Presentation of result and report writing, graphical result of data, report formatting

Submitted By:
Sashi Singh
Pranjal Khanal
Archana Tamang
Gaurav Shakya
Raman Shrestha
Ashmita Maharjan

Submitted To:
Mr. Phul Prasad Subedi

Subject Title: Business Research Methodology

Semester & Intake: 2nd Semester, MBA
Presentation of result and report writing

The researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done
with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows:

(i) The preliminary pages; (ii) The main text, and (iii) The end matter.

(i) In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and
charts, if any, given in the report.

(ii) The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along
with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarized.

(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken
down into readily identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also
be given specially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.
Components of a Research Report:

The components of a research report often include: Title, Acknowledgements, Abstract, Table of
Contents, Introduction, Literature Review, Conceptual Framework, Methods and Procedures, Results,
Summary and Conclusions.

A. Title: Authors, affiliations, keyword and similar information are mentioned often on title page.

B. Acknowledgements: Recognize the assistance and support of individuals and organizations,

especially funding.

C. Abstract: A compact summary of the research report, sometimes called “executive summary”. It is
the only thing most people will read (in deciding to read your paper).

D. Table of Contents: A listing or outline of the organization of the report. It shows headings,
subheadings and other divisions. Sometimes includes lists of Tables and Figures (esp. in thesis or
dissertation).

E. Introductions: Styles for introductions vary, from long and detailed to short or even

absent. F. Review of Literature: It serves the same purpose as in the research proposal.

G. Methods and Procedures: This section explains how the analysis portion of the research was
conducted. It includes data collection and manipulation, data sources, analytical procedures, models
developed and used, empirical procedures and techniques, and analyses conducted. Also includes
problems encountered and how they were addressed.

H. Results (Findings): It presents and explains the results of the analysis. This is the end product of all
the analyses from which objectives were either achieved or not. Hypotheses have been tested and the
results reported here.

I. Summary and Conclusions: This provided the reader with a general understanding of the research
project. It most often includes an overview of the entire study, emphasizing problems, objectives,
methods, procedures and results. Conclusions represent the researcher’s interpretations of the results.

J. List of References: A listing of all references used in every part of the report. Often very similar to
the research proposal.

K. Appendices: They can be used to present material that might disrupt the flow of thoughts in the
report (eg. too much detail) or include information of interest to only some readers eg. Mathematical
proofs or derivations, some statistical estimations or tests.
 Nominal Data — Tables and Graphs

Nominal (and ordinal) data can be summarized in a table that lists individual categories and their

respective frequency counts, i.e., a frequency distribution. One can also use a relative frequency

distribution, which lists the categories and the proportion with which each occurs.

Example: Student Placement

Area Frequency Relative Frequency

Accounting 73 28.9%
Finance 52 20.6%
General Management 36 14.2%
Marketing/Sales 64 25.3%
Other 28 11.1%
Total 253 100

Frequency distributions and relative frequency distributions can also be summarized as bar charts and
pie charts, respectively.

Interval Data — Tables and Graphs Interval data are typically summarized in a histogram.
Steps for constructing a histogram is as follows.

Step 1: Partition the data range into classes or bins.

General guidelines are:

• Use between 6 and 15 bins. One suggested formula (Sturges) is:
Number of Classes = 1 + 3.3 log (n)

where n is the total number of observations.

• All bins should have the same width.
• Use “natural” values for the bin width (e.g., 10–20, 20–30, etc.).
Step 2: Count the number of observations that fall in each class.
Step 3: Summarize the resulting frequency distribution as a table or as a bar chart

Example: Monthly Long-Distance Telephone Bills

We have (Xm02-04.xls):

• n = 200 (number of subscribers surveyed)

• Range = Largest Observation - Smallest Observation

= $119.63 − $0

= $119.63

• Suggested Number of Classes = 1 + 3.3 log (n) = 8.59

• Since 120/8.59 = 13.97, Width = 15 seems to be a “natural” choice
• Number of Classes = 120/15 = 8
The results are:

Lower Limit Upper Limit Frequency

0 15 71
15 30 37
30 45 13
45 60 9
60 75 10
75 90 18
90 105 28
105 120 14
Total 200
 Report Format

Although every research report is custom-made for the project it represents, some conventions of
report format are universal. They represent a consensus about the parts necessary for a good research
report and how they should be ordered. This consensus is not a law, however. Every book on report
writing suggests the use of its own unique format, and every report writer has to pick and choose the
section and order that will work best for the project at hand. Many companies and universities also
have in-house report formats or writing guides for writers to follow. The format described in this
section serves as a starting point from which writers can shape their own appropriate format. It
includes seven major elements:
1. Title page (sometimes preceded by a title fly page)
2. Letter of transmittal
3. Letter of authorization
4. Table of contents (and lists of figures and tables)
5. Executive summary
a. Objectives
b. Results
c. Conclusions
d. Recommendations

6. Body
a. Introduction
b. Background
c. Objectives
d. Methodology
e. Results
f. Limitations
g. Conclusions and recommendations
7. Appendix
a. Data collection forms
b. Detailed calculations
c. General tables
d. Bibliography
e. Other support material

This format is illustrated graphically in Exhibit 25.3 on the next page.

Tailoring the Format to the Project

The format of a research report may need to be adjusted for two reasons:
(1) To obtain the proper level of formality and
(2) To decrease the complexity of the report. The format given here is for the most formal type of
report, such as one for a large project done within an organization or one done by a research agency for
a client company. This type of report is usually bound in a permanent cover and may be hundreds of
pages long.
In less formal reports, each part is shorter, and some parts are omitted. Exhibit 25.4 illustrates how the
format is adapted to shorter, less formal reports. The situation may be compared to the way people’s
clothing varies according to the formality of the occasion. The most formal report is dressed, so to
speak, in a tuxedo or long evening gown. It includes the full assortment of prefatory parts—title fly
page, title page, letters of transmittal and authorization, and table of contents. Like changing into an
everyday business suit, dropping down to the next level of formality involves eliminating parts of the
prefatory material that are not needed in this situation and reducing the complexity of the report body.
In general, as the report moves down through the sport coat and slacks and then blue jeans stages, more
prefatory parts are dropped, and the complexity and length of the report body are reduced. How does
the researcher decide on the appropriate level of formality? The general rule is to include all the parts
needed for effective communication in the particular circumstances—and no more. This depends on
how far up in management the report is expected to go and how routine the matter is. A researcher’s
immediate supervisor does not need a 100-page, “black-tie” report on a routine project. However, the
board of directors does not want a one-page “blue jeans” report on a big project that backs a major
expansion program. The formal report to top management may later be stripped of some of the
prefatory parts (and thus reduced in formality) for wider circulation within the company.
The Parts of the Report
The guidelines that call for each element of the research report also dictate the content of each part.

■ TITLE PAGE
The title page should state the title of the report, for whom the report was prepared, by whom it was
prepared, and the date of release or presentation. The title should give a brief but complete indication
of the purpose of the research project. Addresses and titles of the preparer and recipient may also be
included. On confidential reports, the title page may list the people to whom the report should be
circulated. For the most formal reports, the title page is preceded by a title fly page, which contains
only the report’s title.

■ LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Relatively formal and very formal reports include a letter of transmittal. Its purpose is to release or
deliver the report to the recipient. It also serves to establish some rapport between the reader and the
writer. This is the one part of the formal report in which a personal or even slightly informal tone
should be used. The transmittal should not dive into the report findings except in the broadest terms.
Exhibit 25.5 on the next page presents a sample letter of transmittal. Note that the opening paragraph
releases the report and briefly identifies the factors of authorization. The letter comments generally on
findings and matters of interest regarding the research. The closing section expresses the writer’s
personal interest in the project just completed and in doing additional, related work.

■ LETTER OF AUTHORIZATION
The letter of authorization is a letter to the researcher that approves the project, details who has
responsibility for it, and describes the resources available to support it. Because the researcher would
not write this letter personally, writing guidelines will not be discussed here. In many situations,
simply referring to the authorization in the letter of transmittal is sufficient. If so, the letter of
authorization need not be included in the report. In some cases, though, the reader may be unfamiliar
with the authorization or may need detailed information about it. In such cases, the report should
include this letter, preferably an exact copy of the original.

■ THE TABLE OF CONTENTS

A table of contents is essential to any report more than a few pages long. It should list the divisions and
subdivisions of the report with page references. The table of contents is based on the final outline of the
report, but it should include only the first-level subdivisions. For short reports it is sufficient to include
only the main divisions. If the report includes many figures or tables, a list of these should immediately
follow the table of contents.

■ THE SUMMARY
The summary, also known as executive summary, briefly explains why the research project was
conducted, what aspects of the problem were considered, what the outcome was, and what should be
done. It is a vital part of the report. Studies have indicated that nearly all managers read a report’s
summary, while only a minority read the rest of the report. Thus, the writer’s only chance to produce
an impact may be in the summary.
The summary should be written only after the rest of the report has been completed. It represents the
essence of the report. It should be one page long (or, at most, two pages), so the writer must carefully
sort out what is important enough to be included in it. Several pages of the full report may have to be
condensed into one summarizing sentence. Some parts of the report may be condensed more than
others; the number of words in the summary need not be in proportion to the length of the section
being discussed. The summary should be written to be self-sufficient. In fact, the summary is often
detached from the report and circulated by itself.
The summary contains four elements. First, it states the objectives of the report, including the most
important background information and the specific purposes of the project. Second, it presents the
methodology and the major results. Finally, the conclusions of the report are presented. These are
opinions based on the results and constitute an interpretation of the results. Finally come
recommendations, or suggestions for action, based on the conclusions. In many cases, managers prefer
not to have recommendations included in the report or summary. Whether or not recommendations are
to be included should be clear from the particular context of the report.
An additional element that can be included in the summary is a short justification for the research study
and report itself. As seen in the Research Snapshot above, the use of ROI to measure research
effectiveness is a new way that business researchers are providing this justification.

■ THE BODY
The body constitutes the bulk of the report. It begins with an introduction section setting out the
background factors that made the project necessary as well as the objectives of the report. It continues
with discussions of the methodology, results, and limitations of the study and finishes with conclusions
and recommendations based on the results. The introduction explains why the project was done and
what it aimed to discover. It should include the basic authorization and submittal data. The relevant
background comes next. Background information is important, and may require that you gather
additional external data as discussed in the Research Snapshot on page 616. Enough background should
be included to explain why the project was worth doing, but unessential historical factors should be
omitted. The question of how much is enough should be answered by referring to the needs
of the audience. A government report that will be widely circulated requires more background than a
company’s internal report on customer satisfaction. The last part of the introduction explains exactly
what the project tried to discover. It discusses the statement of the problem and research questions as
they were stated in the research proposal. Each purpose presented here should have a corresponding
entry in the results section later in the report. The second part of the body is the research
methodology section. This part is a challenge to write because it must explain technical procedures in
a manner appropriate for the audience. The material in this section may be supplemented with more
detailed explanations in the appendix or a glossary of technical terms. This part of the report should
address four topics:
1. Research design. Was the study exploratory, descriptive, or causal? Did the data come from
primary or secondary sources? Were results collected by survey, observation, or experiment? A copy
of the survey questionnaire or observation form should be included in the appendix. Why was this
particular design suited to the study?

2. Sample design. What was the target population? What sampling frame was used? What sample
units were used? How were they selected? How large was the sample? What was the response rate?
Detailed computations to support these explanations should be saved for the appendix.

3. Data collection and fieldwork. How many and what types of fieldworkers were used? What
training and supervision did they receive? Was the work verified? This section is important for
establishing the degree of accuracy of the results.

4. Analysis. This section should outline the general statistical methods used in the study, but the
information presented here should not overlap with what is presented in the results section. The results
section should make up the bulk of the report and should present, in some logical order, those findings
of the project that bear on the objectives. The results should be organized as a continuous narrative,
designed to be convincing but not to oversell the project. Summary tables and charts should be used to
aid the discussion. These may serve as points of reference to the data being discussed and free the
prose from excessive facts and figures. Comprehensive or detailed charts, however, should be saved
for the appendix. Because no research is perfect, its limitations should be indicated. If problems arose
with nonresponse error or sampling procedures, these should be discussed. However, the discussion of
limitations should avoid overemphasizing the weaknesses; its aim should be to provide a realistic basis
for assessing the results.
The last part of the body is the conclusions and recommendations section. As mentioned earlier,
conclusions are opinions based on the results, and recommendations are suggestions for action. The
conclusions and recommendations should be presented in this section in more detail than in the
summary, and the text should include justification as needed.

■ THE APPENDIX
The appendix presents the “too . . . ” material. Any material that is too technical or too detailed to go in
the body should appear in the appendix. This includes materials of interest only to some readers or
subsidiary materials not directly related to the objectives. Some examples of appendix materials are
data collection forms, detailed calculations, discussions of highly technical questions, detailed or
comprehensive tables of results, and a bibliography (if appropriate). Since the advent of company
intranets, much appendix material is posted on internal Web pages.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains
incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the most
brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking
generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to others.
The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. Research
results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the significance of
writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing of report as an integral part of
the research process. But the general opinion is in favor of treating the presentation of research
results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research project. Writing of report is the last
step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect
of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost
care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.

DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps
involved in writing report are:
(a) Logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) Preparation of the final outline;
(c) Preparation of the rough draft;
(d) Rewriting and polishing;
(e) Preparation of the final bibliography; and
(f) Writing the final draft.

Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate
for better understanding.

Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b)
chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations
between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing
the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological development is
based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something
usually follow the chronological order.

Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the
framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization
of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”
Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of
the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he
has done in the context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in
collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of
analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants
to offer regarding the problem concerned.
Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal
writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision
makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing,
one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher
should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report
stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old
wall of moldering cement and loose brick”. In addition the researcher should give due attention to the
fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing
grammar, spelling and usage.

Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final
bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in
some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the
researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into
two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second part may
contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography is
considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only way
of presenting bibliography. The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.

Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
1978. For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
The above examples are just the samples for bibliography entries and may be used, but one should also
remember that they are not the only acceptable forms. The only thing important is that whatever
method one selects, it must remain consistent.

Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and
objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”,
and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and
technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the
final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to others. A
research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain interest and must show
originality. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual
problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the
researcher and the reader.
LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so
that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an
opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this purpose there is the need of proper
layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A
comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text;
and (C) the end matter. Let us deal with them separately.

(A) Preliminary Pages

In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the
form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and
illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the
required information in the report.

(B) Main Text

The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the
research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details
on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report
should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the following sections: (i)
Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The implications
drawn from the results; and (v) The summary.

(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It
should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be given
to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of
other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The
hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should be
explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.
The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader would
like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic design? If
the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were
collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The
questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on
observation, then what instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the
study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they
selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the
findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of
the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which
the research project was completed, must also be narrated.

(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must contain
a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily
understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in
the summarized form.

(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the
report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The
result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than
the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily
identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide about
what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from the research problem
and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But ultimately the researcher
must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report. “Nevertheless, it is still necessary
that he states clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by which he worked on
the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.”

(iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again putdown
the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the
results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human
behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
(a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in
similar circumstances.
(b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the
inferences drawn from the study.
(c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with
suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.
It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarizes and
recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly
related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forecast of
the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be done in
that particular field is useful and desirable.
(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary,
resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions
drawn from the research results.

(C) End Matter

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of
sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along
with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should
invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to
the reader for the contents in the report.