4. x=21, y=42 5. m=3, c=-5, y=3x-5
6. a = 5, b = 10 7. length = 9cm, width = 5cm. 8. (i) a = 3, b = -2, (ii) y =-4
9. (a) Orange; KI 200, Lemon; K800 (b) K8 000
10. (a) Pen; KI 620, Pencil K920 (b) KI2000
11. (a) Jane; 21 years, Jean; 15 years (b) 60 years
12. (a) a=20, b=25 000 (b) K31400.
Ano
Exercise 16a
1. 0, 4 2.0, -1+ 3.0,2 4. -2, 5 5.2 6. t, -3 7. -2,-1
8. -2, -4 9.1,3 10. I, -2 11.-2,3 12.2, -3 13.4, -6 14.6,-5
15. - +, -2 16.5, + 17.1, It 18.1, t 19. -3,2+ 20.1+, + 21. -2,1
22. -3,1+ 23. -6, 5 24. I, - t 25. ±I 26. ±4 27. ± 1+ 28. ±+
2 2
29.1,5 30.-t,l+ 31. 7,-4 32.3, -5 33.x -3x+2=0 34.x -5x+6=0
2
35. x - x - 6 = 0 36. x + 3x - 10 = 0 37. x2 + 6x + 9 = 0 38. 2x2 - 3x + I = 0
2
39. 6x2 - 5x + I = 0 40. 6x2 - 5x - 6 = 0
Exercise 16b
1. -2, -5 2. -2, 5 3. 1,-2 4.4, -3 5.1+,-2 6.-lt,3 7.1+,-1
8.1,-lt 9.2,-3 10.5,-6 11.-2,-1 12. -2,3 13. - +, -5
14.0.63, -2.37 15.2.47, -0.14 16. 1.35, -1.85 17.1.79, -2.79 18.2.30, -1.30
19.0.87, -2.87 20.0.81, -0.31 21 1.69, -1.19 22. -0.44, -4.56 23. 1.30, -2.30
24. -0.78, -3.22 25. 5.39, 1.11 26. -0.18,-1.82 27. -1.23,1.90 28. -0.73, 8.23
29.4.11, -0.61 30.3.71,0.54 31. 5.27.1.23 32.2.70, -3.70
Exercise 16c
1. (a) (5, 3), (3, 5) (b) (4, 5), (5, 4) (c) (5, 6), (6, 5) (d) (5, 9), (-4, 0)
2. (10 and 2) or (-2 and -10) 3. (8 and 3) or (-3 and -8) 4.7 and 9
5. (8 and 9) or (-8 and -9) 6. 6cm and 8cm 7. -3 and 5 8. 12 and 14
9.5cmandl2cn 10. 6cm and 7cm 11.14cmor6iTcm 12.AB=6cm,BD~llcm.
Exercise 16d
1. x = ±4 2. -2, 8 3.3, 2 4.4, 5 5 • 1, _.1
3 6.4, - + 7.2, -+
8.0,5 9. 1,3 10.2,1+ 11.-1 12. 1,3 13. I, 2+ 14.4, t
15. -4, t 16.3, -6 17. (a) 90 (b) ~ (d)x=3, 30

x x-I
18. (a) 20 (b) -
20
(d) x = 10, 2, 4 19. (a) 30 (b) ~ (c) 1Okm/h
x x-5 y y-4
20. (a) 8 000 (b) 8000 (d) K800 21. (c)x=2, 13: 6
x x +200
Exercise 17a
1. (a) 7 (b) -1 (c) 9 (d) -3 (e) 4 (t) 2
2. (a) -7 (b) -10 (c) -16 (d) 8 (e) -6 (t) -8
3. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) -8 (d)'-3 (e) -3 (t) ~
4. (a) -I (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) -13 (e) I - 4x (t) 3 - 2x
5.2 6.a=2 (a)-13 (bJ-9 7.b=l, x=30r-2 8.b=3, a=2
9.a=l,b=-3 (a) 13 (b) 6 10. (a)-1,1+ (b)O,+ 11.6 12.-14
13.1,-f 14. {4,5,8} 15. {-2+, -+,0,2} 16.a=16,b=2
17.a=3,b=5, c=-4, d=-IO.
Exercise 17b
1. h is the inverse of g and vice versa 2. (a) 7 (b) x - 3 (c) 2
. 2
3. (a) 3 (b) x + 7 (c) 2 4. (a) x-3 (b) 0 (c) - + (d) -2+
5 2
x
5. (a) - (b) -It (cH (d) -t 6. (a) 3x +4 (b) -8 (c) 5 (d) I
3
1 x-3 x+ 10
7. (a)2x - 6 (b) -2 (c) -7 (d) -10 8. (a) I (x) = - (b) g-I(X) =
2 2
(c) - t (d) 5t 9. (a)H (b) ~ (c) ,",x + 4-1 (d) ,",x + 2

JX
12. (a) 3x+ 5 (b)x=-20r4 13. (a) 5x +4, 13 (b)x=-f 14. x= I or-6
x 1- x
IS. (i) x E R, x *1 t 11 X E Rn,x ~- 3 •
2 1-
Exercise 17c
1. (a)3 (b) 6 (c) 5 - x (d) 6 (e) -(x + I) (t) -4
2. (a) 3 (b) -I (c)2x+3 (d) -I (e)2x-1 (t) 5
3. (a)-I (b) -5 (c) 16x-45 (d) -13 (e) -29
4. (a) x + 3 (b) 5 (c) x (d) 2
5. (a) -2 (b) 0 (c)4-x2 (d) 2 - (x + 2)2 (e) 0 (t) 2
6. x = -2 or 6 7. (a) 5 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 7
8. (a) 2x + 4 (b) 8, 5 (c)2x+6 (d) -2, 3
9. (a) 5 (b) I, It (c) 10x - 7
5x-2
Exercise 18a
I. (a) y varies directly as the square root ofx (b) p varies directly as the cube ofm
(c) p varies directly as the fifth root of t (d) y varies directly as the cube root of the
square ofx.
2. (a) y = 3x (b) 12 (c)3 3. (a) y = 2x2 (b) 2 (c) ±4
4. (a) y = ~ViZ (b) 6 (c) 64 5. (a) p = 9:!}ll (b) 18 (c) 16
2
6.(a)160 (b)3 7. (a)y=2x (b)y=x (c)y=VX 8. (a) 5 (b)lt (c) 625
9. (a)lO (b) 2 10.y=2.5x 11.(a)! (b)a=lt,b=6, c=7
12. Equation is n;ue, a = 5, b = 4, c = 200 13. (a) n = t (b) 3 (cH
Exercise 18b
5 I 2 6
I. (a) y = - (b)y= - 3 (c)y= - (d) y = - 2. (a) 196 (b) 140
x x JX ifX
4 6
3. (a) 125 (b) I 4. (a)y=- (b) It (cH 5. (a) V=- (b) 6 (c) I
VX P
3 7
6. (a)D=- (b) to (c) 5 7. (a)V=- (b) 10 (c) 500
V p
12 27
8. (a) t = - (b) 3 hours (c) 6 9. (a) I = - (b) 2.7 (c) 3.3.75
n R
10. (a) 3 (b)t (cH I!. (a) 27 (b) 27 (c) 9
Exercise 18c
x2 x2 1
3. (a) 9 (b) 64 4. (a) 7 (b) ± 9 5. (a) 9ifP (b) 27
6. a= i6' b=l, c=6 7.b=2, a=3 8. (a)b=2000, a=10000 (b) 55

9.(a)g= 10, u= 10 (b) 60
Exercise 19a
1. A(2, 2), B(5,1), C(-2,3), D(-2,0), E(0,4), F(-3, -3), G(4, -4), H(5,0),
1(-4,-1), J(0,-2) 2.H j :y=-2, H2 :y=0, H 3 :y=IHI 4:y=3 H s :y=5
V 1 :x=5, V 2 :x=2, V 3 :x=0, V4:x=-1, V s :x=-4
3. ~---,----r---,--]{ ---'----r---
I I I I r
----r--- ----~ ~----I
I I I I I 1 I
I I I I I I I I I I I I
, I I I 4 I I I I 1 I 1 1 I
~---~----I --- ,---- ---~---- ---~--- I ---1----~---+----:
I I I I 1 I I I I I I I
I I I 1 I I I I I I I
, I I I I ' I I I I ,
~--_~----~---~---- ~ r ~----L---~----1
I I I I I I I I I r i '
, I I 1 I I I I I I 1
1 I I 1 2 I I , I , I I I
+----:----f---+--- I---- ---
1 I I I I
1
1
----:----+----:----~---_l----f
I I I I ,
: : : : 1 : : : : : : : :
~----~---,--- ----- - --- ----r--- ----r---~---,----~
1 : : : : : 4 : : '1:
I
,
I 1 I I 1 I
,
I I 1
4.y=l,x=5 5. x = 2, Y = 4 6. L 1 : 0, Lz: +, L 3 : - +~ - t Ls : 1
Exercise 19b
1.Aisy=x 2 , Bisy= ~ Cisy=4-x2 , Disy=3 x
X
Eisy=8-x2 Fisy= x2~1 Gisy=x3 -3x Hisy=x 2 +2x-15
2.(a)x=2or-2 (i)x=30r-3 (ii)x=lor-l (b)(0,-4)
3.(a)(i)x=Oor4 (ii)x= 1 or4 (iii)x=lor3 (b) (2,4)
4. (a) (i) x = -3, -1 or 1 (ii) x= -2.5, -1 or 0.5 (iii) x = -2.5, -1.5 or 1.5
(b) (i) -3 < x < -1 or x> 1 (ii) -2.5 < x < -1, x> 0.5 (c) min. = 6, max. =-6
5. (a) 48 million (b) 1 million (c) t = 5 (d) 3.2 million per day (e) 25 million
(t) 15 days
6. x = 1 or -1, Gradient = 2 7. (a) x = -4.2 or 1.2 (b)3 8. (a) x = -3 or 1
(b)x=2or-l (c) x=0.3 9.(a)x=-2or2 (b)x=-2or3 (c)x=-2
10.a=1,b=-1,c=-6 11.x=-1,-2or2 12.(a)y=-1 (b)y=-3 (c)y=x
13. (c)(i) x = 2.4 or -0.4 (ii)(I,2) (d) x = 3 or -2 14. (c) x = -1.5 or 2 (d)-1.5
15.(a)80m (b)t=30r5 (c)2<t<6 (d) 10, Speedofthebodyatt=3
16. (b) -7.5 million/minute. The rate at which the bacteria is increasing in the medium
when t = 2. (c) Inversely proportional; n decreases as t increases. (d) (i) 4 million
(ii) At t = 3
Exercise 20
1. (a) 1 (b) 2. (c) 2 (d) 1 (e) 1+ (t) -3 (g) -5 (h) -2 (i) 5 (j)-2
2. (a) (4, 4) (b) (3, 2) (c) (4, 5) (d) (1, -4) (e) (-3, -1)
(t) (3,1) (g) (-2,-4) (h) G, 2+) (i) (4.5, 2.1) (j) (3.5, 6)
3. (a) 5 units (b) 5 units (c) 5 units (d) 13 units (e) 11.3 units
(t) 10 units (g) 10.8 units (h) 10.6 units (i) 3 units (j) 8 units
4.(a)y=x+l (b)y=2x+l (c)y=3x-2 (d)y=2x+13
(e)y=-3x-6 (t) y=-4x (g)y= +x-2 (h)y= +C2-x)
5.(a)y=x (b)y=2x+3 (c)y=2x+2 (d)y=x-3 (e)y=5x-23
(t)y=-4x-14 (g)y=-5 (h)y=22-2x (i)y=2-x (j) y=6-3x
6. (a) m = 3, c = -4 (b) m = 4, c = 2 (c) m = 2, c = 4 (d) m = -2, c = 4
(e)m=-l,m=S (f)m=-2,c=4 (g)m=6,c= 2t (h)m= -t,c=2
(i)m=~ t,c=-t
7.(a)y=x+4 (b)y=t(S-x) (c)y=%x+'; (d)y= ~'-tx
S.(a)k=3,h=-lt (b)k=4,h=1 (c)k=16,h=6 (d)k=1,h=-2
9. (a)-2 (b)(4,1) (c)y=9-2x (d)y=2x-7
10. (a) H(O, 6), K(O, -3) (b) A( 1t, 0), B(3,3), C(6,0) (c) 4t units (d)3 units
(e) 6* sq. units (f) 20t sq. units
3 3
11. (a)(4,S) (b)L 1 :y=-x+2 L2:y=--X+S (c)12sq.units (d)L:y=S
4 4
Exercise 21
1. (a)(i) Sm/s (ii) 5 seconds (iii) 20m/s (b)(i) 4SkmIh (ii)3 ills (iii) 4SkmIh
(c)(i) 9km1h (ii) 4 ills (iii) 13.SkmIh (d)(i) 6m/s (ii) 0 (iii) 4m/s
2. (a) 100km (b) SOkmlh (c) I hour (d) 33.3km1h (e) 3 ills
3. (a) 240km (b) SOkmlh (c) 4 hours (d) 60km (e)1 hour
(f) 60kmlh (g) 300km (h) 30kmlh (i) 240km
4. (a) 40km (b) 16km (c) 10 00 ills (d) 16 ills (e) 12 and 14 ills
(f)4km1h S.(a)60km (b)32km (c)SkmIh (d)20km,2thrs
(e) 2Skm (f) SkmIh 6. (a) 4m/s (b) 3s (c) 4m/s (d) 1.7s and 7.3s
7. (a)(i) 2m/s2 (ii)7Sm (b)(i) 6m/s2 (ii) 60m (iii) 6m/s2
(c) (i) 9m/s 2 (ii) 4S6m (iii) 13.Sm/s2 (d) (i) 6m/s2 (ii) 120m (iii) 4m/s 2
S. (a) (i) 4 (ii) Not applicable (iii) 0.Sm/s 2 (b) (i) 40 (ii) 20m/s2 (iii) 13.3m/s2
(c) 21 2
(ii) 3.Sm/s (iii) Not applicable (d)(i) 17 (ii) 4tm/s2 and 0.3m/s2
(iii) Not applicable 9. (a) 4m/s2 (b) 30s (c) 2m/s2 (d) 9 OOOm (e) 7Sm/s
10. (a) 3.Sm (b) 4.Sm (c) Car A by Im (d) 3m/s2
Exercise 22a
1. (a) x<2 (b)x>1 (c)y>2 (d)y<-2 (e) -3<x<1 (f)0<y<2
(g)x>2orx<-1 (h)-3<y<3 (i)x>-l,y<2 (j)y<l-x
(k)y<l,y>-x (l)y<2x,y<3-x,y>tx-1 (m)x<l,y>l-x,y<x+4
(n)y<x+2, y> 0, Y <1- tx (o)y >1- tx, y<4- tx, Y <x+3
(P) y>O, x <2, Y <4-x, Y <3x.
2. (a) (b) (c)
y y
,,: y
,,
,,,
,,
,,
,,
o 3 x o x 0 4 X
I I
(d) (e) y.
(f)
y
--------- 2 -----------
---------- 3 -------------
o X
-2,
,
0 3 X o X --------- -2 ------------
I
(g) . (h) (i)
y y
,,
0- ,, ,
, ,1, ,
,/ ,, .... '1 :~
," , 2 /' ...... y = 3 -
,, ,,/' = X _
"./ Y y=x+:.)....... ....
X
, .... ........
,,,
..'
--,-'---,-l-----,-£.'---....' ,
, o ,.../,/2 X ,....'-3 -10 3 ......
2
,, x -'--
x=2
(j) ,
=2 (k)
,,
y=3- ~ ,../y = x+2
, X,
/
,,
//'), -' i
o x
x
6 6
3.(a)":y=--x+6, h:y=-x+6, h:x=4 (b)A(-5,0) B(0,6) C(4,2.5)
7 5
D(4,0) (c) -5 (d) 6.5
2
4. (a) A(-3, 0) B(-3, 10) C(3,4), (b) y >-x + 2, Y <7 - x, x>-3
3
(c) 30 sq units Minimum = -3, Maximum = 7.
Exercise 22b
1. 16 2. (a) 0 (b) 7 3. (a) 19 (b) 0 (c) 7 4. (a) 36 (b) 22 (c) 40
5. (a) 6 (b) 16 6. (a) L 1 : x >1, L 2 : y >1, L 3 : y <x + 2, L 4 : y <8 - x (b) 22
(c) 5 (d) 23
7.(a)x+2y<40 (b)3x+4y>60 (c) x >10, y>5 (d)301emons,50ranges
Exercise 23a
1. (a) Acute angles; {2°, 12°, 54°} (b) Obtuse angles; {120°, 93°, 150°}
(c) Reflex angles; {190°, 181°,333°, 271}
2. (a) 68° (b) 37° (c) 1° (d) 0 (e)56.5" (t)(90-x)"
3. (a)35° (b) 114° (c) 90° (d) 0 (e) 46.5° (t) (180 - n)"
4. 12 5.4 6. (a) 47° (b) 106° (c) 100° (d) 240° (e) 120° (t) 85°
7. (a) 60° (b) 18° (c) 120° (d) 102° (e) 36° (t) 69°
8. (a) y = 30°, x = z =150° (b) y = 65°, x = 50°, Z = 50° (c) Y= 90°, x = 90°, Z = 90°
(d) x = 40°, Y= 60°, Z = 60" 9. (a) 6° (b) -i,- 10. (a) 30° (b) 66° (c) 150° (d) 75°
11. (a)2+min. (b) 10 min. (c)30 min. (d) 54 min. 12. (a) 270° (b) 22.5°
Exercise 23b
1. (a)a= 122°,b=58°, c=58° (b)a=49°,b= 131°,c= 131° (c) a= 30°, b=1500
c = 150° (d) a = 137°, b = 43°, c = 137° (e) a = 113°, b = 67°, c = 67°
(t) a = 38°, b = 120°, c = 142° 2. (a) y = 20°, x = 110°, Z = 110° (b) x = 127°,
Y= 77°, Z = 77° (c) x = 50°, y = 130°, Z = 50° (d) x = 50°, y = 140°, Z = 40°
(e) x = 120°, Y= 60°, Z = 113° (t) x = 70°, Y= 70°, Z = 110°
Exercise 23c
1. (a) Isosceles!::>. (b) Acute angled!::>. (c) Right angled Isosceles!::>. (d) Equilatera1b
2. (a) (b) (c)
~
3.(a)x=56° (b)x=45°
671°
(c)x=30°
54.5
54.5
(d) x = 20° (e) x = 144° (t) x = 29°

(g) x = 22.5° (h) x = 15°
4. (a) x = 66°, y = 92° (b) x = 35°, Y = 75° (c) y = 66°, x = 44° (d) x = 100°, Y= 40°
(e)x=40°,y=90° (t)x=50°,y=800 (g) Y = 78°, x = 78° (h) x = 30°, y = 60°
5.x=15 6.y=15 7.P=140-3x 8. S = 137 - 5x
Exercise 23d
1. (a) 8 (b) 15 (c) 18 (d) 31 (e) 48 (t) 98
2. (a) 180° (b) 1 080° (c) 1 800° (d) 3 960° (e) 5 940° (t) 6 840°
3. (a) 5 (b) ~1 (c) 15 (d) 22 (e) 38 (t) 17
4. (a) 18 (b) 12 (c) 8 (d) 16 (e) 5 (t)45
5. (a) 72 (b) 36 (c) 24 (d) 12 (e) 6 (t) 4
6.86° 7. (a) 20 (b) 9 8. 100 9. 65 10.89° 11. x = 290°
12 . a=30° , b=30°, c=900, d=600 , e=300, f=30° , g=60°, h=900, i=300
j = 30°, k = 120° (a) Congruent (b) Congruent
13. (a) 90° (b) 120° (c) 150° (d) 12°
14. (a) 135° (b) 120° (c) 105° (d) 45° (e) 283.2cm2 (t) 10cm (g) 7.7cm
Exercise 24a
1. k = 1.5 2. x = 4 3. x = 13.5 4. 6 units 5. 24cm 6.6cm 7.7.56cm
8.AandC 9.BandD 1O.(a)50cm (b)120 (c)2cm2 (d) 1 000000cm 3
11. (a) 3: 2 (b) 9: 4 (c) 27: 8 (d) 512cm3 (e) 1 098cm2
12. (a) O.4m (b) 6400 : 1 (c) 0.00125m3
Exercise 24b
1. (a) RHS (b) SAS (c) SSS (d) AAS 2. A and H, Band D, C and F, E and G
. 6. (b) Parallelogram (c) (i) 13cm (ii) 15.6cm (iii) 7.8cm 7. (a) 6cm (b) 8cm (c) 84cm2
Exercise 25
1. a, c, e 2. (a) 50cm (b) 17.5 (c) 15.6cm (d) 17cm 3. (a) 2.8m (b) 5.7m
(c) 4.lcm (d) 12.7cm 4. (a) 5 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 26 (e) 2.7 (t) 9.2 (g) 8.9 (h) 13
5.5m 6. 10.3m 7. (a) 41.8m (b) 40.3m (c) 13m 8. (a) 10.9m (b) 6.9m (c) 4m
9. e== 23.9m 10. (a) 14.1m (b) 7.1m (c) 13.9m (d) 5m (e) 13m
11 (a) lOcm (b) l1.7cm (c) 8.5cm 12. (a) l.2m (b) 6.7m (c) 5.2m (d) 3.2m
Exercise 26a
. 4 3 4). 12 5 12
a sm8=- cos8=- tan8=- (b sm8=- cos8=- tan8=-
1. ()
5' 5' 3. 13' 13' 5
(c)sin8=~ COS8=4 tan8=~ (d)sin8=.!2 COS8=~ tan8=.!2
5' 5' 4 17' 17' 8
2. (a) 5 units (b) 9.1 units (c) 2.4 units (d) 28.8 units (e) 25.6 units
(t) 39.7 units (g) 18.1 units (h) 17.9 units
3. (a) 36° (b) 22.6° (c) 40.2° (d) 28.1° (e) 26.4° (t) 30.5° (g) 21.8° (h) 45°
4. (a) 30° (b) 14.7m (c) 1.73 5.52.2cm 6. (a) 41.1° (b) 48.9° (c) 9.1cm
(d) 16.7cm 7. (a) 1.8m (b) 11.2m (c) 7.8m 8. (a) 6.1m (b) 9.3m
9. (a) VU = 5cm, QS = lOcm (b) 6.4cm (c) 38.7° (d) 77° (e) 53.1° (t) 74°
Exercise 26b
1. (a) 45° (b) 20° (c) 80° (d) 40° (e) 56° (t) 68° (g) 0 (h) 88°
Ann
2. (a) ? (b) ~ (c) ~ (d): (e) % (t) ~: (g) ~~ (h) ~
5
(i) ~ (j)
4 3. (a) 0.8 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.6 (d) 0.8
20 3
4. (a) x = 45° (b) x = 60° (c) x = 45° (d) 47.9° 5. (a) 161.3° (b) 120°
(c) 116.6° (d) 150° 6. (a) x = 30°,150° (b) x = 11.5°,168.5° (c) 69°
(d) 166° (e) 154.4° (t) x = 40.8°, 139,2 (g) 61.3° (h) 101.3°
15 15 15 15 8 8
7. (a) 17 units (b) 8 (c) -8 (d) 17 (e) 17 (t) 17 (g)-17
(h) 61.9° (i) 118.1 °
Exercise 27a
1. (a) 40° (b) 54° 2. (a) 50.2° (b) 9.5° 3. (a)31.9 (b)71.6° 4. 49.5m
5.20.4m 6. (a) 28.5m (b) 58.9m (c) 30.4m (d) 29.3° (e) 58.7°
7. (a) 60.6m (b) 94.4m (c) 155m (d) 119°
Exercise 27b
1. (a) 280° (b) 194° (c) 350° (d) 063° (e) 110° (t) 120° (g) 170°
(h) 090° 2. (a) 080° (b) 260° (c) 030° (d) 210° (e) 110°
3. (a) 254° (b) 336° (c) 115° (d) 295° 4. (a) 034° (b) 214° (c) 334°
(d) 154" (e) 282° (t) 102° 5. (a) 297° (b) 117° (c) 178km (d) 91km
6. (a) 270° (b) 37° (c) 037° (d) 000° (e) 180° (t) 50km
7. (a) 405km (b) 294km (c) 054° 8. (a) 230° (b) 193° (c) 140° (d) 320° (e) 35emo
9. (b) 122° (c) 302° (d) 67° (e) 145° (t) 325°
10. (a) 150° (b) 150° (c) 240° (d) 5km (e) 53° (t) 203° (g) 023° (h) 097°
Exercise 28a
1. (a) 8= 50°, a=4.6cm, e=4.1em (b) 8 =52°, 1=9.4em,m=9.7cm
(c) 8=40°, q = 28cm, m=42em (d) 8= 81°, x=2.3cm,y=3.lcm
2. (a) 48.4° (b) 69.5° (c) 12Llo (d) 49° (e) 20.6° (t) 74.4° (g) 41.6° (h) 50.7°
3. (a)3.8em (b)32.1° (c)31° (d)7.4em 4. (a)(i)52.9° (ii) 64.2° (iii) 19.2em
(b) (i) 19.9m (ii) 53° (iii) 16.4° (c) (i) 12.1m (ii) 62° (iii) 12.2em
(d)(i) 64.3° (ii) 60.7cm (iii) 21.3cm
5. (a)(i) 46° (ii) 9.7cm (iii) 6.gem (b)(i) 19.7° (ii) 17.3° (iii) 12.4em
(c)(i) ILl ° (ii) 28.9° (iii) 7.5em (d)(i)52.2° (ii) 57.8em (iii) 6.2cm
6. 12.2m 7. (i) 34km (ii) 284°, 8.5cm 9. (i) 90° (ii) 033081
10. (a) 35.4° (b) 8.4cm 11. (a) 37.9 (b) 1.4m (c) 136.5°
12. (a) 145° (b) 9.1km (c) 035° 13. (a) 20° (b) 140.5° (c) 19.5° (d) 078° (e) 343km
Exercise 28b
1. (a) 19.5em (b) 4.2cm (c) 33.1 (d) 23.4cm (e) 21.9 (t) 22.5em (g) 2.1 (h) 10.6cm
2. (a) 85.5° (b) 53.7° (c) 83,5° (d)"43.7° (e) 125.1° (t) 119" (g) 100.2° (h) 106.2°
3. (a) 2em (b) 6.1cm (c) 46.6° (d) 26.1cm 4. (a) (i)87.9° (ii) 56.4 (iii) 35.7°
(b) 2Llcm (ii) 34.2° (iii) 23.8° (c)(i) 5.8cmm (ii) 58.1° (iii) 41.9°
(d) (i) 85.9° (ii) 54.7° (iii) 39.4° 5. (a) l1.7cm (b) 15.7° (c) 49.3°
6. (i) 120° (ii) 26.2cm 7. (a) 115° (b) 28.7° (c) 55.3° (d) 16.3m
8. (a) 80° (b) 37km (c) 182° 9. (a) 80° (b) 1 167km (c) 58° (d) 108°
(e) 13 00 hrs (t) 1530 hrs 10. (i) 125.7° (ii) 43° 11. (a) 240° (b) 314°
(c) 290km (d) 217km (e) 173km 12. (i) 50km (ii) 056° 13. (a) 240° (b) 140°
(c) 320° (d) 550km (e) 64° (t) 176"
14. (a) 328° (b) 056° (c) 238° (d) 101km (e) 51° (t) 39° (g) 140°
Exercise 28e
1. (a) 26.3em2 (b) 66.7cm2 (c) 2.6cm2 (d) 108cm2
2. (a) 53.5, h = 8.9 (b) 80.3m2, h = 8m (c) 2.1, h = 1.1 (d) 50.3cm2 , h = 10cm
3.(a)45cni2 (b)3.6cm2 (c)14.2cm2 (d) 31.6cm2
2 2
4.93.5cm 5. (a) 80Ao (b) 7.2cm 6. (a) 30° (b) 2.5cm
7. (a) l3cm (b) 22cm2 (c) 52cm2 8.88.3cm2
Exercise 29a
1. (a) l3cm (b) 7.5cm 2. (a) 3cm (b) 9cm (c) 8cm (d) 5cm
3. (a) 48cm (b) 12cm (c) 1.8cm (d) 32cm (e) 1.6cm (t) 60cm
(g) 21.4cm (h) 16.6cm 4. (a) 7cm (b) 14cm (c) 6cm (d) 6cm
5. (a) y = 6cm (b) IOcm (c) 7.4cm (d) 20cm
6. (a) lcm (b) 5.2cm (c) 9cm (d) 6cm
7.24cm 8. (a) 4cm (b) 4cm (c) 536cm3 (d) 2 145cm3
9. (a)4cm (b)r-2 (c)r=5cm (d)106° (e) 11cm2 (t) 17.3cm
Exercise 29b
1. (a) x = 40°, y = 50° (b) x = 34°, y = 64° (c) x = 67°, y = 75° (d) y = 86°, x = 94°
(e) x = 20°, y = 63° (t) x = 52°, y = 128° (g) x = 38°, y = 40° (h) x = 56°, y = 37°
(i) x = 15°, y = 15° (j) x = 70°, y = 110° (k) x = 85°, y = 86° (I) x = 53°, y = 45°
(m) x = 150°, y = 105° (n) x = 117.5°, y = 62.5° (0) x = 110°, y = 70°.
(P) x = 45°, y = 80°
2. (a) x = 88°, y = 50°, Z = 92° (b) x = 30°, Z = 50°, y = 54° (c) x = 25°, y = 25°, Z = 67°
(d) x = 66°, y = 48°, Z = 24° 3. (a) 80° (b) 18° (c) 108° (d)108°
4. (a) (i) 30° (ii) 120° (iii) 90° (iv) 60° (v) 60° (vi) 60°
(b) (i) Isosceles ll. (ii) Equilateralll. (iii) Right angled ll. (iv) Isosceles ll.
(d) (i) 1.4cm (ii) 4.3cm 5. (a) 40° (b) 50° (c) SS" (d) 50°
6. (a) 55° (b) 55° (c) 125° (d) 42° 7. (a) 90° (b) a = 60°, b = 74°, c = 32°
d = 106°, e = 30°, f= 76° (c) 90cm (d) 7cm
8. (a) (i) 50° (ii) 140° (iii) 20° (iv) 40° (v) 40° (vi) 50° (b) (i) 22.6cm (ii) 46.3cm2 •
Exercise 30a
2. (a) 7'2cm (b) 55° (c) 65°
3. (a) (i)LBAC = 57.1°,LABC = 78Ao (ii) 5.9cm (b) 14.7cm2
4. (a) 75° (b) 4Acm (c) 15.5cm2
5. (b) 1.8cm (c) 77° (d) 10.2cm2 (e) 15.7cm2 (t) 5.5cm2 /"6.1.8cm
2
7. (a) 7.6cm (c) 4.9cm (d) 55.8cm
8, (a) 92mm (b)LBCD = 82°,LADC = 73° (c)AC = 102mm, BD = 114mm
9. (a) (i) 47°, 40° (ii) 7Acm (b) 52.8cm2
Exercise 30b
3. (a)AC=7.7cm, =6.2cm
5.54.6cm2
6. (a) AC = 4.3cm (b) BC = 5.3cm Cc) CD = 3.7cm (d) r = 1.4cm
Exercise 31a
1. (a)2xl (b) 2 x 2 (c) 2 x 3 (d) 1 x 2 (e) 3 x 3
(-j J)
2. (a) -1) (b) 0 (c) (r IlL f)
3. og)
(a) (fl i~)
(b) (c) (: -Ij ~i) (d) (-~) (e) (- i~ -2)
- 3
(t) (~ ~ ~i) (g) (~~) (h) (1 -~) (i)(~ -~) (j) (i3 ~~)
12 15)
4. (a) ( 10 0\ (b) (0
_ 10 10)
-1 (c) (18 15) (d) (12
0 21 20 -10\
16) (e) (30
20 375) (f) (-20
6 25)
5
7 -49) (b) (-7

5. (a) ( 23 I -9\
8) (c) (24 0\
1) (d) (14
46 _18)
a (e) (-21.24
3 -27) (f) (519 -5
9)
6. (a) ( 410 10
6) (b) ( 10 -21) (c) (10
5 7) (d) (10 a
5\ 7.(a)x=3,y=1 (b)y=14,x=3
3 12}
8 . (a)a=2 , b=-5 " c=-1 d=O (b)a=5 'b=2
" c=4 d= 10
9. (a)x=2,y=-2, z=-3 (b) x=6,y=6,z=9 10. (a)x=3,y=3 (b)x= I,y= I
Exercise 31b
1.(a)l x 2 (b)l x 3 (c)2 x l (d)3 x I (e)2 x 3 (f)3 x 3
2.27 3.71 4. -12 5. -4 6. (~5

(lg 1~~) 8. (=~~ =~~)
2g) 7.
9. (-~ -1Z) 10. (fl ~g) 11. (j~ 1~) 12. (~O ~~) 13. (tg 19)
14. (;g n~) 15. (_-~I ~~) 16. (=~O =1~) 17. (U) 18. (~ g)
19. (t~ 11 g) 20.(~ ~l~) 21.(f!) 22. (a) (1~ -~) (b) UIl)
(c)(~ ~) (d)(~21~) (e)(~ ~~ (f)(j~ :1)
23. (a) (I~ ~~) (b) O~ ~~) (c) (U la) (d) Og ~~) (e) (~l ~~)
24.p=-1 25.x=l,y=2
Exercise 31c
1.(a)1 (b)3 (c)2 (d)-4 (e) 1 (f)-22 (g)4
2. (a) Ci -6) (b) (A -~) (c) C~ -~) (e) (; _~)
(f) (3 2)
5-4
(g) (-9 1\
5-3) (h) (~ 1~)
4. (a) 0 -1) (b) (_~ -J) (c) (_21t -t)
1 (d)
(_.1.1)
-it t (e) (J _~)
(f) U -it) (g) (it -t) (h) U I~)
5. (a)±2 (b)±3 (c)-50r7 (d)2or6
6. (a) 0 -0 (b) (-~3 3) (c)(~ ~) (d)(~ ~)
7. (a) (~~) (b) (~ n (c) (~ ~) (d) (~ ~) 8. (~ :)
9. (a)x= l,y= I (b)x=2,y=-1 (c)x=2,y=-2 (d)x=-I,y= I
10. (a) (22 12 80) (b) G:) (c)K26400
11.(a) ~ (2) (6 30 3)
(b) 6 3 1 2 (c) U? ~) (d) (~), 1 point
12. (a) M = (? ~) (c) (i) (~ ~) (ii) (~ ~) (d)7 (f) 5 y/

Exercise 32
1. (a) 1,0,0, 1,2 (b) 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 (c) 2, 1,0, 1, 1
2. (a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 1 (e) 2 (t) 2 (g) 2 (hP (i) 4 (j) 8 (k) 2 (1) 1
3. (ap (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 2 4. (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 4
Exercise 33a
1. (a) 10 units (b) 13 units (c) 5 units (d) 1.5 units
(e) 2.8 units (t) 1.4 units (g) 4 units (h) 3.2 units
2. (a) 4So (b) 90° (c) 0 (d) 315° (_45°)
(e) 22So (-13S0) (t) 315° (-45°) (g) 135° (h) 18.4°
3. (a)-a (b) -3a (c)roor-OP (d) 4b (e)PQor-~
(t) AB (g) b-a (h) a - b (i) --{3a + b) (j) b + c - a
4. (a) (~~) (b) (~) (c) (:) (d>(-~) (e) ( ~)
(t) (~i) (g) (;) (h) (~~) (i) (:)
s. (a) 0) (b) 0) (c) Ci) (d) t~)

(e)(~) (t) (~~) (g) (:) (h) ( 6)
6. (a) k = 1 (b)k=-t (c)k=t (d) k = i
7. (a) (i) 0) (ii) (;) (iii) (~) (iv) (l) (v) U) (vi{i) (b) 5 units
8. (a) (i) Si -' 3j (ii) -i + 5j (iii) i - 5j (iv) -8i + 18j

(b) (i) 5.1 units (ii) 19.7 units
9. (a) (_~) ,4.1 units (b) (~l) ,5units (c) (~l) ,Sunits (d) (_~), 4.1 units Parallelogram
10.(a)(~) (b) (~) (~~)

(c) (d) (~~) (e) (~ll) (t) e;) IAPI = 10 units,
IAPI=8.6units 11. (a) (~i) (b) (i) (c) (g) (d) C~)
12. (a) (i) 22i + j (ii) -9i + 32j (b) (i) C~ (ii) (~) (iii) (g) (iv) 5 units
(v) 36.9° (vi) (~) (vii) (g) (viii) (6)

13. (a) (i) (~) (ii) (_~) (iii) (-1}) (iv) (vi) (=t)
(b) (i) 5 units (ii) 5.4 units (iii) 2.5 units (iv) 5.6 units
xercise 33li
1.(a)b-a (bH(b-a) (c)1:3 2.(a)b-a (b)1(b-a) (c)4:5
3. (aHa (b)b-a (c)%(b-a) (dH(b-a) (eH(a+3b) (t)i(3b-a)
4.(a)(i)b-a (iiH(b-a) (iiiH(b-a) (iv)ta (vHa (b)(i) 11 (iilt! Parallelogram
S.(a)%a (bHa (c)b+ta (d)b-ia
6. (a) and (e), (b) and (j), (c) and (d), (t) and (g), (h) and (i)
7. (a)(i) b - t a (ii) a - b (iii) t b (iv) b (v) b - t a
(i) Equal in length and parallel (ii) Equal in length and parallel
8.(a)(i)b-a (ii)f(b-a) (iiiH(a+2b) (ivHa (v)b-t a (b)h=t,k=t
9. (a)AC=a+2b, Ill=b-a (b) At=m(a+2b),BP=n(b-a), (c)At+PJt=a
m=1.J ,
n= 1.
3
10. (a)(i) 2b + 2a (ii) 3a - 2b (iii) a - 2b (b)(i) At= m(2a + 2b), Ht = n(3a - 2b)
(d) m = t, n = % (i)3: 2 (ii) 2 : 3
~ --to- ."..._
12. (a)S",,=a-b, LN=f(a-b) (b)RQ=a-c, RN= f(a-c)
- "'"* -
(c) RS = b - c, KK. = f (b - c) (d) KN = f (a - b) KN and LN are parallel and
equal in length (e) Parallelogram.
E.:xercise 34a
1. (a) Reflection i~ the x axis (b) Translation with vector ( ~)
(c) Translation with vector (_~) (d) Translation with vector (~)
2. (a) Reflection in the line x = 7 (b) Reflection in the line x = 3
(c) Translation with vector C~) (d) Translation with vector (_1 g)
(e) Reflection in the line x = 3 (t) Reflection in the x axis
(g) Reflection in the line x = 3
(b) Anticlockwise rotation through 90° about (0. -1)
(i) Anticlockwise rotation through 90° about the point (7, 3)
3. (a) Reflection in the line y = -x (b) Anticlockwise rotation through 90° about (0. -1)
(c) Clockwise rotation through 90° abou~ (1. -I ) (d) Translation with vector (~)
4.
IT
6
JI
I si ~
}I
I I
~J
2
1 r~~_ 1
~;
-I -
. J234:>6 7 lx
J' 1 ,
5. (a) B is (0, 3) (b) C is (-1, 0) (c) D is (3, 0) (d) E is (-3, 0)

6. (a) Clockwise rotation through 90° about (1, -1)
(b) Clockwise rotation of 90° about (0, 3)
7. (a) (2, 2) (b) (2, 1) (c) (3,1) (d) (3, 2)
8. (d) Clockwise rotation through 90° about (- 2t, -t)
9. (c) (i) Clockwise rotation through 90° about the origin
(ii) Rotation of 180° about the origin.
1O.(C)(i)(~) (ii) A" ~B,B" ~A, C" E,D" D,E" ~C
Exercise 34b
1. (a) Enlargement, centre (0, 0), scale factor 2

t'
(b) Shear parallel to the x axis, scale factor 1 x axis invariant
(c) Reflection in the line y = -x
(d) Enlargement, centre (0, 0), scale factor -2
(e) Reflection in the x axis (t) Reflection in the x axis
2. (a) Stretch parallel to the y axis, scale factor 2t, x axis invariant
(b) Enlargement, scale factor 2, centre (6, 3)
(c) Translation with vector (- ~
(d) Shear with scale factor I, x axis invariant
3. (a) Enlargement, centre (0, 0), scale factor 3
(b) Shear parallel to the y axis scale factor 2, y axis invariant
(c) Stretch parallel to the x axis, scale factor 3, y axis invariant
(d) Enlargement, centre (0, 0), scale factor -2
4. (a) Shear parallel to the x axis scale factor I, x axis invariant
(b) Stretch parallel to the x axis, scale factor 2 t, y axis invariant
(c) Enlargement, centre (0, 0), scale factor 2
(d) Shear parallel to the x axis scale factor -3, x axis invariant
(e) Stretch parallel to the x axis, scale factor . 2, y axis invariant
(t) Stretch parallel to the y axis, scale factor - 2, x axis invariant
S. (c) 9 : I 6.3: 2 7. t 8. (i) y = 6 (ii) (-6, 2)
9. Enlargement, centre (0, I), scale factor 2
10. (c) P(O, 0), Q(2,4), R(6,0) (d) P' is (4, 3), Q' is (6, 7), R' is (10, 3
(t) centre is (4, 8) and angle of rotation 180°.
Exercise 3Sa
1. (a) (-~) (b) (Io 0)
-1 (d) (~ (e) 0 ~) (t) (6 ~)
2. (i) (~ ~) produces a stretch parallel to the x axis, scale factor 2
(1'1') (01 O) produces a stretch para11e I to th e y aXIS,

' scaIe f:actor 2
2
3. (i) (6 ~) produces a shear parallel to the x axis, scale factor 3
(1'1') (31 0 ) produces a shear para11 e I to the y axiS,

' sca Ie f:actor 3
1
4. (a) (I, I) (b) (-I, I) (c) (I, -I), reflection in the x axis(d)
S. (i) ( _~ _~ ~;) Reflection in the x axis (ii) (-6 -~ -~) anticlockwise rotation
through 90° about the origin.
6. (a) (i) P'(-5, 5) (ii) Q'(-3, 5) (iii) (-2, 7) (b) Translation (- ~ )
7. (a) A'(2, 2) B'(2, -2) C'(4,2) (b) Enlargement, centre (0, 0), scale factor 2
8. (a) ( = =l =~ -_~) (d) Rotation thr~ugh 180° about (0. 0)
~
9. (a) (i) C? -6) (ii)(O,O) (b)(ii) (-1) (c)(ii) (? b)
10. (a) (i) Translation with vector (~+)

(ii) Stretch parallel to the y axis, scale factor 4, x axis invariant
(iii) Enlargement, centre ( 4t, t ), scale factor 3 (iv) Reflection in the x axis
(v) Rotation through 180° about (0.0) (vi) Translation with vector (~t)
Exercise 35b
l.(a)x=8t,y=13 (b)a=6,b=12, c=9, d=-I, e =-3, f=O (c) (~J)
(d) (i ~ I~) 2. (_~ - t) 3. (& -t) 4. (i) (~ (ii) (_~ -~)
5.(i)P,is(-2,3), Pz is (4,-3) (ii) U-6) 6. (i) (~) (ii) Ut -0
7. (i) PI is (12, 28), Pz is (4, 4) (ii) Each others' inverse
8. (i) PI is (0, -4), Pz is (-4, 0) (ii) (_ ~ 1) (iii) (~:~ - ~:~~)
9. (a) A'(-2, -2), 8'(-8, -2), C'(-4, -6) (b) A "(2,2), 8"(8,2), C"(4,6)
(c) (02 0)
2 (d)
(.10 tJ0\
10. (a) E is (I, 0), F is (3, 0), G is (I, -2)
(b) clockwise rotation through 90° about the (0, 0). (c) I is (2, 0), J is (6, 0),
K is (2, -4) (d) Enlargement centre (0, 0), scale factor 2. (e) (~ g J)
The matrix which maps ~C directly to AUK.
11.(b)(~ j j -l) (d)k=5 (e) 9=36.9° (f)W is (0, 0), Xis (0,-4.4)
Yis (-5, -3.6), Z is (-5, 0.8) (h) (_ 4~4 o.~)
Exercise 36a
1.
Number Tally Frequency
I 1111 4
2 .fHt-tttt I 11
3 -Htt 5
4 -\ttt I 6
5 -\ttt -lttt 11 12
6 11 2
2.
Mass TallY Freouency
50 - 54 11 2
55 - 59 1111 4
60 - 64 +Ht 11 7
65 - 69 111I 4
70- 74 .flit 11 7
75 - 79 1111 4
80 - 84 11 2
(i) 30 (ii) 18
3
N2 of siblings Tally Frequency
1 I[ 2
2 III 3
3 1111 4
4 +tit 5
5 +Ht 5
6 III 3
7 11 2
Total = 24
6
4 ~
3 - --,-
2- ~ 4. (a) 44 (b) !cb = 29.5, ucb = 39.5 (c) 10

(d) 26 (e) 59%
I
S. (a)(i)36 - 40 (ii) 0 - 5 (iii) 21 - 25
(b) 36 (c) (i) 26 (ii) 27.8%
2 3 4 5 6 7
Number ofsibliugs
6
Score Tally Frequency Cumulative
frequency
0 I1I 3 3
I 11 2 5
2 ..\Ht 5 10
3 1ttr1 6 16
4 +Ht 11 7 23
5 -!tit 11 7 30
6 .ftttll 7 37
7 -Httl 6 43
8 1111 4 47
9 11 2 49
10 I 1 50
50
4 / ----
~ 40 /
. 1/
."50 3
1/
..
..::
£
30
25
/
~
-=e 20
e= 15
I1
U
10
/
/
\---
0
o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score
7. (a) (i) 30 (ii) 14
40
30
~ 25
V
's. V
"c. 20
....o 5
/
... V
e'"
or> 0
/
z" 5
./
0""
0 5 20 25 30 35 40
Time in minutes
8. (a) 120 (b) 100 (c) 40 (d) 60 (e) 5
9.
Mark Frequency Cumulative frequency
2 1 1
3 4 5
4 6 11
5 10 21
6 8 29
7 4 33
8 3 36
9 3 39
10 1 40
Number of students who sat for the exam = 40
10.
10
90
p >< r-..
Farmer A
G' 80 ~ /
Farmer B
"'g." 70
'0 ./: 7' -= ./
\ / Farmer B performed better.
'"
.::: 60
£i'" 50
"
:; 40
E
e 30
U" 20
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
11. (a) 150 (b) 650 (c) 30.8%
12
Mass x (kg) "30 ~O <50 <60 <70 <80 <90
Cwnulative frequency 0 20 80 220 340 390 400
G' 40 0
~ ......-
g. 3S0 ./
"c.:: 300
/
.~ 25 0
/
os
"a 200
e /
e 150
=
U
10 0
/
50 /
oh .-- .-/
\!io 40 50 60 70 80 9o
I 13
Mass/kg
Mass x (kg) 45 < x ';;:;50 50<x ~O 60 < x ';;:;75 75 <x ';;:;90 90 < x ';;:;100 100<x ';;:;130
N. of students lOO 300 480 300 150 120
Frequency lOO -;- 5 30 32 20 15 4
density =20
40
35
30
E~
25
~ 20
A
~ 15
=
"or= 10
.::" 5
0
45 50 60 70 80 90 100 !l0 120 III
Mass/kg
Exercise 36b
0
1. (a) 24 (b) 8 (c) 1200 (d) 96 2. (a) 80 (b) 64 (c) 112 (d) 22.2%
4
3. (a) 32 (b) 8 (c) 6,7% (d) 222 (e) 74 (t) is
I
4. (a) 90 0 (b) 1800 (c) 225 hectares (d) 75 hectares (e) -
6
5. (a) lO°
(b)
English
Commerce
lOO' 80'
0' ~
1
Cl
80
f
/
40
, History
~
6. (a) 15° (b) 10 (c) 2 (d) .!.
3
7.
8. (a) (i) W (ii) ~ (b) (i) 22500000 (ii) 30 000 000 (c) (i) 90° (ii) 22500000
12
(iii) 22 500 000 (d) 18 000 000
9. (a) 2 goals (b) 130 (c) 150 (d) 144
10. (a) 2 000 (b) 8 000 (c) 64 000
11. (a) 600 (b) 720 (c) 840 (d) 864
12. (a) 4 times (b) 72° (c) 1260 (d) 360
Exercise 37a
1.(a) Mode = 5, Median = 5 Mean = 4.1
(b) Mode = 21, Median = 27 Mean = 28.8
(c) Mode = 25, Median = 24 Mean = 23.7
(d) Mode = 3, Median = 3 Mean = 3.5
(e) Mode = 1l0, Median = 110 Mean = 104.75
(f) Mode = 0.8, Median = 0.8 Mean = 0.75
(g) Mode = 62, Median = 62 Mean = 81.8
(h) Mode = 14 & 16, Median = 16 Mean = 16.3
(i) Mode = -3, Median = -1 Mean = -1.45
(j) Mode = ll, Median = 13 Mean = 12.8
2. (a) Mode = 3, Median = 3 Mean = 3.35
(b) Mode = 3 & 4, Median = 3 Mean = 3.1
(c) Mode =42, Median=41.5 Mean=41.4
(d) Mode = 101, Median = 101 Mean = 101.2
3. (a)(i) 11- 15 (ii) 10.3 (b)(i) 21 - 30 (ii) 32.2 (c)(i) 20 - 29 (ii) 24.5
(d) (i) 120 <:x <:130 (ii) 118.4 4.53 5.36 6. Urn 7. x = 19, y = 15
8. (i)x= 10 (ii)7 9. x=7,y=8 10. (a) 17 years (b)40 (c)l7years (d) 17.4 years
Exercise 3 b
1. (a) 8 (b) 18 (c) 0.9 (d) 56 (e) 2.06 (f) 20 (g) 0.45 (h) 6.6
2. (a)(i) QI = 5 (ii) Q3 = 9 (iii) IQR = 4 (b)(i) QI = 112 (ii) Q3 = 133 (iii) IQR = 21
(c)(i) QI = I (ii) Q3 = 5 (iii) IQR = 4 (d)(i) QI = -7 (ii) Q3 = -2 (iii) IQR = 5
(e)(i) QI = 109 (ii) Q3 = 119 (iii) IQR = 10 (f) (i) QI = -3.5 (ii) Q3 = 0 (iii) IQR = 3.5
(g) (i) QI = 31.5 (ii) Q3 = 41.5 (iii) IQR = 10 (h)(i) QI = 2 (ii) Q3 = 9 (iii) IQR = 7
3. (a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 3 (d) 5 (e) 4.97
4. (a) (i) 20 (ii) 28 (iii) 37 (iv) 17 (b) (i) 42 (ii) 60 (iii) 67 (iv) 25
(c) (i) 5.7 (ii) 6.2 (iii) 6.8 (iv) 1.1
5. (a) 20 (b) 45 (c) 34 (d) 59 (e) 25 (f) 55 (g) 2 (h) 10
6. (a) 200 (b) 20 (c) 170 (d) 40% (e) 10 (f) 22
7. (a) (i) 3 (ii) 27 (iii) I
50
!--
1;' 40
45
/ ----
= 1/
"g. 3
~" 30
7
1/
~" 25
:; 20 /
e
e 15
=
U [7
0
5 /
0 1/
o IQ 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mark
(b) (i) 34 (ii) 48 (iii) 62 (iv) 28
24
22
20
18
16
14
15 ttl=tt:t1titjtt:l:ttttttttttJ
o 5 IQ 15 20 2S 30 35 40
Height/cm
(a) 22 (b) 17 (c) 24 (d) 7 (e) 26
8. 90
~ 80
=
":<:r::l
-="
70
60
/"
./
l-.--- --
~ 50
V
"
'3 40 ./
e 1/
E
:::l
30
U
20
V
V
10 ./
0/\
---.---
~IQ 100 llO 120 130 140 150 I 60
Height/cm
(a) Median Q2 = 118 (b) Lower quartile QI = 107 (c) Upper quartile Q3 = 129
(d) Interquartile range = 22
10. (a) (i) Group A: median = 50, Group B: median = 62 (ii) Group A; IQR = 20,
Group B; IQR = 20, (b) Spread is the same. (c) Group B (d) (i) 184 (ii) 150
Exercise 38a
I 2 1
1. (a) - (b) i
(c) - (d) q - P 2. (a) - (b) ! (c) 0 (d)!
3 5 5 q 2 6
(b) ~
1
(d) ~
4 1 I
3. (a)- (c) - 4. (a) - (b)! (c) - (d) !
15 5 3 3 3 2 2 3
1 1 1 1
s. (a)- (b) 52 (c) .!Q (d) .2.- 6. (a)- (b)! (c) - (d) i-
13 13 26 30 5 10 10
2 4 7 7
7. (a)- (b)U (c) - (d) -! (e) - 8. (a) A (b) C (c) A; 154 B; 150 C; 143
11 11 11 II
10. (a)- (b) ~
1 3 1
9. (a) x = 3y (b) 6 (c) - (c) - (d) !
4 10 5 5 2
4 9 1 7 5
11. (a)- (b) 25 12. (a) - (b) 36 (c) - (d) !
25 6 12 4
13.(a)~ (b) ! (d) ~
I I 3
(c) - (e) - (t) 20
20 5 4 20 10
14. (a) (i) 21- 30 (ii) 28 years (b)(i) ! C)1
11 - (c) (i) 64 C)
11 -
65
2 . 13 129 729
(b) ~ Cd) ~
1 1 Ce) 22 1
15. Ca) - Cc) - Ct) 25
5 5 25 2.5 25
Exerdse 38b
3 (b) 2
1. 3 520 2. (a) - (c) 1 800 (d) 1 200
5 5
1 3 1
3. (a)- (b) 200 (c) - (d) 12 (e) 9 (t) 10
50 60
(d) ~
1 (b) 25 5
4. (a)- (c) - 5. (a) 0.81 (b) 0.1 (c) 0.01 (d) 0.18
36 36 18 36
7. (a)- (b)~
5 (b) 35 7 (d) 28 7 (c) 185 (d) 33
6. (a)- (c) -
33 66 22 33 92 276 276 46
4 9 1 9
8. (a)- (b) Q (c) - (d) .!i 9. (a)- (b) 50 (c) 360 (d) 72
25 25 25 25 10
2
10. (a) -
9
(b) 50 (c) -
1
(d) ~, 14 times
75 50 150
11. (a) ~ 4
(b) 25
48
(c) 125 (d)~ 12. (a) ~ 26
(b) 145
48
(c) 145 (d) !!!....
125 125 30 145
1
13. (a) - (b)~ 2
(c) - (d) ~ (e) 26
3 9 9 3 27
Exercise 39a
1. (i) A(O°, 300E) B(00,60°W) C(30"N,30 0E) D(60"N,90 0E) E(600E,90"N)
F(600W,90"N) G(30OW,45"N) H(l5OW,3008) I(30 0E,3008) J(90OW,9008)
(ii) (a) 30° (b) 30° (c) 60° (d) 90° (e) 75° (t) 30° (g) 90° (h) 150° (i) 120°
(iii) (a) 90° (b) 60° (c) 150° (d) 45° (e) 60° (t) 15° (g) 120° (h) 120° (i) 60°
2. (a) 3 185km (b) 4 504km (c) 5 318km (d) 6 370km
(e) I 024km (t) 679km (g) 0 (h) 2 523km
3. (a) 3 336km (b) 3 336km (c) 6672km (d) 10 007km (e) 8 339km (t) 10 007km
(g) 3 336km (h) 8 339km (i) 4 333km G) 5 778km
4.20015km 5. (a) 67.4° (b) 57.7°
6.
7. (a) 3 562km (b) 112° (c) 6 964km 8. (a) 99° 04' (b) 11 015km
9. (a) 118° (b) 13 121km 10. (a) 83° (b) 4 879km (c) 7 069km
11. (a) 134° (b) 3 185km (c) 10 007km (d) 6672km
12. (a) 5 281km (b) 12 453km (c) 16 593km (d) 3 562km (e) 2 808km
Exercise 39b
1. (a) 3 336km (b) I 800nm 2. (a) 9.3km (b) 5nm
3. (a) 18 OOhrs (b) 21 OOhrs (c) 07 OOhrs (d) 05 24hrs (e) 14 28hrs (t) 18 20hrs
~ (g) 23 OOhrs (h) 07 32hrs .
4. (a) 4hrs (b) 2hrs (c)l2hrs (d) 2hrs 2mins (e) 5hrs 5mins (t) Ihr 44mins
5. (a) 10hrs (b) 8hrs (c) 23 42hrs (d) 3hrs (e) 02 25hrs (t) 2hrs (g) 02 36hrs
(h) 8hrs (i) 09 55hrs (j) No time difference (k) 17 55hrs
6. (a) 5 986km (b) 6 767nrn (c) 15hrs (d) 8hrs (e) 05 40hrs on Tuesday
.Exercise 40a
1. (a) 17,22,27 (b)lO, 13, 16 (c) 32, 64,128 (d) 1,2,3 (e) 0,4,8
(t) 29, 36, 43 (g) 120,720, 5040 (h) 91&, 7 t (i) 24,35,48 (j) 37, 50, 65
(k) -13, -16, -19 (1) 30, 42, 56 (m) 11, 16,22 (n) 29, 41,55
2.(a)4+5+6+7 (b)-2+-1+0+l (c)l4+13+12+11 (d)3+5+7+9
(e)-2+1+4+7 (t)3+6+11+18 (g)2+6+12 +20 (h)0+1+4+9
(i) 7 + 12 + 19 + 28 (j) 5 + 11 + 21 + 35 3. (a) 58 (b) -14 (c) 3.5 (d) 100
4. 60 5. 10 6. (a)n2 +3 (b)22 7.23
8. (a) 5n-3 (b)3n-2 (c) 20+ 1 (d) n - 3 (e)4n-16 (t) n(n + 1)
(g) te23- n) (h) n2 - 1 (i) n2 + 1 G) -(3n + 1) (k) n (n - 1) (1) n2 - 2
Exercise 40b
1. a, c, e, f. 2. (a) 28, 61 (b) 51,101 (c) 75,165 (d) 292, 577 (e) 82,175
3. (a) 2n (b)3n-l (c)4n+3 (d)3n+2 (e)-(n+l) (t)24-4n
(g) te3n -1) (h) 5 - 3n
4. (a) 120 (b) 40 (c) 83 (d)54 (e)28 (t)35 (g) 51 (h)71
5. (a) 1 275 (b) 1 980 (c) 15550 (d) 6 579 (e) 4 225 (t) 123 (g) -840 (h) 1617x
6. (a) 2 500 (b) 312 (c) 483 (d) 16600 (e) 230 (t) 325
7. (a) 5 (b) 50 (c) 3 927 8. (a) 4 (b) 4 + 9 + 14 (c) 19 (d) 1 030
9. (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 400 10. (a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 137 (d) 2 235
1l.(a)6 (b) 4 (c)1860
Exercise 40c
1.(a)r=3 (b)r=2 (d)r=t (e)r=-2 (g)r=t
2. (a) 1024,32768 (b) 4 374,354294 (c) to 7i9 (d) - 1536, -98304 (e) i.., ':2
3. (a) 20 (b) 2 x 50- 1 (c) 30- 1 (d) 20- 1 (e) 2 x (_2)0-1 or _(_2)0 (t) 40 x 2-0
(g) 2 1 - 0 (h) 0.2 x 30- 1 4. (a) 8 (b) 9 (c) 13 (d) 11 (e) 10 (t) 11 (g) 9 (h) 19
5. (a) 2 047 (b) 2 097 150 (c) 29 524 (d) 65535 (e) 1 020 (t) 39 062 (g) 19.98 (h) 1.996
6. (a) 511 (b) 2 044 (c) 9841 (d) 8 190 (e) 39 062 (t) 1.999
7. (a) 9 (b) 531441 (c) 88 572 8. (a) 3 (b) 1 + 3 + 9 (c) 27 (d) 3 280
9. (a) 4 (b) t (c) t (d) 8 10. (a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 59 049 (d) 29 524
=:;'
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SECONDARY
SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS
GRADE 10·12
. .
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Mathematics Opss 124109

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Mathematics Opss 124109

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SECONDARY SCHO

Expressing a number in prime factors.

Example: Express the following numbers in prime factors

Solution: We proceed as shown below

2. List the next five prime numbers after 23. .

5. Express the following in prime factors

7. List the square numbers lying between 45 and 85

8. List the prime numbers lying between 1 and 20

9. List the odd numbers between 100 and 110.

10. Express each of the following as a product of prime factors

13. Find the integers x, yand z for whiclD 292 = 2 x x 3Y x 7z

Square numbers Prime numbers Odd numbers Irrational numbers

Example: The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3,4, 6 and 12

Lowest common multiple (LCM)

Example: Find the LCM of 3 and 4.

Solution: Multiples of3 are 3, 6, 9,12, 15, 18,21,24,27,30,33,36, .

2. Write down all the multiples of 4 between 30 and 50

3. Write down the common multiples of 3 and 5 between 2 and 52

7. Find the HCF of each of thefollowing .

8. Find the LCM of each of the following

Order on the number line

Sets on the number line

2. Draw number lines to show the following sets

3. Describe the following sets in words letting x be the variable.

(a) --':O----{9"'""'"':2~'~3 ...- (b) ~'!':-~!:---"O>--.:'...' ---'-'-"~

0).........0. I~ .(k).' 1 • 1 • ~ (1).1 • ! , .~

4. Use symbols «, >, <, or?» to describe the following sets

(a)_O-~I __I",,_-',-,--:-'_~ (b).' . 1 (c) 0-..1..1_~I_"'1__"-,-

(d) I'10 11, 12

0).........0 • I ~ (k).' • I '. • (I). I • 1 I ••

Describing a set: A set is described in any of the following ways:

Sets and symbols

Number of members in a set

. Number ofSubsets of a set

The universal set

Example: If, in a school, M = {Mathematics teachers), P = {Physics teachers} and

Example: If (f= {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A={3, 5), thenA/ = {I, 2, 4}

2. Describe the following sets in words .

3. If A = {days of the week), B = {2, 4, 6, 7, 9}, C = lp, q, r, s, t, u} and D = {}, fmd

6. If A = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 5, 7 }, list the elements of

9. State the universal set of each of the following

12. If (': = {I, 2, 3, 4, .12}, P = {x : x is a prime number}, 0 = {x : x is an odd number}

13. If A = {a, b, C}, list tlie following

15. A set M has 8 members, find

In the event where the universal set is not defmed, it

Solution: (a) P = (a, b, d, g, i) (b)Q= {e, d, e, f, i, I} (c) R= {e, f, I}

Solution: A = {2, 4. 6. 8,10,12, 14} and B = {3, 6, 9, 12}

6 is a member of all three sets.

Solution: Number who take Chemistry = 14

C The Venn diagram is as shown in Fig 2.4, where setsC and P

F V Now, the number who play Volleyball is 15,

F V Now, number who play football

Solution: Let C = people who like Choice

Similarly, the number who like only Choice and

8 (i) Therefore 2 people like all three types of soap

lYing problems using the three set formula

SOlution: Let n(M) = number who grow maize

1. From fig. 1 list the members of the following sets

2. From fig.2 name the following sets

4. In fig. 4, n(A) = 14, find

5. From fig.5 list the'members of the following sets

c (e) Ane (f) B ne

7. From fig. 7 fmd the following;